Suspension Active TP

HYDROLIC & PNUMATIC
INTRODUCTION, APPLICATIONS, AND PROJECTS

First edition
Dr. Haitham Elshimy

Institute of aviation engineering and technology
2017 Graduation project
Main Application Robotic Arm – pneumatic Driven

PREFACE
Practically every industrial process requires objects to be moved, manipulated or be subjected to some
form of force.
This is generally accomplished by means of electrical equipment (such as motors or solenoids), or via
devices driven by air (pneumatics) or liquids (hydraulics).
Traditionally pneumatics and hydraulics are thought to be a mechanical engineer's subject (and are
generally taught as such in colleges).
In practice, techniques (and, more important, the faultfinding methodology) tend to be more akin to the
ideas used in electronics and process control.
This book has been written by a Group of aeronautical engineers as a guide to the operation of
hydraulic and pneumatics systems. It is intended for engineers and technicians who wish to have an
insight into the components and operation of a pneumatic or hydraulic system.
The mathematical content has been deliberately kept simple with the aim of making the book readable
rather than rigorous. It is not, therefore, a design manual and topics such as sizing of pipes and valves
have been deliberately omitted
Contents
PREFACE .......................................................................................................................- 1 -
PART ONE HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC ...............- 1 -
CH1 - INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... - 1 -
1.1 Evolution of Fluid Power ................................................................................... - 2 -
CH2 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM ................................................................. - 14 -
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ - 14 -
2.2 characteristics that must be considered for hydraulic Fluid: ......... - 15 -
1-Viscosity.............................................................................................................................................- 15 -
2- Chemical Stability...........................................................................................................................- 16 -
3- Flash Point ........................................................................................................................................- 16 -
4- Fire Point...........................................................................................................................................- 16 -
2.3 Types of Hydraulic Fluids .............................................................................. - 17 -
1- Minerals ............................................................................................................................................- 17 -
2- Polyalphaolefins ..............................................................................................................................- 17 -
3- Phosphate esters ..............................................................................................................................- 17 -
2-4 DEVELOPMENT OF HYDRAULICS .................................................. - 18 -
Pascal’s principle .................................................................................................................................- 18 -
Archimedes’ principle .........................................................................................................................- 19 -
2.5 Fluids and their properties .............................................................................. - 22 -
Characteristics of Hydraulic Fluids: .................................................................................................- 22 -
Compressible and incompressible fluids .........................................................................................- 22 -
Density and specific gravity ..............................................................................................................- 23 -
Hydrostatics...........................................................................................................................................- 23 -
Intensity of pressure ............................................................................................................................- 24 -
Fluids at rest, with the free surface horizontal. ..............................................................................- 24 -
The barometer .......................................................................................................................................- 25 -
2.6 Fluid Power Advantages ................................................................................. - 26 -
2.7 Aircraft Hydraulic Systems ........................................................................... - 28 -
Hydraulic Fluid Contamination ........................................................................................................- 28 -
Contamination Check ..........................................................................................................................- 28 -
Contamination Control .......................................................................................................................- 30 -
Hydraulic System Flushing ................................................................................................................- 32 -
2.8 Hydraulic system components: .................................................................... - 33 -
Reservoir ................................................................................................................................................- 33 -
Accumulator ..........................................................................................................................................- 33 -
Filter ........................................................................................................................................................- 33 -
Power Pump ..........................................................................................................................................- 33 -
System Relief Valve ............................................................................................................................- 33 -
Pressure Regulator ...............................................................................................................................- 33 -
Aircraft Hydraulic System Reservoir: .............................................................................................- 34 -
Aircraft Hydraulic System Power Pumps: ......................................................................................- 35 -
Types of Power Pumps: ......................................................................................................................- 35 -
Figure shows a radial engine driven pump .....................................................................................- 37 -
Automatic cut-out valve (ACOV): ...................................................................................................- 38 -
Hydraulic System Check Valves ......................................................................................................- 39 -
Circuits Using Pressuring Limiting Devices (PLDs) ...................................................................- 41 -
Hydraulic System Accumulator ........................................................................................................- 41 -
Pressure Regulation in Hydraulic Systems .....................................................................................- 42 -
Douglass Pressure Regulator .............................................................................................................- 43 -
Flow Control .........................................................................................................................................- 43 -
2.9 Actuation Cylinders ........................................................................................... - 45 -
A. Single Piston, Single Rod .............................................................................................................- 45 -
B. Single Piston, Double Rod ............................................................................................................- 45 -
C. Double Piston, Double Rod ..........................................................................................................- 45 -
2.10 landing gear ......................................................................................................... - 47 -
Aircraft Landing Gear Systems.........................................................................................................- 48 -
TYPES OF LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENT .....................................................................- 48 -
Landing gear alignment &Support....................................................................................................- 48 -
Landing Gear Retraction Systems ....................................................................................................- 50 -
Landing Gear Extension Systems .....................................................................................................- 51 -
Emergency Extension System ...........................................................................................................- 51 -
Nose Wheel Steering Systems...........................................................................................................- 52 -
Air Craft Brakes ...................................................................................................................................- 54 -
Emergency Brake Systems.................................................................................................................- 54 -
Antiskid System ...................................................................................................................................- 55 -
CH3 PNEUMATIC SYSTEM.................................................................... - 57 -
AIRCRAFT PNEUMATIC SYSTEM ............................................................. - 57 -
3.1 Engine starting ...................................................................................................... - 61 -
External ground supply .......................................................................................................................- 63 -
Air start unit ..........................................................................................................................................- 63 -
3.2 AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS ........................................................... - 65 -
Provision of fresh air ...........................................................................................................................- 65 -
Temperature ..........................................................................................................................................- 65 -
Relative humidity .................................................................................................................................- 65 -
Contamination.......................................................................................................................................- 66 -
Ventilation .............................................................................................................................................- 66 -
Duplication ............................................................................................................................................- 66 -
Adequate supply ...................................................................................................................................- 66 -
Temperature ..........................................................................................................................................- 66 -
Humidity ................................................................................................................................................- 66 -
3.3 Pressurization system ........................................................................................ - 69 -
3.4 Airfoil and engine ant icing ........................................................................... - 73 -
3.5 Hydraulic reservoir pressurization ............................................................. - 75 -
Pressurized Reservoirs ........................................................................................................................- 75 -
Air-Pressurized Reservoirs ................................................................................................................- 75 -
3.6 General Pneumatic Systems .......................................................................... - 80 -
The production and transportation of compressed air ..................................................................- 82 -
The consumption of compressed air ................................................................................................- 84 -
Principles of pneumatic control ........................................................................................................- 89 -
Different kinds of basic circuits ........................................................................................................- 92 -
The application of pneumatic systems.......................................................................................... - 100 -
Safety measures when using pneumatic control systems ......................................................... - 101 -
Appendix: Pneumatic components ................................................................................................ - 102 -
PART TWO MAIN PROJECT – ROBOTIC ARM... - 103

-
Introduction ..................................................................................................................- 104 -
CH4 AUTOMATION ROBOTIC ARM PNEUMATIC DRIVEN. - 105 -
4-1 WHAT IS A ROBOT?...................................................................................- 105 -
ROBOTS AND ROBOTICS .......................................................................................................... - 107 -
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS ................................................................................................................ - 107 -
THE STUDY OF ROBOTS ........................................................................................................... - 108 -
INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION AND ROBOTS ..................................................................... - 109 -
Automated Machines........................................................................................................................ - 109 -
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) .................................................................................................... - 111 -
Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) ..................................................................................... - 112 -
Computer-Aided Robotics (CAR) ................................................................................................. - 112 -
Industrial Robots ............................................................................................................................... - 113 -
CHOOSING AMONG HUMANS, ROBOTS, AND AUTOMATION ................................ - 115 -
NONINDUSTRIAL ROBOTS ...................................................................................................... - 115 -
Military Robots.................................................................................................................................. - 115 -
Show (Promotional) Robots ........................................................................................................... - 119 -
Educational Robots ........................................................................................................................... - 119 -
Medical Robots.................................................................................................................................. - 120 -
Domestic (Personal) Robots ........................................................................................................... - 123 -
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................... - 124 -
4-2 The History of Robots ..................................................................................- 125 -
THE VALUE OF STUDYING THE HISTORY OF ROBOTS ............................................. - 126 -
FICTIONAL ROBOTS ................................................................................................................... - 133 -
SOURCES OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ..................................................................... - 135 -
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................... - 135 -
4-3 Components of an Industrial Robot PART I ......................................- 136 -
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INDUSTRIAL ROBOT ................................... - 138 -
GENERAL COMPONENTS OF AN INDUSTRIAL ROBOT .............................................. - 139 -
MANIPULATOR CONFIGURATIONS .................................................................................... - 141 -
SCARA Robot ................................................................................................................................... - 144 -
Comparison of Manipulator Configurations ............................................................................... - 145 -
Wrist .................................................................................................................................................... - 148 -
Grippers ............................................................................................................................................... - 148 -
Electrical Power ................................................................................................................................ - 153 -
Hydraulic Power ................................................................................................................................ - 154 -
Other Power Sources ........................................................................................................................ - 156 -
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................... - 156 -
4-4 Components of an Industrial Robot PART II.....................................- 158 -
CONTROL UNITS ........................................................................................................................... - 159 -
Servo Systems .................................................................................................................................... - 159 -
Open-loop Nonservo Systems ........................................................................................................ - 159 -
Closed-loop Servo Systems ............................................................................................................ - 160 -
OPERATING METHODS OF ROBOT CONTROL UNITS ................................................. - 161 -
Point-to-Point Control Units ........................................................................................................... - 163 -
THE VEHICLE AND THE ROBOT'S BASE ........................................................................... - 166 -
Stationary Robots .............................................................................................................................. - 166 -
Mobile Robots ................................................................................................................................... - 166 -
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................... - 170 -
4-5 END-OF-ARM TOOLING .........................................................................- 171 -
GRIPPERS AND HUMAN HANDS ........................................................................................... - 172 -
Specialized Utility for a Job............................................................................................................ - 175 -
Remote Center Compliance (RCC) ............................................................................................... - 177 -
Power for Grippers ........................................................................................................................... - 178 -
Pneumatic Power............................................................................................................................... - 179 -
Electric Power .................................................................................................................................... - 179 -
Hydraulic Power ................................................................................................................................ - 179 -
How Grippers Work ......................................................................................................................... - 180 -
CALCULATING GRIPPER PAYLOAD AND GRIPPING FORCE ................................... - 180 -
SUMMARY........................................................................................................................................... - 184 -
FORMULAS ...................................................................................................................................... - 185 -
4-6 Control ...................................................................................................................- 187 -
OVERVIEW ...................................................................................................................................... - 187 -
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ - 188 -
Parts ..................................................................................................................................................... - 188 -
The breadboard layout ..................................................................................................................... - 189 -
The Schematic Diagram .................................................................................................................. - 190 -
Setup the circuit ................................................................................................................................. - 191 -
Step 1 – Powering the Breadboard with Solenoid...................................................................... - 191 -
Step 2 – The Transistor & Resistor& Snubber Diode ............................................................... - 192 -
Step 3 – Connecting To Ground..................................................................................................... - 193 -
Control the solenoid ......................................................................................................................... - 194 -
How The Control Done!! ................................................................................................................ - 194 -
Writing the Code!! ............................................................................................................................ - 194 -
GUI interface with Arduino ............................................................................................................ - 196 -
Setup GUI ........................................................................................................................................... - 196 -
Coding ................................................................................................................................................. - 198 -
CH5 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................. - 201 -
CH6 REFERENCES ....................................................................................... - 203 -
Books: .................................................................................................................................................. - 203 -
Technical Reports: ............................................................................................................................ - 203 -
Ch1 INTRODUCTION HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC
PART ONE HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC
CH1 - INTRODUCTION
Fluid power has a wide range of applications in industry. Automation of industrial activities has necessitated
its application in more than one way. There is hardly any machine tool today that does not use fluid
power technology.
In spite of the wide usage and presence of fluid power in many applications, most users do not possess a
proper and complete understanding of the concepts and the circuits used in fluid power applications. This
book on fluid power technology is expected to bridge such a gap in understanding.
Fluids have the characteristics of flowing, confining themselves to the inner sides of the container. The
term fluid is meant to include both the liquids and gases. To an engineer, fluid power means hydraulics
and pneumatics: hydraulics using mineral oils as the fluid medium and pneumatics using compressed
air as the fluid medium. In general, oil hydraulics is suitable for applications where the pressure range is
up to 400 bar and pneumatics is suitable for applications where the pressure range is up to a maximum of
12 bar. There are some machine applications which use hydro-pneumatics, i.e. both hydraulic and
pneumatic power to actuate its components.
This book is written to impart basic concepts clearly, and is suitably augmented with practical
knowledge on the subject. The book is divided into two parts: Part 1 deals with hydraulics and
pneumatics, and there applications and Part 2 deals with Robotics driven by Fluids plus some useful
information and data concerning the subject matter of the book.
The readers of this book, specifically students, are advised to read the chapters in the given sequential manner.
The pneumatics portion, however, can be read independently of the hydraulic portion and vice versa.
The hydraulics portion of the book is logically divided into fundamentals of the subject providing an
overview of the fluid power systems, followed by a detailed treatment of basics of hydraulics, hydraulic
components and elements and their functions and usage in hydraulic power units and hydraulic power
packs. The design of hydraulic circuit is also discussed in detail.
Enough care has been taken to sequence the chapters in such a way that the students' understanding is built up
gradually and steadily. With this background, students will quickly grasp the working of actual hydraulic
systems and the pneumatic control units during their fieldwork.
The book is designed for use as a text by undergraduate students of Mechanical , aeronautical and
Mechatronics branches. It will also be useful for professional engineers, specializing in the field of fluid power
technology. This book would not have taken shape without the initial help, support and encouragement of DR.
Haitham Elshimy, professor, aerospace Eng. Dept. Cairo University the authors thankfully acknowledge His
constant encouragement and support
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1.1
Evolution of Fluid Power
It was near the end of the 17th Century that Torricelli, Mariotte and, later, Bernoulli carried on
experiments to study the elements of pressure or force in the discharge of water through orifices in
the sides of tanks and through short pipes. In that same period the French scientist, Blaise Pascal,
evolved the fundamental law for the science of hydraulics.
Pascal's theorem was as follows: "If a vessel full of water, and closed on all sides, has two
openings, the one a hundred times as large as the other, and if each is supplied with a piston that
'fits it exactly,' then a man pushing the small piston will exert a force that will equilibrate that of
one hundred men pushing the large piston and will overcome that of ninety-nine." Given one
piston of one square inch area on which is placed a pressure of one hundred pounds, sufficient
pressure will be created to lift another piston, connected to the same hydraulic system, having an area
of four square inches and carrying a weight of 400 pounds. Obviously, the conclusion is that a
force of 100 pounds per square inch is transmitted in all directions raising four times as much
in weight but only one-fourth of the distance.
However, in order for Pascal's law to be made effective for practical use, it was necessary to make
a piston that would "fit exactly." Not until over one hundred years later was this accomplished.
It was in that period that an Englishman, Joseph Brahmah, invented the cup packing which led
to the development of a workable hydraulic press. Brahmah's hydraulic press consisted of a plunger
pump piped to a large cylinder and ram. This new hydraulic press found wide use in England
because it provided a more effective and more economical means of applying large forces to
industrial applications.
About 1850 W. G. Armstrong, founder of the firm which grew into the large British Vickers-
Armstrong Ltd., developed a hydraulic crane and invented the hydraulic accumulator. The
accumulator was designed to store a large amount of fluid under an artificial head of Pressure so
that it would be available to supplement the fluid pressure during periods of abnormal demand
for power.
Coming many years before the development of electric power and the electric motor, it was only
natural that these developments in hydraulic machinery found ready acceptance in England's
industrial activity. During the period from 1850 to 1860, London and other large English
cities were piped for the transmission and sale of hydraulic power from central pumping
stations to individual shops.
The first use of a large hydraulic press for forging work was made in 1860 by Whitworth.
During the next 20 years many attempts were made to reduce the waste and excessive
maintenance costs of the original type of accumulator. In 1872 Rigg patented a three-cylinder
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hydraulic engine, in which was embodied provision to change the stroke of the plungers to vary its
displacement without a throttle valve. In 1873 the Brotherhood three-cylinder, constant-stroke
hydraulic engine was patented and was widely used for cranes, winches, etc. Both of the
above-mentioned engines were driven by fluid from an accumulator.
While the accumulator made it possible to overcome the slow speed of the earlier hydraulic
power transmission system, it required throttle valves for controlling the fluid. These valves
were inefficient and required costly maintenance. As a result, engineers were discouraged from
attempting further applications to ordinary machinery.
At this point it seemed that the development and application of hydraulics to machines had
reached the limits of its possibilities. Through a British patent by Hastie in 1873, it was
indicated how it might be possible to design variable-stroke pumps and motor units that would
deliver fluid efficiently and smoothly under controlled conditions without the use of an
accumulator. Nevertheless, this invention was ignored and only in recent years have engineers
devoted time and thought to the development of efficient hydraulic equipment.
Establishment of Industry Standards

During the last thirty years and particularly during the period of World War II the use of fluid
power has grown by leaps and bounds and among many fields of application a most important one
has been that of production machinery.
In fact, by 1951 applications in this field had increased so rapidly that a number of conferences
were held in Detroit, Michigan, for the purpose of establishing a set of standards for industrial
hydraulic and pneumatic equipment. These are now well known as the "Joint Industry
Conference Standards for Industrial Equipment." Represented in these conferences were
hydraulic equipment manufacturers,
Pneumatic equipment manufacturers, machine tool builders, packing and seal manufacturers, press
manufacturers, resistance welding manufacturers, tubing and fitting manufacturers, and industrial users.
The J.I.C. symbols were adopted for the complete line of fluid power components. In 1966, a new set of
graphic standards was released by the United States of America Standards Institute. The Institute changed
its name to the American National Standards Institute, Inc., on October 6, 1969. The symbols, in the graphic
standards, are known as ANSI symbols (see charts on end papers). They are similar in appearance to the J.I.C.
symbols and have now replaced them. Through their use, the maintenance man can readily trace the flow of
fluids through the controls without reference to the control manufacturer's catalogs. This is a great timesaver,
especially on complicated layouts. Today, many machines containing fluid power systems have their circuit
diagrams attached.
Advantages Offered by Air and Oil

Perhaps it would be in order that we clarify our thinking on one point. In using the term "fluid" we are
referring specifically to air or oil, for it has been shown that water has certain drawbacks for the
-3-
transmission of hydraulic power in machine operation and control. "Commercially pure" water contains various
chemicals (some deliberately included) and also foreign matter, and unless special precautions are taken
when it is used, it is nearly impossible to maintain valves and working surfaces in satisfactory condition. In
cases where the hydraulic system is "closed" (i.e., one with a self-contained unit which serves one machine or
one small group of machines) oil is commonly used, thus providing, in addition to power transmission, benefits
of lubrication not afforded by water and increased life and efficiency of packings and valves. It should be
mentioned that in some special cases soluble oil, diluted with water, is used with satisfactory results. Fire-
resistant fluids are also coming more into use.
Usually hydraulic and pneumatic systems and equipment do not compete. They are so dissimilar that there
are few problems of selection between them which cannot readily be resolved, all factors considered, with
a clear preponderance in favor of one or the other. But what of the case where one of the two sources of
power is not at hand, and compressed air is used to do something for which oil might be better adapted,
and vice versa? Certainly, availability is one of the important factors of selection but this may be outweighed
by other factors. In numerous instances, for example, air is preferred to meet certain unalterable
conditions, i.e., in "hot spots" where there is an open furnace or other potential ignition hazard or in
operations
Where motion is required at extremely high speeds. It is often found more efficient to use a combined
circuit in which oil is used in one part and air in another on the same machine or process.
Perhaps the comparison between the use of compressed air and oil in fluid power circuits would be
oversimplified by applying an efficiency factor of 80 per cent to the fluid power pump. However, the use
of this more or less arbitrary efficiency would indicate that the employment of compressed air is 2.6
times as costly as the use of oil for fluid power. This latter comparison was made on the assumption that
a large number of hydraulic systems today are saddled with the loss of fluid in use, which is inherent in the
accumulator. If there is no accumulator in the system, air operation might well cost four times as much
as oil.
The comparisons just drawn lead perhaps to wonderment at the tremendous amount of compressed air used
throughout industry and particularly in the shop. The answer, of course, lies in the versatility of air, the
simplicity of its application and the fact that air in many instances is not used in really large quantities.
There is poor economy in using an air cylinder for a long stroke wherein only a small portion of the
stroke—for instance, at its end, or its beginning—is usefully employed. An example is the clamping cyl-
inder with a long stroke to clear surrounding interferences. Another example is the case where high
pressure is used at the beginning of the stroke for breakaway force, followed by a long clearance stroke.
In this latter case, air can be conserved by not allowing air pressure to build up at the end of the
clearance stroke.
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Basic Elements of Fluid Power System

A hydraulic system can be broken down into four main divisions analogous to the four main divisions in
an electrical system. First, the power device parallels the electrical generating station; second
the control valves parallel the switches, resistors, timers, pressure switches, relays, etc.; third, the
lines in which the fluid power flows parallel the electrical lines; and fourth, the fluid power
motor (whether it be a rotating or nonrotating cylinder, or a fluid power motor) parallels the
solenoids and electric motors. These four main divisions in a fluid power system arc shown
schematically in Fig. 1.
Application of Fluid Power

