Booklet 1 - Investigating Our World Booklet

Topic One’s big questions:
What is Geography?
How can we investigate the world around us?
These are some of the questions we will be finding out the answers to. Tick them off when you have learnt the answers.
- What jobs do geographers do?

- What skills will I learn to use in Geography?
- What questions do geographers ask?
- What is physical geography?
- What are the four spheres?
- How are the different elements of the natural world connected?
- What is human geography?
- How do humans interact with the natural world?
- Why are photos useful for geographers?
- What are satellite images and what can you tell from looking at them?
- What are some of the different types of maps?
- Why are latitude and longitude important and useful?
Geography allows us to see the world more clearly. Geographers need to be curious and ask questions about
Geographers learn to view things from differ ent the world around them. This is the basis of geographical
perspectives and to understand the natural and human research.
processes that shape our world.
It is a spatial subject, which m eans it is concerned with KEY GEOGRAPHICAL
where people and places are located and the pattern s of
features on the Earth's surface.
QUESTIONS
Geographers start by asking questions.
WHY STUDY GEOGRAPHY? • What is it?
• Where is it?
Geographers are curious people. They investigate the
ways in which people and places affect each other so that • Why is it there?
they can understand how to manage environments for When investigating issues they go on to ask questions,
the future. They become powerful when they use their such as:
knowledge to influence the decisions that are made about • What are the effects of it
issues that affect our lives. being there?
As far as we know the Earth is the only planet that • How is it changing?
supports life. With a population of nearly seven billion The word 'Geography'
• Should it be like this? comes from the Greek
people and increasing competition for resources , there
are many issues that are causing concern. By studying Then they consider citizenship. word Ge (YTJ) meaning
Geography we can become active and informed citizens 'the Earth', and
• What groups are involved?
graphein (ypacpe1v)
and do something to help protect our future. • What do different groups think?
meaning 'to describe'
• What action is appropriate? or 'to write'.
1.2 Geography is always in the news.
Protestors rally against increased whaling for sdenti.fic purposes Nuclear power is the
answer to global warming
CYCLONE SEASON Tourism brings wealth Indigenous group settles with

IN FULL FORCE to African na1tion mining company over land use
MASSIVE EARTHQUAKE IDTS High-rise office block to

ffiMALAYA REGION tower over native bushland
4 Geography Focus 1
GEOGRAPHERS HAVE
THEIR SAY ABOUT
GEOGRAPHY
'Geography allows us to see the

world more clearly.'
'By learning Geography we gain a

greater understanding of the world
in which we live and the people that
share our world.'
'Geography is our future.'
'Geography is POWER!'
FAMOUS GEOGRAPHERS
There have been many famous geographers throughout
history, such as:
• Eratosthenes (276-194 BC) is thought of as the father
of Geography. He was the first person to use the
term 'Geography' and also calculated the Earth's
circumference.
• Al-Khwarizmi (780-850) was one of the earliest Arabic
geographers. He wrote a famous book Kitiib Siirat
al-Ard (The Form of the Earth) and was the first to
produce maps of global geography.
• Gerardus Mercator (1512-94) is known as the prince of
modern geographers. He was the first to use the term Activities
'atlas' and was a leading cartographer.
• Alexander van Humboldt (1769-1859) is regarded
Knowledge
as the founder of modern Geography. He spent years 1 Where does the word 'Geography' come from?
exploring South and Central America and was one 2 List five things beginning with P that geographers study.
of the first people to look at the spatial relationships
between plants and climates.
3 Why are geographers powerful?
• Thomas Griffith Taylor (1880-1963) became the first 4 Who was the first person to use the term 'Geography'?
president of the Institute of Australian Geographers 5 Who founded the Institute of Australian Geographers?
in 1959. He believed that academics had a duty to be
concerned with the great controversies of their day Application
and spoke out against the White Australia Policy, 6 Read the quotes about Geography and then hold a class
which prevented non-white immigrants from coming discussion on the question: 'What is Geography?'
to Australia. In the year of his death, he was still
a Record all the ideas that are put forward.
publishing on the contribution of geographical studies
to world peace. b Write your own definition of Geography.
• Mother Teresa (1910-1997) taught Geography at c Compare your definition with those of other students.
St Mary's High School in Kolkata (formerly Calcutta)
from 1933 to 1948, becoming its principal in 1944.
Surf
She left to found the Missionaries of Charity that has
become a worldwide organisation helping the poor.
Unlocking the world 5

1.2
Elements of physical and
human environments
Figure 1.2a Elements of physical environments.

Elements of physical environments
In geography the word environment is used to describe our total
Sun surroundings. This includes the living and non-living features of the
Solar energy: All life earth’s surface as well as those features altered or created by people.
on earth depends on Geographers divide environments into two kinds: physical
the energy (light and environments and human environments.
heat) produced by Physical environments are those dominated by natural features, such
the sun.
as landforms and vegetation. Physical environments, which are
sometimes referred to as natural environments, include the earth’s soil,
water, air, sunlight and all living things. These are often referred to as
the elements of physical environments (see Figure 1.2a). The world’s
physical environments are examined in more detail in Chapters 3 and 5.
Rocks
Water and soil
Hydrosphere: The earth’s store

of water and how it circulates. Lithosphere: The earth’s solid
Geographers are interested in outer shell. Geographers study
how people try to control and the processes shaping the
manage water resources to Elements of the earth’s crust and how these
meet their needs. physical environment processes affect people.
Air Plants
and
animals
Atmosphere: The combination of gases that surround Biosphere: The surface zone of the
the planet. Geographers are particularly interested in earth in which all life exists.
weather and climate. They investigate: Geographers are particularly interested
• how climate determines where plants and animals
can live
in how living things interact with each
other and the non-living parts of the
• how climate affects the activities of people environment.
• how the activities of people affect climate.
12 Global Explorations: Stage 4 Geography

There are very few environments left in the world that
are completely natural. ln most places humans have had
some influence on the landscape. Land has been cleared
for agriculture, rivers have been dammed to provide MORE PEOPLE NOW IN
water. Industries have been developed to process raw CITIES THAN RURAL AREAS
materials and p eople have created settlements in which
to live. The percentage of the global population that live in
urban areas exceeded the 50 per cent mark in 2007,
making it the first time in history that urban residents
SETTLEMENTS outnumbered the rural population. The world's urban
Settlements range in size from isolated farmhouses with population is estimated to rise to five billion by 2030. The
one or two people to huge places, such as Tokyo-the rural population will decline during that time, from 3.3
world's largest city with a population over 35 million. billion to 3.2 billion. All of the future population increase
The buildings that people construct within settlements will take place, or end up, in urban areas.
often reflect their culture as well as the physical The proportion of people living in megacities (more
environment. than 10 million people) is still small, around 4 per cent,
and will not grow as fast as many believe. In 2015 the
proportion is not expected to be more than 5 per cent. In
2003, about 25 per cent of the world population and over
half of the urban population lived in urban settlements
with fewer than 500000 inhabitants. Urban growth will
predominantly take place in this kind of urban area.
The report predicts that Tokyo will maintain its current
position as the world's most populous city, increasing its
population to 36 million in 2015. Coming in second and
third will be the Indian cities Mumbai, with 22.6 million,
and cw Delhi, at 20.9 million. Mexico City with 20.6
million and Sao Paulo at 20 million are next on the list.
Adapted from: UN Population Division report
'World Urbanization Prospects', 2003 revision
Amegalopolis is made up of several

cities that have merged together.
BosWash stretches from Boston to
Washington in the United States, a
distance of over 600 kilometres.
AGRICULTURE INDUSTRY
Agriculture involves human activities that have been In the past industries were located close to the raw
shaping the landscape for centuries. In some parts of the materials that they need ed or to the coalfields that
world the natural environment has been significantly provided their power. Today, modern high-tech industries
changed by farming practices. Patterns created by are more concerned with access to their markets and
agriculture vary from patchworks of tiny fields typical of reducing labour costs. Their location can be influenced
subsistence farming in Asia to the featureless expanses by many factors as shown in 1.24.
created by modern commercial grain farming in
There have been two major changes in the location of
North America.
industry in the last 50 years.
In Bolivia, the area east of Santa Cruz was originally dry • As the old industrial areas in Europe and North
tropical forest. The Tierras Bajas project cleared the land America declined, modern business parks have
and moved people into the area from the high plains of grown up to replace them.
the Andes to grow soy beans, a valuable commercial crop.
• Factories have moved from richer to poorer countries
The resulting pattern of human activities can be seen in
to reduce their costs.
1.23 . Each agricultural pin-wheel pattern is centred on
a small community. The communities are then spaced
1.24 Factors affecting industrial location
evenly across the landscape at 5-kilometre intervals.
Roadways connect each town centre.
Gapi1al
~ Activities
Knowledge 8 As a class discuss the lifestyle of the people that live in each
of these settlements.
1 What is a settlement? Name two types of settlement.
a What jobs might they do?
2 What is a megalopolis? Name one.
b What clothes might they wear?
3 Refer to the news article in this unit. c What food do you think they would eat?
a Where does the largest percentage of the world's d How would they travel around?
population now live?
e What leisure activities might they have?
b List the five cities predicted to be the largest in 2015 and
their projected population. 9 Which place would you most like to live in? Why?
4 Define the term 'agriculture'. Application
5 List the factors that affect the location of industry. 10 Compare the buildings in the place that you live with those in
6 How has the location of industry changed in the last Singapore and Oia in this unit. Look at the building materials
50 years? and the style of the buildings.
11 Complete a mind map to show how each of the factors shown
Skills in 1.24 would influence the location of industry.
7 Describe the buildings in 1.21 and 1.22.
Surf ~ .

