Biography Sir Isaac Newton

Isaac Newton-Sir Issac Newton (1643- 1726) was an English mathematician, physicist and
scientist. He is widely regarded as one of the most influential scientists of all time, developing
new laws of mechanics, gravity and laws of motion. His work Principia Mathematica (1687) laid
the framework for the Scientific Revolution of the Seventeenth Century. A great polymath,
Newton’s investigations also included areas of optics, religion and alchemy.

Early Life of Newton

Sir Isaac Newton was born on Christmas Day, in 1643, to a relatively poor farming family. His
father died three months before he was born. Isaac was one of the top students, but before
completing his studies his mother withdrew him from school, so Isaac could work as a farmer. It
was only through the intervention of the headmaster that Isaac was able to return to finish his
studies; he passed his final exams with very good results and was able to go to Trinity College,
Cambridge.

Newton at Cambridge
Isaac Newton was able to pursue his interests in mathematics, science and physics. At the time
the prevailing education was based on Aristotle, but Isaac was more interested in modern
mathematicians such as Rene Descartes. Sir Isaac Newton, has been referred to as one of the
greatest geniuses of history. His mathematical and scientific achievements give credence to such
a view.

Scientific Achievements of Newton

Law of Universal Gravitation- All objects in the universe are attracted to each other by gravity.
The size of the force of gravity is dependent on the mass of the objects and the distance between
them. Newton explained the three laws of motion that laid the framework for modern physics.
This involved explaining planetary movements.
 1. An object at rest or an object in motion will continue to stay in motion (at constant speed)
or at rest until acted on by an outside force (Inertia)
2. Force = Mass x Acceleration; The greater the mass of an object, the greater the force
must be to accelerate the object.
3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction

Newton hit on the head with an Apple

The most popular anecdote about Sir Isaac Newton is the story of how the theory of gravitation
came to him, after being hit on the head with a falling apple. In reality, Newton and his friends
may have exaggerated this story. Nevertheless, it is quite likely that seeing apples fall from trees
may have influenced his theories of gravity.

Newton’s Religious Beliefs

As well as being a scientist, Newton actually spent more time investigating religious issues. He
read the Bible daily, believing it to be the word of God. Nevertheless, he was not satisfied with
the Christian interpretations of the Bible. For example, he rejected the philosophy of the Holy
Trinity; his beliefs were closer to the Christian beliefs in Arianism (basically there was a
difference between Jesus Christ and God)

Newton and Alchemy

Newton was also interested in alchemy. He experimented on many objects, using a lot of
Mercury. Very high levels of mercury in his bloodstream may have contributed to his early death
and irregularities in later life.
Copernicus Biography
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543) – Polish / Prussian mathematician and astronomer. Copernicus
created a model of the universe which placed the sun at the center of the universe (heliocentrism) –
challenging the prevailing orthodoxy of the time – which believed the earth at the center of the universe.
As well as being a pioneering astronomer, Copernicus excelled in many different fields – he was a
practising physician, economist, diplomat, scholar and gained a doctorate in canon law.

Early Life Copernicus

Copernicus was born 19 February 1473, in the city of Thorn in the province of Royal Prussia – the
Kingdom of Poland. His father was a wealthy merchant, who was also politically active. His mother’s
family were also very wealthy and influential making Copernicus well connected throughout his life.

Copernicus became prolific in several languages, including spoken Latin, German, Polish, Greek and
Italian. Copernicus’ studies included astronomy and ​mathematics, Aristotelian philosophy and
Aristotelian natural-sciences. Copernicus supplemented his studies with many works related to
astronomy.

Copernicus also began making an increasing number of astronomical observations, such as the lunar
eclipse of 1500. It was through his close studies and astronomical observations that he began to
increasingly develop a different view of the Universe to which most people held at the time.

Religious beliefs

Copernicus was broadly supportive of the humanist movement, which sought to offer a more liberal
approach to life, literature and the sciences. He printed translations of Greek literature, which showed his
support for more a more liberal approach to non-Christian literature.

He felt his scientific studies and reading was fully compatible with being a good Catholic Christian.
Copernicus believed the right attitude was to use his God-given reason and scientific method and not just
rely on blind faith in scriptures.

Heliocentric view of the Universe

Observations continued to inform and develop his heliocentric view of the universe. He shared his radical
ideas and observations in private letters but held back from publishing because he feared receiving
criticism and scorn for his revolutionary new theories.

