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CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Parts of the Circulatory System :
The circulatory system consists of three parts :
Heart
Vessels
Blood
Heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood
through the body
Vessels are any of the arteries, veins and capillaries
that carry blood through the body:
Arteries are tubes that carry blood
away from the heart.
Veins are tubes that return blood to
the heart.
Capillaries are the connection
between arteries and veins
Blood is a fluid that carries oxygen and nutrients to
the tissues and takes away carbon dioxide and
metabolic wastes from them.
The pulmonary circulation starts from the right ventricle and ends at the left
auricle. Blood, from the right ventricle, passes through the pulmonary semilunar valve,
travels through the pulmonary artery and reaches the lungs. There blood is supplied with
oxygen and releases the CO2. After this oxygen-rich blood returns through the pulmonary
vein to the left auricle.
The coronary circulation consists of the
right and left coronary arteries which start from the
ascending aorta. Then blood is gathered from the
major, minor and middle coronary veins and ends
up at the right auricle. This is the way the cardiac
muscle is supplied with blood.
The Heart
Cardiac
M
Type of Muscle Smooth Muscle u Skeletal Muscle
sc
le
o
As we notice,
Both skeletal and cardiac muscle are striated and
Both smooth and cardiac muscle are involuntary.
The inner surfaces of the heart's chambers are lined with a thin sheet of shiny,
white tissue known as the endocardium. The same type of tissue, more broadly referred to
as endothelium, also lines the body's blood vessels, forming one continuous lining
throughout the circulatory system. This lining helps blood flow smoothly and prevents
blood clots from forming inside the circulatory system.
Blood is the only liquid tissue of the body. It consists of four major elements:
Plasma: Plasma is a yellowish liquid that consists mostly of water and plays the role of
the extracellular fluid for the blood cells. It also contains proteins and salts. Plasma also
contains other small molecules, including vitamins, minerals, nutrients, and waste
products. The concentrations of all of these molecules must be carefully regulated.
Plasma is usually yellow in color due to proteins dissolved in it. However, after a person
eats a fatty meal, that person’s plasma temporarily develops a milky color as the blood
carries the ingested fats from the intestines to other organs of the body. Plasma carries a
large number of important proteins, including albumin, gamma globulin, and clotting
factors.
Albumin is the main protein in blood. It helps regulate the water content of tissues
and blood.
Gamma globulin is composed of tens of thousands of unique antibody molecules.
Clotting factors, such as fibrinogen, are involved in forming blood clots that seal
leaks after an injury. Plasma that has had the clotting factors removed is called
serum.
Functions of blood:
Summarizing we could tell that the main functions of the blood, that pose and its
importance are:
Transportation of oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, metabolic products
(proteins, sugars, fatty acids, salts: Na, Cl, Ca etc.)
PH’s regulation of the body’s liquids
Coagulation of blood in a blood loss
It takes part in the immune response and in the general defence of the body with
its lymphocytes
It helps the regulation of the body temperature with the contraction or not of the
vessels
Transportation: Erythrocytes carry the oxygen from the alveoli of the lungs to the
tissues where they are supplied with carbon dioxide and release it at the lungs. Blood also
carries hormones from one part of the body to another. Hormones are the chemical
messengers of the body and regulate metabolism.
PH: Normal blood pH ranges from 7,38 to 7,42. It is regulated by four systems :
H2CO3/NaHCO3 = 1/20
NaH2PO4/NaHPO4 = 1/4
System of Hb/HbO2
System of plasma proteins
Coagulation: As soon as an artery or vein is injured, the platelets in the area of the injury
begin to clump together and stick to the edges of the cut. They also release messengers
into the blood that perform a variety of functions: constricting the blood vessels to reduce
bleeding, attracting more platelets to the area to enlarge the platelet plug, and initiating
the work of plasma-based clotting factors, such as fibrinogen. Through a complex
mechanism involving many steps and many clotting factors, the plasma protein
fibrinogen is transformed into long, sticky threads of fibrin. Together, the platelets and
the fibrin create an intertwined meshwork that forms a stable clot. This self-sealing aspect
of the blood is crucial to survival.
Immune response: In the blood we can find white blood cells which eliminate antigens
that enter the body. Monocytes and neutrophils provoke the innate (non-specific)
immunity, while B- and T- cells provoke the adaptive (specific) immunity.
Temperature regulation: When blood reaches the skin there is a heat loss otherwise
blood cannot reach the skin due to the contraction of the blood cells.