Examples of Physical and Human Geography at and near School
Example (eg buildings) Physical or human Category (eg settlement)
Now use your fieldwork to write a report on the physical and
human environment at school. Use the following structure to
help you
Introduction – what you have investigated
Physical environment – the types of examples you found
when you conducted your field work
Human environment – the types of examples you found
Analysis – what can you learn from your research about the
school environment? Does it have more human or more
physical features? Why is this – is it because it is in a rural or
urban environment?
Conclusion – what did you learn from conducting this
research? Were you surprised at the amount of examples of
both types of Geography there are in school?
USING PHOTOGRAPHS IN
Ground level
GEOGRAPHY To show the nature of
Geographers often use photographs to record their features. In this example
observations of features of the environment. They can do the size, shape and
this by annotating the ph otographs (see the Skills Master colour of the mangrove
opposite) or by making a line dr awing of the photographs . tree are all clear.
There are many different types of photographs and they
are all useful in different ways.
Close up
To show the specific
characteristics of a feature,
for example a plant or Oblique angle
animal. In this example To show a three-
the different elements that
dimensional (30) view of
make up a mangrove leaf
the environment. In this
can be seen.
example the size and
location of the mangroves
can be seen in relation to
the surrounding parkland.
Places in the distance look
smaller than those in the
foreground.
Aerial
To show the location
of features in relation
to each other and their
surroundings. In this
example the lake and
mangroves are the dark
areas and the straight line
of the bridge can be seen
in the centre.
Satellite image
Panorama To show the location of features, particularly land use over a
To show a total scene and the relationship of different features large area. In this example Sydney Harbour and Botany Bay
in the environment. In this example the relationship between in bright blue stand out from the built-up area of Sydney in
mangrove trees and water can be seen. grey and natural vegetation (bushland) in green.
8 Geography Focus 1
SKILLS MASTER Annotating a1photograph or line drawing
./ Notes are prilnted around the outside of the im age.
./ Ruled lines/arrows connect the notes to the features .
./ The ph otograph or line drawing is given a title.
./ The source of the photograph is recorded.
Pittwater is a sheltered 1.9 View of Palm Beach and 1.10 Line drawing of Palm
waterway 5.5 kilometres Pittwater looking south-west from Beach looking south-west from
long and 1 kilometre Barrenjoey headland Barrenjoey headland
wide where it enters
Broken Bay at
Barrenjoey headland.
Palm Beach with a . - - ----it- Pittwater

population of 1600 Palm
is the most northerly Beach _ _t_:~_:~==~~~~~~==:J
beachside suburb of suburb
Sydney. Palm
Beach
Barrenjoey Lighthouse
Vegetated
sand _ _ _ .....__ ....,..._
was built in 1881 from
the local Hawkesbury
dunes
sandstone. It is the third
light to occupy this site.
Barrenjoey
Barrenjoey is a
headland - - - -
sandstone headland
joined to the mainland
by a tombolo (a sand
spit). The vegetation
is mostly open scrub,
but there is a sheltered
patch of rainforest on
open scrub: black she-oak;
the south-west side. heath-leaved banksia; coast ti-tree
~ Activities
Knowledge list of 'The Seven Wonders of the World'. You can include both
human and physical features.
1 What is astounding about the Great Pyramid of Giza?
7 Compare your list with those of other students.
2 What does the term 'environment' mean?
a Are there any places that appear on everyone's list?
3 What are human features of the environment?
Give two examples. b Do the lists have more human or physical features?
4 What are physical features of the environment? 8 Make a class collage of Wonders of the World, including both
Give two examples. physical and human features.
5 Why are photographs useful to geographers? Skills
Application 9 Collect photographs of your local environment and present
them either electronically or on a poster. Use annotations
6 Look at the photographs on pages 6 and 7. Think of any other and/or line drawings to describe the physical and human
places in the world that are spectacular, then make your own features in each.

MAPS ARE USUALLY ARRANGED WITH NORTH AT THE TOP. THERE ARE FOUR CARDINAL POINTS ON A
COMPASS – NORTH, SOUTH, EAST AND WEST
THERE ARE TWELVE INTERMEDIATE POINTS ON A COMPASS. FOUR OF THEM ARE DRAWN HERE.
1. DRAW THE ARROWS FOR AND LABEL THE OTHER EIGHT INTERMEDIATE POINTS (N.B. THE EXTRA
CARDINAL POINT LETTERS ARE ALWAYS AT THE START OF THESE INTERMEDIATE POINTS)
DIRECTION CAN BE USED TO INDICATE THE QUADRANT OF A MAP. THIS SHOWS WHICH QUARTER OF THE
MAP A LOCATION CAN BE FOUND.
BEARINGS CAN BE USED TO WORK OUT THE EXACT DIRECTION FROM ONE POINT TO ANOTHER. A BEARING
IS THE ANGLE THAT IS MEASURED CLOCKWISE FROM NORTH (ZERO). A PROTRACTOR IS USED TO MEASURE
A BEARING.
TO DETERMINE THE BEARING OF POINT B FROM POINT A ON THE DIAGRAM BELOW:

1. DRAW A PENCIL LINE FROM POINT A TO POINT B
2. PLACE THE PROTRACTOR SO THAT ITS CENTRE IS ON POINT A AND ITS BASELINE IS ALONG OR
PARALLEL TO A NORTH-SOUTH GRID LINE (AN EASTING)
3. READ THE NUMBER OF DEGREES OF POINT B FROM POINT A
4. THE GRID BEARING OF POINT B FROM POINT A IS 115°
REMEMBER THAT GRID BEARINGS ARE
ALWAYS EXPRESSED AS THE NUMBER OF
DEGREES CLOCKWISE FROM NORTH. THIS
MEANS THAT GRID REFERENCES CAN BE
GREATER THAN 180°.
IT IS ALWAYS WISE TO DOUBLE CHECK THAT

YOU ARE IN THE CORRECT QUADRANT.
1. WRITE DOWN THE BEARING OF

THE FOUR CARDINAL POINTS:
a. NORTH
b. SOUTH
c. EAST
d. WEST
2. WHAT IS THE BEARING OF POINT

C FROM POINT A IN THE
EXAMPLE ABOVE (CHECK THAT YOU ARE IN THE CORRECT QUADRANT)?
3. WHAT IS THE BEARING OF POINT A FROM POINT B?

USE THE FOLLOWING DIAGRAMS TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS BELOW.
WHAT IS THE DIRECTION FROM A TO B?
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
WHAT IS THE BEARING OF A FROM B?
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS ARE VERY USEFUL FOR SHOWING THE LOCATION OF FEATURES. NUMBERED
GRID LINES DRAWN ON THE MAP PERMIT THE PINPOINTING OF FEATURES AND EXPRESSING THESE
LOCATIONS USING NUMBERS.
EASTINGS ARE VERTICAL LINES NUMBERED FROM WEST TO EAST (INCREASING AS YOU MOVE FROM
LEFT TO RIGHT OR EAST ON THE MAP)
NORTHINGS ARE HORIZONTAL LINES NUMBERED FROM SOUTH TO NORTH (INCREASING AS YOU
MOVE TO THE TOP OR NORTH ON THE MAP)
THE NUMBERS THAT REFER TO THE EASTINGS AND NORTHINGS OF A GRID ON A TOPOGRAPHIC
MAP ARE LOCAL NUMBERS THAT DO NOT RELATE TO LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE.
THE
LOCATION OF POINT A CAN BE EXPRESSED AS AN AREA REFERENCE (AR) USING FOUR NUMBERS OR
AS A GRID REFERENCE USING SIX NUMBERS.
TO DETERMINE THE AREA REFERENCE OF POINT A:

1. LOCATE THE BOTTOM LEFT CORNER OF THE GRID SQUARE IN WHICH POINT A LIES
2. RECORD THE EASTING NUMBER AT THIS POINT (81)
3. RECORD THE NORTHING NUMBER AT THIS POINT (71)
THE AREA REFERENCE (AR) OF POINT A IS THEREFORE AR8171. REMEMBER THAT THE EASTING IS
ALWAYS RECORDED BEFORE THE NORTHING (IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER).
1. WHAT IS THE AREA REFERENCE OF POINT B?

2. WHAT IS THE AREA REFERENCE OF POINT C?
A GRID REFERENCE GIVES A MORE ACCURATE EXPRESSION THAN THE AREA REFERENCE FOR THE
LOCATION OF A POINT ON A TOPOGRAPHIC MAP.
FOR THE POINT A ON THE MAP BELOW, THE AREA REFERENCE IS AR2716
TO RECORD THE GRID REFERENCE:

1. DETERMINE THE EASTINGS AND NORTHINGS THE SAME AS FOR RECORDING THE AREA
REFERENCE
2. DIVIDE THE EASTINGS AND NORTHINGS OF THIS GRID SQUARE INTO 10 EQUAL PARTS AS
SHOWN ON THE ABOVE MAP
3. COUNT THE NUMBER OF PARTS (TENTHS) PAST THE AREA REFERENCE POINT (THE
BOTTOM LEFT CORNER) FOR BOTH EASTINGS AND NORTHINGS
4. RECORD THE EASTINGS NUMBER AS 277 (I.E. 27.6)
5. RECORD THE NORTHINGS NUMBER AS 168 (I.E. 16.7)
THE GRID REFERENCE (GR) OF POINT A IS THEREFORE GR277168
1. RECORD THE GRID REFERENCE OF POINT B

2. RECORD THE GRID REFERENCE OF POINT C
3. MARK WITH A D, GR255154
4. MARK WITH AN E, GR241177
5. MARK WITH AN F, GR280156
6. MARK WITH AN X, AR2617
N.B. EASTINGS ALWAYS COME BEFORE NORTHINGS (IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER)
SCALE 1: 30,000
1. LOCATE THE POINT ON THE MAP WITH AREA REFERENCE 6824. MARK WITH AN X
2. LOCATE THE POINT ON THE MAP WITH GRID REFERENCE 660240. MARK WITH AN A
3. LOCATE THE POINT ON THE MAP WITH GRID REFERENCE 695240. MARK WITH A B
4. WHAT IS THE DISTANCE BETWEEN POINTS A AND B?
5. LOCATE GR682266. MARK WITH A C
6. WHAT IS THE AREA OF THE TRIANGLE ABC?
7. WHICH POINT HAS THE HIGHEST ALTITUDE: A, B OR C?
8. WHAT IS THE GRID REFERENCE OF THE HIGHEST POINT ON HOME HILL?
9. WHAT IS THE CONTOUR INTERVAL OF THE MAP?
10. WRITE THE GRID REFERENCES FOR:
a. POINT D
b. POINT E
c. POINT F
d. POINT G
Grid References
66 67 68 69 70 71 72
39 39
38 38
37 37
36 36
35 35
34 34
33 33
66 67 68 69 70 71 72
ACTIVITY 1
Step 1 : Plot the following grid references Step 2: Plot the below grid references on the grid above.
on the grid above. Join your points as you go Join your points as you go.
1) GR673379 14) GR703343 1) GR681372

2) GR669379 15) GR701358 2) GR685372
3) GR664372 16) GR703364
4) GR669362 17) GR708358 Step 3: Plot the below grid references on the grid above.
5) GR674359 18) GR703376 Join your points as you go.
6) GR679361 19) GR695384 1) GR688384
7) GR678357 20) GR688384 2) GR688376
8) GR682358 21) GR679379 3) GR692371
9) GR676343 22) GR676369 4) GR695384
10) GR683343 23) GR671372
11) GR686354 24) GR673379 Step 4: Colour in your design.
12) GR693354
13) GR695343
Grid References
66 67 68 69 70 71 72
39 39
38 38
37 37
36 36
35 35
34 34
33 33
66 67 68 69 70 71 72
ACTIVITY 2
Step 1 : Plot the following grid references Step 2: Plot the below grid references on the grid above.
on the grid above. Join your points as you go Join your points as you go.
1) GR663361
1) GR693385 2) GR679361
2) GR678378
3) GR676369 Step 3: Plot the below grid references on the grid above.
4) GR663361 Join your points as you go.
5) GR682349 1) GR683373
6) GR682330 2) GR688376
7) GR701330 3) GR691373
8) GR701349
9) GR712365 Step 4: Plot the below grid references on the grid above.
10) GR708376 Join your points as you go
11) GR693385 1) GR684372
2) GR689372
Step 5: Colour in your design.

