High-

High-Strength Bolts: The Basics Role of the Structural

• Fundamentals and Behavior
• AISC Specification Requirements
Engineer…
Engineer…
• Selection of suitable bolt
types and grades
• Design of the fasteners
• Responsibility for installation
• Responsibility for inspection

ASTM A307 Bolts ASTM A325 Bolts

• often a good choice when loads are • Type 1 or Type 3 (weathering steel)
static
• ASTM Spec. RCSC Spec.
• strength level inferior to high-
high-
strength bolts (60
(60 ksi tensile ult.)
ult.) • Minimum tensile strength: 120 ksi
• pretension indeterminate • Pretension can be induced if desired

Comparison of Bolts: Direct Tension

ASTM A490 Bolts
7/8 in. dia. A490 bolt
80
• Types 1 or Type 3 (weathering steel)
60 7/8 in. dia. A325 bolt
• Minimum tensile strength: 150 ksi, bolt
tension
kips
(maximum 170 ksi) 40
7/8 in. dia. A307 bolt

• ASTM Spec. RCSC Spec. 20

• Pretension can be induced if desired

0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

elongation (inches)

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 Comments…
• Note: we quote the ultimate tensile
strength of the bolt
– this is the benchmark for strength
statements (e.g. shear strength is some
fraction of ultimate tensile strength)
• What about yield strength?
…comments cont’d
• Nuts: ASTM A563
• Washers: if needed, ASTM F436
• Bolt – nut – washer sets implied so
far, but other configurations
available

• What is “proof load”

load”

Loading of Bolts Shear Loading cont’d

• Shear
– load transfer by shear in bolt and
bearing in connected material OR
– load transfer by friction (followed by
shear and bearing)
• Tension
• Combined Tension and Shear
Truss Joint

Bolts Loaded in Tension Bolts in Tension – prying

Prying force Bolt force

bolts in tension

Applied force
bolts in
shear
High-
High-strength bolts in tension can
be a source of problems!

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 Bolts in combined tension and shear Consider a simple joint —
bolts in
combined
bolts in shear shear and
P
tension
P

Finally...
P d
P
P{
and associated τ=
shear stress A
P/2 t
Free body P
of bolt P/2
P { a bearing force
note that this force is equal and
opposite to the bearing force shown
P previously

In the example, we identified…

identified… AISC Standard 2005
• Parallel LRFD and ASD rules
• the force in the bolt (a shear force)
• LRFD uses a resistance factor, Ø
• the force that the bolt imposed on the • ASD uses a safety factor, Ω
plate (a bearing force)
• Loads as appropriate:
• the force in the plate itself (a tensile force)
– factored loads for LRFD
• force transfer could also be by friction:
friction: – non-factored loads for ASD
not included in this illustration

3
 Installation —
AISC Standard cont’d
• Snug-
Snug-tight only
LRFD: req’d strength LRFD ≤ φ R n
• Pretensioned
ASD: req’d strength ASD ≤ R n / Ω – Calibrated wrench
– Turn-
Turn-of-
of-nut
– Other means:
(Better to write it as resistance ≥ req’d strength?) 9 Tension control bolts

i.e. φ Rn ≥ req’d strength 9 Load-

Load-indicator washers

Behavior of a large joint (shear splice) —

Bolts in Shear: Issues
• Shear strength of bolt (single shear
average or double shear, threads in shear
bolt plane?)
shear
MPa
• Bearing capacity of bolt (never
governs)
• Bearing capacity of plate
• Tensile capacity of plate
deformation over α , mm

Slip in bolted joints…

joints… Bolts in shear-
shear-type connection:
• Can be as much as two hole • Common type of joint
clearances • Specifications distinguish between:
• In a joint with a reasonable number – bearing type connections
of bolts, some will already be in
bearing at start of loading – slip-
slip-critical connections
• Both laboratory tests and field – Note: a slip-
slip-critical joint (service loads)
measurements indicate that slip is must also be checked as a bearing
more like 1/2 hole clearance joint (factored loads)

4
 Bearing-type connections: Bolts in bearing-
bearing-type connections…
connections…
• Issues
– bolt shear strength
Region of bearing-
bearing-
– bearing capacity connected material

load
type behavior
– member strength

• Shear strength of bolts is not dependent

on presence or absence of pretension.
pretension
(How come?) deformation

Bolt Shear Strength Individual bolt in shear

• Bolt shear strength ≈ 62% of bolt ultimate

tensile strength (tests
(tests))
– Design rule takes 80% of this value
– Threads in shear plane?
– Long joint effect: another discount
applied.