The application of fluid power is limited only by the ingenuity of the designer, production
engineer, or plant engineer. If the application pertains to lifting, pushing, pulling, clamping,
tilting, forcing, pressing or any other straight line (and many rotary) motions, it is probable that
fluid power will meet the requirements. The important part that fluid power plays in all phases of
industry today is beyond calculation. To indicate its increasing importance, we need only to
say that new uses are being found and adopted for air and hydraulic systems every day. This is
true in large industries where economical mass production is a must and is equally true in small
plants where highest efficiency is an absolute necessity for survival.
Whether a new piece of plant equipment is being designed or an old machine is being
reconditioned for mass production, the addition of fluid power brings distinct advantages. Such
a piece of equipment can be operated with very little effort and motion on the part of the operator.
The fluid power controls can be placed in a central station so that the operator has, at all times,
complete control of the entire production line whether it be a multiple operation machine or a
group of machines. Such a setup is more or less standard in the steel mill industry.
Not only reduction in required manpower, but also reduction or elimination of operator fatigue,
as a production factor, is an important element in the use of fluid power. Whether the
operation is manual or automatic, fluid power steps in to shoulder a substantial part of the
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labor required—moves ahead with the job on a pre-determinable time schedule of continuous
motion. Exhaustive time studies have long since proved that taking away the job of lifting,
pushing, pulling and turning from the operator and giving it to the machine has been a major
factor in changing the color of a company's financial statement from red to black. With the
substantial increase in the employment of women operators these operational advancements
assume still further importance.
A fluid power system will also give flexibility to the equipment without requiring a complex
mechanism. By merely adjusting a small flow control valve a large variation of speeds and
feeds may be obtained. If several different pressures are required for the operation of a piece of
equipment, they can easily be provided by the use of pressure-relief or pressure-reducing
valves. If skip-feed is a desirable feature, a cam-operated flow-control valve may be added to
the circuit and can be controlled by clamps or trips on the machine table. It is impossible to
list and even difficult to visualize the widely diversified possibilities actually afforded through a
combination of varied fluid power components. An important factor is that, with all this
flexibility and simplicity of operation, the cost is relatively small.
Selection of the Fluid Medium

There is no hard and fast rule to follow in deciding which of the fluid mediums should be used
in an application. However, here are some suggestions which, on a broad, general basis, are
considered sound: If the application requires speed, a medium amount of pressure, and only a
fairly accurate feed, use an air system; if the application requires only a medium amount of
pressure and a feed of greater accuracy, use a combination of air and hydraulic systems; if
the application requires a great amount of pressure or an extremely accurate feed, use an oil
hydraulic system.
Obviously, there are other things to take into consideration when selecting the proper medium
for the motivating force. First, if air is being considered it must be determined if there is
enough air capacity available to handle the added air equipment. Many plants today have added
so many air-operated devices that their compressor capacity is woefully inadequate. In numerous
cases, at the beginning of a shift when all air devices are started at once, the pressure drops to
such an extent that air clamping equipment will not hold the work pieces. The addition of a
surge tank near the machine with multiple air devices often helps overcome some of the
difficulty, but it is usually necessary to make provision for more compressor capacity.
The location of the equipment has much to do with the selection of the fluid medium. For
example, if the equipment is subject to severe temperature variations (i.e., on a loading dock
where temperatures may vary from I10°F to minus 20°F) an oil hydraulic system is usually
considered best. If air is used and the weather becomes extremely cold, condensation in the lines
would freeze and make the system inoperative. However, in hot locations it is sometimes better
to use an air system.
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Advantages of Unit Installations
Since the present-day trend is toward elimination of the central power station, it is advisable to
consider the package unit. A pretty good example of this, although not in the category of fluid
power, is the obsolescence of overhead line shafts. As is well known, failure of the central
power unit meant temporary stoppage of the complete line of operations. By using a packaged
hydraulic power unit to operate one machine or one group of machines, a failure affects only the
one section of the total operation. Stand-by units are usually on hand in the maintenance
department with which to get this one section back in operation with very little delay. Some
machine tools arc equipped with portable, packaged electro-hydraulic power devices. Quick-to-
disconnect fittings on portable devices are valuable inasmuch as they eliminate the spilling of
oil on the floor when making the power unit change.
Cost of Fluid Power Systems

Contrary to the belief of many individuals with little or no first hand experience, fluid power
systems are no more expensive in first cost or in maintenance than other types. In many cases
they are actually less costly. If a simple program of preventive maintenance is followed, the
fluid power system will give years of satisfactory service with very little attention. With even
a minimum of maintenance attention and good housekeeping the user can very easily eliminate
unnecessary costs and increase the life of the equipment by many years. By the very nature of
the oil hydraulic system, the moving component parts are working in a lubricating medium. As
long as the oil is kept clean and free of condensation, the operating conditions will be ideal.
In air systems the air must be kept clean and properly lubricated for peak efficiency. There are
many cases where fluid power systems have been in regular operation 10, 15 and 20 years. The
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records show that maintenance cost on valves, cylinders and power units has been amazingly low.
Typical Fluid Power Applications
Figure 2 shows a machine used in the manufacture of cast steel gate and globe valves. This
machine consists of three units with 20-inch facing and boring heads, a loading device, a turntable,
and two holding units. Note the large amount of hydraulic equipment employed on this machine.
The 17-spindle, automatic indexing machine shown in Fig. 3
-8-
Produces nine different part sizes in three different part configurations. For altering the machine
operations to accommodate the different size parts, extra cams and speed and feed gears are em-
ployed. Production rates vary from 80 parts per hour gross for I-inch size impulse steam
trap bodies of No. 416 stainless steel, to 170 parts per hour for Ye-inch size bodies of No. 420
stainless steel.
Pneumatic components also are used at various points on the stations to provide certain
movements. Note, in particular, the two air cylinders in the upper center of the photo.
The machine illustrated in Fig. 4 is a die casting machine used for the casting of aluminum filled
electric motor rotors. This machine has an extensive hydraulic system which makes use of several
interlocks to provide the operator with maximum protection. Thus, before the "shot" can be
made, the large door in front of the machine must be closed. The machine illustrated is equipped
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with a large accumulator to provide an assist to the hydraulic pump at peak requirements. A heat
exchanger is used to keep the oil temperature at a safe operating level.
As a rule, die casting machines operate at fairly high operating pressures in comparison to other
types of hydraulic equipment. The operating system may be designed for use with petroleum fluids,
fire resistant fluids, or water. The latter two are more popular due to their ability to resist fire
but are more costly and often require more maintenance.
Figure 5 depicts two vertical hydraulic feed machines, each with an 18-inch stroke; fixed center
head with 18 spindles; I2-inch column extension; and a 36-inch diameter, 4-position rotating table.
There is a special central outside coolant system located between the two machines which services
both of them.
These machines are designed to perform various drilling operations on plier halves. One machine
drills, rough countersinks, finish countersinks, and reams the pivot hole. The other machine
drills center, rough counterbores and finish counterbores. The production rate on each machine is
between 815 and 1028 parts gross per hour, depending upon the parts being run. Note the clamping
cylinders on each of the index tables and the hydraulic power units and controls which operate
these hydraulic cylinders
- 10 -
Figure 6 shows an automatic lathe which is designed for high-speed, high-production

applications. The setup on a machine of this type is easy and convenient, making the machine
adaptable for both short and long run lots. As it is equipped with a twenty-five HP spindle-
drive motor, it is also adaptable for a wide range of both shaft and chucking work. Note the
rotating air cylinder mounted on the back end of the machine spindle, at the left. It is used for
operating
A power chuck, a power operated collet chuck, or some other type of holding device.
An air-operated tailstock unit is available for shaft work where the work piece is held between
centers. The actuation of the tailstock cylinder is by dual push-button for forward, with a single
push-button for return.
The lathe is designed with electrical interlocks so that the sliding sheet-metal guards must be
in place before the machine will operate. Note the window in the front guard which
provides visibility for the operator. All change gear covers are also interlocked and must be
firmly in place before the machine will operate.
- 11 -
.
Figure 7 shows a modern production lathe with fluid power equipment. The air-operated spindle
in the tailstock is mounted on large antifriction bearings to take heavy radial and thrust loads. This
machine will accommodate a 12-inch-diameter air chuck; the machine
Will not start until the chuck jaws are closed and the tailstock spindle is in operating position.
The hydraulic unit
- 12 -
Incorporated in this machine supplies oil: to the carriage feed motor, to the facing and forming
slide cylinder, and to the "Air-Gage Tracer" slide cylinder. Note the bank of hydraulic
controls on the right side of the machine.
A special hydraulically operated shaving machine, illustrated in Fig. 8 is used in shaving
intricate pans for rifles. The hydraulic system on this machine consists of three cylinders, nine
valves, and the pumping unit. The shaving head which is controlled by one hydraulic cylinder
operates with a maximum frequency of 130 strokes per minute. The other two cylinders are used
for operating the work table traversing feed mechanism.
Much fluid power equipment is employed on packaging machinery.
Figure 9 shows a case packer that makes use of both air and hydraulic equipment to take care of
many motions that are required in these versatile machines. Note the hydraulic power unit and
the control valve mounted on top of the case packer and also the air regulator, filter, and
lubricator mounted near the base. Cylinders are mounted on each end. A machine of this type
is especially efficient in the beverage industry where containers and case sizes tend to remain
uniform.
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Ch2 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
CH2
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
2.1 Introduction
The science of Hydraulics in its limited sense and as originally understood, had for its object the
consideration of the laws regulating the flow of water in channels, but it has come to have a wider
significance, and it now embraces, in addition, the study of the principals involved in the pumping of
water and other fluids and their application to the working of different kinds of machines.
The practice of conveying water along artificially constructed channels for irrigation and domestic
purposes dates back into great antiquity. The Egyptians constructed transit canals for warlike
purposes, as early as 3000 B.C., and works for the better utilization of the waters of the Nile were
carried out at an even earlier date. According to Josephus, the gardens of Solomon were made
beautiful by fountains and other water works. The aqueducts of Borne, some of which were
constructed more than 2000 years ago, were among the "wonders of the world," and to-day the city
of Athens is partially supplied with water by means of an aqueduct constructed probably some
centuries before the Christian era.
The science of Hydraulics, however, may be said to have only come into existence at the end of
the seventeenth century when the attention of philosophers was drawn to the problems involved in
the design of the fountains, which came into considerable use in Italian landscape gardens, and
which, according to Bacon, were of "great beauty and refreshment." The founders were principally
Torricelli and Mariotte from the experimental, and Bernoulli from the theoretical, side. The
experiments of Torricelli and of Mariotte to determine the discharge of water through orifices in the
sides of tanks and through short pipes, probably mark the first attempts to determine the laws
regulating the flow of water, and Torricelli's famous theorem may be said to be the foundation of
modern Hydraulics.
Simple machines for the utilisation of the power of natural streams have been made for many
centuries, examples of which are to be found in an interesting work Hydrostatics and Hydraulics
written in English by Stephen Swetzer in 1729, but it has been reserved to the workers of the
nineteenth century to develop all kinds of hydraulic machinery, and to discover the principals
involved in their correct design. Poncelet's enunciation of the correct principles which should
regulate the design of the "floats" or buckets of water wheels, and Fourneyron's application of the
triangle of velocities to the design of turbines, marked a distinct advance, but it must be admitted that
the enormous development of this class of machinery, and the very high standard of efficiency
obtained, is the outcome, not of theoretical deductions, but of experience, and the careful, scientific
interpretation of the results of Experiments.
- 14 -
2.2 characteristics that must be considered

for hydraulic Fluid:
1. Viscosity
2. Chemical Stability
3. Flash Point
4. Fire Point
1-Viscosity
One of the most important properties of any hydraulic fluid is its viscosity. Viscosity is internal
resistance to flow. A liquid such as gasoline that has a low viscosity flows easily, while a liquid such
as tar that has a high viscosity flows slowly. Viscosity increases as temperature decreases. A
satisfactory liquid for a given hydraulic system must have enough body to give a good seal at pumps,
valves, and pistons, but it must not be so thick that it offers resistance to flow, leading to power loss
and higher operating temperatures.
Liquids with a high viscosity have a greater resistance to heat than light or low-viscosity liquids
that have been derived from the same source. The average hydraulic liquid has a low viscosity.
Fortunately, there is a wide choice of liquids available for use within the viscosity range required of
hydraulic liquids.
- 15 -
2- Chemical Stability
Chemical stability is another property that is exceedingly important in selecting a hydraulic
liquid. It is the liquid’s ability to resist oxidation and deterioration for long periods. All liquids tend
to undergo unfavorable chemical changes under severe operating conditions. This is the case, for
example, when a system operates for a considerable period of time at high temperatures. Excessive
temperatures have a great effect on the life of a liquid. It should be noted that the temperature of the
liquid in the reservoir of an operating hydraulic system does not always represent a true state of
operating conditions. Localized hot spots occur on bearings, gear teeth, or at the point where liquid
under pressure is forced through a small orifice
3- Flash Point
Flash point is the temperature at which a liquid gives off vapor in sufficient quantity to ignite
momentarily or flash when a flame is applied. A high flash point is desirable for hydraulic liquids
because it indicates good resistance to combustion and a low degree of evaporation at normal
temperatures.
4- Fire Point
Fire point is the temperature at which a substance gives off vapor in sufficient quantity to ignite
and continue to burn when exposed to a spark or flame. Like flash point, a high fire point is required
of desirable hydraulic liquids.
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2.3 Types of Hydraulic Fluids

To assure proper system operation and to avoid damage to nonmetallic components of the
hydraulic system, the correct fluid must be used. When adding fluid to a system, use the type
specified in the aircraft manufacturer’s maintenance manual or on the instruction plate affixed to the
reservoir or unit being serviced.
The three principal categories of hydraulic fluids are:

1. Minerals
2. Polyalphaolefins
3. Phosphate esters
1- Minerals
Mineral oil-based hydraulic fluid (MIL-H-5606) is the oldest, dating back to the 1940s. It is used
in many systems, especially where the fire hazard is comparatively low. MIL-H-6083 is simply a
rust-inhibited version of MIL-H-5606. They are completely interchangeable. Suppliers generally ship
hydraulic components with MIL-H-6083. Mineral-based hydraulic fluid (MIL–H-5606) is processed
from petroleum. It has an odor similar to penetrating oil and is dyed red. Synthetic rubber seals are
used with petroleum-based fluids
2- Polyalphaolefins
MIL-H-83282 is a fire-resistant hydrogenated polyalphaolefinbased fluid developed in the 1960s to
overcome the flammability characteristics of MIL-H-5606. MIL-H-83282 is significantly more flame
resistant than MIL-H-5606, but a disadvantage is the high viscosity at low temperature. It is
generally limited to –40 °F. However, it can be used in the same system and with the same seals,
gaskets, and hoses as MIL-H-5606. MIL-H-46170 is the rust-inhibited version of MIL-H-83282.
Small aircraft predominantly use MIL-H-5606, but some have switched to MIL-H-83282 if they can
accommodate the high viscosity at low temperature
3- Phosphate esters
These fluids are used in most commercial transport category aircraft and are extremely fire-
resistant. However, they are not fireproof and under certain conditions, they burn. The earliest
generation of these fluids was developed after World War II as a result of the growing number of
aircraft hydraulic brake fires that drew the collective concern of the commercial aviation industry.
Progressive development of these fluids occurred as a result of performance requirements of newer
aircraft designs. The airframe manufacturers dubbed these new generations of hydraulic fluid as
types based on their performance.
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2-4 DEVELOPMENT OF HYDRAULICS

Although the modern development of hydraulics is comparatively recent, the ancients were
familiar with many hydraulic principles and their applications. The Egyptians and the ancient
people of Persia, India, and China conveyed water along channels for irrigation and
domestic purposes, using dams and sluice gates to control the flow. The ancient Cretans had an
elaborate plumbing system. Archimedes studied the laws of floating and submerged bodies. The
Romans constructed aqueducts to carry water to their cities.
After the breakup of the ancient world, there were few new developments for many centuries. Then,
over a comparatively short period, beginning near the end of the seventeenth century, Italian
physicist, Evangelista Torricelli, French physicist, Edme Marriott, and later, Daniel Bernoulli
conducted experiments to study the elements of force in the discharge of water through small
openings in the sides of tanks and through short pipes. During the same period, Blaise Pascal, a
French scientist, discovered the fundamental law for the science of hydraulics.
Pascal’s principle
Pascal’s principle, also called Pascal’s law, in fluid (gas or liquid) mechanics, statement that, in a
fluid at rest in a closed container, a pressure change in one part is transmitted without loss to every
portion of the fluid and to the walls of the container. The principle was first enunciated by the French
scientist Blaise Pascal.
Pressure is equal to the force divided by the area on which it acts. According to Pascal’s principle,
in a hydraulic system a pressure exerted on a piston produces an equal increase in pressure on
another piston in the system. If the second piston has an area 10 times that of the first, the force on
the second piston is 10 times greater, though the pressure is the same as that on the first piston. This
- 18 -
effect is exemplified by the hydraulic press, based on Pascal’s principle, which is used in such
applications as hydraulic brakes.
Pascal also discovered that the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the same in all directions; the
pressure would be the same on all planes passing through a specific point. This fact is also known as
Pascal’s principle, or Pascal’s law.
Archimedes’ principle
Archimedes’ principle, physical law of buoyancy, discovered by the ancient Greek mathematician
and inventor Archimedes, stating that any body completely or partially submerged in a fluid (gas or
liquid) at rest is acted upon by an upward, or buoyant, force the magnitude of which is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
The buoyant force can be expressed as:

FB = W
=Vγ
=Vρg
or
Vb ρb g = Vw ρw g
FB = buoyant force acting on the submerged or floating body (N, lbf)
W = weight (gravity force) of the displaced liquid (N, lbf)
V = volume of the body below the surface of the liquid (m3, ft3)
γ = specific weight of the fluid (weight per unit volume) (N/m3, nlbf/ft3)
ρ = density of the fluid (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2, 32.174 ft/s2)
Vb = volume body (m3)
- 19 -
ρb = density body (kg/m3)
Vw = volume water (m3)

ρw = density water (kg/m3)
The volume of displaced fluid is equivalent to the volume of an object fully immersed in a fluid or
to that fraction of the volume below the surface for an object partially submerged in a liquid.The
weight of the displaced portion of the fluid is equivalent to the magnitude of the buoyant force.The
buoyant force on a body floating in a liquid or gas is also equivalent in magnitude to the weight of
the floating object and is opposite in direction; the object neither rises nor sinks.
For example, a ship that is launched sinks into the ocean until the weight of the water it displaces is
just equal to its own weight. As the ship is loaded, it sinks deeper, displacing more water, and so the
magnitude of the buoyant force continuously matches the weight of the ship and its cargo.
If the weight of an object is less than that of the displaced fluid, the object rises, as in the case of a
block of wood that is released beneath the surface of water or a helium-filled balloon that is let loose
in air. An object heavier than the amount of the fluid it displaces, though it sinks when released, has
an apparent weight loss equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. In fact, in some accurate weighing,
a correction must be made in order to compensate for the buoyancy effect of the surrounding air.
- 20 -
The buoyant force, which always opposes gravity, is nevertheless caused by gravity. Fluid
pressure increases with depth because of the (gravitational) weight of the fluid above. This
increasing pressure applies a force on a submerged object that increases with depth. The result is
buoyancy.
*Archimedes' Principle explains why steel ships float
If the weight of the water displaced is less than the weight of the object, the object will sink
Otherwise the object will float, with the weight of the water displaced equal to the weight of the
object.
- 21 -
2.5 Fluids and their properties

The fluid used in aircraft hydraulic systems is one of the system’s most important parts.
Characteristics of Hydraulic Fluids:

 The fluid must flow with a minimum of opposition.
 Must be incompressible
 Good lubricating properties
 Inhibit corrosion and not attack seals
 Must not foam in operation
The name fluid is given, in general, to a body which offers very small resistance to deformation,
and which takes the shape of the body with which it is in contact. If a solid body rests upon a
horizontal plane, a force is required to move the body over the plane, or to overcome the friction
between the body and the plane. If the plane is very smooth the force may be very small, and if we
conceive the plane to be perfectly smooth the smallest imaginable force would move the Body.
If in a fluid, a horizontal plane be imagined separating the fluid into two parts, the force necessary
to cause the upper part to slide over the lower will be very small indeed, and any force, however
small, applied to the fluid above the plane and parallel to it, will cause motion, or in other words will
cause a deformation of the fluid.
Similarly, if a very thin plate be immersed in the fluid in any direction, the plate can be made to
separate the fluid into two parts by the application to the plate of an infinitesimal force, and in the
imaginary perfect fluid this force would be zero Viscosity. Fluids found in nature are not perfect and
are said to have viscosity; but when they are at rest the conditions of equilibrium can be obtained,
with sufficient accuracy, on the assumption that they are perfect fluids, and that therefore no
tangential stresses can exist along any plane in a fluid.
This branch of the study of fluids is called Hydrostatics; when the laws of movement of fluids are
considered, as in Hydraulics, these tangential, or frictional forces have to be taken into consideration.
Compressible and incompressible fluids

There are two kinds of fluids, gases and liquids, or those which are easily compressed, and those
which are compressed with difficulty. The amount by which the volumes of the latter are altered for
a very large variation in the pressure is so small that in practical problems this variation is entirely
neglected, and they are therefore considered as incompressible fluids.
- 22 -
In this volume only incompressible fluids are considered, and attention is confined, almost entirely,
to the one fluid, water.
Density and specific gravity

The density of any substance is the weight of unit volume at the standard temperature and pressure.
The specific gravity of any substance at any temperature and pressure is the ratio of the weight of
unit volume to the weight of unit volume of pure water at the standard temperature and pressure.
In the case of water, the presence of salts in solution is of greater importance in determining the
density than variations of temperature.
Hydrostatics
A knowledge of the principles of hydrostatics is very helpful in approaching the subject of
hydraulics, and in the wider sense in which the latter word is now used it may be said to include the
former. It is, therefore, advisable to consider the laws of fluids at rest. There are two cases to
consider. First, fluids at rest under the action of gravity, and second, those cases in which the fluids
- 23 -
are at rest, or are moving very slowly, and are contained in closed vessels in which pressures of any
magnitude act upon the fluid, as, for instance, in hydraulic lifts and presses
Intensity of pressure
The intensity of pressure at any point in a fluid is the pressure exerted upon unit area, if the
pressure on the unit area is uniform and is exerted at the same rate as at the point.Consider any little
element of area a, about a point in the fluid, and upon which the pressure is uniform.
If p is the total pressure on a, the Intensity of Pressure P, is then p=P/a , or when P and a are
indefinitely diminished, p=dp/da
The pressure on any horizontal plane in a fluid must be constant

Consider a small cylinder of a fluid joining any two points A and B on the same horizontal plane
in the fluid.
Since there can be no tangential forces acting on the cylinder parallel to the axis, the cylinder
must be in equilibrium under the pressures on the ends A and B of the cylinder, and since these are
of equal area, the pressure must be the same at each end of the cylinder.
Fluids at rest, with the free surface horizontal.