. -
map projections
A globe is the only accurate map of the world but globes
are not always practical to use as they are expensive and
fragile, and you can only see one hemisphere of the Earth
at a time (see 2.6).
Flattening the globe

2.6 A globe
It is impossible to create flat maps of the world without
is a true
representation some distortion. Every map projection has to squash or
of the Earth's stretch the Earth's round surface to make it fit on a piece
spherical of paper.
sh ape. Map projections attempt to show correctly:
• the shape of continents and oceans
• the area or size of continents and oceans
You will n otice that not a ll w orld m ap s are the same.
This is because planet Earth is a sphere (3D) and a map is • the distance between two points
flat (2D). Car tographers are p eople w h o make maps. T h ey • direction.
have different p ersp ectives on how a world m ap can be
No map projection can show all of these correctly on
drawn and h ave invented different ways of sh ow ing the
the one map-usually only one or two of these can be
curved surface of an almost spherica l lump of r ock- our
represented accurately at one time.
planet- on a flat piece of pap er. These different ways of
drawing the w orld are called m ap p r ojections.
HOW ARE MAP PROJECTIONS
REPRESENTING THE SHAPE OF MADE?
PLANET EARTH Map projections are made by shining a light through part
The Earth is a spherical shape, but it bulges at the middle of a transparent globe so that the lines of latitude and
due to the quick rotation around its axis-once every longitude and the outlines of continents and oceans make
24 hours it completes a revolution. It is flattened at the a chart on the screen behind it (see 2.8). On the drawn
Poles and is a rough irregular shape. This makes drawing map, areas near the centre will be about the right shape,
maps of the world difficult. but areas near the Poles v.rill be distorted.
BRIEF HISTORY OF WORLD MAPS 140(}-1500 Printing using carved wooden

blocks and copper plates allowed maps to be
copied more easily and they became more
85-165 Ptolemy drew a 'world map' which showed available. The age of exploration meant that
the area between the latitudes 60°N and 30°S navigation charts, compass lines and other
including only parts of Asia, Europe and Africa. navigation aids became necessary.
2300 BC 350 BC 200AO
I I I
400AD 1500
2300 BC The oldest 350 BC The concept of 40(}-11400 During the Medieval
known maps were a round Earth was known period European maps were 1508 The first map to show
drawn on clay tablets in among Greek philosophers, influenced by religious views. the whole globe was published
Babylon. including Aristotle. 'World' maps often had Jerusalem showing a mythical southern
at the centre during this time. All continent, as Australia was yet
maps were hand drawn. to be discovered.
28 Geography Focus 1
2.7 Four different types of map projection
Method Method
Resulting projection Resulting projection
1 Cylindrical
Method Resulting projection

4 Interrupted
2.8 Making a map projection TYPES OF MAP PROJECTIONS

Projected lines of latitude There are many types of map projection. The type of
and longitude projection used depends on what the map is being used to
show and how much of the Earth's surface is to be shown
(also see page 30). The main types are constructed in the
following ways.
• Cylindrical-By projecting the surface of the globe
onto a cylinder that just touches the outside edges of
the globe
• Conical-By projecting the surface of the globe onto a
cone that just touches the outside edges
Light source • Azimuthal-By projecting the surface of the globe onto
a flat surface that just touches the outside edges.
Rectangular maps are prone to area and distance
Transparent stretching, while round ones distort the shape. Interrupted
semi-spherical projections cut the world map along less important
globe (half a globe) Screen features-like oceans-to show size and shape correctly.
1500-1600 The first whole world 1600-1900 Maps

On the Mercator map Greenland looks similar
maps were drawn following the of the world become
in size to the continent of Africa, when in fact
voyages of Columbus and other increasingly accurate
explorers. A Belgian named Mercator with new scientific it is 14 times smaller! North America, Europe
was the leading cartographer. methods. and Russia are also too big. Antarctica is
.......···· often left off because it is so distorted.
1569 Mercator's projection of .............

the world was published. It is still 1940s and 1950s Present Modern cartography is a combination
used widely for navigation and The use of aerial of ground observation, remote sensing,
other purposes. photography in map making geographical information systems (GIS) and
makes it more accurate. other computer technology.
Our world and its heritage 29

2.9 Mercator's projection is a cylindrical projection. 2.11 The conic equidistant projection is a conical projection.
Used for Sea and air navigation Used for Areas of the world in the mid-latitudes
History One of the earliest and most well-known types of How made Conical
map projections, made in about 1600
Benefits Correct distances
How made Cylindrical
Drawbacks Distorts shape and area of continents near the poles
Benefits Correct direction and shape of continents and equator. Seldom used to show the whole world
Drawbacks Distorted size of continents and distances
2.10 The azimuthal equidistant projection is an azimuthal 2.12 The Goode's interrupted homolosine projection is an
projection. interrupted projection.
Used for Travel routes from a central point or for compact Used for Various maps that need correct size and shape
areas like Australia How made Interrupted
How made Azimuthal Benefits Area and shape of continents are shown correctly
Benefits Area, distance and direction are fairly accurate Drawbacks Distance is distorted where the map is cut
Drawbacks Strongly distorts the shape of continents on the edge
of the map
Azimuthal projection
SKILLS MASTER Place the half globe on tracing paper
with the neck hole resting on the
Making your own map projections paper. Sh ine the torch from directly
Materials needed: above the globe and trace with
• 1 soft drink bottle with a rounded pouring end a pencil the lines of latitude and
longitude on the paper.
• 1 torch
• Tracing paper Cylindrical projection
• Permanent marker Roll a piece of tracing paper to form
• Scissors
Instructions
~i?~~!~ro7~~~~~g~~ircle
of the half globe. Place the _
CT ~~[ · ) )
1 Cut the top off the half globe inside one end of '
bottle where the the tube with the larger end '
curved section facing you. Shine the torch through the
becomes straight. Also half globe and the paper and trace with a
cut off the neck of pencil the lines oflatitude and longitude
the bottle where the straight neck meets the curved on the paper.
area. This leaves you with a clear bowl shape, which Conical projection
represents a half globe, with a hole in the centre
where the neck was. Make a cone out of tracing paper and
rest it on top of curved surface of the
2 Carefully draw lines of latitude and longitude on the half globe. Shine the torch through the
inside of the half globe using a permanent marker. half globe and the cone and trace with a
Use round objects to guide the marker when drawing pencil the lines oflatitude and longitude
the lines oflatitude. on the paper.
Activities Map projection Advantages Disadvantages

Mercator
Knowledge
Conic equidistant
1 What is a map projection?
Interrupted
2 What is the only completely accurate map of the world?
Azimuthal
3 Why is a globe not practical when mapping the world?
4 What four features do cartographers attempt to show 10 Refer to an atlas to find out the names and types of
correctly on a map projection? projections used for:
a a map of North America
5 When were the first world maps drawn?
b a world map showing time zones
6 What invention made maps more readily available? c a map of Australia
7 What methods do cartographers use to draw maps today? d a world map showing population distribution.
11 Use a piece of square or rectangular paper to fold or cut it
Skills into the shape of the world. Is it easy or hard to do?
8 Copy the following table. Use the four maps on page 30 to
write down the continent that matches each colour. Application
Colour Continent 12 Which of the map projections shown in this unit would be
Red
most useful for the following? Explain your answer.
a a person sailing solo around the world
Green
b people working at the North Pole.
Blue
13 Locate Australia and North America on the map projections in
White 2.9- 2.12. Compare the shape and size of these continents on
Orange the maps and suggest why they are similar or different.
Yellow 14 Explain why Antarctica does not appear on some projections
Pink and why it may appear to be enormous on others.
9 Copy and complete this table to show the advantages and

disadvantages of different types of map projections.
Surf ta .
Our world is the only planet known to support life
and h ave liquid water on the surface. From a human
THE PHYSICAL WORLD
p er spective the Earth appears to be endless, complicated The main pieces of land on the Earth's surface are called
and sturdy. From space it appears small and fragile. continents. There are seven continents-Australia,
North America, South America, Europe, Africa, Asia and
Antarctica. These are labelled in large black capital letters
2.2 The relative size of the world's continents
over the landmasses in 2.5.
C>Asia The main saltwater areas on the Earth's surface are called
( > Africa oceans. There are five oceans-Pacific, Indian, Atlantic,
(:>- North America Arctic and Southern. These are labelled in blue capital
letters over the main water bodies in 2.5 .
C> South America
C> Antarctica
C> Europe WORLD RECORDS
C> Australia Largest island-Greenland, with an area of about
2 175 600 square kilometres (excluding Australia,
which, with an area of 7 682 300 square kilometres,
2.3 The relative size of the is usually regarded as a continent)
world's oceans
Longest coastline-Canada, with 243 792 kilometres
. . Pacific Highest mountain-Mount Everest, with an elevation
. . Atlantic of 8850 metres above sea level
Greatest mountain range-Himalayas, which contains
. . Indian
96 of the world's tallest 109 peaks
[>Southern Longest mountain range-Andes in South America,
[>Arctic with a length of approximately 7250 kilometres
Deepest point in the ocean-Mariana Trench,
Pacific Ocean, which is nearly 11 kilometres deep
2.4 The Earth's measurements
Longest river-Nile River, Africa, which is
Feature Measurement 6695 kilometres long
Circumference (length) 40076 km Greatest river flow-Amazon Basin, which holds

at the Equator two-thirds of all the flowing water in the world
Largest lake-Caspian Sea, with an area of 371 800
Polar circumference 40005 km
square kilometres
Total surface area about 509 600 000 km 2 Deepest lake-Lake Baikal, in Siberia, Russia with a
Area of land 147784 000 km 2 or 29% of total surface depth of 1637 metres of which 1181 metres are below
sea level
Area of water 361 816 000 km 2 or 71% of total surface
2.5 A map of the world showing continents and o eans
180°
. ...........................................................Jr.<>P..i.~.....
..<>L ....n.~r. ...........
OUTHERN
continent name
ocean name
Equator line of latitude
o• degrees of latitude or longitude
o·
THE WORLD MAP

Maps help people to understand the size, complexity and
11? Actiui ties
fragility of planet Earth and the relationships that humans Knowledge
have with it.
1 List the seven continents and five oceans in two separate
Maps are essential tools for geographers. The world map columns in alphabetical order.
is an important and useful tool in studying the global 2 Which three features are shown on every world map?
environment. There are three features that are shown on
3 What percentage of the Earth's surface is made up of land?
every world map:
• continents 4 What is the circumference of the Earth at the Equator?
• oceans 5 What are the five main lines of latitude?
• a grid system. 6 What are the two main lines of longitude?
The grid system used on a world map is made up of lines Skills
of latitude and longitude. On the world map in 2.5 the
7 Refer to 2.2 and 2.3. List the continents in descending
main lines are shown as blue lines making up a grid. order of size, from largest to smallest and the oceans in
These help to locate a place on the Earth's surface. ascending order of size, from smallest to largest.
Parallels of latitude are the lines that run across the map 8 Use the information in 2.4 to construct a graph showing how
from east to west. There are five main lines of latitude- much of the Earth's surface is made up of land and water.
the Equator, Tropic of Capricorn, Tropic of Cancer, Arctic
Circle and Antarctic Circle. These are named in 2.5. Application
(See unit 2.3 for more on latitude.) 9 Why do you think most maps have north at the top?
Meridians of longitude are the lines that run up and down 10 Why do you think the circumference of the Earth is less
the map from north to south. There are two main lines of around the Poles than around the Equator?
Surf ~ .,
longitude-the Prime Meridian at 0° and the International
Date Line (IDL), which is loosely based around the
180° line in the Pacific Ocean. (See unit 2.4 for more
on longitude.)
Student Worksh.eet
Lookat the map of the world below.

