UNIT V

UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA

Spending months or years in gathering facts and information about your research topic may turn in voluminous amount of
data. However, such data of great size can be valuable only in so far as they result from standard- or criterion-based data-collection
methods. Dealing with a lot of qualitative data such as people's beliefs, opinions, views, feelings, or attitudes about a particular
topic requires you to devise a systematic way of identifying, classifying, and organizing facts and information coming from people
you interviewed or observed. Unless you adopt principled methods of collecting data, you cannot come up with, understandable or
question-free research findings.

LESSON 10 Qualitative Research Designs

Intended Learn Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Widen your vocabulary in English;
2. Freely express your world views using newly learned words;
3. Explain the meaning of a research design;
4. Familiarize oneself with the nature of each qualitative research design;
5. Compare and contrast various qualitative research designs; and
6. Conduct a doable or practicable research study based on one qualitative research design.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Definition
Design is a word which means a plan or something that is conceptualized by the mind. As a result of a mental activity
characterized by unfixed formation of something but an extensive interconnection of things, a design in the field of research serves
as a blueprint or a skeletal framework of your research study. It includes many related aspects of your research work. A choice of a
research design requires you to finalize your mind on the purpose, philosophical basis, and types of data of your research,
including your method of collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting the data. It is a plan that directs your mind to several
stages of your research work. (De Mey 2013)
There are five research designs that are commonly used in a qualitative research, but these are also labelled as types of qualitative
research by some books on qualitative research because when you speak of a research design, you plan your methods or
techniques in collecting and analyzing data. Your research design is realized by any of these types of qualitative research that has
its own data collecting technique: case study, ethnography, historical study, phenomenology, and grounded theory. Whether you
think of them as research types or research designs, just the same, you get to deal with the same features or aspects involved in
each type or design.

Types
In addition to what Lesson 3 has already explained about these research designs, this present lesson discusses these as
qualitative research designs detailing both your plan and method or technique on doing your research study.
Practical Research 1 Unit 5 Lesson 10

1. Case Study
To do a research study based on this research design is to describe a person, a thing, or any creature on Earth for the purpose of
explaining the reasons behind the nature of its existence. Your aim here is to determine why such creature (person, organization,
thing, or event) acts, behaves, occurs, or exists in a particular manner. Usually, a case study centers on an individual or single
subject matter. Your methods of collecting data for this qualitative research design are interview, observation, and questionnaire.
One advantage of case study is its capacity to deal with a lot of factors to determine the unique characteristics of the entity. (Meng
2012; Yin, 2012)
2. Ethnography
A qualitative research design called ethnography involves a study of a certain cultural group or organization in which you, the
researcher, to obtain knowledge about the characteristics, organizational set-up, and relationships of the group members, must
necessarily involve you in their group activities. Since this design gives stress to the study of a group of people, in a way, this is one
special kind of a case study. The only thing that makes it different from the latter is your participation as a researcher in the
activities of the group.
Ethnography requires your actual participation in the group members' activities while a case study treats you, the researcher, as an
outsider whose role is just to observe the group. Realizing this qualitative research design is living with the subjects in several
months; hence, this is usually done by anthropologists whose interests basically lie in cultural studies. (Winn 2014)
3. Historical Study
This qualitative research design tells you the right research method to determine the reasons for changes or permanence of things
in the physical world in a certain period (i.e., years, decades, or centuries). What is referred to in the study as time of changes is
not a time shorter than a year but a period indicating a big number of years. Obviously, historical study differs from other research
designs because of this one element that is peculiar to it, the scope. The scope or coverage of a historical study refers to the
number of years covered, the kind of events focused on, and the extent of new knowledge or discoveries resulting from the
historical study. A clue about the scope is usually reflected by the title of the study such as the following examples:
A Five-Year Study of the Impact of the K-12 Curriculum on the Philippine Employment System
The Rise and Fall of the Twenty-Year Reign of Former Philippine President, Ferdinand E. Marcos
Filipino-Student Activism from the Spanish Era to the Contemporary Period
Telephones from the Nuclear Era to the Digital Age
The data collecting techniques for a study following a historical research design are biography or autobiography reading,
documentary analysis, and chronicling activities. This last technique, chronicling activities, makes you interview people to trace
series of events in the lives of people in a span of time. However, one drawback of historical study, is the absence, or loss of
complete and well-kept old that may hinder the completion of the study.
4. Phenomenology
A phenomenon is something you experience on Earth as a person. It is a sensory experience that makes you perceive or
understand things that naturally occur in your life such as death, joy, friendship, caregiving, defeat, victory, and the like. This
qualitative research design makes you follow a research method that will let you understand the ways of how people go through
inevitable events in their lives. You are prone to extending your time in listening to people's recount of their significant experiences
to be able to get a clue or pattern of their techniques in coming to terms with the positive or negative results of their life
experiences.
Comparing these two qualitative research designs, phenomenology and ethnography, the first aims at getting a thorough
understanding of an individual's life experiences for this same person's realistic dealings with hard facts of life while the second
aims at defining, describing, or portraying a certain group of people possessing unique cultural traits.
Focusing on people's meaning and making strategies in relation to their life experiences, phenomenology as a qualitative research
design finds itself relevant or useful to people such as teachers, nurses, guidance counselors, and the like, whose work entails
giving physical and emotional assistance or relief to people. Unstructured interview is what this research design directs you to use
in collecting data. (Paris 2014; Winn 2014)
5. Grounded Theory
A research study adhering to a grounded theory research design aims at developing a theory to increase your understanding of
something in a psycho-social context. Such study enables you to develop theories to explain sociologically and psychologically
influenced phenomena for proper identification of a certain educational process. Occurring in an inductive manner, a research
study following a grounded theory design takes place in an inductive manner, wherein one basic category of people's action and
interactions gets related to a second category; to third category; and so on, until a new theory emerges from the previous data.
(Gibson 2014; CresweII 2012)
A return to the previous data to validate a newly found theory is a zigzag sampling. Moving from category to category, a study using
a grounded theory design is done by a researcher wanting to know how people fair up in a process-bound activity such as writing.
Collecting data based on this qualitative research design called grounded theory is through formal, informal, or semi-structured
interview, as well as analysis of written works, notes, phone calls, meeting proceedings, and training sessions. (Picardie 2014)