The pressure per unit area at any depth h below the free surface of a fluid due to the weight of the
fluid is equal to the weight of a column of fluid of height h and of unit sectional area
fluid be p Ibs. If the fluid is in a closed vessel, the pressure p may have any assigned value, but if the
free surface is exposed to the atmosphere, p will be the atmospheric pressure.
If a small open tube AB, of length h, and cross sectional area a, be placed in the fluid, the weight
per unit volume of which is w Ibs., with its axis vertical, and its upper end A coincident with the
surface of the fluid, the weight of fluid in the cylinder must be w.a.h Ibs. The pressure acting on the
end A of the column is pa Ibs.
Since there cannot be any force acting on the column parallel to the sides of the tube, the force of
wah Ibs. + pa Ibs. must be kept in equilibrium by the pressure of the external fluid acting on the fluid
in the cylinder at the end B. The pressure per unit area at B, therefore, =(wah+pa)/a=wh+p ibs.
The pressure per unit area, therefore, due to the weight of the fluid only is wh Ibs.In the case of
water, w may be taken as 62'40 Ibs. per cubic foot and the pressure per sq. foot at a depth of h feet is,
therefore, 62'40/z, Ibs., and per sq. inch .433h Ibs.
It should be noted that the pressure is independent of the form of the vessel, and simply depends
upon the vertical depth of the point considered below the surface of the fluid. This can be illustrated
by the different vessels shown in Fig. 2. If these were all connected together by means of a pipe, the
fluid when at rest would stand at the same level in all of them, and on any horizontal plane AB the
pressure would be the same.
- 24 -
If now the various vessels were sealed from each other by closing suitable valves, and the pipe
taken away without disturbing the level CD in any case, the intensity of pressure on AB would
remain unaltered, and would be, in all cases, equal to wh.
The barometer
A barometer is a scientific instrument used in meteorology to measure atmospheric pressure.
Pressure tendency can forecast short term changes in the weather. Numerous measurements of air
pressure are used within surface weather analysis to help find surface troughs, high pressure systems
and frontal boundaries.
Barometers and pressure altimeters (the most basic and common type of altimeter) are essentially
the same instrument, but used for different purposes. An altimeter is intended to be transported from
place to place matching the atmospheric pressure to the corresponding altitude, while a barometer is
kept stationary and measures subtle pressure changes caused by weather. The main exception to this
is ships at sea, which can use a barometer because their elevation does not change. Due to the
presence of weather systems, aircraft altimeters may need to be adjusted as they fly between regions
of varying normalized atmospheric pressure.
- 25 -
2.6 Fluid Power Advantages

A hydraulic system has four major advantages, which makes it quite efficient in transmitting power
1. Ease and accuracy of control: By the use of simple levers and push buttons, the operator of a
hydraulic system can easily start, stop, speed up and slow down.
2. Multiplication of force: A fluid power system (without using cumbersome gears, pulleys and
levers) can multiply forces simply and efficiently from a fraction of a pound, to several hundred tons
of output.
3. Constant force and torque: Only fluid power systems are capable of providing a constant
torque or force regardless of speed changes.
4. Simple, safe and economical: In general, hydraulic systems use fewer moving parts in
comparison with mechanical and electrical systems. Thus they become simpler and easier to
maintain.
- 26 -
Hydraulic systems also share many benefits for the machines in

which they are installed. These include:
 high horsepower-to-weight ratio — You could probably hold a 5hp hydraulic motor in the
palm of your hand, but a 5hp electric motor might weight 40 lb or more.
 safety in hazardous environments because they are inherently spark-free and can tolerate high
temperatures.
 high torque at low speed — unlike electric motors, pneumatic and hydraulic motors can
produce high torque while operating at low rotational speeds. Some fluid power motors can even
maintain torque at zero speed without overheating
 pressurized fluids can be transmitted over long distances and through complex machine
configurations with only a small loss in power
 multi-functional control — a single hydraulic pump or air compressor can provide power to
many cylinders, motors, or other actuators
 elimination of complicated mechanical trains of gears, chains, belts, cams, and linkages
 motion can be almost instantly reversed
 Hydraulic system is widely used in stationary (industrial) and off-highway (mobile)
equipment.
Hydraulic systems are widely used when heavy force or torque is involved, such as lifting loads
weighing several tons, crushing or pressing strong materials like rock and solid metal, and digging,
lifting, and moving large amounts of earth. In this case, electronic controls and sensors have been
implemented into fluid power systems for the last few decades. These electronics make hydraulic
systems faster, more precise and efficient, more reliable, and allow them to be tied into statistical
process control and other factory and mobile equipment control networks.
In spite of possessing all these highly desirable features,

hydraulic systems also have certain drawbacks, some of which
are:
1. Handling of hydraulic oils which can be quite messy. It is also very difficult to completely
eliminate leakage in a hydraulic system.
2. Hydraulic lines can burst causing serious human injuries.
3. Most hydraulic fluids have a tendency to catch fire in the event of leakage, especially in hot
regions.
Hydraulic systems contain highly pressurized fluid. This can cause burns, bruises or the accidental
injection of fluid into the body, according to Colorado State University. Hydraulic systems must be
periodically checked for leaks and lubricated, and filters must be changed regularly.
- 27 -
2.7 Aircraft Hydraulic Systems

Hydraulic systems in aircraft provide a means for the operation of aircraft components. The
operation of landing gear, flaps, flight control surfaces, and brakes is largely accomplished with
hydraulic power systems. Hydraulic system complexity varies from small aircraft that require fluid
only for manual operation of the wheel brakes to large transport aircraft where the systems are large
and complex.
To achieve the necessary redundancy and reliability, the system may consist of several subsystems.
Each subsystem has a power generating device (pump) reservoir, accumulator, heat exchanger,
filtering system, etc. System operating pressure may vary from a couple hundred pounds per square
inch (psi) in small aircraft and rotorcraft to 5,000 psi in large transports.
Hydraulic Fluid Contamination

Experience has shown that trouble in a hydraulic system is inevitable whenever the liquid is
allowed to become contaminated. The nature of the trouble, whether a simple malfunction or the
complete destruction of a component, depends to some extent on the type of contaminant. Two
general contaminants are:
 Abrasives, including such particles as core sand, weld spatter, machining chips, and rust.
 Nonabrasives, including those resulting from oil oxidation and soft particles worn or
shredded from seals and other organic components.
Contamination Check
Whenever it is suspected that a hydraulic system has become contaminated or the system has been
operated at temperatures in excess of the specified maximum, a check of the system should be made.
The filters in most hydraulic systems are designed to remove most foreign particles that are visible to
the naked eye. Hydraulic liquid that appears clean to the naked eye may be contaminated to the point
that it is unfit for use.
- 28 -
Thus, visual inspection of the hydraulic liquid does not determine the total amount of contamination
in the system. Large particles of impurities in the hydraulic system are indications that one or more
components are being subjected to excessive wear. Isolating the defective component requires a
systematic process of elimination. Fluid returned to the reservoir may contain impurities from any
part of the system.
To determine which component is defective, liquid samples should be taken from the reservoir and
various other locations in the system. Samples should be taken in accordance with the applicable
manufacturer’s instructions for a particular hydraulic system. Some hydraulic systems are equipped
with permanently installed bleed valves for taking liquid samples, whereas on other systems, lines
must be disconnected to provide a place to take a sample.
Hydraulic Sampling Schedule

 Routine sampling—each system should be sampled at least once a year, or every 3,000 flight
hours, or whenever the airframe manufacturer suggests.
 Unscheduled maintenance—when malfunctions may have a fluid related cause, samples
should be taken.
 Suspicion of contamination—if contamination is suspected, fluids should be drained and
replaced, with samples taken before and after the maintenance procedure.
- 29 -
Sampling Procedure
 Pressurize and operate hydraulic system for 10–15 minutes. During this period, operate
various flight controls to activate valves and thoroughly mix hydraulic fluid.
 Shut down and depressurize the system.
 Before taking samples, always be sure to wear the proper personal protective equipment that
should include, at the minimum, safety glasses and gloves.
 Wipe off sampling port or tube with a lint-free cloth. Do not use shop towels or paper
products that could produce lint. Generally speaking, the human eye can see particles down to about
40 microns in size. Since we are concerned with particles down to 5 microns in size, it is easy to
contaminate a sample without ever knowing it.
 Place a waste container under the reservoir drain valve and open valve so that a steady, but
not forceful, stream is running.
 Allow approximately 1 pint (250 ml) of fluid to drain. This purges any settled particles from
the sampling port.
 Insert a precleaned sample bottle under the fluid stream and fill, leaving an air space at the
top. Withdraw the bottle and cap immediately.
 Close drain valve.
 Fill out sample identification label supplied in sample kit, making sure to include customer
name, aircraft type, aircraft tail number, hydraulic system sampled, and date sampled. Indicate on the
sample label under remarks if this is a routine sample or if it is being taken due to a suspected
problem.
 Service system reservoirs to replace the fluid that was removed.
 Submit samples for analysis to laboratory.
Contamination Control
Filters provide adequate control of the contamination problem during all normal hydraulic system
operations. Control of the size and amount of contamination entering the system from any other
source is the responsibility of the people who service and maintain the equipment.
Therefore, precautions should be taken to minimize contamination during maintenance, repair, and
service operations. If the system becomes contaminated, the filter element should be removed and
cleaned or replaced. As an aid in controlling contamination, the following maintenance and
servicing procedures should be followed at all times:
• Maintain all tools and the work area (workbenches and test equipment) in a clean, dirt-free
condition.
• A suitable container should always be provided to receive the hydraulic liquid that is spilled during
component removal or disassembly procedures.
- 30 -
• Before disconnecting hydraulic lines or fittings, clean the affected area with dry cleaning solvent.
• All hydraulic lines and fittings should be capped or plugged immediately after disconnecting.
• Before assembly of any hydraulic components, wash all parts in an approved dry cleaning solvent.
• After cleaning the parts in the dry cleaning solution, dry the parts thoroughly and lubricate them
with the recommended preservative or hydraulic liquid before assembly. Use only clean, lint-free
cloths to wipe or dry the component parts.
• All seals and gaskets should be replaced during the reassembly procedure. Use only those seals and
gaskets recommended by the manufacturer.
• All parts should be connected with care to avoid stripping metal slivers from threaded areas. All
fittings and lines should be installed and torqued in accordance with applicable technical instructions.
• All hydraulic servicing equipment should be kept clean and in good operating condition
- 31 -
The filter rating is given in microns as an indication of the smallest particle size that is filtered out.
The replacement interval of these filters is established by the manufacturer and is included in the
maintenance manual. In the absence of specific replacement instructions, a recommended service life
of the filter elements is:
• Pressure filters—3,000 hours
• Return Filters—1,500 hours
• Case drain filters—600 hours
Hydraulic System Flushing

When inspection of hydraulic filters or hydraulic fluid evaluation indicates that the fluid is
contaminated, flushing the system may be necessary. This must be done according to the
manufacturer’s instructions; however, a typical procedure for flushing is as follows:
1. Connect a ground hydraulic test stand to the inlet and outlet test ports of the system. Verify that
the ground unit fluid is clean and contains the same fluid as
the aircraft.
2. Change the system filters.
3. Pump clean, filtered fluid through the system, and operate all subsystems until no obvious signs
of contamination are found during inspection of the filters. Dispose of contaminated fluid and filter.
Note: A visual inspection of hydraulic filters is not always effective.
4. Disconnect the test stand and cap the ports.
5. Ensure that the reservoir is filled to the full line or proper service level.
It is very important to check if the fluid in the hydraulic test stand, or mule, is clean before the
flushing operation starts. A contaminated hydraulic test stand can quickly contaminate other aircraft
if used for ground maintenance operations.
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2.8 Hydraulic system components:

Reservoir -- holds an extra supply of fluid for system from which oil was drawn when needed,
or oil was returned to it when not needed.
Accumulator -- absorbs pulsation within the hydraulic system and helps reduce "linehammer
effects" (pulses that feel and sound like a hammer has hit the hydraulic tubes). It is an emergency
source of power and it acts as another reservoir.
Filter -- removes impurities in the hydraulic system and in the reservoir. The reservoir has one
big filter inside the tank.
Power Pump -- it changes mechanical horsepower (HP) to hydraulic HP.

System Relief Valve -- relieves pressure on system as a safety measure and takes over as
a pressure regulator when pressure regulator fails.
Pressure Regulator -- as the name implies, regulates the pressure in the hydraulic
system. When it senses a built-up in pressure in the lines to the selector valves, it acts so that the
system automatically goes to bypass.
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Aircraft Hydraulic System Reservoir:

Functions of the Reservoir
Provides air space for expansion of the oil due to temperature changes
Holds a reserve supply of oil to account for
thermal contraction of oil.
normal leakage - oil is used to lubricate piston rods and cylinder seals. When the piston rod moves, it
is scraped to remove impurities that might collect on the rod when returning into actuating cylinders.
If many actuating cylinders are operating at the same time, then the amount of oil lost is greater.
emergency supply of oil - this case occurs only when the hand pump is used.
volume changes due to operational requirements - oil needed on side 2 of piston head is less than that
needed on side 1 of cylinder piston (which occurs during actuation).
Provides a place to remove air or foam from liquid.
Provide a pressure head on the pump, that is, a pressure head due to gravity and depends upon the
distance of the reservoir above the power pump.
The best shape is a domed cylindrical shape. Not only can it be mounted easily, but it can be made to
order.
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Aircraft Hydraulic System Power Pumps:

Function
The function of the hydraulic system power pump is to change mechanical horsepower to hydraulic
horsepower. In general, the pump draws fluid from the reservoir and pumps it to the system at a
pressure of about 4000 psi (27.6 MPa).
Types of Power Pumps:

There are two types of power pumps, a gear pump and a piston
pump.
Gear pumps have efficiencies that average about 70-80% overall efficiency, where overall efficiency
is defined as:
overall efficiency = (mechanical efficiency)*(volumetric efficiency)
Gear pumps move fluid based upon the number of gear teeth and the volume spacing between gear
teeth.
Piston pumps move fluid by pushing it through the motion of the pistons within the pump. They can
generate overall efficiencies in the 90-95% range.
Principles of Operation:
Gear type pumps are ideal when working with pressures up to 1500 lb./sq.in. As mentioned
previously, the volumetric efficiency of gear pumps depends upon the number of teeth, the engine
speed and the tooth area.
As the liquid comes from the reservoir, it is pushed between the gear teeth. The oil is moved around
to the other side by the action of the drive gear itself and sent through the pressure line. What makes
- 35 -
the oil squeeze in between the gear teeth? gravity and the pressure head. To prevent leakage of oil
from the high to the low pressure side from occurring, you can make the gears fit better.
You might want to increase the pressure used to move the fluid along. However, the higher the
pressure, the higher the friction loading on the teeth. Friction will develop heat which will expand the
gears and cause the pump to seize (parts will weld together and gears will stop rotating). In order to
stop this, you can have the pump case, the gears, and the bearings made out of different materials,
(e.g., steel gears [1-1/2 inch thick], bronze bearings, aluminum casing). Normally, the gear speed is
higher than the engine speed (normally 1.4 times the engine speed).
Oil can leak over and under the gears. To prevent leakage, you can press the bearings up against the
gears. This decreases seepage but this decreases the mechanical efficiency when friction increases.
Even though oil acts as lubricant, seizing can occur when oil is drained from the hydraulic system.
As mentioned previously, we can push the bearings up against the gears to decrease leakage. As F
increases, M decreases, thus, the gears and bushing increase in friction and mechanical efficiency
decreases. When you increase the pressure on the inlet side of the pump, leakage will increase
around the gears. To reduce the leakage, you must push the bearings and gears closer, causing an
increase in friction. That is why inlet pressures over 1500 lb/sq in, are not used.
Principle of the Shear Shaft

Gear pumps are built using a shear shaft principle. That is, if the pump fails, the shear shaft breaks
and this allows each of the gears to rotate in its own part of the system (pump side or engine side)
and nothing else will happen to the system. This phenomenon is similar to a fuse in an electrical
system. When the electrical system overloads, the fuse breaks, causing the circuit to break without
damaging the rest of the electrical circuit.
Principle of the Reciprocating Piston Pump

These kind of pumps attain volumetric efficiencies of up to 98% and they can maintain pressures
from 1500 to 6000 psi. They can achieve overall efficiencies of up to 92% and can move fluid
volumes up to 35 gallons per minute.
As the cylinder block rotates, space between the block and the pistons increase, letting in more oil.
As the block rotates from bottom dead center, the reverse occurs and the pistons push oil out through
the outlet. When the pistons move down, the suction caused by the vacuum from the space, created
by the movement of the piston, pulls in oil. Changing the angle between the swash plate and the
cylinder block gives a longer pumping action and causes more fluid to be pulled in. As the cylinder
block rotates, the piston cylinder openings over the inlet and the outlet vary. When cylinders 4-6 take
in hydraulic fluid and act as the inlet to the pump, then cylinders 1-3 push the hydraulic fluid out and
act as outlet to the pump.
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As the shaft and swash plate rotate, the piston will suck oil into the cylinder block and as the shaft
and swash plate keep on rotating, the piston pushes oil out through the outlet. Pumps can be made to
move more or less oil volume.
Engine driven pump

Figure shows a radial engine driven pump
- 37 -
Pumps can also be classified as:

- Fixed volume pump designed that it delivers fluid all the time it is running.
- Variable volume pump may also be called a constant pressure or self-idling pump. Its
mechanism is incorporated to allow the pump to vary its output depending on system requirements. It
will shut off the supply completely should system pressure reach normal maximum.
fixed
volume axial pump
Variable axial pump
Automatic cut-out valve (ACOV):

This is fitted downstream of a fixed volume pump, and it allows the pump to run 'off-load' when the
services do not require fluid. When the system requires fluid, this will be pumped through the non-
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return valve (NRV) which is built into the ACOV. When system pressure reaches its normal
maximum, the pressure pushes the piston up and opens the poppet valve. This allows fluid from the
pump to return to the reservoir, and the pressure in the system shuts the NRV. This state will be
maintained until system pressure falls.
Hydraulic System Check Valves
Function of Check Valves

Check Valves are hydraulic devices which permit flow of fluid in one direction only.
Check Valve Used in Aircrafts
Poppet type valve is the preferred type that is used in hydraulics now. The front of the poppet (left
side of the picture above) sits snugly on the hard seat (darker shaded areas on the left side). The
- 39 -
poppet works on the following principle. When high pressure fluid (with pressure P1 ) comes in on
the left, it forces the poppet open. Since P1>P2 , the force on the left side of the poppet (F1) is greater
than the force due to the spring (F2 ) and is just enough to open the poppet. But, when flow stops, or
there is a high pressure flow from the right side of the poppet, then P2>P1 and the pressure forces the
poppet against the valve seat, closing off the opening. Thus the fluid is allowed to flow through in
one direction only.
Check valves are designed so as not to tolerate leakage. The purpose of the light spring is only to
keep the poppet on the seat.
Most manufacturers use sharp-edged, very hard seats and soft, maybe plastic, poppets. Parallel seats
are very good except that they are too prone to trapping contaminants between the seat and the
poppet.
Pressure Control (Pressure limiting device-relief valves)

Function
To limit the pressure of some section of the hydraulic system when the pressure has reached a
predetermined level. That pressure level may be considered dangerous and, therefore, must be
limited.
Principle of Operation
The adjustment screw at the top of the pressure relief valve is set for a certain pressure value, let us
call it P2. In general, even with a pressure of P1, the poppet would lift up, except that the spring is
strong and has downward force forcing the poppet closed. Poppet will not move until a pressure
greater than that required is felt by the system (i.e., P1>P2). When the pressure increases, the poppet
will move up, forcing the excess liquid to move through opening at high velocity. On other side of
seat, pressure is zero because the back side of the relief valve is connected to the return line. When
the pressure in the system decreases below maximum, poppet will return to its seated position,
- 40 -
sealing the orifice and allowing the fluid to follow its normal path. These type of pressure relief
valves are only made to be used intermittently.
Circuits Using Pressuring Limiting Devices (PLDs)

The power system where the system relief valve is used to back up the regulator is an example of a
use of the PLD. In such a system, the pressure setting, P2, is set 125% above the system pressure.
Rate of flow is dependent upon engine speed.
Thermal relief valves are set at 150% of system pressure. When the temperature (T) changes, the
liquid expands more than the expansion of the hydraulic tubing. Since T increases, the pressure (P)
increases. Thus, the tubing will burst unless there are thermal relief valves in the system. Set at one
pressure, the thermal relief valves are connected to the return lines because the pressure there is close
to nil. This only works when the selector valve is set in the neutral position.
Force Limiting Device (FLD) Suppose that we want 1000 pounds of force to move a certain control
surface. But our system can deliver 3000 pounds per square inch. If that pressure can be delivered on
a 2 square inch piston head that moves the control surface, we would be= 6000 lb, a much higher
force than is needed. We can put a force limiting relief valve (FLD) which would limit the force to
1000 lb by adjusting the FLD to act when the pressure reaches 500 psi (1000 lb/ 2 square inches).
Hydraulic System Accumulator