Cl° 30"E 60"E 90"E 1W E
0
1500E 180" 1500W
~~
·~
!
!
I
1
lI' 6005 60°5
I
Ii
1!
q 1. . The numbers down the side of this map t~ll us the latitude. Rule a line across the
11
11 map using a red pencil w~ere it says 0°. This is where th~ Equator is.
I!1:
2. Which Tropic is halfway between 15° and 30° north of the Equator? . Rule
f! i a .line through the map on this line with a blue pencil.
Ii: 3. Which Tropic is halfway between 15° and 30° south of the Equator?_ _ _ _ __
l1
i' Rule a line through your map on this line with blue pencil.
II . 4. Compare this map with an atlas. What major river in South America does the Equator
I'
go through? Wrjte in the name of the country and mark this ·river on your map, and write
11
Ii, the name of the river h e r e . - - - - - - - - - -
5. What major lake in Africa does the Equator go through? Write in the name of the country
I and the lake here. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
6. What group of large islands in Asia does the Equator go throu.gh?_ _ _ _ _ __
I
I 7.
Write the name.of the main islands here. -------~----
What do these three places: the African Lakes, the Asian Island arid the Equatorial Island
Ij have in common? (Think about the weather conditions)-----------
I
8. What states of Australia are within the Tropics? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
9. Are any Islands that are part of the N~w Zealand political boundaries, in the Tropics? If
so, which? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Published by User Friendly Resources. Copying permitted by purchasing school only.

Student Worksheet
Lookat this map of the world. The numbers along the top of the map are what tell us the
lines of longitude.
0° 30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E
~\'."' ~~"
··~~ ~-
1. Find 0° and rule a line through your map using green pencil. This line is the Prime
Meridian that gives us Greenwich Me~n Time.
2. Look on a map of England, find the smaU town called Greenwich, east of London. This is
where the name Greenwich Mean Time comes from.
3. Rule in the other lines of longitude as shown by the degrees at top of the map in blue
pencil. All together, how many degrees round is the earth on this map?_ _ __
4. By comparing your map with an atlas, sketch in the International Date Line in red pencil.
s. Why does the International Date Line only touch at the North and South Poles?
6. Roughly how many degrees away from the Prime Meridian is the country you are in?
7. Use an atlas to locate the other countries that the Prime Meridian Line runs through.
Label them on your map. '
8. If it is Saturday in Tonga. What day is it in the Cook Islands? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Any location on Earth is described by two numbers -its latitude and its longitude.
Latitude describes the imaginary lines that go around the earth

horizontally. Like this:
Look at this orange {or a real orange!). The part where the
segments of orange meet are the North and South Pole. The
lines of latitude would not touch them, they would go around
the middle of the orange like this.
These lines help us to find where we are on a map. They tell us
how close or far away we are from 'the equator.
The Equator is the imaginary line that goes around the middle of the Earth. It has a latitude
of o·: It helps to tell us where we are, the northern and southern hemispheres, and where the
hottest places on earth are likely to be.
On either side of the Equator are the Tropics. In the northern hemisphere (on the side of the
Equator closest to the North Pole} is the Tropic of Cancer. In the southern hemisphere (the
side of the Equator closest to the South Pole) is the Tropic of Capricorn.
The dotted Une north of 60°N on this map shows the Arctic Circle.
The dotted line south of 60°5 on this map shows the Antarctic Circle.

Lines of longitude r un in a north-south direction, or
longways, down a m ap. They are not para llel to each
other so all the lines meet at the North and South Poles .
They ar e called meridians of longitude. Longitude
m easur es the distance east or west of the Prime Meridian
or 0 degrees.
IMPORTANT LINES OF
LONGITUDE
The Prime Meridian is an imaginary line at 0 degrees
that runs from the North Pole to the South Pole passing
through Greenwich, a suburb of London. It is also referred
to as the Greenwich Meridian. This line separates the
Eastern Hemisphere from the Western Hemisphere. From
the Prime Meridian you can head 180 degrees either east
or west to reach the International Date Line, totalling the
360 degrees for the full globe.
'Meridian' refers to the middle of the day or noon when

the Sun is directly overhead. All places on the same
meridian experience noon at the same time. Morning is
known as a.m., or ante meridian (before noon), and p .m.,
or post meridian, means afternoon.
Places in the Eastern Hemisphere have sunrise before

LONGITUDE AFFECTS TIME Greenwich, therefore they have a local time earlier
Day and night occur because the than GMT-Sydney, Australia is 10 hours ahead of
Earth is spinning on an axis. It GMT. Places in the Western Hemisphere have sunrise
takes 24 hours for the Earth to after Greenwich and therefore have a local time that is
complete one rotation. It makes later than GMT-Los Angeles, United States is 8 hours
China stretches across five
sense that the Earth is divided behind GMT.
time zones, but the government
into 24 time zones, one for each
has decided not to use ti me The International Date Line is the point at which the
hour of the day. Some time zones
zones meaning that the time change of day takes place. If we travel east to west
zigzag so that people living in a
is the same everywhere in the across this line we gain a day, such as from Sydney to
region can have the same time
nation. It you live in western or Los Angeles. lf we travel west to east we lose a day. lt is
(see 2 .21). Time changes as you
eastern China the Sun will not not a straight line so that countries are not split into two
move east or west. Each degree of
be directly overhead at noon. days (see 2.21).
longitude represents a difference
in time of four minutes.
Daylight saving
Each time zone of one hour is approximately equal to
During the summer when the
15 degrees longitude. If it is 12 noon where you are,
Sun rises earlier, people make
15 degrees to the west it will be 11 a.m . and 15 degrees to
use of the extra daylight hours
the east it will be 1 p .m . When travelling to the
by shifting the clocks by one
west coast of America
hour. What was 6 a.m. in winter
How does time work? is called 7 a.m . in summer. Each
Australians often arrive
at their destination
At the Prime Meridian, Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) day people actually get up one
before their departure
is set by the most accurate clock in the world. All other hour earlier and have sunlight
time in Australia!
places in the world set their time according to this clock. for a longer time in the evening.
2.21 The Prime Meridian, the International Date Line and world time zones
Key
How many hours ahead (+) or behind (-) each
-4 __r- time zone is compared to Australian Eastern Standard Time.
osoo L_ What time it woUJld be in each zone if it was 1200
0 2000 4000 km hours (noon) in S.ydney, Melbourne or Brisbane (in 24 hour time).
True scale only on the Equator 0730 Time zones which differ from the normal pattern
2.22 In December, when it is 4 p.m. on Siunday in San Francisco

on the west coast of the United States, it is 11 a.m. on Monday in
Sydney, Australia. (Remember daylight saving.)
r. .~
How to write latitude and 2.23 Atlas map of Fiji
longitude
Latitude and longitude are two numbers G H 3
describing the position of any point on 16°S E
the surface of the Earth. There are a few
rules to follow.
1 Latitude and longitude are expressed
in degrees. Degrees latitude refers to
the distance of a place either north Yasawa /
or south of the equator. Degrees Group /
longitude refers to the distance of /:'
a place either east of west of the q Ta~ a Ellington l) Koro
Prime Meridian. ...,,. Ova/au·
2 Latitude is always written first and a ' Koro
the letters 0 N (north) or 0 5 (south)
must follow the number.
o .. N:~id_i-1----~:,IJ(l~ul•>evuu
ll .~_+:-a~.....----1------..,..__ _ __
3 Longitude follows latitude and must
Viti Levu
be labelled 0 E (east) or 0 W (west).
An example from the Fiji extract in 2.23 is: ii
Suva is about 18 degrees south of the
Equator and 178 degrees east of the ,,, legend
Prime Meridian. This is written oCapital city
18°5, 178°E. 0 1 ao o town or city .,,
place name country name or state name alphanumeric grid reference

SKILLS MASTER
How to use an atlas
L1 page rumb~ Ire ~rde
An atlas is a collection of maps of
different parts of the world. The Nal~ouwalu Fiji 82 H2 17.00S 178.43E
maps may show the whole world or
specific regions or countries. 2.24 How to read the index
Use the table of contents to find a
map, not a place. For example, you
might want to find a map of Canada,
a settlement map of Africa or a
political world map.
Use the index to find a particular
N
place like a town or city, mountain,
river or lake but not an entire map. Naalehu Hawaiian Is 82 J10 . .... .. .... . .... 19.04N 155.36W
In the index every place is listed in Naberezhnyye Chelny Russian Fed. 118 H3 .. .. 55.42N 52.20E
alphabetical order.
Nabeul Tunisia 11 6 F4 . .... . .... .. .... .. .. .. .. 36.28N 10.44E
Using the index
Nadi (shown in 2.25} would be found Nablus West Bank 109A3. .. ... . .. .. .. .. ... . .. 32.13N 35.1 6E
on page 82, in the grid of G2. Its Nabouwa lu Fiji 82 H2 . .... .. ... .. .. .. .. .... . 17.00S 178.43E
latitude and longitude reading is
17°47'5 177°29'E. Nacala Mozambique 123 03 ... . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 14.305 40.37E
Nadi Fijii 82 G2 . .... .. ... . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 17.47S 177.29E
Nador l\llorocco 116 C4 .. . .. .. .. .. ... . .. .. .. .. 35.12N 2.55W
N cestved Denmark 11413 . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 55.14N 11 .46E
2.25 Part of the 'N' section in an atlas index
~> Activities
Knowledge
1 How many degrees of longitude are equal to one hour?
2 How much time in minutes equals one degree of longitude?
Skills
3 Refer to the map in 2.23. Give the latitude and longitude of:
a Ellington (H2) b Vunisea (H1 ) c Lomaloma (12).
4 What places would you find at:
a 18°S, 179 °E
b 17°S, 180°E?
SNAPSHOT
5 Use an atlas table of contents to find the page number for:
24 hour clocks a a political map of Asia
b a physical map of the world
There are 24 time zones because the Earth's rotation takes
24 hours. Most clocks work on 12-hour periods, from 12 a.m. c a settlement map of Australia.
to 11 .59 a.m. and from 12 p.m. to 11.59 p.m. Sometimes 6 Use an atlas index to find the page number and latitude
24-hour clocks are used, particularly in airports and in the and longitude of:
defence forces. A 24-hour clock is mostly used to avoid a New York City b London c Tokyo.
confusion between a.m. and p.m.
Application
12-hour clocks versus 24-hour clocks
7 Use all the information in this unit and the world time zone
• Both 12-hour and 24-hour clocks start a new day at chart in 2.21 to answer these questions:
midnight (12.00 a.m. and 0000 respectively). a What time is it in Sydney when it is 11 a.m. Monday
• All hour numbers are the same until noon (12.00 p.m. or in London?
1200). For example, 2 a.m. is 0200 on the 24-hour clock. b What is the time in London when it is 3 p.m. Tuesday
• At noon the 12-hour clock repeats the same hour in Sydney?
numbers but as p.m.
c What is the time difference between Sydney and
• At noon the 24-hour clock keeps adding hour numbers- Los Angeles?
1300 =1 p.m., 1400 =2 p.m., 1500 =3 p.m., and so on. d Jenny is in Sydney and wants to telephone her sister
• After 2359 (11.59 p.m.) the 24-hour clock starts again at Anne in Los Angeles at 6 p.m. on Sunday Los Angeles
0000 (midnight). time. What time should she call from Sydney?
e Anne wasn't home when Jenny rang so she left a
message. Anne didn't return Jenny's call until 8 a.m.
2.27 Part of an international flight schedule for 1 January 2007 Monday, Los Angeles time. At what time did Jenny
receive the call in Sydney?
Departing Airline Flight Destination Departure
number time f Dave is flying from Sydney to Los Angeles. The
flight leaves Sydney at 2 p.m. on Tuesday and takes
Melbourne Malaysia MH 128 Kuala Lumpur 0045 14 hours. What is the day and time when the plane
Melbourne Jetstar JO 405 Christchurch 0840 arrives in Los Angeles?
Melbourne Air New Zealand NZ 752 Wellington 0930 8 Refer to 2.27 and give your answers on the 12-hour clock:
Melbourne Qantas QF093 Los Angeles 1220 a At what time did the first flight leave Melbourne in 2007?
Melbourne Jetstar JO 029 Bangkok 1410 If you had missed this flight, how long would you have to
wait before another flight to the same destination?
Melbourne Cathay Pacific ex 104 Hong Kong 1540
b At what time did EK 407 depart Melbourne?
Melbourne Malaysia MH 148 Kuala Lumpur 1540 c What time did the last flight depart Melbourne? At what
Melbourne Qantas OF009 Singapore/ 1710 other times could people have flown to those destinations?
London d If you were flying with Jetstar to Bangkok, what time
Melbourne Thai TG 982 Bangkok 1730 would you have to check in if it is recommended that
Melbourne Emirates EK 405 Singapore/Dubai 2030 you check in two hours before your flight departs?
Melbourne Emirates EK 407 Dubai 2225 Surf
Melbourne Qantas QF029 Hong Kong/ 2359
London