LESSON 11 Sampling
Intended Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Expand your vocabulary;
2. Communicate your world perceptions;
3. Define sampling and other technical terms about sampling;
4. compare-contrast the sampling methods;
5. Give a graphical presentation of sampling categories; and
6. Pick out an appropriate sampling method for your chosen research topic.

SAMPLING
Definition
In research, sampling is a word that refers to your method or process of selecting respondents or people to answer
questions mean to yield data for a research study. The chosen ones constitute the sample through which you will derive facts and
evidence to support the claims or conclusions propounded by your research problem. The bigger group from where you choose the
sample is called population, and sampling frame is the term used to mean the list of the members of such population from where
you will get the sample. (Paris 2013)

History
The beginning of sampling could be traced back to the early political activities of the Americans in 1920 when Literary Digest did a
pioneering survey about the American citizens' favorite among the 1920 presidential candidates. This was the very first survey that
served as the impetus for the discovery by academic researchers of other sampling strategies that they categorized into two
classes: probability sampling or unbiased sampling and non-probability sampling. (Babbie 2013)

Probability Sampling or Unbiased Sampling

Probability sampling involves all members listed in the sampling frame representing a certain population focused on by
your study. An equal chance of participation in the sampling or selection process is given to every member listed in the sampling
frame. By means of this unbiased sampling, you are able to obtain a sample that is capable of representing the population under
study or of showing strong similarities in characteristics with the members of the population.
A sampling error crops up if the selection does not take place in the way it is planned. Such sampling error is manifested
by strong dissimilarity between the sample and the ones listed in the sampling frame. (P) How numerous the sampling errors are
depends on the size of the sample. The smaller the sample is, the bigger the number of sampling errors. Thus, choose to have a
bigger sample of respondents to avoid sampling errors. However, deciding to increase the size of your sample is not so easy.
There are these things you have to mull over in finalizing about this such as expenses for questionnaires and interview trips,
interview schedules, and time for reading respondents' answers.
The right sample size also depends on whether or not the group is heterogeneous or homogeneous. The first group
requires a bigger size; the second, a smaller one. For a study in the field of social sciences requiring an in-depth investigation of
something such as one involving the national government the right sample size ranges from 1,000 to 1,500 or up to 2,500. On the
other hand, hundreds, not thousands, of respondents suffice for a study about any local government unit. (Suter 2012;
Emme12013)

Types of Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling
Simple random sampling is the best type of probability sampling through which you can choose sample from a population. Using a
pure-chance selection, you assure every member the same opportunity to be in the sample. Here, the only basis of including or
excluding a member is by chance or opportunity, not by any occurrence accounted for by cause-effect relationships. Simple
random sampling happens through any of these two methods: (Burns 2012)
a. Have a list of all members of the population; write each name on a card, and choose cards through a pure-chance selection.
b. Have a list of all members, give a number to member and then use randomized or unordered numbers in selecting names from
the list.