Principle of Operation
At the bottom of the accumulator is a gas valve. Compressed gas at about one half the system
pressure is let into the accumulator through the gas valve. This forces the diaphragm that separates
the oil side from the gas side to "pop" up towards the oil side. Then oil is sent through the system.
- 41 -
When the system pressure reaches a point when it is greater than the pressure of the accumulator, the
diaphragm will deploy (inflate). Using Boyle’s Law, the compressed gas will increase in pressure as
its volume decreases. The diaphragm will move up or down, depending on system pressure.
When the diaphragm is at half way, the gas volume will be ½ as much as it was initially, while the
accumulator pressure will be twice as much as its pre-load pressure (i.e., 1/2 system pressure).
Therefore, when the accumulator is at half volume of gas, it will be charged at full system pressure.
Uses of an Accumulator
1. Absorbs the shocks due to rapid pressure variations in a hydraulic system
2. Helps maintain a constant pressure within the hydraulic system
3. Helps the hydraulic pump under peak pressure loads
4. It is an emergency source of power (the braking system has its own accumulator)
The preload is checked every day. Nitrogen and helium are preferred to compressed air. Oxygen
leaks into the oil will cause spontaneous combustion and that is why it is not used in the
accumulator. Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is not used because it liquefies at 800 or 900 psi (which is
considered low pressure compared to the pressure requirements of the system). The accumulator has
to withstand about 450,000 lb of force. The spherical shape is used because a monocoque (single
shell) body is the strongest and can withstand high pressures before failing.
Pressure Regulation in Hydraulic Systems

If a system relief valve (SRV) were used to regulate pressure, it would have to be replaced in a very
short time. This would be due to the overuse of the SRV and the failure of the spring's elasticity. If
the SRV were used, the oil pushing on the spring-ball combination would cause tremendous
- 42 -
vibrations and heat would be dissipated by the oil under high pressure attempting to push the ball
away from the seat to get to the low pressure side.
Douglass Pressure Regulator
When an actuating cylinder finishes its motion and stops, a high pressure will be felt through the
system. If so, this high pressure oil coming from the power pump (right side of diagram) will keep
check valve C open and also act on piston A. In its movement, piston A pushes Ball B off seat D.
The oil, taking the passage of least resistance, goes through passage D into the center chamber back
to the reservoir. The pressure on the right side of check valve C will drop and will be less than the
pressure on the left side of C, therefore, causing the ball to seat itself in check valve C. When the
hydraulic system pressure drops, the pressure on piston A decreases, causing a decrease in pressure
on B as well. The path of least resistance through D will close and the oil will move in the direction
towards check valve C. Now, because the pressure on the right side of C is greater than on the left of
C, the check valve will be forced open and the oil will move toward the selector valve side of the
system (left side of diagram). The range of operation of the pressure regulator is defined by the
difference in force required for bypass and the force required at actuation.
Flow Control
Selector Valves
Selector valves are used as (1) directional control devices to insure the movement of the hydraulic
fluid flow in the proper direction, and (2) as stop-locks to lock the selector switch in a certain
position.
Types
There are two types of selector valves. They are piston type and poppet type.
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Piston Type
Positions 1, 2 and 3 (shown below) are representative positions for the piston-type selector valve.
Position (1) is the position of the selector valve, for example, upon the extension of the landing gear
or the lowering of flaps. Position (2) is the position of the selector valve upon retraction of the
landing gear or the raising of the flaps. Position (3) is the stop-locking position of this type of valve.
This piston type valve uses the Vickers spool mechanism in which the piston "lands" isolate the high
pressure oil from the low pressure oil.
Poppet Type - Stacked Poppet

In this type valve, any movement of the handle (at the lower right of the diagram) changes the
camshaft and cam settings, thereby opening and closing the poppet valves and letting high and low
- 44 -
2.9 Actuation Cylinders

The function of the actuating cylinder is to take the pressure and hydraulic fluid flow and change
them into either linear or rotary motion. The ones that have been employed more commonly are the
double action actuating cylinders, because they work in both directions.
A. Single Piston, Single Rod

This type of actuating cylinder has one piston connected to one rod. Such a device requires the piston
rod to move into the actuating cylinder to cause one motion to occur and to move out of the cylinder
to cause the reverse motion to occur.
B. Single Piston, Double Rod

This is an equal displacement cylinder and could be used on an aileron system or an automatic
guidance system.
The piston ends can be attached to a pulley system that can pivot a control surface. The motion of
the piston to the right, due to high pressure fluid in the left side of the actuating cylinder, can be
activate the pulley system and pivot the control surface upward. By reversing the flow, the opposite
motion will occur.
C. Double Piston, Double Rod

This type of actuating cylinder would be used on bomb bay doors (figure shown below right). High
pressure fluid enters the center section of the cylinder, acting on the two pistons simultaneously. The
rods would be extended outward, causing the doors to rotate open. When the high pressure fluid
enters the two end sections, this operation is reversed, closing the bomb bay doors.
- 45 -
Single Action Cylinders

Bungee Type- this type of actuating cylinder is used where gravity or weight can act as high pressure
oil. Either a rubber mass or a spring loading device counteracts the weight. Its disadvantages include:
The decrease in piston stroke on account of weight and size of spring or inserted rubber mass;
The fact that oil on the spring side of the piston must move both the piston and the spring;
The size and weight of the spring to do the job might be too great.
Locking Cylinder
The locking cylinder is a cylinder which has a locking device attached to it. This cylinder is a "fail-
safe" design so that it will not actuate beyond some given point.
 The locking cylinder is part of the Fail-safe design philosophy: if the cylinder is
malfunctioning, it should fail in a position that is safe for the rest of the flight.
Stationary Piston-Moveable Cylinder

Whenever we don’t want the piston rod to extend into an environment that can damage the rod or
contaminate the hydraulic fluid (for example, a stream of sea spray or in the path of little pebbles
when landing or taking off from a rough airstrip), we make the piston cylinder extend instead of the
piston rod. The type of cylinder we use is the stationary piston moveable cylinder.
- 46 -
2.10 landing gear

The landing gear is a retractable tricycle type consisting of two, wing root mounted, main landing
gear assemblies and a forward, fuselage mounted, steerable, nose landing gear assembly. The main
landing gear assemblies retract inboard and the nose landing gear assembly retracts forward. Each
landing gear has a nitrogen filled shock strut to absorb and dissipate the shock loads encountered
when the aircraft lands.The landing gear subsystems are as follows:
1. Landing gear extension and retraction.

2. Landing gear doors.
3. Alternate landing gear extension.
4. Nose wheel steering.
5. Brake system.
6. Antiskid.
Figure 1.1: The landing gear subsystems
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Aircraft Landing Gear Systems
TYPES OF LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENT

 Tail wheel type (Conventional).
 Tandem loading gear (longitudinally Aligned) .
 Tricycle type landing gear.
 Fixed Landing Gear: A gear is attached to the airframe and remains exposed to the slip stream
as the air craft is flown.
 Retraction Type: Stowed in fuselage or wing compartments while in flight. As speed of aircraft
increases the drag caused by the landing gear becomes Greater and a means to retract the gear to
eliminate parasite drag is required.
 Shock Absorbing: The shock energy is altered and transferred throughout the airframe at a
different rate and time than the single strong pulse of impact.
 Non Shock Absorbing: The shock is absorbed by converting the energy into heat energy.
Landing gear alignment &Support

This is set by the manufacturer and only requires occasional attention such as after a hard
landing.The aircraft’s main wheels must be inspected and adjusted, if necessary, to maintain the
proper tow-in or tow-out and the correct camber. Tow-in and tow-out refer to the path a main wheel
would take in relation to the airframe longitudinal axis or centreline if the wheel was free to roll
forward. Three possibilities exist. The wheel would roll either:
 Parallel to the longitudinal axis (aligned).
 Converge on the longitudinal axis (tow-in).
 Veer away from the longitudinal axis (tow-out).
- 48 -
Figure 1-2: Wheel alignment on an aircraf
Aircraft landing gear are attached to the wing spars or other structural members. Retractable gear
must be engineered in such a way as to provide strong attachment to the aircraft and still be able to
move into a recess or well when stowed. The trunion is a fixed structural extension of the upper strut
cylinder with bearing surfaces that allow the entire gear assembly to move
.Figure 1.3 A hinged drag strut holds the trunnion and gear firm. to allow the gear to retract
Figure 1-4: A popular light aircraft gear retraction system

- 49 -
Landing Gear Retraction Systems

Retraction System Operationi. When the aircraft is in the air, the pilot can retract the landing gear by
moving the landing gear handle to the GEAR-UP. ii. The landing gear handle actuates a switch that
turns on the hydraulic pump motor in the power pack so that it turns in the direction shown in Figure
. iii. Fluid flow through the filter and the check valve on the left side of the pump, around the gears
and out the right side, down to the gear-up check valve. iv. The fluid from the pump moves the gear-
up check valve piston to the left, and the fluid unseat the ball and flow to the gear-up side of each of
the gear actuating cylinders. The first movement of the piston releases the mechanical down locks
and allows the gear to retract. v. Fluid return from the gear-down side of the actuator past the shuttle
valve, which the spring has forced to the right, back into the reservoir.
Figure 1-5: A hydraulic power pack gear retraction system
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Landing Gear Extension Systems

i. To lower the landing gear, the pilot moves the landing gear handle to the GEAR- DOWN
position and these events take place. ii. The landing gear handle actuates a switch that
turns on the hydraulic pump motor in the power pack so that it turns in the direction
shown by the arrows in figure A. iii. Fluid flow through the passage and check valve on
the right side of the pump and around the outside of the gears. iv. The output from the
pump moves the gear- up check valve piston to the right an unseat the gear-up check
valve. v. Fluid flow into the down side of the three actuating cylinder and forces the
pistons out. The nose gear is much easier to move than the main gears, so the fluid flows
into and out of the nose gear actuating cylinder through restrictor
Figure 1-5: A hydraulic power pack gear retraction system
Emergency Extension System

The emergency extension system lowers the landing gear if the main power system fails.Some
aircraft have an emergency release handle in the flight deck that is connected through a mechanical
linkage to the gear up locks.When the handle is operated, it releases the up locks and allows the gear
- 51 -
to free-fall to the extended position under the force created by gravity acting upon the gear. Other
aircraft use a non-mechanical back-up, such as pneumatic power, to unlatch the gear.
Figure 1 6: These emergency gear extension handles in a Boeing 737
Nose Wheel Steering Systems

The nose wheel on most aircraft is steerable from the flight deck via a nose wheel steering system.
This allows the aircraft to be directed during ground operation. A few simple aircraft have nose
wheel assemblies that caster. Such aircraft are steered during taxi by differential braking.
For Small Aircraft :
Most small aircraft have steering capabilities through the use of a simple system of mechanical
linkages connected to the rudder pedals. Push-pull tubes are connected to pedal horns on the lower
strut cylinder. As the pedals are depressed, the movement is transferred to the strut piston axle and
wheel assembly which rotates to the left or right.
Figure 1.7: Nose wheel steering on a light aircraft
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For Large Aircraft:
Due to their mass and the need for positive control, large aircraft utilize a power source for nose
wheel steering. Hydraulic power predominates. Control of the steering is from the flight deck
through the use of a small wheel, tiller, or joystick typically mounted on the left side wall. It directs
hydraulic fluid under pressure to one or two actuators designed with various linkages to rotate the
lower strut. An accumulator and relief valve, or similar pressurizing assembly, keeps fluid in the
actuators and system under pressure at all times. This permits the steering actuating cylinders to also
act as shimmy dampers. A follow-up mechanism consists of various gears, cables, rods, drums,
and/or bell-crank, etc. Equations
Figure 1.8 Hydraulic system flow diagram of large aircraft nose wheel steering system
The metering valve and the compensator unit of the nose wheel steering system are illustrated in
Figure. The compensator unit system keeps fluid in the steering cylinders pressurized at all times.
This hydraulic unit consists of a three-port housing that encloses a spring-loaded piston and poppet.
The left port is an air vent that prevents trapped air at the rear of the piston from interfering with the
movement of the piston. The second port located at the top of the compensator connects through a
line to the metering valve return port. The third port is located at the right side of the compensator.
This port connects to the hydraulic system return manifold. It routes the steering system return fluid
into the manifold when the poppet valve is open.
- 53 -
Figure 1.9 The metering valve and the compensator unit of the nose wheel steering system
Air Craft Brakes

The brakes slow the aircraft and stop it in a reasonable amount of time. They hold the aircraft
stationary during engine run-up and, in many cases, steer the aircraft during taxi. On most aircraft,
each of the main wheels is equipped with a brake unit.
The nose wheel may have or may not have a brake. In the typical brake system, mechanical and/or
hydraulic linkages to the rudder pedals allow the pilot to control the brakes. Brakes principle is the
conversion of kinetic energy of motion into heat energy through the creation of friction.
Figure 2.0 A remote reservoir services both master cylinders on some braking systems.
Emergency Brake Systems

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As can be seen in Figure, the brake metering valves not only receive hydraulic pressure from two
separate hydraulic systems, they also feed two separate brake assemblies. Each main wheel assembly
has two wheels. The inboard wheel brake and the outboard wheel brake, located in their respective
wheel rims, are independent from each other. In case of hydraulic system failure or brake failure,
each is independently supplied to adequately slow and stop the aircraft without the other. More
complicated aircraft may involve another hydraulic system for back-up or use a similar alternation of
sources and brake assemblies to maintain braking in case of hydraulic system or brake failure.
Figure 2.1 the power brake system on a Boeing 737.
Antiskid System
Antiskid system is a feature found in high performance aircraft braking system. It is important
because if a wheel goes into skid, its braking value is greatly reduced. The skid control system
performs four functions:
 Normal skid control.
 Locked wheel skid control.
 Touchdown protection.
 Fail-safe protection.
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For normal skid control:
It comes into play when wheel rotation slows down but has not come to a stop. When this slowing
down happens, the wheel sliding action has just begun and not reached a full scale slide. In this
situation the skid control valve removes some of the hydraulic pressure to the wheel, which permits
the wheel to rotate a little faster and stop its sliding. The skid detection and control of each wheel is
completely independent of the others.
For locked wheel skid control:
It causes the break to be fully released when its wheel locks. It will occur if the normal skid control
does not prevent the wheel from reaching a full skid. To relieve the locked wheel skid, the pressure is
bled off longer than in normal skid function. This is to give the wheel time to regain speed.
For touchdown protection:
The touchdown protection circuit prevents the brakes from being applied during the landing
approach even if the brake pedals are depressed. This prevents the wheels from being locked when
they contact the runway. Two conditions must exist before the skid control valves permit brake
application:
i) The squat switch must signal that the weight of the aircraft is on the wheels.
ii) The wheel generators sense a wheel speed over 15-20 mph.
For fail-safe protection:
The fail-safe protection circuit monitors operation of the skid control system. It automatically returns
the brake system to full manual in case of system failure. It also turns on a warning light.
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Ch3 PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
CH3
PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
AIRCRAFT PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
A pneumatic system is fitted in most modern aircraft to supply some or all of the following
•3.1 Engine starting.

•3.2 Air conditioning,
•3.3 Pressurization
•3.4, Wing anti-icing,
•3.5 Hydraulic reservoir pressurization,
High pressure air can be supplied from three sources:

• The engine bleed system,
• The APU,
• An external high pressure ground power
- 57 -
The pneumatic system is controlled and monitored by 2 Bleed Monitoring Computers (BMC).there is
one BMC for each engine bleed system. Both BMCs are interconnected and if one fails, the other
takes over most of its functions.
There are hot air leakage detection loops installed in the vicinity of the hot air ducts in the fuselage,
wings and pylons. If a leak is detected, a signal is sent to the BMCs which automatically isolate the
affected area.
In flight, the primary source for high pressure air is the engines. Both engines have similar bleed
systems.
Air is bled from two compressor stages of the engine, the Intermediate Pressure (IP) port and the
High Pressure (HP) port.
- 58 -
There is an HP valve which can cut off bleed air from the high pressure port.it is automatically
controlled by the system.
The High Pressure section (HP) is only used when there is insufficient pressure from the
intermediate output (IP), i.e. when the engines are at idle.
Once the engine speed is high enough, the IP pressure is sufficient and the HP valve closes.
The air extracted from the compressor then goes to a bleed valve which acts as a shut off and
pressure regulating valve .Since the temperature of the bleed air is high, it passes through a pre
cooler before being distributed to the users.
The pre cooler uses cool air from the engine fan to regulate the temperature.
ENG 2 has an identical BLEED SYSTEM.
Both systems are connected by a cross bleed duct. A cross bleed valve permits their interconnection
or isolation.
Having started one engine, the second engine can be started using bleed air taken from the
compressor. This is not normally desirable, as the engine must be spooled up to 80% N2, which
increases noise level on the stand and has the inherent danger of jet blast and suction of foreign
objects into the intake.
Most large aircraft have an internal auxiliary power unit (APU) (a small gas turbine engine start able
by the aircraft's internal batteries). Using the APU allows the aircraft to start independently
The Auxiliary Power Unit (APU), is located in the unpressurized tail cone.
It is a self-contained unit which can make the aircraft independent of external pneumatic and
electrical power sources.
- 59 -
The APU may be started using:

• The aircraft batteries,
• An external power source,
• The normal aircraft AC power.
The APU provides:
•electrical power for the aircraft electrical system,
•and bleed air for engine start and air conditioning.
The APU has an air intake flap which, when it is open, ducts external air to its compressor inlet. The
APU can also be used for BLEED air supply.
This is usually done on ground for air conditioning and for engine start.
However, APU BLEED air is also available in flight.
APU BLEED air is controlled by the APU bleed valve which operates as a shut off valve.
Should the APU not be available, a high pressure ground power unit can be connected.
. We will now show you how system information is displayed to the pilots.
In the cockpit you can monitor the following
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•EGT and compressor speed,

•APU bleed,
•APU generator,
•flap position.
3.1 Engine starting

In order to start a gas turbine engine, it is necessary to:
 Rotate the engine shaft up to a speed that provides an adequate airflow. Using a starter motor
achieves this.
 Provide fuel to mix with the airflow to provide a correct mixture for combustion.
 Ignite the air/fuel mixture. A high-energy ignition system provides this.
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Starting of single-spool engines requires the whole spool to rotate. For multi-spool engines, the
starter drives the HP spool (the core engine). The IP (if equipped) and LP spools start to rotate as the
core engine progresses through the starting sequence.
Before it is safe to ignite fuel in the combustion chamber, the engine main shaft must be revolving at
a speed that enables the compressor to provide an adequate airflow through the engine.
The airflow must be sufficient to mix with the atomized fuel at the nozzles and to sustain
combustion; it must also provide adequate cooling to protect the engine during light up.
Some form of starter motor is necessary to rotate the engine shaft up to the required self-sustaining
speed. Self-sustaining speed occurs when the engine is able to support itself and accelerate without
assistance from the starter motor and ignition systems. This occurs at approximately 30% N,. The
type of starter motor used varies depending on engine and airplane requirements. Large commercial
airplanes normally use an air starter, whilst smaller airplanes usually employ an electrical starter.
Sources of air
 External ground supply
 An auxiliary power unit
 Cross-feed from a running engine
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External ground supply
Ground power unit
A ground power unit (GPU) is a vehicle capable of supplying power to aircraft parked on the ground.
Ground power units may also be built into the jet way, making it even easier to supply electrical
power to aircraft. Many aircraft require 28 V of direct current and 115 V 400 Hz of alternating
current.
Air start unit
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An Air Start Unit is a device used to start the aircraft's engines when the aircraft's APU is not
operational. There are three primary types of these devices that exist currently:
 a stored air cart,
 a gas turbine based unit,
 a diesel engine driven screw compressor unit.
All three devices create a source of high pressure air to start the aircraft engines. Typically one or
two hoses are connect to these units, with the largest aircraft engines requiring three.
AIR STARTER
This type of starter is a pneumatically driven turbine unit that accelerates the HP compressor shaft to
the required speed for engine starting. It consists of a single-stage turbine, a reduction gear train, a
clutch, and an output drive shaft, all housed within a case incorporating an air inlet and exhaust. This
mounts on the engine's external gearbox and rotates the engine via the normal gearbox drive shaft.
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Compressed air enters the starter, impinges on the turbine blades rotating the turbine, and exits
through the exhaust. The reduction train converts the high-speed, low-torque rotation of the turbine
to low-speed, high-torque rotation. The clutch engages and drives the output drive shaft, which
accelerates the HP compressor shaft. When the air supply to the starter is off, the engine overruns the
starter, the clutch disengages, and the starter comes to rest.
3.2 AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

The air conditioning or environmental control system is fitted to an aircraft to regulate the
temperature, humidity, quantity and quality of the air supply to the passengers and crew. This
conditioned air is also used, with additional components, for the pressurization of the aircraft.
Provision of fresh air