Samoa skips Friday in time zone change
Updated Sat Dec 31, 2011 1:18am AEDT
Samoa has taken a leap into the future by shifting its time zone forward by 24 hours to bring itself in line with Australia and
New Zealand.
The Samoan clock has now been reset, wiping Friday December 30 off the calendar and sending the country straight into
Saturday.
Samoans cheered, sirens wailed and fireworks exploded in the skies as the change took place at midnight on Thursday (local
time).
The shift from the eastern to the western side of the international dateline means Samoa has gone from being the last country
to ring in the New Year to being the first.
Prime minister Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi says the time zone change will take the country into a more prosperous future
by bringing it into line with its major trading partners.
"It feels very great. Especially we have just finished our ceremony which formally signals the changing of our time zone," he
said.
"It's been attended by a lot of our dignitaries. We all feel very happy."
The president of the Samoan Chamber of Commerce, Sami Leota, says most Samoans welcome the change.
"I've seen a few, one or two people, that were in the paper who were saying they're going to miss their birthdays, but I think
it's also something for them to remember," he said.
"It's going to be very historical. There's some disruption, there's some small effects to it, but if you look at the overall picture
of the change, I think the community in general is accepting this."
Samoan businessman Rico Tupai was among those who were excited by the shift.
"On our Friday, which is already the weekend in Australia and New Zealand, we send emails across and we have enquiries
and we have no answers," he said.
"And when answers come back from Australia and New Zealand it's our Sunday - time we spend with our families.
"So we're looking forward to it, it will be a very positive change for Samoa."
Samoa is now one hour ahead of Wellington and three ahead of Sydney.
The switch reverses a decision made 120 years ago to move to the east of the international dateline because most of Samoa's
trade at the time was with the United States and Europe.
Guests staying in Samoa's hotels this week will not be expected to pay for a day that does not exist, but employers must still
pay staff for the Friday that never was.
This is not the first significant change Mr Tuilaepa has introduced to Samoa, after switching driving from the right side of
the road to the left in 2009 to bring the country in line with Australia and New Zealand.
His next target is changing Samoa's flag, a relic of the colonial era, but he has not yet disclosed what will be on the new flag.
ABC/AFP
KEY GEOGRAPHICAL QUESTIONS
1. What is it?
2. Where is it?
3. Why is it there?
4. What are the effects of it being there?
5. How is it changing over time?
6. Should it be like this?
7. What action is appropriate?
KEY GEOGRAPHICAL QUESTIONS
1. What is it?
2. Where is it?
3. Why is it there?
4. What are the effects of it being there?
5. How is it changing over time?
6. Should it be like this?
7. What action is appropriate?
Asking Geographical Questions
These are some of the questions geographers try to find the answers to:
• What is there?
• Where is it?
• Why is it there?
• What are the effects of it being there?
• How is it changing over time?
• Should it be like this?
• What groups are involved?
• What do different groups think?
• What action is appropriate?
 You are going to conduct some research into a geographical issue

around school using some of these questions.
 The issue is Waste Management. The particular bit of waste
management you are going to investigate is litter.
 Complete the table below as you conduct your investigation.
What is there? Describe the amount of litter

around school and the facilities for collecting
it.
Why is it there? Describe the reasons why

there is a large volume of litter produced by
our school and when this mostly happens.
What are the potential problems associated
with waste management?
What are the effects of it being there?

Describe the amount of litter that gets put in
the bin and the amount that doesn’t.
How is it changing over time? Ask one of

your teachers who has worked here for over
5 years if this problem has got better or
worse.
What groups are involved? Who makes

decisions in school about litter? What do
they do to help manage this issue? (these
are called management strategies)
What do different groups think? Do teachers

and students think it is a problem? What do
they think should be done about it?
What action is appropriate? Look at your

research and decide what you think should
be done. Do we do enough already? What
could we do better?
A MAP OR PLAN HAS ONLY TWO DIMENSIONS – LENGTH AND BREADTH – BUT THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH
HAS THREE DIMENSIONS – LENGTH, BREADTH AND DEPTH (HEIGHT).
CONTOURS ARE LINES DRAWN ON A MAP WHICH SHOW:

1. THE HEIGHT OF LAND ABOVE SEA LEVEL
2. THE SLOPE OF THE LAND
3. THE SHAPE OF THE LAND
A CONTOUR IS A LINE DRAWN ON A MAP PASSING THROUGH POINTS OF THE SAME HEIGHT ABOVE SEA
LEVEL. WHEN YOU GET USED TO INTERPRETING CONTOURS YOU CAN IDENTIFY LANDFORMS SUCH AS
HILLS, VALLEYS, RIDGES AND PLAINS. CONTOURS HELP GIVE MAPS THAT THIRD DIMENSION.
COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING 3 GRIDS IN THE SPACES SHOWN
CHOOSE THE CORRECT WORD – THE CLOSER TOGETHER THE CONTOURS ARE, THE STEEPER/GENTLER THE
SLOPE.
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ABOUT THE ABOVE TOPOGRAPHIC MAP
1. WHAT IS THE CONTOUR INTERVAL?
2. WHAT IS THE MISSING CONTOUR HEIGHT AT POINT A?
3. WHICH IS LOWER OUT OF POINTS B AND C?
4. WHICH DO YOU THINK IS LOWER OUT OF POINTS D AND E? ARE YOU SURE?
5. WHAT IS THE APPROXIMATE ALTITUDE OF D?
6. WHAT IS THE APPROXIMATE ALTITUDE OF F?
7. MARK THE HIGHEST POINT ON THE MAP WITH AN X
8. WHICH HAS THE STEEPER SLOPE, X TO E OR FROM D TO E?
9. IF YOU WALKED DIRECTLY FROM B TO E, WOULD YOU WALK OVER MAINLY FLAT OR HILLY
LAND?
10. DRAW A LINE THAT YOU THINK COULD BE THE COURSE OF A RIVER
11. MARK A LOCATION THAT YOU THINK WOULD BE SUITABLE FOR A TOWN
1. MATCH THE FOLLOWING CONTOUR DIAGRAMS WITH THE CORRECT LANDFORM SKETCHES BY
WRITING THE ANSWERS IN THE SPACES TO THE RIGHT E.G. A2
A-
B-
C-
D-
E-
F-
G-
H-
2. MATCH THE FOLLOWING CONTOUR DIAGRAMS WITH THE CORRECT CROSS SECTIONS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
SCALE MODELS OF THINGS LIKE SHIPS ARE REPLICAS OF THE REAL THING – BUT BUILT TO SCALE.
IF A MODEL OF A SHIP OF 120 METRES IN LENGTH AND WITH A BEAM OF 20 METRES WERE BUILT, THE
FIRST THING THE MODEL MAKER WOULD DO, WOULD BE TO WORK OUT A SCALE.
1. WHICH SCALE WOULD YOU USE TO MAKE THE

MODEL FOR EASE OF TRANSPORTING?
a. 1CM TO 1M
b. 1CM TO 10M
2. WHICH SCALE WOULD PRODUCE THE BIGGER

MODEL, A OR B?
3. WOULD EITHER OF THESE MODELS FIT IN A

2L BOTTLE OF COKE?
THE SAME NOTION OF SCALE APPLIES TO MAPS. SCALE CAN BE SHOWN ON TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS IN ONE OF
THREE WAYS:
1. AS A STATEMENT IN WORDS
2. AS A REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION OR RATIO
3. AS A LINEAR SCALE
AS A STATEMENT IN WORDS
IT IS INCORRECT TO SAY THE STATEMENT THAT 1CM EQUALS 1KM AS THIS IS NOT PHYSICALLY POSSIBLE.
THEREFORE, WE SAY IT AS:
ONE CENTIMETRE REPRESENTS ONE KILOMETRE

OR
ONE CENTIMETRE TO FIVE KILOMETRES
AS A REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION OR RATIO

A LARGE NUMBER OF MAPS HAVE A REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION TO INDICATE THE SCALE:
1/100,000
ALTERNATIVELY, THIS SCALE CAN BE WRITTEN AS A RATIO:

1:100,000
BOTH OF THESE MEAN THAT 1CM ON THE MAP REPRESENTS 1KM (100,000CM) ON THE GROUND.
IN THE CASE OF A REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION, THE NUMERATOR REPRESENTS THE NUMBER OF UNITS ON
THE MAP AND THE DENOMINATOR REPRESENTS THE NUMBER OF UNITS ON THE GROUND.
N.B. THE NUMERATOR IS ALWAYS ONE