Angina
Angina is chest pain caused by coronary heart disease, a partial blockage of the
coronary arteries. If you have angina, your heart may not get enough blood, especially
when you exercise or are under stress.
Diagnosis
You will have an electrocardiogram (EKG), during which electrodes will be
fastened to your chest with a sticky gel. Your health care
provider may also suggest a stress test, in which the EKG is
taken while you walk on a treadmill or use a stationary
bicycle. Your health care provider may recommend
coronary arteriography, where a catheter is inserted through
a small incision to inject a dye that makes your blood flow
visible on an x-ray image. Any blockages in and around
your heart will appear.
Treatment Plan
There are two main goals in treating angina. The first is to allow you to perform
moderate exercise without pain. The second is to treat the underlying heart disease and
prevent it from getting worse.
Drug Therapies
Prescription • Nitrates—increase the size of blood vessels, thus allowing blood
to flow more easily; also help beta-blockers and calcium-channel blockers to work more
effectively; tolerance occurs with continued use
• Beta-blockers—used for angina symptoms; reduce blood
pressure, heart rate, and the force by which the heart pumps
blood; serious side effects if medication is stopped suddenly
• Calcium-channel blockers—used for angina symptoms;
reduce blood pressure and the force by which the heart pumps
blood; some also reduce heart rate
• Cholesterol-lowering medications—slows blockage of
arteries
Over the Counter • Aspirin—allows blood to flow
more easily
Surgical Procedures
If drugs are ineffective, you may need surgery. There are many different types of
surgery to remove blockages from blood vessels or widen blood vessels so blood flows
more easily.
Nutrition
Avoid saturated fats (meat and full-fat dairy products), refined foods, caffeine,
and alcohol. Eat more fresh vegetables, whole grains, and essential fatty acids (cold-
water fish, nuts, and seeds).
Acupuncture
Acupuncture can relieve symptoms and help treat underlying causes.
Massage
Massage can improve circulation to peripheral tissues.
Myocardial infarction
Myocardial infarction (MI) is also called a heart
attack. A heart attack occurs when an artery leading to the
heart becomes totally blocked. A heart attack is a medical
emergency.
What Causes It?
Atherosclerosis, the process of plaque buildup in an artery until it becomes closed,
is the most frequent cause of heart attacks. Heart attacks can also result from heart-
muscle spasms or hereditary heart problems. The following increase your risk of having a
heart attack.
• Smoking
• High-fat diet, excess body weight
• Family history of early MI
• Diabetes
• Oral contraceptives
• Hypertension (high blood pressure)
• Being male, or a female who has gone through
menopause
• Cocaine or amphetamine abuse
Diagnosis
• You will have an electrocardiogram (EKG).
• A health care provider will ask you about your symptoms and perform a physical
examination.
• You will have a blood test to evaluate your cardiac enzyme levels.
Treatment Options
Blood must be brought back to the affected area of the heart immediately. Three
methods for doing this are drug therapy, angioplasty (using one of several methods to
clear the blocked blood vessel, such as inflating a balloon inside it or holding it open with
a device called a stent), and surgery.
Drug Therapies
Your health care provider may prescribe one or several drugs to help bring blood
back to the blocked artery, keep your heartbeat regular, lower your blood pressure,
control pain, and improve blood flow.
• Streptokinase (SK)—improves widening of the coronary artery; takes 70 minutes to
feel the effects; given intravenously
• Tissue plasminogen activator—improves widening of the
coronary artery; takes 45 minutes to feel the effects
• Anisoylated plasminogens streptokinase activator complex—
more expensive but longer anti-clotting activity than streptokinase
• Heparin—improves widening of the coronary artery
• Nitroglycerin—improves blood flow, helping to prevent blood
clots that block arteries
• Beta blockers—reduce cardiac rupture, new heart attacks,
irregular heart beat; various side effects
• Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors—reduce high
blood pressure
• Pain control—morphine sulfate, intravenous
• Oxygen—by a tube inserted into your nose, as needed
• Aspirin—improves blood flow, helping to prevent blood clots that block arteries; it
works best if you chew it; various side effects; frequently prescribed
Complementary and Alternative Therapies
Alternative therapies are most appropriate to reduce your risk of a first MI,
minimize damage from an MI, and reduce the risk of a subsequent MI.
Herbs
Herbs should not be used in place of immediate medical attention. Herbs can be used as
general heart tonics and specifically applied to treating conditions associated with MI,
such as atherosclerosis, congestive heart failure, high cholesterol levels, high blood
pressure, and high fat levels in the blood.