Physical test —

Uneven loading
of bolts –

(End four bolts of 13)

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 Bolts are loaded (in shear) as a Bolt Pretension v. Shear
consequence of the differential
strains between the plates…
plates… • The bolt pretension is attained as a result of small
axial elongations introduced as nut is turned on
high
strain • These small elongations are relieved as shear
deformations and shear yielding take place

• Confirmed by both bolt tension measurements

and shear strength tests

low • So, bolt shear strength NOT dependent on

strain pretension in the bolt.

= high differential strain

Back to bolt in shear —

Bolts in Shear — AISC
Shear strength
of single bolt φ R n = φ Fv A b
(tests) —

τ = 0.62 σ u bolt φ R n = design shear strength

Fv = nominal shear strength, ksi

Shear deformation

Thus…
Thus…
nominal shear strength …
A325 bolts : Fv = 0.50 × 120 ksi = 60 ksi
A 490 bolts : Fv = 0.50 × 150 ksi = 75 ksi
φ = 0.75
— these are the values given in
Fv = 80% (0.62 × Fu ) = 0.50 Fu Table J3.2 of the Specification for
the thread excluded case. For
threads included,
included, the tabulated
values are 80% of the above.

6
Comments… Let’
Let’s return now to slip-
slip-critical
connections…
connections…
• If threads in shear plane, another
reduction, already indicated
• The discount for length (use of 80%) is
conservative
• If joint length > 50 in., a further 20%
reduction

• The ø – value used for this case (0.75) is

also conservative.

Slip-Critical Connection Bolts in slip-

slip-critical connections…
connections…
Clamping force from bolts (bolt pretension)
load

region of slip-
slip-critical
joint behavior
Load at which slip takes place deformation
will be a function of …?

Slip-
Slip-critical joints specified when…
when… Slip-critical criteria:
• Load is repetitive and
changes from tension to
compression. (Fatigue by
• Choice:
fretting could occur.) – a serviceability limit state (no slip under
• Change in geometry of the service loads) OR
structure would affect its
performance. – a strength limit state (no slip under the
factored loads)
• Certain other cases.
• Comment:
Comment: for buildings,
slip-
slip-critical joints should be
the exception, not the rule.

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Which one do we use? First principles, slip resistance is —

• No slip at service loads: e.g. fatigue

loading P = ks n ΣTi
• No slip at factored loads: e.g. long-
long-
span flat roof truss (ponding could ks = slip coefficient (µ)
result as factored loads attained)
n = number of slip planes (usually 1 or 2)
Ti = clamping force (i.e., bolt pretension)

Design slip resistance, AISC and the modifiers …

h sc = modifier re hole condition
φ R n = µ D u h sc Tb N s e.g., oversize hole, slotted hole etc.

D u = 1.13, ratio of installed bolt

no. slip planes
clamping force tension to specified minimum bolt tension
slip coefficient
φ = resistance factor
…terms φ, hsc and Du need to be defined = 1.0 no slip at service loads (β = 1.4)
= 0.85 no slip at factored loads (β = 1.5)

Bolts in Tension Bolts in Tension – some comments

• Capacity of a bolt in tension: product of
the ultimate tensile strength of the bolt
and the tensile stress area of the bolt
(i.e. Fu Ast )
• Preference: avoid joints that put bolts
into tension, especially if fatigue is an
issue

• Specifications directly reflect this • Use A325 bolts rather than A490 bolts
calculated capacity (…
(…to come)
• Minimize the prying action
• Force in bolt must reflect any prying
action affect

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 Bolt tension + external tension
Question…
1. Pretension the bolt → tension in
• pretensioned bolt in a connection the bolt, compression in the plates
2. Add external tension force on
• apply external tension force to the
connection →
connection
• Bolt tension increases
• do the bolt pretension and the • Compression between plates decreases
external tension add?
Examine equilibrium and compatibility…
compatibility…

And the result is… AISC rule, bolts in tension—

• The bolt force does increase, but not bolt area for nominal
diameter
by very much (≅ 7%) φ R n = φ Fnt A b
• This increase is accommodated
nominal tensile strength
within the design rule.
φ R n = design tensile strength

What is nominal tensile strength, Fnt ? So, the AISC rule for bolts in tension…
tension…