1. There is no one center of all the celestial circles or spheres.

2. The center of the earth is not the center of the universe, but only of gravity and of the lunar sphere.

3. All the spheres revolve about the sun as their midpoint, and therefore the sun is the centre of the
universe.

He was very reluctant to publish, despite some favourable interest shown by friends and even the Pope.
However, encouraged by friends, students and elements within the Church, he finally published in 1543,
the year of his death.

Influence of Copernicus’ work

For sixty years after his death, only a small number of astronomers and intellectuals accepted
Copernicus’s heliocentric viewpoint. However, on the publication of his thesis, there was little
controversy and no real criticism from the church.​There were theological objections from leading figures
in the Protestant Reformation, such as Martin Luther and John Calvin.

Galileo’s work in astronomy made him come to the conclusion Copernicus was right. In particular, it was
Galileo (with the use of improved telescopes) who found moons orbiting the planet Jupiter; this was a
justification for Copernicus’ view. But as Galileo advanced the view of heliocentrism, he received
considerable opposition from the Catholic Church, and he became convicted of heresy on the basis that
heliocentrism was contrary to the sense and authority of Holy Scripture. Galileo was placed under house
arrest for many years. But, Galileo played a key role in seeing heliocentrism accepted as scientific fact.
Francis Bacon
(1561-1626)

Bacon was an English scientist and lawyer. Bacon was an instrumental figure in the ​Renaissance
and Scientific Enlightenment. In particular, Bacon developed and popularised a scientific method
which marked a new scientific rigour based on evidence, results and a methodical approach to
science. He is widely considered to be the father of empiricism and the Scientific Revolution of
the Renaissance period.

Early life

Bacon was born 22 January 1561 near the Strand, London, England. Aged 12, he entered Trinity
College, Cambridge where he followed a traditional medieval curriculum with most lessons
conducted in Latin. Although he admired ​Aristotle​, he was critical of Aristotle’s approach to
philosophy (he called it ‘unhelpful’).

In 1581, he was elected to Parliament as a member. He would remain a member of parliament

for the next four decades. This provided a platform to help Bacon become a noted public figure
and leading member of the government.

Scientific inquiry

It is this area of Bacon’s work that has been most influential. Bacon’s primary concern was to
re-consider man’s approach to science. He rejected the assumptions of ‘innate knowledge’ and
felt the duty of a scientist was to take a sceptical approach to any preconceptions, but only rely
on the actual evidence and results of experiments. Bacon emphasised the importance of induction
by elimination. Bacon also encouraged scientific progress through collaborative work.
Novum Organum​ (1620) was one of his most influential works, which expressed a new style of
logic. Bacon advocated the use of reduction and empirical understanding. It rejected a more
philosophical ‘metaphysical’ approach of the old sciences.

The importance​ of this scientific method is that it opened up the possibility for challenging all
existing scientific ideas. Bacon’s approach was championed by ​Voltaire​, and it became a strong
component of the French enlightenment. Modern science does not follow Bacon’s method in all
detail, but the spirit of empirical research can be traced to Bacon’s revolutionary new approach.

Religion

Francis Bacon was a Protestant Christian, and his Christian faith was important to his outlook on
life. However, his approach was broad-minded, seeing the role of rational scientific analysis. He
generally advocated religious tolerance.

In 1609 he wrote ​De Sapientia Veterum​ (“​The Wisdom of the Ancients​”) which was an account
of the hidden wisdom in ancient myths. It was one of his most popular books

“The most ancient times are buried in oblivion and silence: to that silence succeeded the
fables of the poets: to those fables the written records which have come down to us.”

– Preface

It suggests Bacon’s sympathy to a more inclusive religious approach beyond the confines of
modern Christianity.
Galileo Galilei

G​​lileo Galilei (1564-1642) – Italian astronomer, scientist and philosopher, who played a leading
role in the Scientific Revolution. Galileo improved the telescope and made many significant
discoveries in astronomy. His findings encouraged him to speak out for the Copernican view that
the earth revolved around the sun. However, his views were considered heretical, and he was
placed under house arrest.

Galileo was born in Pisa, Duchy of Florence, Italy in 1564 to a poor but noble family.

His parents recognised their child’s innat​e intelligence and talents and made sacrifices to have
him educated. He also became critical of many of ​Aristotle​‘s ​teaching which had dominated
education for the past 2,000 years.