Homeopathy
Homeopathy should never be used instead of immediate medical attention.
Physical Medicine
Physical medicine may be beneficial for rehabilitation.
Acupuncture
Acupuncture is useful for pain and rehabilitation.
Massage
Massage is beneficial for rehabilitation and prevention of MI.
Following Up
You may reduce your risk of heart attack by avoiding known risk factors. Get aerobic
exercise (such as walking, biking, or swimming) for at least 20 minutes three times per
week. If you haven't exercised much in the past, walking is a great way to start. Reducing
stress can also help lower your risk of MI. Learn stress-reduction techniques such as deep
breathing and meditation. Gentle exercise such as yoga and tai chi can also help you
reduce your stress level. Eat a low-fat diet and stay at the proper weight.
If you have diabetes or high blood pressure, follow your health care provider's
instructions to keep it under control. If you are a woman and have gone through
menopause, you may want to consider hormone replacement therapy—it can lower your
risk of heart disease.
Pericarditis
Pericarditis is an inflammation of the pericardium, a sac surrounding the heart.
The most common form is acute pericarditis, which can usually be treated without
hospitalization. Common in adolescents and young adults, acute pericarditis affects males
more than females. Pericardial effusion is a form that results when fluid builds up in the
pericardium. It is a more serious condition that can require hospitalization and possibly
surgery. Constrictive pericarditis is a form that is a chronic condition and worsens
gradually over a long period of time. It may ultimately require surgery. Pericardial
effusion and constrictive pericarditis can occur together.
NORMAL ABNORMAL
Acute pericarditis:
• Chest pain
• Fever
• Flushed appearance
• Muscle pain
• Pain with swallowing
• Feelings of anxiousness, discomfort, or uneasiness
Pericardial effusion:
• Difficulty breathing
• A bluish skin color
Constrictive pericarditis:
• Difficulty breathing
• Congestion in the lungs
• Fatigue
• Abdominal swelling
Treatment Options
Pericarditis is usually treated with aspirin or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen), but steroid medications may be prescribed.
Complementary and Alternative Therapies
Alternative therapies may have benefit as supportive treatments for some of the
causes of pericarditis. Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) is a cardiac tonic with very low
toxicity that could be used along with whatever therapy your provider deems most
appropriate.
Nutrition • Vitamin C (1,000 mg three times per day) may help decrease inflammation.
It also aids in fighting infection, and is an antioxidant.
• Coenzyme Q10 (50 mg bid) is an important antioxidant that may help prevent heart
muscle damage and speed recovery.
• Your provider may recommend sodium restriction if you have constrictive pericarditis.
• If your pericarditis is of viral origin, your provider may recommend supplementation
with vitamin A (300,000 IU/day for 3 days).
• Flaxseed oil (3 g twice per day) helps decrease inflammation.
• Avoid saturated fats, alcohol, and sugars, which can lead to increased inflammation
and lowered immune function.
• Consume at least five servings of fruits and vegetables per day. These foods are anti-
inflammatory and protect the heart.
Herbs
Herbs may be used as dried extracts (capsules, powders, teas), glycerites (glycerine
extracts), or tinctures (alcohol extracts). Unless otherwise indicated, teas should be made
with 1 tsp. herb per cup of hot water. Steep covered 5 to 10 minutes for leaf or flowers,
and 10 to 20 minutes for roots. Drink 2 to 4 cups per day.
• Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) can help prevent high blood pressure and hardening
of the arteries. Dose is 60 drops tincture three times per day 1 tsp. berries steeped for 10
minutes in hot water, or 100 to 250 mg three times per day as a supplement.
• Linden (Tilia cordata) is used for high blood pressure with nervous tension, and may
be useful adjunctive treatment where there is anxiety. Dose is 1 tsp. dried blossoms per
cup hot water three times a day or 60 drops tincture three times a day.
• Blue monkshood (Aconitum napellus) has been described as an herbal remedy for
pericarditis without significant effusion. CAUTION: As this herb can be highly toxic,
even fatal, it is not recommended unless prescribed by an experienced health care
provider.
Homeopathy
Some of the most common remedies used for pericarditis are listed below. Usually, the
dose is 3 to 5 pellets of a 12X to 30C remedy every one to four hours until your
symptoms get better.
• Aconite for sudden, sharp pains accompanied by anxiety (especially fear of dying) and
restlessness
• Spongia tosta for the sensation that the chest will explode, anxiety, light-headedness,
sweating; patient may be flushed
• Cactus grandiflorus for the feeling that there is a band around the chest or a great
weight on the chest; palpitations; feels better in the open air and worse at night
Acupuncture
Can be very helpful in decreasing inflammation, enhancing immune response, and
regulating cardiac function.