φ R n = φ Fn t A b
Pult = Fu A st = Fu (0.75A b )
where Fnt = 0.75 Fu as tabulated
or, Pult = 0.75 Fu A b Adjusted area in the Specification
As we now know, the 0.75 really
{

Call this Fnt has nothing to do with Fu

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 Returning to shear splice joints, Bearing capacity (of
we still have to deal with the connected material)
bearing capacity of the connected
material.
d
Shear-
Shear-out of a
block of material
or yielding
P/2 t
P
P/2

Bearing stresses at bolt holes…

holes… Bearing capacity…
capacity…
s Le

Shear - out is 2 ( τ ult × Lc × t )

Needed: or, R n = 2 ( 0.75 σ u × Lc × t )
Lc 1. shear-
shear-out rule
t1 2. yield rule
t2
(deformation)
and AISC rule is: R n = 1.5 Fu Lc t
d

Plate bearing… Plate bearing…

σb L
from tests: = e Making the substitution and using ..
σ pl
u d
⎛ Le ⎞ Fu ≡ σ pl
or, σ b = σ pl
u ⎜ ⎟ u
⎝ d ⎠
⎛ Le ⎞ ⎛ Le ⎞
and, R n = σ b d t = σ pl
u ⎜ ⎟dt u ⎜
R n = σ b d t = σ pl ⎟dt
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
R n = 3 d t Fu
found valid for L e ≥ 3 d

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 Finally, the AISC rule for Further note re bearing…
bearing…
plate bearing capacity is …
R n = 1.5 Fu L c t ≤ 3.0 d t Fu

R n = 1.5 Fu Lc t ≤ 3.0 d t Fu But, Specification says that when

deformation a consideration, use

R n = 1.2 Fu L c t ≤ 2.4 d t Fu
(with a φ-value still to be inserted)
Why this difference, and when do we
use the latter?

Failure (ult. load) is

always by tensile
Block shear fracture, at location
shown, regardless of
rupture geometric proportions.
Shear yield along vertical
planes.
Failure is controlled by
ductility – not strength.

Basics… Back to installation…

Tr + Vr = φ A nt Fu + 0 .60 φ A gv Fy
where A nt = net area in tension
and A gv = gross area in shear
tension fracture shear yield

(There are some other requirements, including

specific case of coped beams.

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Bearing-
Bearing-Type Connections—
Connections— Installation —
Installation of Bolts

• Bolts can be installed to “snug-

snug-tight
condition — ordinary effort of worker using
a spud wrench. (Pretension unknown, but
usually small) – bring parts together, continue turning nut,
bolt elongates, tension develops in bolt, and
clamped parts compress

Calibrated Wrench Installation Hydraulic calibrator –

• Reliable relationship between torque
and resultant bolt tension?
NO ! (and is forbidden by RCSC)
• Establish relationship by calibration
of the installing wrench.

Calibrated wrench, cont’d Turn-of-Nut Installation

• Adjust wrench to stall or cut out at • Run nut down, bring parts into close
desired level of bolt pretension contact
• Target value of pretension (RCSC) is • Work from stiffer regions to edges
1.05 times specified min. value
• Establish “snug-
snug-tight”
tight” condition (first
• Calibrate using at least three bolts impact of impact wrench or full effort of
worker using a spud wrench)
• Calibration is unique to bolt lot,
length, diameter, grade of bolt • Apply additional one-
one-half turn nut (or
other value, depending on bolt size)
• Washers must be used

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Does this 60 Bolt Tension by Turning the Nut

definition of bolt specified minimum

snug-
snug-tight tension 40
(kips)
tension

seem a little 20
vague?
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
range of bolt bolt elongation (in.)
elongations
at snug

How influential is “snug-tight?” bolt elongation at one-half turn

Bolt Tension by Turning the Nut

60
Inspection of Installation
bolt specified minimum
tension 40 tension • Principles:
(kips)
20 – Determination of the bolt pretension
after installation is not practical

0.02 0.04
– Understand the requirements e.g., are
bolt elongation (in.) pretensioned bolts required?
– Monitor the installation on the site
– Proper storage of bolts is required
bolt elongation at one-half turn

Inspection of Installation Inspection of installation:

Consider the following AISC cases —
• Is bolt tension required? — if not, why
inspect for it ! 1. Bolts need be snug-
snug-tight only
• Know what calibration process is required 2. Bolts are pretensioned (but not a slip-
slip-
and monitor it on the job site
critical joint)
• Observe the work in progress on a regular
basis 3. Slip-
Slip-critical joint