Fresh air must be provided at a rate of 1 lb per seat per minute in normal circumstances, or at not less
than 0.5 lb. following a failure of any part of the duplicated air-conditioning system (No JAR Figures
quoted except for crew which is “not less than 10 cubic ft. per minute per crew member”)
Temperature
Cabin air temperature should be maintained within the range 65°F to 75°F, (18°C to 24°C).
Relative humidity
The relative humidity of the cabin air must be maintained at approximately 30% (at 40,000 ft. the
relative humidity is only 1 to 2%).
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Contamination
Carbon monoxide contamination of the cabin air must not exceed 1 part in 20,000.
Ventilation
Adequate ventilation must be provided on the ground and during unpressurised phases of flight.
Duplication
The air-conditioning system must be duplicated to the extent that no single component failure will
cause the provision of fresh air to fall to rate which is lower than 0.5 lb. per seat per minute.
An aircraft air conditioning system must be capable of maintaining an adequate supply of air for
ventilation and pressurization at a temperature and relative humidity which ensures comfortable
conditions for both passengers and crew. These requirements are met as follows:
Adequate supply
The mass flow of air into the cabin is maintained at a constant value which must be sufficient to
achieve cabin pressurization when cruising at maximum operating altitude.
Temperature
The temperature of the air supply to the cabin is controlled by mixing hot and cold air in variable
proportions to maintain the cabin air temperature within prescribed limits.
Humidity
Moisture is removed from, or added to, the cabin air supply to maintain a comfortable level of
humidity. The method of conditioning will vary depending upon the type of aircraft, the power unit
and the operating characteristics of the aircraft concerned.
Like the majority of the systems on the A320 the Air Conditioning system is fully automatic, and is
designed to provide a comfortable atmosphere in which to work and travel.
We will begin our study of the system by first looking at the air conditioning packs.
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The A320 is equipped with two Air Conditioning Packs located in the wing root area forward of the
Landing Gear Bay.
Let’s look at how a pack works. Hot bleed air enters the pack via a Pack Flow Control Valve. The
purpose of this valve is to adjust the flow rate through the pack.
The air then passes through several stages within the pack that progressively cool the air to provide a
Conditioned Air output. Sub zero temperatures can be achieved.
Two of the stages are heat exchangers that use a flow of ambient air over them to cool the hot bleed
air. This flow of air enters via a pack inlet scoop and exits via an outlet duct.
So that the output temperature of the pack can be adjusted a bypass valve is fitted. This valve allows
warmer air to be mixed with the cold air.
The Pack Flow Control Valve, and the bypass valve, are regulated by a Pack Controller to vary the
flow rate and the output temperature.
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The Pack Controller also controls the inlet scoop and outlet duct to vary the amount of air passing
over the heat exchangers.
Note:
To avoid ingestion of foreign matter the inlet scoop and outlet duct close temporarily during takeoff
and landing.
To make things simpler, let’s define the area within the yellow box as a pack. The two Air
Conditioning Packs operate automatically and independently to provide cool conditioned air. The
conditioned air from the packs is then fed to a Mixing Unit.
In case of failure of both packs, RAM Air is provided via a RAM Air Valve. We will now look at
how temperature and flow regulation is achieved throughout the aircraft.
The three outputs from the mixing unit feed three separate aircraft zones: cockpit, forward cabin, and
aft cabin. Let’s look at how the temperature of the zones is managed.
A zone control computer monitors the temperatures of the three zones and sends signals to the pack
controllers to set the air temperature delivered by the packs.
Normally cold air is delivered by the packs and is then sent to the three zones.
Since the different areas of the aircraft may require different amounts of cooling, or heating, hot
bleed air can be added via
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Trim Air Valves to obtain the demanded temperature for a zone. The Trim Air Valves are supplied
via a Hot Air Valve.
The purpose of this valve is to regulate the pressure of the hot air supplied to the trim system and to
act as a shut off valve.
The hot bleed air is supplied to the hot air valve downstream of the pack flow valves. This means
that if the pack flow valves are closed there is no air supplied to the trim system. The hot air valve
and the trim air valves will automatically close.
The trim air valves and the hot air valve are controlled by the zone control computer.
Zone duct temperature, which is the temperature of the air entering a zone, and the actual zone
temperature are monitored by the zone control computer and presented on ECAM.
Now let’s look at the temperature control. The zone temperature selectors are used to adjust the
required temperature for an associated zone.
Two cabin fans are fitted to reduce the bleed air requirement, and therefore save fuel.
These fans establish a recirculation flow of air from the three aircraft zones to the mixing unit. In
normal operation there are no ECAM indications associated with the cabin fans.
.
3.3 Pressurization system

Modern aircraft operate more efficiently at high altitudes and have high rates of climb and descent.
In order to take advantage of these properties the interior of an aircraft flying at high altitude is
pressurized to allow passengers and crew to function normally without the need for additional
oxygen.
Insufficient oxygen or hypoxia will result in a reduction in the ability to concentrate, loss of
consciousness and, finally death. (The effects etc. are fully described in the Human Performance
notes).
Up to an altitude of 10,000 ft. (3.3km), the air pressure and consequently the amount of oxygen is
sufficient for humans to operate without too many problems. However, lack of oxygen can become
apparent at altitudes above this and cabin pressurization systems are designed to produce conditions
equivalent to those of approximately 8,000 ft. (2.6km) or less. This means that there is no need for
oxygen equipment except for emergency use by crew or passengers and the effect of low
atmospheric pressure on passengers is negligible.
Once the cabin altitude (the pressure altitude corresponding to the pressure inside the cabin) reaches
10,000 ft. the crew must be on oxygen, and at 14,000 ft. cabin the passengers must be on emergency
oxygen.
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It also means that aircraft are able (when required) to achieve high rates of climb and descent while
making correspondingly small rates of change of cabin pressure.
The pressurization system on the a320 normally operates automatically to adjust the cabin altitude
and rate of change of altitude to ensure maximum passenger comfort and safety, the pressurized
areas are the cockpit, the avionics Bay the cabin and the cargo, compartments.
the concept of the system is simple air is supplied from the air-conditioning packs to the pressurized
areas valve is used to regulate the amount of air allowed to escape from the pressurized areas
automatic control of the outflow valve is provided by two cabin pressure controllers each controller
has an electric motor to move the outflow valve a controller motor combination is known as a system
only one system will operate with the other system acting as backup a third motor is installed for use
in the event of both automatic systems failing and requires a manual input to open or close the out
flow valve to avoid excessive cabin differential pressure safety valves are installed.
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let us look at the operation of the outflow valve for an aircraft in cruise and what happens to cabin
differential pressure cabin altitude and cabin vertical speed we will start with cabin differential
pressure if the outflow valve is closed or only allowing a small amount of air to escape then the cabin
differential pressure will increase.
Now let's look at what happened altitude if the outflow valve is closed or only allowing a small
amount of air to escape then the cabin altitude will descend we can also see what the cabin is doing
by reference to vertical speed when the outflow valve closes the cabin altitude will decrease negative
vertical speed if the outflow valve is fully open a lot of air is allowed to escape the cabin pressure
will decrease the cabin altitude will climb positive vertical speed the crew can monitor all cabin
functions on the ECAM cabin pressure page formation associated with the pressurization system that
is presented on the cabin pressure page the pack indication is displayed green when the Associated
pack is on the outflow valve position can be monitored and the system controller in use is shown
there is a single indication for the safety valves we will look at how this indication changes in the
abnormal operation module the cabin differential pressure or Delta P shows the difference in psi
between the cabin pressure and external pressure this differential pressure will be at zero on the
ground and increase as the aircraft climbs the cabin vertical speed shows the rate of change in feet
per minute of cabin altitude for passenger comfort the pressurization system will aim to keep this rate
of change as small as possible the cabin altitude is also shown the vent Inlet and extract indications
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are associated with the avionics ventilation system and will be discussed in a separate module on the
ECAM Cruz page there indications of cabin differential pressure cabin vertical speed cabin altitude
there is also an indication of cabin vertical speed on the ECAM door page note that this indication is
only displayed when the aircraft is airborne on the overhead panel there is a cabin pressure panel
containing controls to operate the pressurization system under normal conditions no pilot action is
required on this panel during flight the pressurization mode selects which has two settings automatic
and manual the normal position for this switch is lights out in this position the pressurization system
is in automatic mode the use of manual mode and the manual vertical speed control will be discussed
in the abnormal operation module the landing elevation selector normally remains in the auto
position landing elevation which is required by the pressurization system is then provided by the
Fmgs based upon elevation of the destination Airport if the landing elevation is not available from
the Fmgs then it can be set manually using this selector you will use this selector in the abnormal
operation modules the guarded ditching switch is provided to close all valves below the waterline so
that the aircraft can be sealed in the unlikely event of a ditching.
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3.4 Airfoil and engine ant icing

Ice Control Systems Rain, snow, and ice are transportation’s longtime enemies. Flying has added a
new dimension, particularly with respect to ice. Under certain atmospheric conditions, ice can build
rapidly on airfoils and air inlets. On days when there is visible moisture in the air, ice can form on
aircraft leading edge surfaces at altitudes where freezing temperatures start. Water droplets in the air
can be super cooled to below freezing without actually turning into ice unless they are disturbed in
some manner. This unusual occurrence is partly due to the surface tension of the water droplet not
allowing the droplet to expand and freeze. However, when aircraft surfaces disturb these droplets,
they immediately turn to ice on the aircraft surfaces.
Figure
The ice and rain protection system enables operation in icing conditions and heavy rain. For anti-
icing, critical areas of the aircraft are protected by hot air or electrical heating.
The pneumatic system provides hot air for the anti-icing of the three outboard leading edge slats of
each wing .Each engine air intake is anti-iced by an independent air bleed from the high pressure
compressor . The air is supplied through the engine anti-ice valve.
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Note: in the event of an electrical power supply failure, this valve will automatically open.
Electrical heating is provided for:
• Windshield anti-icing and cockpit side window de-fogging,
• The Angle Of Attack (AOA) probes.
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• The Total Air Temperature (TAT) probes.

• The pitot probes.
• The static ports
When the electrical system is powered, the water waste drain masts are also electrically heated.
Note: on the ground, the heat is reduced to prevent injury to ground personnel.
The ice detection system (if installed) consists of two separate ice detectors located on the forward
lower section of the fuselage.
An external visual ice indicator with an integrated light is installed between the two windshields.
All the ice and rain protection controls are located on the overhead panel.
The crew manages:
• Wing and engine anti-ice valves through the ANTI ICE control panel,
• All the electrical heating system by the PROBE/WINDOW HEAT pb sw.
Memos associated with anti-ice operation are presented on the E/WD memo area. To improve
visibility in rainy conditions, the flight crew can spray a rain repellent liquid. Separate pushbuttons
control the application of the rain repellent on each side of the windshield.
Electric wipers are provided for the windshields. They are operated at slow or fast speed through the
WIPER selector located on the WIPER panels .The maximum speed with the wipers in use is 230
knots.
3.5 Hydraulic reservoir pressurization

Pressurized Reservoirs
Reservoirs on aircraft designed for high-altitude flight are usually pressurized. Pressurizing assures a
positive flow of fluid to the pump at high altitudes when low atmospheric pressures are encountered.
On some aircraft, the reservoir is pressurized by bleed air taken from the compressor section of the
engine. On others, the reservoir may be pressurized by hydraulic system pressure.
Air-Pressurized Reservoirs
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Air-pressurized reservoirs are used in many commercial transport-type aircraft. Pressurization of the
reservoir is required because the reservoirs are often located in wheel wells or other non-pressurized
areas of the aircraft and at high altitude there is not enough atmospheric pressure to move the fluid to
the pump inlet. Engine bleed air is used to pressurize the reservoir. The reservoirs are typically
cylindrical in shape. The following components are installed on a typical reservoir:
Air-pressurized reservoir
Reservoir pressure relief valve—prevents over pressurization of the reservoir. Valve opens at a
preset value.
Sight glasses (low and overfull)—provides visual indication for flight crews and maintenance
personnel that the reservoir needs to be serviced.
Reservoir sample valve—used to draw a sample of hydraulic fluid for testing.
Reservoir drain valve—used to drain the fluids out of the reservoir for maintenance operation.
Reservoir temperature transducer—provides hydraulic fluid temperature information for the flight
deck.
Reservoir quantity transmitter—transmits fluid quantity to the flight deck so that the flight crew can
monitor fluid quantity during flight.
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A reservoir pressurization module is installed close to the reservoir. The reservoir pressurization
module supplies airplane bleed air to the reservoirs. The module consists of the following parts:
 F
ilters (2)
 Check valves (2)
 Test port
 Manual bleed valve
 Gauge port
Reservoir pressurization module
A manual bleeder valve is incorporated into the module. During hydraulic system maintenance, it is
necessary to relieve reservoir air pressure to assist in the installation and removal of components,
lines, etc. This type of valve is small in size and has a push button installed in the outer case. When
the bleeder valve push button is pushed, pressurized air from the reservoir flows through the valve to
an overboard vent until the air pressure is depleted or the button is released. When the button is
released, the internal spring causes the poppet to return to its seat. Some hydraulic fluid can escape
from the manual bleed valve when the button is depressed.
Let’s identify the system components on the ECAM page now:

• The IP and HP ports,
• The HP valves,
• The engine bleed valves,
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• The preschoolers,
• The APU bleed valve,
• The cross bleed valve,
• The high pressure ground connection.
The following information is also displayed:

• Bleed air pressure,
• Bleed air temperature,
• Engine identification numbers.
Controls for the pneumatic system are part of the AIR COND panel, located on the overhead panel.
Each engine bleed valve is controlled by its associated Pb sw on the AIR COND panel.
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The APU bleed valve is controlled by its associated Pb sw.

The X BLEED selector enables the pilot to open and close the cross bleed valve manually or to let
the system operate the X BLEED valve automatically.
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3.6 General Pneumatic Systems

A pneumatic system is a system that uses compressed air to transmit and control energy.
Pneumatic systems are used in controlling train doors, automatic production lines, and mechanical
clamps, etc (Fig. 1).
(a) Automobile production lines (b) Pneumatic system of an automatic machine
Fig. 1 Common pneumatic systems used in the industrial sector
(a) The advantages of pneumatic systems

Pneumatic control systems are widely used in our society, especially in the industrial sectors for the
driving of automatic machines. Pneumatic systems have a lot of advantages.
(i) High effectiveness

Many factories have equipped their production lines with compressed air supplies and movable
compressors. There is an unlimited supply of air in our atmosphere to produce compressed air.
Moreover, the use of compressed air is not restricted by distance, as it can easily be transported
through pipes. After use, compressed air can be released directly into the atmosphere without the
need of processing.
(ii) High durability and reliability

Pneumatic components are extremely durable and cannot be damaged easily. Compared to
Electromotive components, pneumatic components are more durable and reliable.
(iii) Simple design

The designs of pneumatic components are relatively simple. They are thus more suitable for use in
simple automatic control systems
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(iv) High adaptability to harsh environment

Compared to the elements of other systems, compressed air is less affected by high temperature,
dust, corrosion, etc.
(v) Safety
Pneumatic systems are safer than electromotive systems because they can work in inflammable
environment without causing fire or explosion. Apart from that, overloading in pneumatic system
will only lead to sliding or cessation of operation. Unlike electromotive components, pneumatic
components do not burn or get overheated when overloaded.
(vi) Easy selection of speed and pressure

The speeds of rectilinear and oscillating movement of pneumatic systems are easy to adjust and
subject to few limitations. The pressure and the volume of air can easily be adjusted by a pressure
regulator.
(vii) Environmental friendly

The operation of pneumatic systems do not produce pollutants. The air released is also processed in
special ways. Therefore, pneumatic systems can work in environments that demand high level of
cleanliness. One example is the production lines of integrated circuits.
(viii) Economical
As pneumatic components are not expensive, the costs of pneumatic systems are quite low.
Moreover, as pneumatic systems are very durable, the cost of repair is significantly lower than that of
other systems.
(b) Limitations of pneumatic systems

Although pneumatic systems possess a lot of advantages, they are also subject to many limitations.
(i) Relatively low accuracy

As pneumatic systems are powered by the force provided by compressed air, their operation is
subject to the volume of the compressed air. As the volume of air may change when compressed or
heated, the supply of air to the system may not be accurate, causing a decrease in the overall
accuracy of the system.
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(ii) Low loading

As the cylinders of pneumatic components are not very large, a pneumatic system cannot drive loads
that are too heavy.
(iii) Processing required before use

Compressed air must be processed before use to ensure the absence of water vapour or dust.
Otherwise, the moving parts of the pneumatic components may wear out quickly due to friction.
(iv) Uneven moving speed

As air can easily be compressed, the moving speeds of the pistons are relatively uneven.
(v) Noise
Noise will be produced when compressed air is released from the pneumatic components.
(c) Main pneumatic components

Pneumatic components can be divided into two categories:
1. Components that produce and transport compressed air.
2. Components that consume compressed air.
All main pneumatic components can be represented by simple pneumatic symbols. Each symbol
shows only the function of the component it represents, but not its structure. Pneumatic symbols can
be combined to form pneumatic diagrams. A pneumatic diagram describes the relations between
each pneumatic component, that is, the design of the system.
The production and transportation of compressed air

Examples of components that produce and transport compressed air include compressors and
pressure regulating components.
(a) Compressor
A compressor can compress air to the required pressures. It can convert the mechanical energy from
motors and engines into the potential energy in compressed air (Fig. 2). A single central compressor
can supply various pneumatic components with compressed air, which is transported through pipes
from the cylinder to the pneumatic components. Compressors can be divided into two classes:
reciprocator and rotary.
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(b) Pressure regulating component

Pressure regulating components are formed by various components, each of which has its own
pneumatic symbol:
(i) Filter – can remove impurities from compressed air before it is fed to the pneumatic components.
(ii) Pressure regulator – to stabilise the pressure and regulate the operation of pneumatic components
(iii) Lubricator – To provide lubrication for pneumatic components
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The consumption of compressed air

Examples of components that consume compressed air include execution components (cylinders),
directional control valves and assistant valves.
(a) Execution component

Pneumatic execution components provide rectilinear or rotary movement. Examples of pneumatic
execution components include cylinder pistons, pneumatic motors, etc. Rectilinear motion is
produced by cylinder pistons, while pneumatic motors provide continuous rotations.
There are many kinds of cylinders, such as single acting cylinders and double acting cylinders.
(i) Single acting cylinder

A single acting cylinder has only one entrance that allows compressed air to flow through.
Therefore, it can only produce thrust in one direction (Fig. 4). The piston rod is propelled in the
opposite direction by an internal spring, or by the external force provided by mechanical movement
The thrust from the piston rod is greatly lowered because it has to overcome the force from the
spring. Therefore, in order to provide the driving force for machines, the diameter of the cylinder
should be increased. In order to match the length of the spring, the length of the cylinder should also
be increased, thus limiting the length of the path. Single acting cylinders are used in stamping,
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printing, moving materials, etc.
(ii) Double acting cylinder

In a double acting cylinder, air pressure is applied alternately to the relative surface of the piston,
producing a propelling force and a retracting force (Fig. 6). As the effective area of the piston is
small, the thrust produced during retraction is relatively weak. The impeccable tubes of double acting
cylinders are usually made of steel. The working surfaces are also polished and coated with
chromium to reduce friction.
(b) Directional control valve

Directional control valves ensure the flow of air between air ports by opening, closing and switching
their internal connections. Their classification is determined by the number of ports, the number of
switching positions, the normal position of the valve and its method of operation.
Common types of directional control valves include 2/2, 3/2, 5/2, etc. The first number represents the
number of ports; the second number represents the number of positions. A directional control valve
that has two ports and five positions can be represented by the drawing in Fig. 8, as well as its own
unique pneumatic symbol.
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(i) 2/2 Directional control valve

The structure of a 2/2 directional control valve is very simple. It uses the thrust from the
spring to open and close the valve, stopping compressed air from flowing towards working tube ‘A’
from air inlet ‘P’. When a force is applied to the control axis, the valve will be pushed open,
connecting ‘P’ with ‘A’ (Fig. 9). The force applied to the control axis has to overcome both air
pressure and the repulsive force of the spring. The control valve can be driven manually or
mechanically, and restored to its original position by the spring.
Fig.
(ii) 3/2 Directional control valve
A 3/2 directional control valve can be used to control a single acting cylinder (Fig. 10). The open
valves in the middle will close until ‘P’ and ‘A’ are connected together. Then another valve will open
the sealed base between ‘A’ and ‘R’ (exhaust). The valves can be driven manually, mechanically,
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electrically or pneumatically. 3/2 directional control valves can further be divided into two classes:
Normally open type (N.O.) and normally closed type (N.C.) (Fig. 11).
(iii) 5/2 Directional control valve

When a pressure pulse is input into the pressure control port ‘P’, the spool will move to the left,
connecting inlet ‘P’ and work passage ‘B’. Work passage ‘A’ will then make a release of air through
‘R1’ and ‘R2’. The directional valves will remain in this operational position until signals of the
Contrary are received. Therefore, this type of directional control valves is said to have the function of
‘memory’.
(c) Control valve

A control valve is a valve that controls the flow of air. Examples include non-return valves,
flow control valves, shuttle valves, etc.
(i) Non-return valve

A non-return valve allows air to flow in one direction only. When air flows in the opposite
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direction, the valve will close. Another name for non-return valve is poppet valve (Fig. 13).
(ii) Flow control valve
A flow control valve is formed by a non-return valve and a variable throttle (Fig. 14).
(iii) Shuttle valve

Shuttle valves are also known as double control or single control non-return valves. A shuttle
valve has two air inlets ‘P1’ and ‘P2’ and one air outlet ‘A’. When compressed air enters through
‘P1’, the sphere will seal and block the other inlet ‘P2’. Air can then flow from ‘P1’ to ‘A’. When
the contrary happens, the sphere will block inlet ‘P1’, allowing air to flow from ‘P2’ to ‘A’ only.
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Principles of pneumatic control

(a) Pneumatic circuit
Pneumatic control systems can be designed in the form of pneumatic circuits. A pneumatic
circuit is formed by various pneumatic components, such as cylinders, directional control valves,
flow control valves, etc. Pneumatic circuits have the following functions:
1. To control the injection and release of compressed air in the cylinders.
2. To use one valve to control another valve.
(b) Pneumatic circuit diagram

A pneumatic circuit diagram uses pneumatic symbols to describe its design. Some basic rules
must be followed when drawing pneumatic diagrams.
(i) Basic rules

1. A pneumatic circuit diagram represents the circuit in static form and assumes there is no
supply of pressure. The placement of the pneumatic components on the circuit also follows
this assumption.
2. The pneumatic symbol of a directional control valve is formed by one or more squares. The
inlet and exhaust are drawn underneath the square, while the outlet is drawn on the top.
Each function of the valve (the position of the valve) shall be represented by a square. If
there are two or more functions, the squares should be arranged horizontally (Fig. 16).
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(ii) Basic principles

Fig. 21 shows some of the basic principles of drawing pneumatic circuit diagrams, the numbers in
the diagram correspond to the following points:
1. When the manual switch is not operated, the spring will restore the valve to its original position.
2. From the position of the spring, one can deduce that the block is operating. The other block will
not operate until the switch is pushed.
3. Air pressure exists along this line because it is connected to the source of compressed air.
4. As this cylinder cavity and piston rod are under the influence of pressure, the piston rod is in its
restored position.
5. The rear cylinder cavity and this line are connected to the exhaust, where air is released.
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(iii) The setting of circuit diagrams

When drawing a complete circuit diagram, one should place the pneumatic components on different
levels and positions, so the relations between the components can be expressed clearly.
This is called the setting of circuit diagrams. A circuit diagram is usually divided into three levels:
Power level, logic level and signal input level (Fig. 22).
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Different kinds of basic circuits