AS A LINEAR SCALE
THIS MEANS THAT A DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS ON THE MAP CAN BE DIRECTLY TRANSFERRED TO
THE DIAGRAMMATIC SCALE ON THE MAP AND MEASURED AGAINST THIS. THE REAL DISTANCE CAN THEN BE
READ FROM THIS IN EITHER METRES OR KILOMETRES.
SOMETIMES THE FIRST SECTION OF A LINEAR SCALE IS DIVIDED INTO FRACTIONS. SOMETIMES ALL
SECTIONS ARE DIVIDED INTO FRACTIONS.
1. WHAT DISTANCE DOES EACH OF THE SMALLEST FRACTIONS REPRESENT ON THE ABOVE SCALE?
LARGE SCALE MAPS SHOW FAIRLY SMALL AREAS OF LAND BUT WITH SIGNIFICANT DETAIL (AND HAVE A
LARGER FRACTION AS THE RATIO). SMALL SCALE MAPS SHOW LARGE AREAS OF LAND BUT WITH
LIMITED DETAIL (AND HAVE A SMALLER FRACTION AS THE RATIO).
2. ARE TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS LARGE SCALE MAPS?
3. EXPRESS THE FOLLOWING SCALES AS REPRESENTATIVE FRACTIONS:

a. ONE CENTIMETRE REPRESENTS 250,000 CENTIMETRES
b. ONE CENTIMETRE TO 100,000 CENTIMETRES
c. ONE CENTIMETRE REPRESENTS 50,000 CENTIMETRES
d. ONE CENTIMETRE TO 500,000 CENTIMETRES
e. ONE CENTIMETRE REPRESENTS 10,000 CENTIMETRES
4. FOR EACH OF THE ABOVE, CALCULATE HOW MANY KILOMETRES ON THE MAP IS REPRESENTED BY
ONE CENTIMETRE ON THE MAP:
a. b. c. d. e.
5. EXPRESS THE FOLLOWING SCALES AS STATEMENTS:

a. 1:600,000
b. 1:100,000
c. 1:40,000
d. 1:25,000
e. 1:300,000
6. DRAW A LINEAR SCALE OF 1CM TO 1KM. MAKE THE LENGTH OF YOUR SCALE 6CM THEN
SUBDIVIDE ONE KILOMETRE SECTION ON THE SCALE INTO DIVISIONS OF 50,000CM.
7. DRAW A LINEAR SCALE OF 1:250,000. MAKE YOUR SCALE 14CM IN LENGTH THEN DIVIDE INTO
SEVEN DIVISIONS, EACH REPRESENTING 5KM. SUBDIVIDE ONE DIVISION INTO FRACTIONS EACH
REPRESENTING 1KM.
8. DRAW A LINEAR SCALE OF 1:25,000 THAT IS 10CM IN LENGTH (NO NEED FOR SUBDIVISIONS)
ONCE WE CAN INTERPRET THE SCALE OF A MAP, THE NEXT STEP IS TO MEASURE THE DISTANCE
BETWEEN TWO POINTS USING THE SCALES. THERE ARE A NUMBER OF WAYS TO DO THIS:
1. USING A RULER OR THE EDGE OF A SHEET OF PAPER
2. USING DIVIDERS OR A PIECE OF STRING
USING A RULER
THIS IS USUALLY USED FOR A SCALE AS A REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION OR RATIO. SIMPLY MEASURE
THE LENGTH BETWEEN THE TWO POINTS AND THEN CONVERT THE MEASUREMENT INTO THE SAME
UNITS AS ON THE SCALE.
USING THE EDGE OF A SHEET OF PAPER

NORMALLY THIS IS QUICKEST WHEN THERE IS A
LINEAR SCALE ON THE MAP. IN THIS CASE,
SIMPLY MARK THE EDGE OF THE PAPER WITH
THE TWO POINTS ON THE MAP AND TRANSFER
THE PAPER’S EDGE TO THE SCALE AS SHOWN
HERE.
USING DIVIDERS
THIS CAN BE USED BETWEEN TWO POINTS OR
TO MEASURE THE CURVED DISTANCE AROUND A
RIVER OR ROAD. THE CURVED DISTANCE IS
DIVIDED INTO PARTS SO THAT EACH PART CAN
BE MEASURED AS A STRAIGHT LINE. ADD THE
PARTS TOGETHER AND TRANSFER THIS DISTANCE
TO THE SCALE. A PIECE OF COTTON OR STRING
CAN ALSO BE USED TO MEASURE AROUND
CURVES.
1. ON THE MAP SHOWN, CALCULATE THE STRAIGHT LINE DISTANCES BETWEEN:

a. C AND D =
b. A AND B (ON THE PIECE OF PAPER) =
2. ON THE MAP SHOWN, MEASURE:

a. THE DISTANCE ALONG THE RIVER BETWEEN POINTS C AND D =
b. THE LENGTH OF THE RIVER SHOWN ON THE MAP =
AREAS OF REGULAR SHAPES ON A MAP CAN BE CALCULATED FAIRLY EASILY.
1. WHAT IS THE AREA OF A RECTANGLE 1.5KM BY 0.75KM?
2. WHAT IS THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE WITH A 1.5KM BASE AND A HEIGHT OF 2KM?
FOR AN IRREGULAR AREA SUCH AS THAT OF A FARM OR A LAKE, IT IS BEST TO USE THE GRIDS ON
THE MAP. ON MOST TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS A GRID IS ALREADY DRAWN WHERE EACH GRID
REPRESENTS AN AREA SUCH AS 1KM2. IF LINES DO NOT ALREADY EXIST, TRACE THE OBJECT ONTO A
PIECE OF TRACING PAPER AND DRAW ON THIS TRACED PIECE YOUR GRID LINES.
FIRSTLY, ADD THE COMPLETELY SHADED GRIDS. THEN WORK OUT WHICH SHAPES WOULD
APPROXIMATELY COVER ONE GRID WHEN YOU ADD THEM TOGETHER AND CHECK THEM OFF AS
YOU GO. USE THE NUMBER OF GRIDS AGAINST THE SCALE TO DETERMINE THE APPROXIMATE SIZE
OF THE SHADED AREA.
1. CALCULATE THE AREA SHOWN BY THE ENTIRE MAP ABOVE (I.E. THE 25 GRIDS)?
2. IF EACH OF THE GRIDS ARE 0.2KM2 IN AREA, CALCULATE THE AREA OF THE REGION
SHOWN ABOVE.
1. WHAT IS THE AREA COVERED BY THE MAP?
2. WHAT IS THE DISTANCE FROM THE DAM WALL TO THE ENTRANCE OF THE RIVER TO THE
DAM (LOCATED AT THE SOUTH WEST CORNER OF THE DAM)?
3. CALCULATE THE APPROXIMATE AREA OF THE DAM (DRAW A SUITABLE GRID ON THE MAP
TO HELP)
4. WHAT IS THE DISTANCE BY WATER FROM THE BOAT RAMP TO THE DAM WALL?
5. WHAT IS THE DISTANCE BY ROAD FROM THE SOUTHERN END OF THE TOWN TO THE OLD
MILL?
6. EXPRESS THE SCALE AS A REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION
7. DRAW AN ARROW ON THE MAP SHOWING THE DIRECTION OF FLOW OF THE RIVER
8. IF YOU TRAVEL FROM THE DAM WALL TO THE BOAT RAMP BY ROAD, WOULD YOU TRAVEL
UPHILL, DOWNHILL OR ALONG THE FLAT?
9. IS THE OLD MILL THE HIGHEST POINT ON THE MAP?
10. WHAT IS THE APPROXIMATE DIFFERENCE IN ALTITUDE BETWEEN THE SURFACE OF THE
DAM & THE TOP OF MOUNT DONKEY?
Our world contains natural (physical) and cultural threat to Abu Simbel temples in Egypt (2.33) by flooding
(human) features that are important and significant to from the Aswan High Dam. The group formed was called
many people. Some of these features should be protected the World Heritage Committee and it was administered by
and conserved for the benefit of all global citizens, as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
they are part of our heritage. Organization (UNESCO).
WORLD HERITAGE WHERE ARE THE WORLD

Heritage is: HERITAGE SITES?
• our legacy from the past Since the relocation of the
• what we live with today Abu Simbel temples many
more significant world sites
• what we pass on to future generations.
have become protected.
The idea of forming a group of people for protecting World Heritage sites belong In 1978 there were 12
special heritage places in the world was first discussed to all the people of the wor ld, world Heritage sites. By
early in the twentieth century, after the First World War. regardless of the country in 2006 there were 830.
However it did not happen until 1972, following the which the sites are located.
2.32 Location of World Heritage sites, some of which are named

,.,.-:- - ..:-- 4.. -
• World Heritage Site
/
Galapagos
Islands
Rapa Nui •
Shark Bay National Park.....-
(Easter Island)
0 2000 4000 km
;w .b
Tasmanian (7
Wilderness
2.34 Lo,c ation of Abu Simbel on Lake Nasser in Egypt
~. rranean ~
OE sea A I 0
'"'Ale a n ISRAEL JORDAN
- • Cair;'fl
l Suez -- SOAN -
o 0
s
~
'~
0 100 200 300 km
<~
._._...........i
EGY T Esna? Luxor

Western
Desert -\Aswan
Lake _A Tropic of Ca~cer (23t'N)_
Key Abu Simbel ~ '

D Cair<H;apital city @)
• city or town •
Nr:d , water body ~ Wadi Haifa
SUDMI country SUDAN
border
2.33 Abu Sirnbel temples being moved
Abu Simbel temples

Abu Simbel is an archaeological site in Southern
Egypt that contains two sets of large and ancient
temples. They were built for Pharaoh Ramses II in the
thirteenth century BC as a monument to himself and
his queen, Nefertari, as well as to impress Egypt's
southern neighbours. The faGade of the larger temple
is guarded by four statues that were sculpted from
the rock.
Abu Simbel is located on the western shore of Lake
Nasser, but it nearly ended up being covered by the
lake! In the 1960s, when the Egyptian Government
was building the Aswan High Dam, people realised
that an important part of Ancient Egypt's history was
in danger.
UNESCO helped to move the temples-block by
block-to higher, dry ground over a period of
four years from 1964 to 1968. This cost about
US$80 million, of which interested countries donated
half. Countries provided both financial and technical
help to the Egyptian Government for this project. This
set the scene for international cooperation in the
protection of special sites.
Abu Simbel is now part of a UNESCO World Heritage
site known as the Nubian Monuments. It is one of
Egypt's major tourist attractions.