2. Systematic Sampling
For this kind of probability sampling, chance and system are the ones to determine who should compose the sample. For instance,
if you want to have a sample of 150, you may select a set of numbers like 1 to 15, and out of a list of 1,500 students, take every
15th name on the list until you complete the total number of respondents to constitute your sample.

3. Stratified Sampling
The group comprising the sample is chosen in a way that such group is liable to subdivision during the data analysis

stage. A study needing group-by-group analysis finds stratified sampling the right probability sampling to use.

4. Cluster Sampling
This is a probability sampling that makes you isolate a set of persons instead of individual members to serve as sample members.
For example, if you want to have a sample of 120 out of 1,000 students, you can randomly select three sections with 40 students
each to constitute the sample.

Non-Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling disregards random selection of subjects. The subjects are chosen based on their availability or
the purpose of the study; and in some cases, on the sole discretion of the researcher. This is not a scientific way of selecting
respondents. Neither does it offer a valid or an objective way of detecting sampling errors. (Edmond 2013)

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

1. Quota Sampling
You resort to quota sampling when you think you know the characteristics of the target population very well. In this case, you tend
to choose sample members possessing or indicating the characteristics of the target population. Using a quota or a specific set of
persons whom you believe to have the characteristics of the target population involved in the study is your way of showing that the
sample you have chosen closely represents the target population as regards such characteristics.

2. Voluntary Sampling
Since the subjects you expect to participate in the sample selection are the ones volunteering to constitute the sample, there is no
need for you to do any selection process.

3. Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

You choose people whom you are sure could correspond to the objectives of your study, like selecting those with rich experience or
interest in your study.

4. Availability Sampling
The willingness of a person as your subject to interact with you counts a lot in this non-probability sampling method. If during the
data-collection time, you encounter people walking on a school campus, along corridors, and along the park or employees lining up
at an office, and these people show willingness to respond to your questions, then you automatically consider them as your
respondents.

5. Snowball Sampling
Similar to snow expanding widely or rolling rapidly, this sampling method does not give a specific set of samples. This is true for a
study involving unspecified group of people. Dealing with varied groups of people such as street children, mendicants, drug
dependents, call center workers, informal settlers, street vendors, and the like is possible in this kind of non-probability sampling.
Free to obtain data from any group just like snow freely expanding and accumulating at a certain place, you tend to increase the
number of people you want to form the sample of your study. (Harding 2013)

6. Theoretical Sampling
The method of sampling used in grounded theory is called theoretical sampling. Glaser (1978, p. 36) defined this sampling as "the
process of data collection for generating theory whereby the analyst jointly collects, codes, and analyzes his data and decides what
data to collect next and where to find them, in order to develop his theory as it emerges."
The process of theoretical sampling is guided by the developing grounded theory. Theoretical sampling is not envisioned as a
single, unidirectional line. This complex sampling technique requires researchers to be involved with multiple lines and directions as
they go back and forth between data and categories as the theory emerges.
Glaser stressed that theoretical sampling is not the same as purposive sampling. Theoretical sampling's purpose is to discover
categories and their properties and to offer interrelationships that occur in the substantive theory. "The basic question in theoretical
sampling is. What groups or subgroups does one turn to next in data collection?" (Glaser, 1978, p. 36). These groups are not
chosen before the research begins but only as they are needed for their theoretical relevance for developing further emerging
categories.

SAMPLE SIZE IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

There are no rules for sample size in qualitative research. Sample size is largely a function of the purpose of the inquiry, the
quality of the informants, and the type of sampling strategy used. For example, a larger sample is likely to be needed with
maximum variation sampling than with typical case sampling.
In qualitative studies, sample size should be determined based on informational needs. Hence, a guiding principle in sampling is
data saturation that is, sampling to the point at which no new information is obtained and redundancy is achieved. Morse (2000)
has noted that the number of participants needed to reach saturation depends on a number of factors. For example, the broader
the scope of the research question, the more participants will likely be needed. Data quality can also affect sample size. If
participants are good informants who are able to reflect on their experiences and communicate effectively, saturation can be
achieved with a relatively small sample. Also, if longitudinal data are collected, fewer participants may be needed because each will
provide a greater amount of information.

SAMPLING IN THE THREE MAIN QUALITATIVE TRADITIONS

There are similarities among the various qualitative traditions with regard to sampling: samples are usually small, probability
sampling is not used, and final sampling decisions usually take place in the field during data collection. However, there are some
differences as well.