A basic circuit is a pneumatic circuit designed to perform basic tasks, such as flow amplification,
signal inversion, memory, delay, single acting cylinder control, double acting cylinder control, etc.
(a) Flow amplification

Cylinders with a large capacity require a larger flow of air, which can be hazardous to users. It is
unsafe to manually operate pneumatic directional control valves with large flow capacity. Instead we
should first operate manually a small control valve and use it to operate the pneumatic control system
with large flow capacity. This is called flow amplification, which can greatly ensure the safety of the
operators. During operation, valves with large flow capacity should be placed near the cylinder,
while valves with smaller flow capacity should be placed on control boards some distances away.
Fig. 23 shows a basic flow amplification circuit. Notice how different components are placed on
different levels.
(b) Signal inversion

The pneumatic diagram in Fig. 24 shows how directional control valves can be switched.
When operating control valve 2, control valve 2 will stop producing pressure output. When control
valve 2 ceases operation and is restored to its original position, control valve 2 will resume its output.
Therefore, at any given time, the pressure output of control valve 2 is the exact opposite of that of
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control valve 2.
(c) Memory Function

Memory is a common basic function. It can keep a component at a certain state permanently until
there is a change of signals. Fig. 25 shows a memory function circuit. When control valve 1 is
operated momentarily (that is, pressed for a short time), the output signal of the 5/2 directional
control valve 3 will be set to ON. The signal will stay that way until control valve 2 is operated
momentarily and generates another signal to replace it, causing it to stay permanently at OFF
(d) Delay function

A pneumatic delay circuit can delay the operating time of the next control valve. Its principle of
operation involves the use of an orifice to slow down the flow of air and control the time of
pneumatic operation. Delay functions can be divided into two classes: ON-signal delay and OFF-
signal delay.
(i) ON-signal delay

Fig. 26 shows the circuit diagram of an ON-signal delay circuit, which delays the output of the next
control valve. When control valve 1 is operated, the one way flow control valve will slow down the
flow of air, thus delaying the signal output of the outlet of control valve 2 (A), resulting in a
persistent ON-signal. The time when control valve 2 will be restored to its original position is not
affected.
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(ii) OFF-signal Delay

Fig. 27 shows the circuit diagram of an OFF-signal delay circuit, which delays the output of the next
control valve. This circuit is similar to an ON-signal delay circuit. The only difference is that the one
way flow control valve is connected in the opposite direction. Therefore, when control valve 1 is
operated, the outlet of control valve 2 (A) will continue to output signals. However, when control
valve 2 is restored to its original position, the release of air is slowed down by the one way flow
control valve, resulting in a persistent OFF-signal.
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(e) Single acting cylinder control

Single acting cylinders can be controlled manually. However, they can also be controlled by two or
more valves. This is called logic control. Examples of logic control include ‘OR’ function, ‘AND’
function, ‘NOT’ function, etc.
(i) Direct control and speed control

If a single acting cylinder is connected to a manual 3/2 directional control valve, when the control
valve is operated, it will cause the cylinder to work (Fig. 28). Therefore, the circuit allows the
cylinder to be controlled manually.
The only way to change the extension speed of the piston of a single acting cylinder is to restrict the
flow of air at the inlet and use the spring to determine the speed of retraction. Therefore, a one way
flow control valve is placed in the circuit to control the speed.
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(ii) OR Function
The single acting cylinder in Fig. 29 can be operated by two different circuits. Examples include
manual operation and relying on automatic circuit signals, that is, when either control valve 1or
control valve 2 is operated, the cylinder will work. Therefore, the circuit in Fig. 29 possesses the OR
function. However, if the output of two 3/2 directional control valves are connected through the port
of a triode, the air current from control valve1 will be released through the exhaust of control valve
2, and so the cylinder will not work. This problem can be solved by connecting a shuttle valve to the
port of the triode.
(iii) AND Function

Another name for an AND function is interlock control. This means control is possible only when
two conditions are satisfied. A classic example is a pneumatic system that works only when its safety
door is closed and its manual control valve is operated. The flow passage will open only when both
control valves are operated. Fig. 30 shows the circuit diagram of an AND function circuit. The
cylinder will work only when both valve 1 and 2 are operated.
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(iv) NOT Function

Another name for a NOT function is inverse control. In order to hold or lock an operating conveyor
or a similar machine, the cylinder must be locked until a signal for cancelling the lock is received.
Therefore, the signal for cancelling the lock should be operated by a normally open type control
valve. However, to cancel the lock, the same signal must also cancel the locks on other devices, like
the indication signal 3 in Fig. 31. Fig. 31 shows how the normally closed type control valve 1 can be
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used to cut off the normally open type control valve2 and achieve the goal of changing the signal.
(f) Double acting cylinder

(i) Direct control
The only difference between a single acting cylinder and a double acting cylinder is that a double
acting cylinder uses a 5/2 directional control valve instead of a 3/2 directional control valve (Fig. 32).
Usually, when a double acting cylinder is not operated, outlet ‘B’ and inlet ‘P’ will be connected. In
this circuit, whenever the operation button is pushed manually, the double acting cylinder will move
back and forth once.
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In order to control the speed in both directions, flow control valves are connected to the inlets on
both sides of the cylinder. The direction of the flow control valve is opposite to that of the release of
air by the flow control valve of the single acting cylinder. Compared to the throttle inlet, the flow
control valve is tougher and more stable. Connecting the circuit in this way allows the input of
sufficient air pressure and energy to drive the piston.
(ii) Single control

A cylinder always has to maintain its position in a lot of situations, even after the operational signal
has disappeared. This can be achieved by the use of a circuit that possesses the memory function. As
shown in Fig. 33, the extension path of a double acting cylinder is activated by control valve 1, while
retraction is governed by control valve 2. Control valve 3, on the other hand, maintains the position
of the cylinder by maintaining its own position. Control valve 3 will be changed only when one of
the manual control valves is pushed. If both control valves 1 and 2 are operated at the same time,
control valve 3 will be subject to the same pressure and will remain in its original position.
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The application of pneumatic systems

The application of pneumatic systems is very extensive. The following are some examples.
(a) Transport system

Fig. 34a shows a simplified industrial transport system. When the button switch is pushed, the
cylinder will push one of the goods from the shelf onto the transfer belt. When the button switch is
released, the cylinder will retract automatically. Fig. 34b shows the circuit diagram of the transport
system.
(b) Vehicle door operation system

Pneumatic systems can be used to operate the doors of public vehicles (Fig. 35a). Assuming that the
opening and closing of the doors are controlled by two button switches ON and OFF. When the
button switch ON is pressed, the doors will open. When the button switch OFF is pushed, the doors
will close. Fig. 35b shows a pneumatic system that can be used to operate the doors of vehicles.
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Safety measures when using pneumatic control systems
(a) Compressed air can cause serious damage to the human body if they enter the body through ducts
like the oral cavity or ears.
(b) Never spray compressed air onto anyone.
(c) Under high temperature, compressed air can pass through human skin.
(d) Compressed air released from the exhaust contains particles and oil droplets, which can cause
damage to eyes.
(e) Even though the pressure of compressed air in pipes and reservoirs is relatively low, when the
container loses its entirety, fierce explosions may still occur.
(f) Before switching on a compressed air supply unit, one should thoroughly inspect the whole circuit
to see if there are any loose parts, abnormal pressure or damaged pipes.
(g) A loose pipe may shake violently due to the high pressure built up inside it. Therefore, each time
before the system pressure is increased, thorough inspection of the entire circuit is required to
prevent accidents.
(h) As the force produced by pneumatic cylinders is relatively large, and the action is usually very
fast, you may suffer serious injuries if you get hit by a cylinder.
(i) Switches should be installed on the compressed air supply unit to allow easy and speedy control
of air flow.
(j) In case of a leakage, the compressed air supply unit should be turned off immediately.
(k) The compressed air supply unit must be turned off before changes can be made to the system.
(l) Stay clear of the moving parts of the system. Never try to move the driving parts in the
mechanical operation valve with your hand
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Appendix: Pneumatic components
There may exist differences in appearance and sizes of pneumatic components produced by different
manufacturers. However, the functions and operating methods among these components are similar.
The following are the pictures and cross section diagrams of the pneumatic components made by
another manufacturer for your reference.
Pneumatic components for the production and transportation of compressed air
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CH4 ROBOTIC ARM CH4-1 What is Robotics?
Part Two Main Project – Robotic Arm
PREFACE
This section provides a broad overview of robotics and introduces robotics termi nology. It
covers the following areas: definition of a robot, the history of robotics, parts that make up a
robot, robot grippers, robot sensors, applications of robots, robot maintenance, robot safety,
robotics and artificial intelligence, classification of robots, justifying the use of robots, and the
future of robots, and a detailed project based on building a robotic arm driven by pneumatic
power
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Introduction
This Chapter is designed for use in an introductory robotics course for community or four-year
colleges. While the text is aimed at engineering and technology students, it can be understood
by all college students. To gain maximum benefit from the Chapter, the student should already
have taken courses in algebra, trigonometry, introductory computer programming, general
physics and mechanics, and elementary electronics. However, sufficient background information
in most subject areas is provided to enable anyone with an interest in robotics to learn about
this subject. Engineers or company managers planning to install robots can also profit from
reading this Chapter.
Robots have begun the transition from manufacturing to office work. Many robotic applications
for the business office are on the horizon.
The main commercial use of robots today is in the manufacturing industry. Several personal
hobbyist-type robots are now available for home use, but they lack any practical everyday
use still, it should not be too long before we see domestic robots that will do simple practical
tasks. At present, many jobs in this universe directly or indirectly depend on computers. In
the near future, many jobs may similarly depend on robots.
This Chapter is divided into three parts. Part One, What is a robot? , provides an introduction
to robotics. Since an engineer dealing with robotics must be a generalist, this section should
be read by everyone. This material may be all that can be covered in a one -quarter or one-
semester course.
Part 1 answers the elementary questions, what is robotics? What is a robot? And what is an
industrial robot? It explores the interrelations of automation and robotics and concludes with
an inquiry into several areas of nonindustrial robots. Chapter 2 discusses the history of
robotics. Chapter 3 provides detailed definitions of industrial robot and manipulator
configurations. Chapter 4 provides detailed information on the control unit, the power supply, and
vehicles. Chapter 5 discusses grippers and other end-of-arm tooling for robots.
The many applications for the industrial robot—both present and future—are the subject of
Chapter 7. These applications are expanded to include some nonindustrial robots, as well as some
industrial robots in nonindustrial situations.
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CH4
Automation Robotic arm pneumatic Driven
4-1
WHAT IS A ROBOT?
OVERVIEW
Everyone has heard of robots, but most people are not really sure what a robot is. Are there other
types of robots besides industrial robots? If so, what are they? How are automation and robots
related? How are computers used in connection with robots? What is robotics? These are a few of
the questions that are answered in this Part
OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this chapter, you should be familiar with:
 The meaning of the term robotics

 The meaning of the term robot
 Industrial automation and industrial robotics
 Nonindustrial robots
 How the hobbyist contributes to robotics
 The criteria used to decide whether a job should be done by humans, by robots, or by
automation
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KEY Terms
 AGV (automated guided vehicle)

 ASRS (automated storage and retrieval system)
 Automation
 CAD (computer-aided design)
 CAE (computer-aided engineering)
 CAM (computer-aided manufacturing)
 CAR (computer-aided robotics)
 Domestic robot Educational robot
 LAN (local area network)
 Laws of robotics
 MAP (manufacturing
 automation protocol) Military robot Numerical control
 PBX (private-branch exchange)
 PC (personal computer)
 PC (programmable controller)
 PLC (programmable logic controller) Remote control
 Robot
 Robotics
 Show robot Teleoperator
 TOP (technical and office protocol)
 WAN (wide-area network)
 Flexible automation Four Ds of Robotics Hard automation Hobbyist robot Industrial robot
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ROBOTS AND ROBOTICS

The terms robot and robotics are of recent origin, but the ideas underlying them predate recorded
history. The word robot was first used by a Czechoslovakian dramatist, Karel Capek, in his 1921
play "Rossum's Universal Robots." Capek's robots were designed to be perfect and tireless
workers who performed manual labor for human beings.
Isaac Asimov in his science fiction stories about robots in the 1940s coined the term robotics as
the science or study of robots. The Merriam Webster Dictionary, 1998, defines robotics as
"technology dealing with the design, construction, and operation of robots." In Europe, robotics
is defined as "the science of robotology," and robotology is defined as "the means by which robot
machines are put together and made to work."
Even though the word is relatively new, work in robotics research has been going on for
hundreds of years. -
Many people think of robotics as a single area of technology, but in fact ro botics encompasses
such diverse areas of technology as mechanical, electrical, and electronic systems; computer
hardware; and computer software .
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS
Like Karel Capek's robots, the industrial robot is designed to be a perfect and tireless worker; it is
intended to help human workers, not replace them.
Many people misunderstand what an industrial robot is. They confuse the terms remote-controlled,
automation, and numerical-controlled with the term industrial robot. This is due in part to false
impressions created by science fiction and in part to the way robots actually developed. We will take
up these other terms shortly, but first we need to settle on a definition of industrial robot.
Even within the industrial world, this term has several definitions. For instance, the Japanese have
defined a robot as an all-purpose machine equipped with a memory device and a terminal, and
capable of rotation and of replacing human labor by automatic performance of movement. This
definition could include some hard-wired automation devices such as bottling machines or even a
modern microprocessor-controlled washing machine, but it does exclude human beings. The Robot
Institute of America defines a robot as a reprogrammable, multifunctional, Manipulator designed to
move materials, parts, tools, or specialized devices, through variable programmed motions, for
the performance of a variety of tasks. This definition does not exclude human beings. This book
will use the Robot Institute of America's definition.
Most people today would not recognize an industrial robot if they saw one. They tend to mistake
industrial robots for just another machine tool. In fact, however, an industrial robot is a specialized
machine tool—one that is consistent, unchanging, unthinking, and untiring. Such robots are best
suited for repetitive, unskilled or semiskilled, monotonous, and burdensome tasks. They are also
useful for jobs that would be hazardous for a person to perform. Robots are just now start ing to
do some jobs that require a level of precision that a person could not match.
Remote control refers to a form of human operation in which the human is not physically
present at the site of operations. Still, the human remains the controller or brain of the operation.
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Automation involves using specialized machines to do a specific operation. A much more

detailed description of automation appears later in this chapter. Numerical control is one type of
specialized machine operation used in automation. It relies on punched paper or plastic tapes, tape
cassettes, or floppy disks to control the manufacturing of some part.
THE STUDY OF ROBOTS

This Chapter describes seven distinct types of robots: industrial robots, military robots, show or
promotional robots, educational robots, medical robots, domestic or
Personal robots, and hobbyist robots. The emphasis, however, will be placed on industrial robots.
Isaac Asimov envisioned the robot as a helper of humankind. Toward this end, Asmiov set forth
three basic "laws" for robots. These "laws" would better be defined as "rules of robotics," much like
the "Golden Rule" for people.
 A robot must not harm a human being, nor through inaction allow one to come to harm.
 A robot must always obey human beings, unless that is in conflict with the first "law."
 A robot must protect itself from harm, unless that is in conflict with the first two "laws."
Gerald Norman, an Oregon Institute of Technology professor of manufacturing engineering
technology, has suggested that a law formulated by Skoles be adopted as the fourth "law" or "rule of
robotics":
A robot may take a human being's job. But it may not leave the person jobless!
Attempts are being made to adhere to these laws of robotics, but there is no
Automatic way to implement them. For instance, the military robot, by its very nature, is likely to be
designed with the intention of breaking these laws.
Most industrial robots of today arc designed to replace human workers in boring, unpleasant,
hazardous, or too precise jobs. The robot designs used are often patterned after human
functions. But robots do not have to imitate human ways of doing and thinking in every way,
any more than airplanes have to copy a bird's method of flying right down to the flapping of its
wings. Sometimes a machine can improve on human performance by using methods that are not
available to humans. For example, robots can make use of infrared and ultrasonic sensors that
human workers do not possess. A robot might also have its hearing or vision located down on its
wrist or fingers—something a person cannot replicate. Robot hands can be equipped with built-in
devices that use electromagnetic force, vacuum cups, or even inflatable bladders to pick up objects,
whereas the human hand does not have these capabilities. Moreover, a robot's hands can be designed
to handle very hot or very cold objects that the human hand cannot handle safely.
Isaac Asimov's books on robots inspired Joseph F. Engelberger in the 1950s to try to design a
working robot.' Engelberger, the founder and first president of the Unimation Robotics Company,
is now a leading authority on robots and wrote the book Robots in Practice.
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Another technique for designing robots is to study human beings. Analyzing how humans use
their arms, hands, legs, and other moving parts is helpful in developing moving parts for robots,
not to mention in designing replacement parts for human body parts that have been lost or
rendered useless by injury or disease. The study of human hearing, sight, touch, balance, and
other senses is helpful in making sensors for robots and in teaching the robot how to interpret
sensory information. The study of how humans remember and interpret information is help ful
in adapting artificial intelligence to use in robots .
INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION AND ROBOTS

From the moment people started doing work, they began trying to find methods of automating the
work. Progress in such methods can be seen in the use of automated machines, computer-aided
design, computer-aided manufacturing, computer-aided robotics, and industrial robots. While
industrial robots and automated machines are usually treated as two separate topics, most industrial
robots work in cooperation with other automated machines. That is, industrial robots usually do
not work alone but are used with other machines.
Persons working with industrial robots must be familiar with techniques for communicating with other
machines and devices on the production line. These may include the use of LAN, MAP, and TOP.
LAN, short for "local area network," is used to interconnect computers and terminals. The LAN
system has also been called data highways, since it is used to move electronic data or information
between the various devices on the network. Many offices and school computer laboratories make
use of LAN systems.
MAP stands for "manufacturing automation protocol"; it is a communications standard developed
for General Motors. MAP is a fault- tolerant industrial protocol developed for multivendor data
communication in a factory environment; it continues to be studied and used worldwide.
.TOP, an acronym for "technical and office protocol," was developed for use in office
automation by Boeing Computer Services. It exchanges information using electronic mail and
allows the interconnection of multiple offices, each having a LAN, and connects them to Wide-
area networks (WAN) and digital private-branch exchanges (PBX), for long-distance exchange of
information.
Industrial robots may also communicate with special-purpose computers (once called PC,
for "programmable controller," but more recently named PLC, for "programmable logic
controller," to avoid confusion with another kind of PC, the personal computer) that are used
to control many modern production lines.
Internet, the world`s largest WAN, is now connecting together many LAN, TOP, and MAP
sites.
Automated Machines
Automated machines can be subdivided into two classes: hard automation machines and flexible
automation machines. Hard automation deals with specialized machines designed for a specific
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operation or a narrow range of operations. Flexible automation deals with relatively general-
purpose machines, such as the industrial robot.
Automated and numerical-controlled machines are generally considered hard automation
machines, because their functions are built-in and cannot be changed to any great extent.
Thus, for example, an automated canning machine can be adjusted to accommodate different
can sizes and different labels, but it cannot be changed into a photographic film development and
printing machine. Automated machines may also be known as numerical-controlled (NC)
machine tools, dedicated computer numerical-controlled (CNC) machine tools, or direct
computer numerical-controlled (DNC) machine tools. All of these types of automated machines
are seen on production lines. Aircraft frame tube-bending machines, canning machines, bottling
machines, photographic film development and printing machines, newspaper press machines, and
even photocopying machines are very efficient at doing their particular jobs.
Early automated machines had all their functions built into their mechanical gears, cams, and levers.
A wind-up clock is thus an old-fashioned automated machine.
One of the first automated programmable industrial machines was the automatic loom, invented by
Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1801. It used cards with holes punched in them to control the pattern being
woven on the loom. Jacquard gave a vivid demonstration of how powerful his invention was by using
10,000 punched cards to program the loom to weave a portrait of himself in black and white silk.
The advent of hard-wired, electronically controlled circuits and devices had a tremendous impact on
automated machines. Electronic automated machines relied on the same digital computer circuits
used by general-purpose electronic computers, but their programs were built into the
electronic circuits at the factory and could not be changed. These machines often received
their setup instructions from paper tape or computer punch cards, allowing them to change
automatically from one size of product to another. Automated aircraft frame tube -bending
machines could turn out 100 parts of one shape and then switch automatically to turn out
parts of another shape, without human intervention. Similarly, an automatic wire-processing
machine can measure, cut, strip, lug, stamp, label, and package 1,000 identical wires and then
switch to another size and quantity of wire. These automated machines work much faster
and more accurately than human beings can. Still, the tube-bending machine cannot be
made to process wire, nor the wire-processing machine to bend tubing .
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Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

Computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided engineering (CAE) are involved in the
product design and engineering phases of manufacturing. These areas include computer-aided
drafting, computer-aided analytical testing, group technology, and computer-aided process
planning.
Computer-aided drafting enables an engineer to enter inform ation into a computer by
using a keyboard and a mouse and then to have the computer pro duce the engineering
drawings. The engineer can then add text of different sizes to the drawing. This increases
the engineer's control over the drawing process and yields faster results. In addition, the
engineer can use the mouse later to alter a drawing quickly and easily. The drawings
needed in designing integrated circuits have become so complex that they can no longer be
done by hand and have any chance of getting into production before the competition's circuits
do.
Computer-aided analytical testing lets an engineer give a computer information on how to
draw a model of a part and then test that part. In many systems, the drawing is produced
in three dimensions and can be rotated on the screen by the engineer. The engineer can then
propose changes to the part and have the computer do testing on the new configuration. Some
of the newest CAD workstations have a digitizer that resembles a robot arm and can be used
to trace the shape of an existing three-dimensional part and thus enter its shape into the
computer. This saves much time.
CAD supports group technology for a family of related parts. The engineer enters the
parameters of the basic part into the computer and then uses the computer to create the rest of the
family of parts by specifying to the computer the ways in which each related part differs from the
basic part.
Computer-aided process planning helps an engineer determine the appropriate production process
for a product. It helps show the difference in cost of different production processes that could be used
to make a part. This aids the engineer in selecting the most desirable process from among a
group of alternative processes. If the CAD system is connected to or includes computer-aided
manufacturing, it will be easier for the engineer to determine the order and cost of different
processing techniques for producing the needed part.
Where CAD workstations are used, engineers' productivity shows a threefold to sixfold
increase, because repeated shapes do not have to be redrawn, savings Modifications can be
made quickly and inexpensively, and the engineer (:M1 work alone rather than hav ing to
turn the sketch over to a draftsperson. Computer mod eling, or simulation, allows more parts
to be tested before the final choice meet be made, and there is no need for model-building.
Thus CAD has enabl ed com pani es to reduce the size of their engineering staffs without
impairing productivity.
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Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM)