RESPONSIBILITY FOR WORLD and cultural sites that can be on the World Heritage
List. The convention sets out the d uties of governments
HERITAGE SITES in identifying, protecting, preserving and reporting on
Managing a protected area often involves many people existing and potential sites.
and organisations. These may be government agencies,
rangers and environmental groups. Each of these plays a Governments
specific role in the management and protection of World The governments of the countries that sign the convention
Heritage sites. agree to identify and nominate properties in their national
territory. They also have to give details on how the site
United Nations is going to be protected, and devise a management plan.
UNESCO aims to encourage the identification, protection Governments are asked by UNESCO to report on the state
and preservation of heritage around the world considered of the properties in their territories every six years.
to be the most important to humans. UNESCO adopted
an international treaty called the Convention Concerning
Advisory bodies
the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage • fUCN-The World Conservation Union (fUCN) is an
in 1972. This is an agreement between countries that international organisation that investigates natural and
have signed the convention. It defines the types of natural mixed sites, and reports on conservation.
• ICOMOS-The International Council on Monuments
and Sites is a non-government organisation that
investigates cultural and mixed sites.
THE WORLD
• ICCROM-The International Centre for the Study of
HERITAGE EMBLEM the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property
The World Heritage emblem provides advice on how to conserve sites properly.
represents the world's natural and • WHC-The World Heritage Committee meets once a
cultural diversity. The central square year and is made up of 21 member countries. It has
symbolises the results of human the final say on whether a site will be World Heritage
skill and inspiration and the outside
listed or not, and allocates funds and examines reports
circle represents the gifts of nature. It
is round like the world as a symbol on the state of conservation of sites already on the
of global protection for the heritage World Heritage List. It also decides on sites that need
of all humankind. to be on the List of World Heritage in Danger (see unit
2.8 on page 48).
National governments decide on Once all files and sites have been
which sites in their country are The file is submitted evaluated the World Heritage
important natural and cultural to the World Heritage Committee makes the final
heritage and which ones they would Centre for them to decision about which ones will go
like to nominate in the next 5-10 review and to cl1eck it on the World Heritage List. This
years and place them on this list. committee meets once a year.
Advisory bodies
A file that includes When ttle file is complete it is sent
maps and facts to one of the advisory bodies for
about the site is evaluation. If it is a cultural site the
prepared by the file is snnt to ICOMOS. If it is natural
government. the file is sent to IUCN.
SNAPSHOT SKILLS MASTER
Sydney icon for World
Using photographs to study change
Heritage List? Photographs are an important tool for geographers
The Sydney Opera House was designed to be built on as they can show the changes that have taken place
over a period of time for a particular location or in a
Bennelong Point close to the Sydney Harbour Bridge by the
feature. Depending on the topic or feature the time
Danish architect J0rn Utzon. The building took 16 years to period might be weeks, months (see the break up of
complete between 1957 and 1973. the Larsen ice shelf on page 81) or years, as in the
On 16 January 2006 the federal Minister for the Environment case of the Sydney Opera House.
and Heritage, the NSW Minister for Planning and the NSW Make a list of all the changes that you can see or
Minister for the Arts announced that the Sydney Opera House make a line drawing with labels that annotate the
had been officially nominated for inclusion on the World changes. Then write a descriptive paragraph about
the change that you think has occurred.
Heritage List. Both governments worked together to prepare
a detailed assessment of the universal value of the Sydney You could then think about changes that you cannot
see, but are likely to have happened, such as changes
Opera House site. This highlighted the architectural and to the landform, the natural plant and animal life,
engineering features of the building, human creative genius and/or human activities.
and its importance as a focus for the arts at a national and
2.37 Bennelong
international level.
Point, Sydney
The Sydney Opera House was added by the Australian before 1957
Government to the Tentative World Heritage List in June of
2006. The nomination file was sent to the World Heritage
Centre in Paris for initial assessment. It was then sent to the
International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS).
ICOMOS carried out a detailed assessment of the nomination,
visited the site and prepared a report for consideration by the 2.38 Bennelong
World Heritage Committee at their annual meeting. The World Point, Sydney after
Heritage Committee meeting, where new world heritage sites the construction of
are added, will occur in 2007. the Opera House
Activities Skills
1o Look at the location of World Heritage srtes in 2.32.
Knowledge a Where is the greatest densrty of World Heritage sites?
1 What is heritage? b Where is the least density of World Heritage sites?
11 Look at 2.34:
2 What war prompted people to look after special places in the
world? a Describe the location of Abu Simbel in relation to Lake
Nasser.
3 What event was the catalyst for the formation of the World
Heritage Committee? b Describe the location of Lake Nasser in relation to Egypt,
the Red Sea and the River Nile.
4 What does UNESCO stand for?
12 Make a line drawing of 2.35 on page 43. (Refer to the Skills
5 Name six groups who are responsible for managing World Master on page 33.)
Heritage sites.
13 Look at the photographs in 2.37 and 2.38 and make a list of
6 What is an international treaty? Give an example of an the changes on Bennelong Point.
international treaty concerning World Heritage.
7 Name the five main steps in the process of World Heritage Application
listing. 14 As a class discuss reasons for countries donating financial and
8 Which government departments were responsible for the technical assistance to save the monuments at Abu Simbel.
nomination of the Sydney Opera House as a World Heritage 15 Outline the process of World Heritage Listing of the Sydney
site? Opera House, beginning with the listing on the Tentative List,
9 What was the role of ICOMOS in the listing of the Sydney by drawing a flow diagram .
Opera House?
Surf (ID '1!J
-
- ·
Heritage listing
Criteria (iii}-evidence of a
Members of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, civilisation that has disappeared
Scientific and Cultural Organization) decide or which still exists.
which s ites around the world are special by using The Mesa Verde, Colorado, United
criteria or reasons for selection. To be included on States is a large area of American
UNESCO's World Heritage List a place must be of Indian dwellings built between the
outstanding value to the world. years 600 and 1200 AD found on a
plateau in the south-west of the state._
There are villages and clitt-houses built
CULTURAL CRITERIA at 2600 metres above sea level.
A cultural World Heritage site is one that has been
created by humans. It must satisfy at least one of
the fo llowing criteria to be listed on the World
Heritage List.
Criteria (v)-an outstanding example of

human settlement or land use representing
human interaction with the environment.
Criteria (iv}-an outstanding building
Rapa Nui National Park, Chile, also known as
Criteria (i)-represents human or landscape that repres;ents . Easter Island. A society of Polynesian origin that
creative genius. significant stage(s) in human h1stor~. settled on the island around the year 300 MJ
The Taj Mahal in Agra, India represents The oity of Petra, Jordan was lived in dunng established a powerful, imaginative tradition of
the creative genius of the emperor Shah prehistoric times. It is situat13d between the monumental sculpture. From the tenth to the
Jahan who ordered this white marble Red Sea and the Dead Sea, and was an sixteenth century this society built shrines and
building in memory of his wrre and to important crossroads betwe:en Arabia, Egypt erected enormous stone figures known as moai that
house her coffin. The emperor was put and Syria. Petra is half-built, halt-carved into continue to fascinate people throughout the world.
under house arrest by his son in a castle the rock and is surrounded by mountains
across the lake where he gazed at the with ma~y passages and gorges. It i~ one_of
memorial to his wife. The building took 17 the wortd's most famous archaeological sites.
years to complete.
Criteria (ii}-shows important

exchange of human values over
time or over an area. It can
be displayed in architecture,
technology, monuments, t~wn
planning or landscape design. Criteria (vi}-directly associated with events
Banks of the River Seine, Paris, France. or traditions, ideas or beliefs.
including the Louvre, Eiffel Tower, and the f The Hiroshima Peace Memorial, Japan was the
Cathedral of Notre-Dame. The evolution o only structure left standing in the area where the
Paris and its history can be seen and the first atomic bomb exploded on 6 August 1945. It is
w· de squares and streets influenced town a stark and powerful symbol of the most destructive
pl~nning all over the world in the 1900s. force ever created by humans. It also expresses the
hope for world peace and the ultimate elimination of
all nuclear weapons.
~riteria (x) or Natural (iv)-
1mportant and significant
NATURAL CRITERIA natural habitats for conservation
A natural World Heritage site is one that has been of biodiversity. May contain
created by natural processes-humans have not threatened species with value for
made it. To be listed on the World Heritage List a science or conservation.
natural site must fulfil one of the following criteria. The plains of Serengeti National
Park, Tanzania comprise 1.5 million
hectares of savanna grasslands. The
yearly migration to permanent water
holes of herds of wildebeest, gazelles
~nd zebras, followed by their predators,
is one of the most impressive natural
events in the world.
Criteria (ix) or Natural (ii)-represents ongoing

processes in evolution and development of living
things on land and water, developing ecosystems and
communities of plants and animals.
Criteria (viii) or Natural The Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, United States contains
(i}-represents major stages two of the most active volcanoes in the world, Mauna Loa and
of the Earth's natural history, Kilauea. Volcanic eruptions have created constantly changing
landforms, and the lava flows show surprising geological
including record of life,
formations. It contains rare birds and species only found in
geological processes and that part of the world, as well as forests of giant ferns.
landforms.
Lake Baikal in Siberia in the
Russian Federation is the oldest
(25 million years) and deepest Criteria (vii) or Natural (iii)-contains natural
(1700 metres) lake in the world. phenomena or areas of natural beauty and
It contains 20 per cent of the importance.
world's total unfrozen freshwater Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal has dramatic
reserve. Its age and isolation have mountains, glaciers and deep valleys and is
produced a rich ecology, including dominated by Mount Everest, the highest peak in the
some of the world's most unusual world at 8850 metres. Several rare species, such as
freshwater animals. the snow leopard and the panda, are found in the
park. The presence of the Sherpa, with their unique
culture, adds further interest to this site.
Activities
Knowledge 7 Classify the photographs in this unit as aerial, oblique
or ground-level.
1 What does UNESCO stand for?
2 What is UNESCO's role in relation to protecting the world's Application
heritage? 8 What do all the places representing Criteria (i}-(vi) have in
3 How does a place get included on the World Heritage List? common?
4 What is the main difference between natural and cultural 9 What do the places representing Criteria (vii}-(x) have in
world heritage sites? common?
10 Do you think it is possible for a World Heritage site to contain
Skills both natural and cultural features? How do you think a
5 Use an atlas to label all the places mentioned on this page on a site like this would be classified? Can you think of a world
blank world outline map. Use colour to show the different criteria heritage site that contains both natural and cultural features?
each site represents. Create a key to link the colours to the criteria.
6 Construct a photo sketch of Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Surf (41) .
2.39 The city of Barn in Iran before the disastrous earthquake
in 2003, which destroyed much of the ancient city
When a site is placed on the World Heritage List the

criteria that enabled it to be listed must be preserved.
WORLD HERITAGE IN DANGER
Some sites are in danger as they are not being properly Because there are threats to World Heritage sites, the
managed or are threatened by natural activity. It is not World Heritage Committee (WHC) created the List of
only the responsibility of international organisations World Heritage in Danger. The WHC lists sites that are
to preserve World Heritage sites-the actions of global in danger of destruction or degradation. The threats
citizens are also important. can include rapid urban or tourist development; armed
conflict; serious fires, earthquakes and landslides;
volcanic eruptions; changes in water level, floods
and tidal waves.
In 2006 there were 34 sites on the
List of World Heritage in Danger.
SNAPSHOT 1 61'E \
TURKMENIS AN '
Barn-heritage in danger
The city of Barn in Iran was added to the List of World
Heritage in Danger in 2004. It is located in a desert
environment and its history can be traced back to 0 Tehran
600 BC.
It was an important city in the trade and production ~ o Kermanshah
of silk and cotton in the sixteenth and seventeenth I RAN
centuries. It is a fortified town built with mud layers
and was one of the first cities to use an underground
irrigation system. The mud-brick citadel is over 2000 ~ oYazd
years old.
In December 2003, over 26 000 residents of Barn Barn@
Bushehr
lost their lives in an earthquake. This earthquake also Key I
destroyed 90 per cent of the historical city and left
85 000 people homeless. In response to the site being
0 capital city BandarAbba~
0 city or town
on the danger list, groups of people are attempting to Caspian Sea water body I
salvage and preserve the heritage of this city. @) city of interest ~~ N
IRAN country 'I'