1. SAMPLING IN ETHNOGRAPHY
Ethnographers may begin by initially adopting a "big net" approach-that is, mingling with and having conversations with as many
members of the culture under study as possible. Although they may converse with many people (usually 25 to 50), they often rely
heavily on a smaller number of key informants, who are highly knowledgeable about the culture and who develop special, ongoing
relationships with the researcher. These key informants are often the researcher's main link to the "inside."
Key informants are chosen purposively, guided by the ethnographer's informed judgments. Developing a pool of potential key
informants often depends on ethnographers' prior knowledge to construct a relevant framework. For example, an ethnographer
might make decisions about different types of key informants to seek out based on roles-(e.g., physicians, nurse practitioners) or on
some other substantively meaningful distinction. Once a pool of potential key informants is developed, key considerations for final
selection are their level of knowledge about the culture and how willing they are to collaborate with the ethnographer in revealing
and interpreting the culture.
Sampling in ethnography typically involves more than selecting informants because observation and other means of data
collection play a big role in helping researchers understand a culture. Ethnographers have to decide not only whom to sample, but
what to sample as well. For example, ethnographers have to make decisions about observing events and activities, about
examining records and artifacts, and about exploring places that provide clues about the culture. Key informants can play an
important role in helping ethnographers decide what to sample.
Example of an ethnographic sample:
Sobralske (2006) conducted an ethnographic study exploring health care-seeking beliefs and behaviors of Mexican-
American men living in Washington State. The researchers participated in activities within the Mexican-American
community, and then recruited participants through community organizations, religious groups, schools, and personal
contacts. The sample consisted of 8 key informants who varied in terms of acculturation, occupation; educational levels,
and interests. The sample also included 28 secondary research participants, who were men and women with insight into
health care-seeking beliefs and actions of Mexican-American men. The secondary participants helped to validate the
findings from the key informants.

2. SAMPLING IN PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDIES

Phenomenologists tend to rely on very small samples of participants-typically 10 or fewer. There is one guiding principle in
selecting the sample for a phenomenological study: all participants must have experienced the phenomenon and must be able to
articulate what it is like to have lived that experience. It might thus be said that phenomenologists use a criterion sampling method,
the criterion being experience with the phenomenon under study. Although phenomenological researchers seek participants who
have had the targeted experiences, they also want to explore diversity of individual experiences. Thus, as described by Porter
(1999), they may specifically look for people with demographic or other differences who have shared a common experience.
 Example of a sample in a phenomenological study: Nelms (2005) studied the experience of mothering among HIV-
infected women. A sample of 16 women were selected to reflect a diversity of ethnicity, age, number and ages of children,
and health status.

3. SAMPLING IN GROUNDED THEORY STUDIES

Grounded theory research is typically done with samples of about 20 to 30 people, using theoretical sampling. The goal in a
grounded theory study is to select informants who can best contribute to the evolving theory. Sampling, data collection, data
analysis, and theory construction occur concurrently, and so study participants are selected serially and contingently (i.e.,
contingent on the emerging conceptualization).
Sampling might evolve as follows:
1. The researcher begins with a general notion of where and with whom to start. The first few cases may be
solicited purposively, by convenience, or through snowballing.
2. In the early part of the study, a strategy such as maximum variation sampling might be used, to gain insights
into the range and complexity of the phenomenon under study.
3. The sample is adjusted in an ongoing fashion. Emerging conceptualizations help to inform the sampling
process.
4. Sampling continues until saturation is achieved.
5. Final sampling often includes a search for confirming and disconfirming cases to test, refine, and strengthen
the theory.

Example of sampling in a grounded theory study: Meeker (2004) did a grounded theory study of end-of-life decision
making among family surrogates. The sample consisted of 20 persons who had functioned as a family surrogate decision
maker during the terminal phase of a family members' cancer illness. Meeker used theoretical sampling "to provide data
needed to describe the categories thoroughly" (p. 208). For example, early participants reported that other family
members had been supportive, and so Meeker sought participants who had experienced conflict.