Galileo was appointed to be a mathematics professor at the University of Pisa, where he was able
to spend the next 18 years pursuing his interests in astronomy and mechanics. During this time,
Galileo made important discoveries about gravity, inertia and also developed the forerunner of
the thermometer. It was in astronomy that Galileo became most famous. In particular, his support
for heliocentrism garnered the opposition of the Holy Roman Catholic Church.

Galileo came to the same conclusions of Copernicus – that the sun was the centre of the universe
and not the earth. Galileo was also a great admirer of Johannes Kepler for his work on planetary
motions.

By inventing the world’s first powerful telescope, Galileo was able to make many
groundbreaking explorations of the universe. ​Using this new telescope he found that:

● Saturn had a beautiful ring of clouds.

● The moon was not flat but had mountains and craters.
 ● Using his own telescope, he discovered four moons of Jupiter – Io, Ganymede,
Callisto, and Europa. He also noted these moons revolved around Jupiter rather
than the sun.

To support the theory of heliocentrism, Galileo had the mathematical proofs of Copernicus but
also new proofs from the science of astronomy. However, Galileo knew that publishing these
studies would bring the disapproval of the church authorities. Yet, he also felt a willingness to
risk the church’s displeasure.

Galileo was a devout Catholic. He had considered the priesthood as a young man. However, he
felt the church was mistaken to take the Bible as a literal source for all scientific studies. As
Galileo stated: “The Bible shows the way to go to heaven, not the way the heavens go.” The
church’s opposition to heliocentrism centred on Biblical sentences, such as “the world is firmly
established, it cannot be moved.” 1 Chronicles 16:30.

The Church had already started to forbid Galileo’s teachings, especially anything that supported
Copernicus. However, after the publication of ​Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World
Systems,​ the Church sought to attack Galileo’s beliefs and writings. In this pamphlet, Galileo
appeared to ridicule the words of Pope Urban VIII – making the Pope less sympathetic to
Galileo. As a consequence, Galileo was arrested and imprisoned for several months. He was
convicted of heresy and was forced to recant his beliefs.

Despite being censured by the church, Galileo continued to make discoveries until death
overtook him in 1642. Under house arrest, he was able to write ​Two New Sciences;​ this
summarised his earlier work on the new sciences now called kinematics and the strength of
materials. One of Galileo’s significant contributions to the Scientific Revolution was to depict
the laws of nature in mathematical terms but also to make an effective use of experiment and
observation to develop theories.
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Introduction

Johannes Kepler was born in southwest Germany. His father, Heinrich Kepler, was "an immoral,
rough and quarrelsome soldier," according to Kepler, and he described his mother in similar
unflattering terms. From 1574 to 1576 Johannes lived with his grandparents; in 1576 his parents
moved to nearby Leonberg, where Johannes entered the Latin school. In 1584 he entered the
Protestant seminary at Adelberg.

Education

Kepler's teacher in the mathematical subjects was Michael Maestlin (1550-1635). Maestlin was
one of the earliest astronomers to subscribe to Copernicus's heliocentric theory. Kepler also
believed the heliocentric view of the solar system was correct. His own belief was that the sun
exerted a force on the planets orbiting it.

In 1594 Kepler accepted an appointment as professor of mathematics, district mathematician and

calendar maker. Kepler remained in Graz until 1600, when all Protestants were forced to convert
to Catholicism or leave the province, as part of ​Counter Reformation​ measures. In his spare time
he pursued his private studies in astronomy and astrology. Kepler also had a interest in the study
of music and optics (light).

Works and Accomplishments

In 1597, at age 25, Kepler married Barbara Müller. In that same year he published his first
important work, ​The Cosmographic Mystery,​ in which he argued that the distances of the planets
from the Sun in the Copernican system were determined by the five regular solids, if one
supposed that a planet's orbit was circumscribed about one solid and inscribed in another. He
went on to study other parts of the solar system as well.

Kepler noted that Mercury and Venus always seem to be close to the sun, unlike Mars, Jupiter
and Saturn. This is because Mercury and Venus’s orbits are closer to the sun than Earth’s. Kepler
said that if the sun and all the planets orbited Earth, there is no reason why Mercury and Venus
should always be near the sun.

Kepler's ideas were so complex at the time, many people did not understand him, and his ideas
were disregarded by commoners. His main contributions were giving more proof to Copernicus's
heliocentric model, discovering the orbit patterns of planets, advancing the telescope, and
applying physics into space science.

He was able to prove the ideas of Galileo and Copernicus of a heliocentric universe. He was the
first to establish the connection between the tides and the moon. Kepler's Laws of planetary
motion have lead to advancements in scientific understanding and are still used today.