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 Inspection – snug tight
Snug tight only….
• Bolts, nuts, and washers (if any) must meet
• Bearing-type connections the requirements of the specifications
• Hole types (e.g., slotted, oversize) must
• Bolts in tension (A325 only) meet specified requirements
– only when no fatigue or vibration (bolt • Contact surfaces are reasonably clean
could loosen)
• Parts are in close contact after bolts
snugged
• All material within bolt grip must be steel

Inspection: if pretensioned bolts required…

required…
Inspection: for slip-
slip-critical joints
• All of requirements for snug-
snug-tight case
• Observe the pre-
pre-installation verification process
• All of the above, plus
– turn of nut, or;
– calibrated wrench, or; • Condition of faying surfaces, holes, etc.
– other (direct tension washers, tension-
tension-control • In addition to observing the calibration
bolts) process, the inspection must ensure that
• Calibration process done minimum once per day the same process is applied to the field
joints
• Calibration process done any time conditions
change

An inspected joint (turn-

(turn-of-
of-nut) and some other comments…
comments…
• Pretension values greater than
those specified are not cause
for rejection.
• Rotation tests are useful for
short-grip bolts or coated
fasteners (requirement is in
ASTM A325 spec. and is for
galvanized bolts)

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 Actual pretensions, cont’d
• For A325 bolts, turn-of-nut:
– Average tensile strength exceeds spec.
min. tensile by about 1.18
– Average pretension force is 80% of
actual tensile
– Result is that actual bolt tension is
about 35% greater than specified bolt
tension

Actual pretensions, cont’d Some other options for bolts —

• A325, ½ turn-of-nut: 35% increase
• A490, ½ turn-of-nut: 26% increase
• A325 and A490, calibrated wrench: 13%
increase
• etc. for other cases

Note: these increased pretensions are

embodied in the specification rules

Tension Control Bolts Tension control bolts….

region of
constant torque
• NOTE: evidence that tips have
sheared off is not in itself evidence
that desired pretension is present
• Consider limits:
– Friction conditions are very high…
high…
ASTM F1852 – Friction conditions are very low…
low…
groove at which shear
will take place
• Hence, calibration is essential!

15
 Tension-Control Bolts Direct tension indicators—
• Advantages
– Installation is from one side
– Electric wrench is used
– Installation is quiet

• Disadvantages
– More expensive
– Pre-installation calibration required

Direct Tension Indicators Reliability of these...

• Protrusions formed in • Calibration required
special washer • Reliability should be same as calibrated
• Protrusions compress wrench installations
as force in bolt is
developed • Tension-
Tension-control bolt is torque-
torque-dependent
• Use feeler gage to • Load-
Load-indicating washer is elongation-
elongation-
measure gap (or refusal) ASTM 959 dependent
• User must verify the process
(like calibrated wrench)

Washers
Some additional topics …
• Standard hardened washer required
• Details, other topics under turned element when torque-
– washers based installation used (calibrated
wrench, tension-control bolt)
– slotted or oversize holes
• Washers req’d when direct tension
– seismic design indicators used
• Washers not req’d
– when snug-tightened joints used
– for pretensioned joints, turn-of-nut
– for slip-critical, turn-of-nut

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Washers cont’d Slotted or oversize holes
• Advantageous for erection
• But, washers required for • Effect of oversize or slot taken into
– sloping surfaces present account directly in the member design
– A490 bolts used when material Fy < 40 ksi • Oversize or slotted hole can affect the
pretension induced, regardless of the
– many cases of slotted or oversize holes, type of installation
regardless of type of joint or method of • Washers or hardened bars required
installation for many of these situations

Seismic design of connections Pre-

Pre-qualified bolted connections
• Analyze structure in order to
compute the forces
– Use FEMA 350 and/or AISC Seismic
Design Spec.
• With forces now known, design
connectors
• Advisable to use pre-
pre-qualified
configurations
Note: some details not shown,
e.g., continuity plates

…bolted joints, seismic design

It all started with rivets….
• All bolts pretensioned
• Faying surfaces as per slip-critical
• Use bearing values for bolts
– moderate quakes: No slip
– major quakes: Slip will occur and bolts go into bearing

• Normal holes or short slotted only (perpendicular)

• No bolts + welds in same faying surface

17