UNIT VI – FINDING ANSWERS THROUGH DATA COLLECTION

In a qualitative research, your interest lies in people's thoughts and feelings about a certain subject matter. Your curiosity
about such topic bombards your mind with several questions. Finding answers to your questions is possible through these
theoretically based data-collection methods: observation, interview, or survey through questionnaires. Obtaining data through these
methods requires you to perform necessary skills or strategies and to follow the right procedure in interviewing, observing, and
conducting a survey through questionnaires.
LESSON 12 Observation
Intended Learning At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Accumulate more meaningful English words;
2. Express your thoughts and feelings using newly learned words;
3. Explain the ins and outs of observation as a data gathering technique;
4. Compare and contrast observation types and methods;
5. Enumerate the pluses and minuses of observation;
6. Choose the appropriate observation type for a certain research topic; and
7. Identify the right recording method for a certain type of observation.
OBSERVATION
Definition
Observation is a technique of gathering data whereby you personally watch, interact, or communicate with the subjects of
your research. It lets you record what people exactly do and say in their everyday life on Earth. Through this data gathering
technique, proofs to support your claims or conclusions about your topic are obtained in a natural setting. Witnessing the subjects
manages themselves in a certain situation and interpreting or expressing your thoughts and feelings about your observation, you
tend to deal with the observation results in a subjective manner. Some say this element of subjectivity makes observation inferior to
other techniques. (Meng 2012)
This is not so, according to others, your presence as the researcher in the area where the subjects are situated, give
authenticity to everything you get to observe among the subjects. Watching and listening to your subjects then recording what
you've observed about them are the reasons many consider observation the foundation of all research methods. Realistically
speaking, this is logical, for sensation precedes perception. Observation is the central method in qualitative types of research, most
especially, ethnography, in which you observe the lifestyle of a cultural group. (Letherby 2013; Snort 2013)

Types
1. Participant Observation
The observer, who is the researcher, takes part in the activities of the individual or group being observed. Your actual involvement
enables you to obtain firsthand knowledge about the subjects' behavior and the way they interact with one another. To record your
findings through this type of observation, use the diary method or logbook. The first part of the diary is called descriptive
observation. This initial part of the record describes the people, places, events, conversation, and other things involved in the
activity or object focused on by the research. The second part of the diary is called the narrative account that gives your
interpretations or reflections about everything you observed.
2. Non-participation or Structured Observation
This type of observation completely detaches you from the target of your observation. You just watch and listen to them do their
own thing, without you participating in any of their activities. Recording of nonparticipation observations happens through the use of
a checklist. Others call this checklist as an observation schedule.

These two observation types, participation and non-participation, can occur in either of the covert or overt observation models. The
first lets you observe the subjects secretly; that is, you need to stay in a place where the subjects don't get sight of or feel your
presence, much less, have the chance to converse with you. The second permits you to divulge things about your research to the
participants. (Birks 2014)

Methods of Observation
1. Direct Observation
This observation method makes you see or listen to everything that happens in the area of observation. For instance, things
happening in a classroom, court trial, street trafficking, and the like, come directly to your senses. Remember, however, that to
avoid waste of energy, time, and effort in observing, you have to stick to the questions that your research aims at answering. What
you ought to focus your attention to during the observation is specified by your research problem in general as well as your specific
research questions.

2. Indirect Observation
This method is also called behavior archaeology because, here, you observe traces of past events to get information or a measure
of behavior, trait, or quality of your subject. Central to this method of observation are things you listen to through tape recordings
and those you see in pictures, letter, notices, minutes of meetings, business correspondence, garbage cans, and so on. Indirect
observation takes place in the following ways. (Peggs 2013; Maxwell 2012)

Methods of Indirect Observation

1. Continuous Monitoring or CM
Here, you observe to evaluate the way people deal with one another. As such, this is the main data gathering technique used in
behavioral psychology, where people's worries, anxieties, habits, and problems in shopping malls, play areas, family homes, or
classrooms serve as the focus of studies in this field of discipline.

2. Spot Sampling
This was done first by behavioral psychologists in 1920 with a focus on researching the extent of children's nervous habits as they
would go through their regular personality development. For a continuous or uninterrupted focus on the subjects, you record your
observations through spot sampling in an oral manner, not in a written way.
Named also as scan sampling or time sampling, spot sampling comes in two types: time allocation (TA) and experience sampling.
In TA sampling, what goes into the record are the best activities of people you observed in undetermined places and time.
Experience sampling, on the other hand, lets you record people's responses anytime of the day or week to question their present
activities, companions, feelings, and so on. Data gathering in this case is facilitated by modern electronic and technological gadgets
like cell phone, emails, and other online communication methods or techniques. (Peggs 2013; Ritchie 2014)

Advantages
1. It uses simple data collection technique and data recording method.
2. It is inclined to realizing its objectives because it just depends on watching and listening to the subjects without experiencing
worries as to whether or not the people will say yes or no to your observation activities.
3. It offers fresh and firsthand knowledge that will help you come out with an easy understanding and deep reflection of the data.
4. It is quite valuable in research studies about organizations that consider you, the researcher, a part of such entity.

Disadvantages
1. It requires a long time for planning.
2. Engrossed in participating in the subjects' activities, you may eclipse or neglect the primary role of the research.
3. It is prone to your hearing derogatory statements from some people in the group that will lead to your biased stand toward other
group members.