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) employs computers in many different aspects of the
manufacturing or part-machining process. One recent growth in CAM has been the marriage of
numerical-control (NC) machinery and on-line computers. One CAM application is the
automated bill of materials, a means of tracking a product from its highest inventory level to its
lowest inventory level. Other applications include automatic storage and retrieval systems with
computer-operated part pickers and stockers, automatic reorder point inventory control, routing
or process sheets, master production scheduling, and material requirements planning. The
computerization of these reports and processes allows the information to be kept up to date
and makes cost accounting virtually automatic. Computer-controlled inventory methods can
greatly reduce the stock of parts that must be kept on hand, thus lowering inventory costs.
CAM applications can also enlist the services of computer-controlled automated machines of
all types, including robots.
If the scheduling computer can communicate with the computer-controlled automated machine tools,
the automated machines can be run on the basis of the automated schedule. This begins to look
like a fully automated factory.
Computer-Aided Robotics (CAR)

The field of computer-aided robotics (CAR) uses electronic computers in the design, manufacture,
installation, and programming of robots. Computer-aided robotics is a new entry in the arena of
computer-aided whatever. In fact, the idea of CAR first occurred to me in April 1985, while I
was reading an article called "Anatomy of an Off-line Programming System" by John J. Craig. 3
CAR is an offshoot of computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing
(CAM). The field of CAR will come into its own as the number of robots being manufactured and
used increases. That is, CAR will emerge from CAD and CAM just as the field of computers
emerged from the field of electronics and just as the field of
Electronics emerged from the field of electricity.
In their present state, CAD and CAM allow us to generate simulations of robots, robot parts, and even
complete robot systems. Such simulations help in the design of robots, in the training of robot
Operators, and in the actual programming of robots of since off-line programming is done without
the physical use of a Robot, this technique can he used to determine the feasibility of having a robot
do a specific task—before purchasing the robot.
A CAR system already exists under the trade name ROBOCAM. It can he run on the Apollo
family of CAD/CAM workstations. Directions are entered into the CAR system either
through a high-level computer language or through a computer mouse. This system allows
the user to construct simulations of robots and tasks, and then it carries out the simulated task
with an interactive arm-independent language. The system can determine whether a proposed
placement of a robot in its workspace will allow it to reach all desired points and whether the robot
has enough axes of movement to orient a work piece or tool properly.
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The SILMA Corporation has developed a CAR system called CimStation. It can be run on an
Apollo computer or on an IBM PC AT computer. CimStation. Can perform the following
functions: workcell layout, programming workcell devices, multiple process simulation,
workcell optimization, output generation, program translation and generation, and adaptation
to changes.
Industrial Robots
The industrial robot is intended to serve as a general-purpose unskilled or semiskilled laborer.
Typically it does not resemble a human worker physically, and it may not do the job the same way a
human worker would. Nor does the industrial robot look like most hobbyist robots. For one thing,
most industrial robots are stationary, while most hobbyist robots move about. The industrial
robot generally has a single manipulator somewhat similar to a human arm and hand. Figure
1-1(a) shows a rectangular-coordinates industrial robot, and Figure 1-1(b) shows a polar-
coordinates industrial robot. (These names will be explained in Chapter 3.) These robots look
more like machine tools than like human beings. In fact, the general public would not think of these
machines as robots.
In most applications, robots do not work as fast as humans, but they are more reliable than
humans in some applications. They are neither as fast nor as efficient as special-purpose automated
machine tools. However, industrial robots are easily retrained or reprogrammed to perform an array
of different tasks, whereas an automated special-purpose machine tool can work on only a very
limited class of tasks.
The first machine tools to resemble the modern industrial robot were probably the automatic
spray-painting machines designed in the late 1930s by Pollard and Roseland. The first industrial
robots showed up in American manufacturing plants in the late 1950s. In 1970 only about 200
industrial robots existed in the United States. By 1995 the number had grown to 66,000, and by
2000 the number of industrial robots is expected to reach I 05,000.
The industrial robot is intended to take over work currently done by humans in areas that are dull,
dirty, dangerous, or difficult. A hazardous atmosphere in a workplace requires expensive protective
devices for human workers, and even these may not completely protect the human from harm. The use
of robots to work with radioactive materials, toxic chemicals, cotton lint, coal dust, and asbestos
fibers could eliminate human exposure and save lives. Other dangerous areas include work in
outer space, undersea, or in deep mines. Humans usually do not perform well in jobs they find dull
or tiresome; industrial robots do not become tired or bored, so their efficiency does not diminish.
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4-1 Industrial Robots.
(a) A rectangular-coordinates robot moves along three linear axes. It looks very much like a
numerical-controlled machine tool. (b) A polar-coordinates robot rotates along two of its three
axes. It looks less like a machine tool but very unlike what the average person would call a robot.
Another type of robot used in industry is the automated guided vehicle (AGV). AGVs
(which may also be called Robovans) are unmanned, computer-controlled material transport
vehicles. Although they are designed to follow painted lines on the floor or buried cables, they
require control or guidance from a master computer or programmable controller telling them
where to go. The AGV is a special-purpose robot. That is, it is designed exclusively to transport
parts, and it cannot be reprogrammed to perform unrelated tasks.
Most automated storage and retrieval systems (ASRS) use AGVs. ASRSs are automated
warehouses that use computers and robots to store and retrieve parts. ASRSs can be several
stories high
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CHOOSING AMONG HUMANS, ROBOTS, AND AUTOMATION

When should a person be used to do a task? When should an industrial robot be
used? When should automation be used? The answers to these questions are not Simple and
straightforward. However, some rules of thumb can help suggest significant factors to keep in mind.
The first rule to consider is known as the Four Ds of R obot i cs. Is the task dirty, dull,
dangerous, or difficult? If so, a human will probably n ot be able to do the job efficiently
for hours on end. Therefore, the job may be appropriate for au tomation or robotic labor.
The second rule recalls the fourth law of robotics: A robot may not l eave a human
jobless. Rob o ti cs and automation must serve to make our lives more enjoyable, not to
eliminate jobs for people.
A t h i r d rule involves asking whether you can find people who arc -willing to do the
job. If not, the job is a candidate for automation or robotics. Indeed, this should be a
primary reason for the growth of automation and robotics.
A fourth rule of thumb is that the use of robots or automation must make short-term
and long-term economic sense. As a general starting point, consider the following. A task
that has to be done only once or a few tim es and is nor dangerous probably is best
done by a human. After all, the human is the most flexible of all machines. A task that
has to be done a few hundred to a few hundred thousand times, however, is probably best
done by a flexible automated machine such as an industrial robot. And a task that has to
be done 1 million times or more is proba bly best handled by building a special -
purpose hard automated machine to do it.
NONINDUSTRIAL ROBOTS
While the focus of this book is the industrial robot, you should be aware that there are other types
of robots: military robots, show or promotional robots, educational robots, medical robots,
domestic or personal robots, and hobbyist robots. Each of these nonindustrial types is described
in one of the subsections that follow.
Military Robots
Military engineers consider any machine that can be operated without a person being
present a robot. This definition encompasses most remote-controlled devices, since almost any
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such device can be operated by a computer in place of a human controller. Remote-control tanks,
radio-controlled airplanes, and remote-control devices for detonating bombs over enemy lines are
examples of military robots.
Robot bombs or "smart bombs" that can be steered by remote television control after they leave an
airplane represent another type of military robot. They increase the accuracy of the bombing while
lowering the risk to the airplane and its crew. The French Exocet missile, for example,
can be launched from a plane 25 miles away from a target ship. A low-flying plane at
that distance is unlikely even to be detected by the ship. The Exocet and similar missiles are
military robots by anyone's definition; however, these robots arc extremely special-purpose.
The military also uses remote-controlled robots to defuse or detonate bombs and shells. Bomb
disposal teams have always suffered a high fatality rate. Thus fire and police departments are eager
to use remote-controlled robots in certain dangerous situations
Many functions in a modern military aircraft have become too complicated for the pilot to
handle. Although the pilot still initiates most operations, computers and specialized robots
carry out the details. One of the earliest robot devices used on airplanes was the autopilot
(or robot pilot, as it is known in Europe). "[Way, some pilotless aircraft known as drones are
used for target practice and reconnaissance.
Pilots and other military personnel use flight simulators for training. These simulators are in effect
robots that control people. Modern flight simulators have "working" instruments and realistic visual
and motion capabilities. One of the first robotic flight simulators in use was the F-4C weapons
system training set (see Figure 4-2). Built in 1965 by Link Trainer, it had three axes of roll and
five axes of pitch, and used 45 gallons of hydraulic fluid. A more modern trainer requires a
clearance of 38 feet just to handle its vertical movement.
Military interest in atomic energy led to the development of mechanical remote-control devices
known as teleoperators to handle dangerous radioactive materials. These manipulators lacked any
sensory feedback other than that provided by the operator's vision. It soon became obvious that some
type of pressure or feeling feedback was needed for the device to pick up and put down objects
reliably. As a result, attempts were made to build mechanical feeling feedback into the device.
A more modern remote-controlled device known as the Mobot is made by Hughes Aircraft
Company for the Atomic Energy Commission. This successor to the teleoperator has two arms,
remote vision (through the use of television), remote hearing (through the use of microphones at
the wrist), and "soft" hands. Because the soft hands give some pressure or feeling feedback
information to the operator, they overcome one of the problems of the early teleoperators.
A direct predecessor of the robot manipulator was the prosthetic (artificial) arm. The earliest
prostheses were probably the peg leg and the hook hand. The first artificial hand that looked like a
human hand may have been the iron hand made in 1509 for Goetz von Berlichinger, a German
knight. The development of artificial manipulators for humans has provided valuable insights into
designing robot manipulators.
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b)
Figure 4-2 F-4C Weapons System Trainer.
(a)Exterior view of the cockpit. (b) Partial view of trainer control stations, Built in 1965 by Link
Trainer the F-4C Weapons System Trainer was one of the first robotic flight simulators. It has three axes
of roll and five axes of pitch
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The military has developed other sensor devices that are useful to both humans and robots. Radar, radio
detection, and range finders are types of artificial vision useful for missiles and spy satellites.
Infrared vision, digital television vision, sonar, and ultrasonic hearing are other sensor areas pioneered
by the military.
The development of the electronic computer—the brain for the sophisticated robots—received much of its
early funding and research from military and space programs. Without the development of the integrated
circuit, which allows thousands of transistor circuits to be placed inside a tiny package, the microcomputer
would not be possible and the intelligent robot would not have a brain.
The space program has developed some of the most sophisticated special-purpose robots ever made. The
unmanned lunar Lander vehicle, and the Viking and the Voyager vehicles have performed fantastic feats
of exploration.
The Viking landers on Mars were equipped with two cameras with stereoscopic vision capabilities. They
had a low-frequency seismometer for an ear and a Gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer for a
nose and taste buds. Each Viking probe could detect organic molecules at a concentration of
a few parts per million. Its single arm, which could be withdrawn completely into its
body, was mainly used to gather soil and rock samples. Finally, each Viking had biological
sensors for measuring microbial metabolism.
On July 4, 1997, the United States landed the Pathfinder spacecraft on Mars. The
Pathfinder carried its own six-wheeled robot rover called Sojourner. The Sojourner was
used to take pictures and study the rocks and soil of Mars. Information gathered by
Sojourner was then relayed to Earth, through the Pathfinder.
The military is faced with many unpleasant jobs it would prefer to have ro bots do.
Repairing reactors or the outside of ships at sea would be a good job for robots. Using
robots to repair space vehicles will also be desirable in the near fu ture. Even the boiler
room onboard ships would be a good place to use robots. And of course the military would
like to replace foot soldiers with robots.
Unfortunately, the robot is not yet advanced enough to handle most of these tasks. But the
military remains very interested in robots and will continue to con tribute to their
development
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Show (Promotional) Robots

Some robots used by industrial companies more closely resemble personal or hob byist robots
than industrial robots. Thus show robots (also known as play or pro motional robots) are
nonindustrial robots that might be better described as remote-control devices. Such robots are
seen at electronic shows and conventions, where they move about in the aisles, mingle with
the many visitors, and appear to converse with them.
Like Woodi, a promotional robot that acts as mascot of the Oregon Institute of Technology
rally squad. Or Harry, one of the Remarkable robots made by Robots northwest, making a
promotional appearance at a store opening.
Max, from Nationwide Robots, is radio-controlled, stands 4 1/2 feet tall, talks, shakes hands,
carries a tray, blows up balloons, and makes robot-like noises, blushes when kissed, has
flashing lights, and is battery-powered. Essentially though, Max is just a remote-control
device that requires a human to furnish all controls, including the fancy conversation.
The Robot Factory offers a line of radio-controlled robots, ranging from the 40-inch-tall Hot
Tot, which rides a bicycle or tricycle, to the 8 -foot-tall Ralph Roger robot. The company's
most popular and sophisticated model is the in -between size SIX-T robot. Among other
things, SIX-T can tip its hat, hand out business cards, talk, and blink its eyes.
Making a remote-control toy tank move about and making a show robot move about are
very similar undertakings. The swiveling of the tank's turret is analogous to the turning of the
show robot's head. The raising and lowering of the tank's gun is much like the raising and lowering
of the robot's arm(s). The firing of the tank's gun could be replaced by the opening and closing of
the robot's hand. Add a remote-controlled speaker, a microphone, and some flashing lights, and you
have yourself a show robot. The construction of the show robot GARCAN (short for "garbage can"),
a homemade show robot, is explained in the Handbook of Advanced Robotics.
Educational Robots
Educational robots are devices that can be used to teach the principles of robotics. They may be
manipulators, computers, sensor kits, or any part related to robotics. All of the robots mentioned in this
chapter could be classified as educational robots.
Some companies specialize in this area of robotics. The robots from Eshed Company come with the
manipulator, controller, and power supply. Figure 4-5 shows the SCORBOT-ER V plus from Eshed.
Figure 4-6 shows the SCORBOT ER VII robot. The robots from Feedback Inc., for example, are
manipulators that require the user to supply the controller (computer). Figure 4-7 shows Feedback's
ARMSORT PPR1030 manipulator with the AIM65 computer. Figure 4-8 shows Feedback's
ARMDRAULIC EFIA1052A manipulator with the IBM PC computer.
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Fischertechnik also supplies educational manipulator kits. The Rhino educational robot and the
HeathKit Hero I robot come with a built-in controller
Figure 4-5
Eshed Company SCORBOT-ER V plus electric
Powered educational robot comes with
Manipulator, controller, and power supply.
Medical Robots
Medical robots include all robot-like devices that
either give medical aid or substitute for or restore
functions that a disabled person lacks. Show robots
are used in medical therapy work with abused
children. Industrial robots are used as lab assistants
to handle dangerous fluids and as aids to disabled
persons to do tasks the person can no longer do.
Bionic arms, hands, legs, and feet are just now
reaching the useful stage. Artificial hearing and
vision are under development.
AGVs are being used as hospital orderlies to deliver
food and medication.
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Figure 4 -6
Eshed Company SCORBOT ER VII electric-powered educational robot comes with the above
manipulator, controller, and power supply. The upper arm has power outlets for
Powering either an electric- or pneumatic-operated gripper.
Figure 4-7 ARMSORT PPR1030 with AIM65.

The ARMSORT PPRI030 manipulator and interface arc connected to an AIM65 computer. ARMSORT is
an electrically powered cylindrical-coordinates manipulator. (Courtesy of Feedback Inc., Berkeley
Heights, New, Jersey)
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L I.111111111
\A
Figure 4-8 ARMDRAULIC EHA1052A with IBM PC.
The ARMDRAULIC EHA1052A manipulator and interface are connected to an IBM PC computer. It is a
hydraulic-powered jointed-arm manipulator. (Courtesy of Feedback Inc., Berkeley Heights, New Jersey)
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Domestic (Personal) Robots

The domestic (or personal) robot has yet to get off the ground. When it does, how-
ever, interest in robotics can he expected to grow phenomenally. Progress in the Areas of hobbyist
and show robotics will provide the basis for making personal robots. One U.S. manufacturer was
hoping to have a personal robot pet on the market by 1986. Although this did not happen, the
personal robot may well appear at any time now
The first generation of personal robots will serve primarily as mechanical pets. Later versions will
be capable of entertaining, baby-sitting, vacuuming the floor, bringing in the mail and the
newspaper, mowing the lawn, and taking out the trash. They will also be useful for home protection,
security, health care for the aged or infirm, fire detection, and (perhaps) repair of robot-built
appliances.
A simpler electronic pet—the Petster series of toys from Axlon—was marketed for under $100 in
1986. Robotics hobbyists liked it, but the general public did not. HeathKit marketed the Hero I,
Hero Jr, and Hero 2000 robots in hope a popular personal robot, but these did not catch on
either. A more recent fad is th e cyber-pet, a computerized attachment to a keychain. The
"pet" needs periodic attention from its owner in order to keep it "alive." Could this
eventually develop into a real "robot pet"? Its chances of success will likely depend on its
being able to perform some useful service for its owner, perhaps even as a "guide dog" for the
visually impaired or physically challenged.
Another recent home robot application is the robot butler. One manufacturer makes a robot that
can greet visitors, take their names, announce their names, and sound an alarm if the visitors
are uncooperative. The general-purpose household
Robot servant, however, is not yet a reality .
Hobbyist Robots
The hobbyist robot will contribute significantly to the field of robotics, if the con-
tributions of radio and computer hobbyists to their technologies are any indication
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SUMMARY
While the words robot, robotics, and computer are of recent origin, the ideas and devices they signify
have been around for thousands of years. Only the technology used to make these devices is new.
The word robot means different things in different applications. Seven general areas of robotics can
be identified: industrial, hobbyist, show or promotional, domestic or personal, military,
educational, and medical. The domestic robot has the potential for great growth, but its
development is still embryonic. Many of its eventual features will be based on those of successful
hobbyist and show robots.
Automated industrial tools are special-purpose machines designed to do one task very efficiently.
Industrial robots are general-purpose tools that can be programmed to do many different tasks.
Consequently, robots are used in areas that require flexible automation. Robots generally work in
concert with hard-automation devices.
In simplest terms, a robot is a computer whose primary purpose is to produce motion.
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CH4-2 The History of Robots
4-2
The History of Robots
OVERVIEW
What is the history of robots? Why study the history of robots? Where can more
information on the history of robots be obtained? These are the major questions
addressed in this chapter.
OBJECTIVES
 The present-day significance of the history of robots and computers in robotics
 The key stepping stones in the development of robots
KEY TERMS
Abacus
Android
Automatons
Auto-pilot
Babbage, Charles Cray I
Devol, George
Droid
ENIAC
Humanoid
Jacquard's loom
Mark I
Mistakes in history Mistakes in the future
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THE VALUE OF STUDYING THE HISTORY

OF ROBOTS
Studying the history of robots enables students to see the rate and order of the robot's development. It
reveals the historical steps by which the robot developed, shows how far ahead of technology people's
dreams move, and points out which dreams remain unfulfilled. Unfulfilled dreams suggest the
direction the future development of robots will take.
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- 127 -
- 128 -
In the eighteenth century, several elaborate automatons were made—mainly as toys for the very
rich. They were also mechanical masterpieces. One was a fake chess-playing robot invented by
Wolfgang Von Kempelen around 1769. It actually relied on the presence of a small child hidden
inside for control. Von Kempelen also made a doll that demonstrated the mechanism of human
speech. Another automaton was a model of a duck composed of over 4,000 parts, with a working
digestive system. The duck walked, quacked, ate, drank, and eliminated. If you touched the duck,
it would turn its head towards you and protest. Another well-known automaton was an
artificial female organ player with simulated breathing, head movements, and hand movements.
Around 1775 Jaquet Droz made a series of doll automatons, including one doll that played a
model piano and another doll that could write words. These dolls are still functional.
In 1801 Joseph Marie Jacquard constructed the first numerical- controlled machine—an
automatic loom that used cards with holes punched in them to control the pattern being woven. In
successive decades, Charles Babbage formulated the theory of automated computing and
designed and partly built the analytical machine and the difference engine. These were the forerunners
of the modern electronic digital computer. In 1898 Nikola Tesla demonstrated a radio remote"
controlled submersible boat. He also tried to develop machines that he hoped would possess
intelligence.
Figure 4-2-1 Automaton Made by Hero of Alexandria.
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This automaton is called Hercules Killing the Dragon. The dragon squirts water at Hercules, and
Hercules kills the dragon with an arrow. The automaton is water-powered and was built by
Hero of Alexandria around 300 B.C.
In the 1880s railroad companies found a use for a less expensive type of automaton, an electric
railroad signal that looked like a man. In the late 1960s the Queens Devices Corporation of New
York began producing a lifelike automaton known as Silent Sam for directing traffic. Sam, which is
still being made, costs less than $1,000 and can run on batteries for five to seven days at a time.
Sam moves a flag held in one hand and from over 20 feet away is mistaken for a human. Since
human flagmen are in short supply in the United States and since being a flagman is a hazardous
job, even the unions think Sam is great and would like to see more Sams put in use.
In the 1930s aircraft designers developed the autopilot for airplanes. In Europe, autopilots were
known as robot pilots. Radio remote-controlled aircraft were also under development at this time.
During the 1930s the first spray-painting industrial robots were made, although they were called
automatic machine tools instead of robots. Two separate patents were issued for these devices, to
Pollard in 1942 and to Roseland in 1944. These machines were trained by being led through a task
as they recorded their motion information on a phonograph-like device. The robots then played
hack the information continuously as they replicated their painting task. The controller thus
used an analog computer.
In the 1950s the first generation of commercial digital computers appeared. These used vacuum
tubes as their main components. They were large and slow and could not be used as a robot
controller.
Around 1953 Seiko of Japan developed what appeared to be a miniature robot system to assemble a
wide range of mechanical watch parts. Then in 1956 George C. Devol applied for a patent (issued
in 1961 by the U.S. Patent Bureau) for the first practical industrial robot. It was labeled
"Programmed Article Transfer."
In the 1960s a second generation of computers was developed. They replaced vacuum tubes with
transistors, which made them smaller and faster. Very simple second-generation computers were
used as controllers for automated machine tools and robots.
In the 1940s most homemade robots were mechanical units whose programming was fixed in
gears and cams. In the 1950s and 1960s the transistor and early integrated circuits allowed
homemade robots to use electronic circuits for some built-in programming. Simultaneously,
industry was building automation equipment and numerical-controlled equipment, and the
military was working on inertial guidance (or navigation) systems for planes and rockets. All of
these used built-in electronic programs or instructions. Changing the program thus required
redesigning the equipment.
By 1970 a third generation of computers had replaced transistors with inte grated circuits. An
integrated circuit only slightly larger than a couple of transistors could contain from ten to twenty
complete transistor circuits. This made the minicomputer available for use as a programmable
logic controller on automated and numerical-controlled machines. Although these controllers
could be reprogrammed, the machines they ran were not general purpose enough to benefit from
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reprogramming. Industrial robots, which had begun appearing in the late 1960s, were getting a
firm foothold in the industry, with approximately 2,500 robots in the United States By 1978.
In 1974 Vicarm, Inc., marketed a robot that used a minicomputer for a controller. In 1975 Cray,
Inc., introduced the Cray I supercomputer, which used array processing so that it could work on many
parts of a mathematical array problem in parallel. In the future, such computing will make vision
processing much more practical.
By 1976 at least three companies were selling home personal microcomput ers: Apple,
Commodore, and Tandy. Figure 4-2-2 shows the TRS-80 computer from Tandy. This represented
the fourth generation of computers, replacing simple integrated circuits with large-scale
integrated circuits. A large-scale integrated circuit could contain a complete computer. By this
time, Vicarm had designed a robot with a microcomputer for a controller. Microcomputers are the
basis for all modern robot controllers. Figure 4-2-3 shows components from each of the first four
generations of computers.
Figure 4-2-2 TRS-80 Microcomputer.