Following Up
Your provider may order a follow-up X ray or electrocardiogram.
If you want your heart to be healthy for the rest of your life, follow this
prescription:
People who don't follow this prescription often develop some form of heart disease
Exercising Options
The hardest part of an exercise routine is getting started. Once you've established a
regular pattern of exercise, you'll find yourself following it. So, how do you get started?
Well, first of all, consult your doctor. Your doctor can recommend the specific kinds of
exercise for your own individual needs. Generally, however, these guidelines should get
you going.
First of all, exercise will only become a habit if it's fun! Pick something you will enjoy
doing. If you like being with a group of people, try a team sport like basketball or soccer.
You don't have to be a super athlete. Anyone can exercise. Social activities like dancing
and mall-walking are also good. If you're more of a loner, try bicycling or swimming.
Don't kid yourself. Be honest about what you
realistically think you can do. If you have
always hated to climb stairs, step aerobics
probably isn't for you. Maybe a walk around
the neighborhood would be more pleasant.
Many people today are walking toward
fitness.
Consider your current state of physical fitness.
If you haven't exercised in years, you'll
definitely want to start with some modest
activities. As you get adjusted, you can
increase your activity.
Consider your schedule. Are you a morning person? Then plan to exercise in the
morning. If you're addicted to your snooze button, plan to exercise in the evening. Start
with just a small block of time, maybe fifteen minutes. As you get into your routine, you
probably won't mind increasing to twenty, and then thirty, minutes. In order to be
effective, you'll need to repeat your exercise routine 3 or 4 times per week.
Will you exercise at home or at a fitness center? Selecting a fitness center can be a
challenge, but you may find the community support motivational. Will you need any
special equipment? The variety of exercise equipment available for purchase today can be
overwhelming. Be sure to buy the proper equipment.
Finally, take it easy. Make sure that you exercise intelligently and cautiously. Follow
some guidelines for beginners. Exercise should improve your health, not risk it.
If you're still making excuses, at least try some of the Healthy Heart Tips for today. These
simple, realistic activities can become the first step toward a healthier tomorrow.
If you want to have a healthy heart, you have to learn how to eat a healthy heart diet. All
of the food you eat effects the health of your heart. Learn which foods are heart smart and
try to include them as a regular part of your diet.
Consult your doctor for an eating plan that best suits your dietary needs. If you are of
average health, you can probably follow the Food Pyramid eating plan.
No matter which eating plan you follow, the following guidelines are recommended:
Purification
The human heart's job is to pump nutrient-rich blood throughout your body. If you
smoke, take drugs, or drink alcohol excessively, you are giving your heart extra work.
How do you feel when you have too much
work to do? Your heart cannot handle too
much extra work over a long period of time.
Over time, the health of your heart will suffer.
Scientists have proven that smoking doubles
your risk of having a heart attack and doubles,
triples, or quadruples your risk of sudden
cardiac death. Each year, over 300,000
Americans die of smoking-related heart
disease. So, don't smoke. If you do, quit. The
sooner you quit, the sooner your risk will start
to decline. There is hope. Former smokers can
completely lower their risk of sudden cardiac death within ten years of quitting.
Because they are foreign substances, any drug can effect your heart. Even prescribed
medications can. However, since prescribed medications are legal, doctors are able to
control the effect a drug will have on your heart by controlling the dosage. With illegal
drugs (cocaine, heroin, marijuana, amphetamines, etc.), YOU have to control the effect
on your heart. Can you do that? Only if you don't take any. Even a small amount of a
drug can be potentially fatal. So, don't use illegal drugs. If you do, quit.
While drinking alcohol in moderation may not pose a risk, drinking excessively does
pose a serious hazard to your heart. While alcohol flows in your blood stream, the
nutrient-rich blood is less able to nourish the heart. If the alcohol content is excessive,
your heart will be in danger. So, don't drink alcohol excessively. If you do, quit.
What happens if you ignore the recommended healthy heart habits? Perhaps nothing.
Many people live long lives without
paying much attention to their heart.
However, it is more likely that you will
develop some form of heart disease.
Millions of Americans suffer
from some form of heart disease. The
statistics are staggering. Commonly, people suffer from high blood pressure. Some suffer
heart disease as a result of diabetes. Others develop an arrhythmia, murmur, or irregular
heartbeat. Increasingly, women are becoming the greater percentage of heart disease
sufferers.
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