border L o o 200 300 km
Venice-a success story
2.42 Location of the city of Venice in northern Italy
The city of Venice in Italy was built in the fifth century AD and is
spread over 118 islands centred on Venice lagoon. It is well known ~i
\ SWJ,7 ,lANO
1fE AUSTRIA
for its canals, and amazing architecture and art.
In 1965 the city experienced serious flooding and in 1966 FRANCE oMilan
UNESCO decided to run a campaign to save the city from the
water surrounding it. This campaign is ongoing, particularly with 44 .N Genoa
the threat of rising sea levels due to global warming. UNESCO's ~ .,,_.,,.__.
Programme for the Safeguarding of Venice has funded the restoration
of 100 monuments and 1000 works of art, some of which were
damaged in the 1965 floods.
The MOSE (Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico) is an ambitious
project sponsored by the Italian government. It aims to lay 79
inflatable pontoons or steel gates across the seabed at the entrancBs
to the lagoon. When the tides are high the pontoons will be raised
to act like a wall to block the water. The project is scheduled to be
finished by 2011 and aims to protect Venice for 100 years. Key
D capital city
Other projects in Venice have included dredging the canals of the 0 city or town
sediment that has been accumulating there to make way for more MriaticSea water body
water. Some rebuilding and water-proofing of the canal sides has @ city of interest
ITAl..Y country 0 100 200 km
also taken place. Sidewalks along the canals are being raised and border
drainage systems upgraded. Venice has been removed from the List
of World Heritage in Danger as a result of all these efforts.

GLOBAL CITIZENS VALUE
WORLD HERITAGE Activities
Global citizens can become actively involved in the Knowledge
protection and management of World Heritage sites. 1 Why would a site be included on the List of World Heritage
Over 30 of the 830 World Heritage sites are in danger in Danger?
and others need to be preserved and managed for the 2 List some of the threats to World Heritage sites.
enjoyment of future generations. There are many non-
3 Why is the city of Barn in Iran on the Danger list?
government organisations that provide opportunities
to volunteer at World Heritage sites. These include 4 What measures have been taken to protect the city of
the Earthwatch Institute, Sea Shepherd Conservation Venice, Italy?
Society and Rempart. 5 List two or three things you can do as an active global
citizen to show that you value World Heritage.
6 List some activities in which volunteers can participate in
the protection and management of World Heritage areas.
EARTHWATCH
The Earthwatch Institute is a non-government, non- Application
profit international organisation that aims to conserve 7 Look at the photograph in 2.43. Explain what the people
the diversity of life sustainably, to meet the needs of are doing in this photograph and what types of things they
present and future populations. Their mission is to are looking for.
interest global citizens in scientific field research and
education. They encourage individuals to work as 8 Research briefly each of the places listed where people
conservation volunteers.
can work as an Earthwatch volunteer. Which of these
interests you most? Why? Which interests you least? Why?
Here are some examples of where people can work as
volunteers at World Heritage sites. 9 Complete your Major Task assignment on World Heritage
in the form of a Geography report. (See the Skills Master
• Lake Baikal, Siberia, Russian Federation- opposite.)
The Earthwatch volunteers monitor the pollution
and contaminants in the lake. The volunteers
use nets to take samples of plankton and fish and
cruise along the shoreline to observe wildlife.
Surf (JP •
• Ischigualasto Provincial Park, Argentina-
Volunteers can assist with excavating dinosaur
remains in the desert region of central Argentina.
They sift through sandstone and claystone looking between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries.
for fossils of early mammals, dinosaurs and plants. Volunteers can work on three-month projects that
• Great Barrier Reef, Australia-Certified scuba include making a welcome centre and museum,
divers and snorkelers can volunteer at the Great building boat jetties, educating local people about
Barrier Reef to help threatened coral species. heritage, training tour guides or performing research.
• Carlsbad Caverns National
Park, United States-
Volunteers can participate
in cave restoration and
research, and can become
tourist guides in a network
of over 100 limestone
caves. There are also many
other national parks in
the United States that
have opportunities for
volunteers under the
' Volunteers-in-Parks'
program.
• Ruins of Kilwa Kisiwani,
United Republic of
Tanzania-This was once
a trade centre where gold,
silver, pearls, crockery and
other wares were traded
Using the Internet You can print the information you have found or
The Internet is a worldwide information system made download it onto your computer. But remember you
up of a network of computer systems. This means that must be careful not to use the information as if you
computer users around the world can link up and share have written it yourself. Copyright laws exist so that the
information. One feature of the Internet is the World information on the website is owned by the person or
Wide Web (www). company who wrote it. Plagiarism is an offence! Make
sure you always acknowledge other people's work.
The World Wide Web has an enormous amount of
information, which is reached through a web browser Writing a Geography report
such as Internet Explorer. Search engines, like In Geography, writing is an important skill. A
Google and Yahoo, are tools that you can use to find Geography report is a structured piece of writing that is
information on specific topics. used to describe geographical features or processes.
Refining search techniques 1 Introduction-introduces the main ideas in the
It can be difficult to find information that is relevant report and defines the main words. Sometimes it
and easy to understand, even when you are using a includes location as well
search engine. 2 Body-is made up of a number of paragraphs
If you are trying to find information on World Heritage, depending on the length of the report. (A paragraph
try entering words like 'heritage' and 'world heritage' consists of a main idea in the first sentence and a
into the search engine. If you do not find what you are number of sentences that follow to describe, explain
looking for try some of these hints. and support this idea.)
• Use capital letters-World Heritage. 3 Conclu sion-a paragraph that draws all your
• Put the words in a different order-heritage world. information together. It describes what you have
• Try to be more specific- World Heritage List. discovered in your research and any implications
• Try using the + sign in front of all the words you there may be for the future.
want to appear in the information-world + heritage Major task: World Heritage Report
+ list.
Choose a World Heritage site outside Australia
• See if there are any specific web addresses that you from the World Heritage List on the World Wide Web.
might be able to use from your atlas or textbook.
Prepare a desktop-published document in report style
• In Google it is possible to select 'pages from of no more than 600 words that:
Australia' or 'Images' if you are looking for a picture.
• describes the location of the site, including a map
• Some search engines have 'Advanced search' that • describes the main features of the site, including
allows you to narrow down what information is at least one image
returned.
• explains why your place was selected as a World
While there is an enormous amount of information on Heritage site (use the criteria on pages 46 and 47)
the World Wide Web you do have to be careful. Some • outlines the impacts of people on this site
of the websites are not updated regularly and the
information may be out of date. The content of most • describes how the site is being managed and who
is responsible for the management.
web pages on the Internet is not checked so it may not
be accurate. Check to make sure that the page you are Each of the dot points above could be the subject of the
using is from a reputable source. paragraphs in the body of your report.
Your report must also include a complete bibliography.
Use these headings to help you with this.
Questions that m ay h elp you decide if a web site Book sources
is a reputable s ource. Author:
If you can answer most of these questions easily Date published:
then the source is probably reputable. Title:
1 Who wrote the page? Can you find the author's Publisher:
name? Is it a personal page? Place published:
2 What organisation is responsible for the web Website sources
page? Website address:
3 Is the page dated? Is it current? Name of the site:
4 What qualifications does the author have? Date last updated:
Person/group who prepared the site:
5 Does the author include sources, footnotes or Date you accessed the site:
quotes? Reliability/evaluation of the site:
6 Do the links work?

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Topic One’s big questions:

- What jobs do geographers do?

CYCLONE SEASON Tourism brings wealth Indigenous group settles with

MASSIVE EARTHQUAKE IDTS High-rise office block to

'Geography allows us to see the

'By learning Geography we gain a

'Geography is our future.'

Unlocking the world 5

Figure 1.2a Elements of physical environments.

Hydrosphere: The earth’s store

12 Global Explorations: Stage 4 Geography

Amegalopolis is made up of several

Unlocking the world 17

Palm Beach with a . - - ----it- Pittwater

Unlocking the world 9

TO DETERMINE THE BEARING OF POINT B FROM POINT A ON THE DIAGRAM BELOW:

IT IS ALWAYS WISE TO DOUBLE CHECK THAT

1. WRITE DOWN THE BEARING OF

2. WHAT IS THE BEARING OF POINT

3. WHAT IS THE BEARING OF POINT A FROM POINT B?

WHAT IS THE DIRECTION FROM A TO B?

WHAT IS THE BEARING OF A FROM B?

TO DETERMINE THE AREA REFERENCE OF POINT A:

1. WHAT IS THE AREA REFERENCE OF POINT B?

TO RECORD THE GRID REFERENCE:

THE GRID REFERENCE (GR) OF POINT A IS THEREFORE GR277168

1. RECORD THE GRID REFERENCE OF POINT B

N.B. EASTINGS ALWAYS COME BEFORE NORTHINGS (IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER)

1) GR673379 14) GR703343 1) GR681372

Step 5: Colour in your design.

Flattening the globe

BRIEF HISTORY OF WORLD MAPS 140(}-1500 Printing using carved wooden

Method Resulting projection

2.8 Making a map projection TYPES OF MAP PROJECTIONS

1500-1600 The first whole world 1600-1900 Maps

1569 Mercator's projection of .............

Our world and its heritage 29

Activities Map projection Advantages Disadvantages

9 Copy and complete this table to show the advantages and

Circumference (length) 40076 km Greatest river flow-Amazon Basin, which holds

THE WORLD MAP

Lookat the map of the world below.

lI' 6005 60°5

Published by User Friendly Resources. Copying permitted by purchasing school only.

Published by User Friendly Resources. Copying permitted by purchasing school only.

Latitude describes the imaginary lines that go around the earth

Published by User Friendly Resources. Copying permitted by purchasing school only.

'Meridian' refers to the middle of the day or noon when

Places in the Eastern Hemisphere have sunrise before

2.22 In December, when it is 4 p.m. on Siunday in San Francisco

place name country name or state name alphanumeric grid reference

2.25 Part of the 'N' section in an atlas index

Our world and its heritage 39

KEY GEOGRAPHICAL QUESTIONS

 You are going to conduct some research into a geographical issue

What is there? Describe the amount of litter

Why is it there? Describe the reasons why

What are the effects of it being there?

How is it changing over time? Ask one of

What groups are involved? Who makes

What do different groups think? Do teachers

What action is appropriate? Look at your

CONTOURS ARE LINES DRAWN ON A MAP WHICH SHOW:

1. WHICH SCALE WOULD YOU USE TO MAKE THE