The Radio Shack TRS-80 Model I computer by Tandy was one of the first ready-made personal
microcomputers. It was first offered for sale in the summer of 1977.
In the 1980s robots continued to move into industry. By the end of the 1980s a second generation of
industrial robots with more powerful sensor devices was on the brink of emerging
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Figure 4-2-3 Four Generations of Computer Components.

(a) A first-generation computer circuit that uses vacuum tubes as a major component. (b) A second-
generation computer circuit that uses transistors as a major component. (c) A third-
Generation computer circuit in which each rectangle is an integrated circuit (the major component).
(d) A fourth-generation computer circuit in which each black square is a large-scale integrated
circuit (the major component).
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FICTIONAL ROBOTS
Fictional writings reveal many human fantasies and often predict future events. The human wish to
fly led to the invention of the airplane. The human wish for independent means of transportation led
to the invention of the automobile. The dream of putting a person on the moon led to the U.S.
space program that did put a man on the moon. Throughout history people have dreamed of
creating mechanical creatures to do their work for them.
Many folk tales deal with witches and magicians who could give life to inanimate objects and
cause them to move about. How nice it would be to train broom or vacuum cleaner to clean the
house automatically or an axe to chop woo.t.1 by itself. Then there is the story of Pinocchio, a
string puppet, who comes to lite and becomes his maker's son.
The story of a flying mechanical horse is told in the Arabian Nights. And Tik-Tok of Oz (not: to
mention the Tin Woodman) come to life in the Oz. book snits; Then we have Dr. Frankenstein's
attempts to make a man from pieces of dead and then bring it to life.
In 1921 Karel Capek first used the word robot, in the play Rossum's Universal Robots. The inventor
Rossum is trying to produce a perfect and tireless worker, and his robot is manufactured wholesale
for every purpose. Someone gets the idea that giving the robots feelings and nerves will make them
better servants, however, the robots' first emotion is to hate human bein gs. The robots rebel and
wipe out all humans except one skilled mason, whom they order to help them Continue their
Robot species. Since he does not know how they work, he states that he needs to dissect one it he is
to help them. But when a female robot is chosen as the subject, a male robot volunteers to take her
place. Recognizing the love agleam in the robot's eyes, the mason sees that he is not needed after all.
More recently, we have the book I, Robot, by Isaac Asimov. Asimov has written many other stories
about robots and coined the word robotics in 1940. Many other science fiction writers have found
that robots make good characters in their books.
Robots have appeared frequently in the movies. The 1926 movie Metropolis introduced the machine
woman (or female android), Olympia. The 1934 movie serial The Vanishing Shadows has a robot,
too. The 1936 movie The Birth of the Robot deals with automatons and mechanization in modern
times. The 1940 movie serial The Mysterious Dr. Stan features a robot, and the 1952 movie The
Day the Earth Stood Still features Gort, an all-powerful robot. In the 1954 movie Gog, the robot Gog
goes berserk and kills a person. The 1956 movie Forbidden Planet introduces the lovable Robbie the
Robot, and the 1965 television series Lost in Space features a similar robot. The 1971 movie 2001 has
a computer-controlled spaceship (that is, a robot spaceship) named HAL. HAL suffers a nervous
breakdown and tries to kill all the men aboard the ship, which it almost succeeds in doing. In Silent
Running, made in 1972, robot workers are used to tend trees. The 1973 movie West world is full of
robots or androids that are designed to give humans pleasure but later try to take over.
Star Wars, which first appeared in 1976, introduces the friendly and likable robots R2D2 and
C3PO, who also appear in both sequels to the film. The Buck Rogers movie and television show
feature the robot Tweaky. Most futuristic movies depict robots taking over humans' work or
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threatening their lives. A more benign vision appears in the 1979 movie C.H.O.M.P.S., in the
form of a computerized watchdog designed to ward off burglars.
In 1988 there was Johnny Five (formerly Number Five), of Short Circuit 2. In real life, Johnny cost
$2 million and required the combined talents of four roboteers (operators in charge of a remote-
controlled show robot). One roboteer wore a form of teleoperator called a telemetry suit, to
produce the major motions except for locomotion; the other three roboteers controlled locomotion
and facial features. The movies Jurassic Park (1993) and Jurassic Park: Lost World (1997) used robot
dinosaurs and computer graphics to portray "live" dinosaurs. Jurassic Park 3, due out May 2001,
will use even more robots. The first underwater pictures of the real Titanic were photographed
using a remote-controlled camera
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SOURCES OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

More information on the history of robots can be found in Robots. Robots, Robots edited by
Geduld and Gottesman: Two other areas closely related to the History of robots are the history of
automation and the history of computers, both are covered in BIT by BIT: An Illustrated History
of Computers by Stan Augartem .
SUMMARY
The human wish to have robots goes hack many centuries. Literature and the cinema have shown
what robots of the future may look like and act like. After all, human progress receives its first
impulse from dreams and imagination.
While a few successful mechanical robots have been made over the last few centuries, major
advances in robot technology have had to wait for the electronic age and the computer. With a
computer for a brain, the modern robot has an unlimited future.
As technology makes the production of computers and robots easier, new companies will begin
making computers and robots. Because these new companies tend not to study past history of
computers and robots, they are bound to repeat the many mistakes of previous companies.
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CH4-3 Components of an Industrial Robot PART I
4-3
Components of an Industrial Robot PART
I
OVERVIEW
This chapter offers a detailed description of the parts that make up an industrial robot. It also
introduces much of the terminology related to parts of the robot and explains their origin. For
example, the parts of the manipulator are named after corresponding parts in the human body, and
work area shapes are named after their geometric shapes.
What styles of manipulators are used for an industrial robot? What type of power is used? What are
its components? These are some of the questions answered in this chapter.
OBJECTIVES
 When you have completed this chapter, you should be familiar with:
 The components of an industrial robot
 The many styles of manipulators
 The three types of power used for robots
 The specialized field of robot grippers
 How to begin selecting a robot for a specific task
Key Terms
Actuator.
Anthropomorphic robot
Arm
Articulate robot
Automatic control
Bang-hang robot
Cell
Closed-loop
Computer interface
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Controller Cylindrical
Coordinates
Gear motor
Gripper
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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INDUSTRIAL ROBOT
An industrial robot has the following parts and characteristics: hand, wrist, arm, base, lifting power,
repeatability, manual control, automatic control, memory, library of programs (programmed by the
user), safety interlocks, speed of operation, computer interface, reliability, and easy maintenance.
The "hand" of a robot is known as a gripper, an end effector, an actuator, or end-of-arm tooling. It
consists of the driven mechanical device(s) attached to the end of the manipulator, by which
objects can be grasped or acted upon. The robot may require a different type and design of hand
for each different object it is to grasp or each different tool it is to hold. In some cases, the hand
itself acts as the tool. Clearly, designing grippers properly is a key task in robotics.
The wrist of the robot is used to aim the hand at any part of the workpiece. The wrist may use any
of three motions: a pitch, or up-and-down motion; a yaw, or side-to-side motion; and a roll, or
rotating motion.
The arm is used to move the hand within reach of a part or workpiece. It can pivot at its elbow and
at its shoulder joint. The type of joints used and the motion of the arm determine the work area,
or cell, of the robot.
The waist, or base, of the robot, which serves to support the arm, is called the shoulder. In some
robots, the arm can rotate about the shoulder; in others, the arm is mounted on a vehicle and can
move back and forth on a shoulder track. Generally, however, the shoulder's capacity to move is
very limited.
The lifting power a robot must have depends on the weight and shape of the object to be moved,
along with how fast and in what direction the object is to be moved. The lifting power for small
robots may be supplied by vacuum, pneumatic (air-pressure), or even electrical force. Medium-
size and large robots run on electricity or hydraulic power (the force of liquid).
To replace a human worker successfully, a robot must be able to replicate the required work
motions within some specified precision or tolerance. This replication of motion with precision
is known as repeatability. The narrower the tolerance, the more expensive the robot. In very
close-tolerance work, such needed for assembly or machining, the robot is equipped with a
remote center compliance (RCC) device, which acts as a multiaxis float to help pull the hand or
tool into the required position.
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GENERAL COMPONENTS OF AN INDUSTRIAL ROBOT

A n industrial robot has three types of components: physical parts or anatomy, built-in
instructions or instinct (placed there by the manufacturer), and learned behavior or task programs
(on-the-job training).
The physical portion of an industrial robot is made up of four or five parts: the mechanical part
or manipulator, which performs the work through motion
Figure 4-3-1 Parts of a Robot.

The controller for the human is the brain; the controller for the industrial robot is an electronic
computer. The power supply for the human is the digestive system; for the industrial robot, it can he
electrical (as in this figure), pneumatic, or hydraulic. The main manipulator for the human is the
arm, while for the robot it is the manipulator arm. The vehicle for the human is the legs; for the
industrial robot in this figure, it is wheels that move along a fixed rail
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The controller, which directs motions; the power supply, which supplies energy to the manipulator;
end-of-arm tooling (EOAT), or gripper; and (optionally) the vehicle, which transports the base of
the robot to where it is to do its work. Figure 4-3-1 draws comparisons between the physical parts
of the human being and those of the industrial robot.
The manipulator is the part of the robot that physically performs the task. Attached to it is the
gripper, or hand, which actually contacts the parts or materials being processed.
The controller is the brain or computer center of the robot. It may be an adjustable timer and a set of
mechanical stops and limit switches, or as complex as a complete minicomputer or microcomputer.
The controller must recall all the motions that the robot is to perform, in the proper order and with
the correct timing. When two or more robots are designed to work together, their individual con-
trollers may receive directions from a large electronic computer that controls the entire factory.
Plotting the movements of several robots working together is known as robot choreography.
The power supply for the manipulator depends on whether the type of power used by the
manipulator is electric, hydraulic, pneumatic, or vacuum.
The robot may be stationary or sit on a vehicle. The vehicle may use wheels on a track, free
wheels, treads, or some type of legs and feet. Whether the robot is stationary or mobile, the base of
the robot must be stable and accurately situated if the robot's manipulator is to perform
accurately.
The manipulator, controller, and power supply for the robot may be housed together as a single
unit or they may be housed separately as discrete units. To apply spray paint, for example, only
the manipulator need actually be located in the spray-paint booth. The controller and power
supply can be kept in another area with a less severe environment. If a robot works in an
explosive hazard area, again only the manipulator need be present in the area.
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MANIPULATOR CONFIGURATIONS
Without the manipulator, the robot would not be a robot since it would not be able to produce
motion. The parts of a robot's manipulator are named after similar parts in a human's chief
manipulators, the arm and the hand. The points at which a robot's manipulator bends, slides, or
rotates are called joints, or axes of motion: they include the shoulder, the elbow, the wrist, and the
finger joints. The number of joints an industrial robot has determines its degrees of freedom of
motion. Each axis equals one degree of freedom.
Figure 4-3-2 draws comparisons between human and robot manipulators. The human arm and
hand constitute the finest universal manipulator in nature. Thus they serve as a model for the
industrial robot to copy. The industrial robot of today generally has only a single manipulator, with
one arm and one hand on it. In a few cases the arm may have more than one hand on it. The method
by which the arm positions the hand varies from one robot to another.
Figure 4-3-2 Parts of a Manipulator.

The industrial robot manipulator has an arm, a wrist, and a hand with fingers. These names match
those of the corresponding human parts. The jointed-arm manipulator shown here also has an upper
arm and a forearm.
Robots are often classified by the shape of the space, or work envelope, that their manipulator can
reach. For example, the manipulator of a rectangular, or Cartesian-coordinates, robot operates within
a cube or box-shaped work envelope
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Cartesian Coordinates
Positioning may be done by straight, or linear, motion along three axes: back and forth, in and out,
and up and down. These axes are known, respectively, as the Cartesian axes x, y, and z. Figure 4-3-
3(a) shows a typical manipulator arm for a Cartesian-coordinates robot. The work area, work
envelope, or cell reached or serviced by the Cartesian-coordinates robot's arm is a big box-shaped
area (see Figure 4-3-3(b)). This is similar to the type of work area that an overhead crane in a
foundry or nuclear power plant would have (see Figure 4-3-3(c)). If such a crane is controlled by a
computer, it acts as the manipulator of a robot. If the crane is controlled by a person, it is simply a
remote-control device.
The Cartesian-coordinates robot can only reach out in front of itself. The mechanism used by an
automatic back-plane wiring machine for the computer industry is similar to the manipulator of a
Cartesian-coordinates robot. Programming motion for a Cartesian-coordinates robot consists of
specifying to the controller the x, y, and z values of a desired point to be reached. The robot
then moves along each axis to the desired point. Figure 4-3-4 shows a rectangular-coordinates
robot from Cincinnati Milacron Corporation.
Cylindrical Coordinates
If the positioning of the manipulator allows the arm to rotate about the base or shoulder, and if the
other two axes allow up-and-down and in-and-out motions, the robot is known as a cylindrical-
coordinates robot. The axes for the cylindrical coordinates are 0 (the Greek letter theta), the base
rotational axis; R (reach), the in-and-out axis; and z, the up-and-down axis. The work area, or cell,
serviced by a cylindrical-coordinates robot arm is the space between two concentric cylinders of
the same height. The inner cylinder represents the reach of the arm with the arm fully retracted,
and the outer cylinder represents the reach of the arm with the arm fully extended. Figure 3-
5(a) shows a typical manipulator arm for a cylindrical-coordinates robot, Figure 4-3-5(b) shows
its work envelope, and Figure 4-3-5(c) shows a construction crane used for working on tall
buildings that has a cylindrical-coordinates manipulator.
In most robots, the rotational axis does not have a full 360° turning capacity, but the cylindrical-
coordinates robot can nonetheless reach things all around it
- 142 -
Figure 4-3-3 Cartesian- or Rectangular-coordinates Robot.

(a) A Cartesian- or rectangular-coordinates arm. It moves in three linear axes. (b) The box-shaped
work envelope within which a Cartesian-coordinates manipulator operates. (c) An overhead crane.
Its movements are similar to those of a Cartesian-coordinates arm
Figure 4-3-4 Rectangular-coordinates Robot from Cincinnati Milacron.
This is the model T3800 rectangular-coordinates robot. It is also called a gantry robot. It is
electrically driven, with a 12-meter x-axis of travel, a 5-meter y-axis of travel, and a 200-pound
- 143 -
maximum payload. The hand is located near the upper-right corner of the robot frame. (Courtesy of
Cincinnati Milacr)
Programming a cylindrical-coordinates robot involves translating the x and y values for a desired
point into a base rotation angle and the in/out value. The z value of the point is not changed and can
be found directly along the z axis. Figure 4-3-6 shows a cylindrical-coordinates robot from Cincinnati
Milacron
SCARA Robot
The SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm) robot has the same work area as a
cylindrical-coordinates robot. However, the reach axis includes a rotational joint in a plane parallel to
the floor. This feature allows the SCARA robot to reach around some obstacles in its work envelope.
The SCARA arm is also more compact than the cylindrical-coordinates arm.
The SCARA robot was developed at Yamanashi University in Japan in 1978 and was intended for parts
assembly work.
Polar Coordinates
If the arm not only rotates about the base, but also rotates ab out an axis in the vertical
plane, the robot is known as a polar-coordinates, or spherical-coordinates, robot. The axes for
the spherical coordinates are θ, the rotational axis; R, the reach axis; and β (the Greek letter beta),
the bend-up-and-down axis. The work area, or cell, serviced by a polar-coordinates robot is the
space between two concentric hemispheres. The inner hemisphere is defined by the reach of the
arm when it is fully retracted along the R axis. The outer hemisphere is defined by the reach of the
arm when it is fully straightened along the R axis.
In theory the polar-coordinates robot can reach things almost directly above itself, as well as
around itself. In actuality, the rotational axis of most robots is limited to a turning range of less
than 360° and the bend-up-and-down axis may be limited to 60" or less. Most polar-coordinates
robots use some type of positional feedback information, which makes them closed-loop servo-
controlled robots. Programming a polar-coordinates robot involves translating the x, y, and z values
for a desired point into two angles of rotation and an in/out value. Many polar-coordinates robots
cannot reach directly above themselves.
Jointed Arm
If the arm can rotate about all three axes, the robot is called a revolute-coordinates, articulate,
anthropomorphic, vertically articulated, or jointed-arm robot. Anthropomorphic means human-shaped
and here refers to the fact that this design resembles the human arm. The axes for the revolute
coordinates are θ, the base rotational axis; β, the upper arm rotational axis; and α (the Greek letter
alpha), the lower arm rotational axis, the inner hemisphere of the work envelope is not necessarily
spherical but is the shape of the base that supports the arm. The outer hemisph ere is defined by
the reach of the arm when it is fully extended.
- 144 -
In theory, the revolute-coordinates arm can reach things all around it, including things above and
below it. But again, most rotational axes do not rotate a full 360°. In any case, the revolute-
coordinates, or jointed-arm, robot can serve the largest work area for the smallest floor space. These
robots are almost always closed-loop servo-controlled. Programming; a jointed-arm robot to reach
a desired point involves translating the x, y, and z values into three angles of rotation and
choosing between two possible sets of angles that can reach the same point. Figure 4-3-7 shows a
jointed-arm robot from Cincinnati Milacron
Figure 4-3-7 Jointed-arm Robot from Cincinnati Milacron.
This is the model T3566 hydraulic-powered jointed-arm robot. It uses an electrohydraulic closed-loop
servo system and can handle a maximum 100-pound payload. (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron)
Comparison of Manipulator Configurations
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Each manipulator configuration described previously has some advantages and some disadvantages.
These are summarized in Table 4-3-1.
- 146 -
Table 4-3-1
Assessment of the Five Basic Robot Manipulator Configurations
Configuration
Advantages Disadvantages
Cartesian coordinates (x, Easy to visualize Can only reach in front
y, z--base travel, reach, Rigid structure of itself
and height); three linear Easy to program off-line Requires large floor
axes Linear axes make for easy space for size of work
mechanical stops envelope Axes hard to
seal
Cylindrical coordinates (0, Can reach all around it- Cannot reach above itself
r, z--base rotation, self Base rotation axis is less
reach, and height); two Reach and height axes Rigid than a linear axis
linear axes, one rotating rigid Linear axes hard to seal
axis Rotational axis easy to won't reach around
seal obstacles
SCARA coordinates (9, Height axis is rigid Horizontal motion is cir-

4), z---base rotation, Large work area for cular
reach angle, height); one floor space Two ways to reach a
linear axis, two rotating Can reach around obsta- point
axes cles Difficult to program off-
Long horizontal reach line
Highly complex arm
Spherical coordinates Can't reach around ob-
(0, R, 13--base rotation, stacles
reach, elevation angle); Generally has short
one linear axis, two ro- vertical reach
tating axes
Revolute coordinates Can reach above or Difficult to program off-

(0, p, a—base rotation, below obstacles line
elevation angle, reach Largest work area for Two or four ways to
angle); three rotating least floor space reach a point
axes Most complex manipu-
lator
- 147 -
Wrist
The wrist of a manipulator may add one, two, or three axes of motion to the three the
manipulator already possesses. These wrist motions are called pitch, yaw, and roll, after an
aircraft's motions of bend, twist, and swivel (see Figure 4-3-8). They are used to position the hand or
end effector to the desired orientation with the work. Figure 4-3-9 shows a three-axis wrist
from IBM. Figure 4-3-10 shows three wrists that have only pitch and roll axes. A wrist with
only a roll axis is shown in Figure 4-3-11 shows a differential wrist that effectively has only
pitch and roll axes.
Figure 4-3-8 Wrist Motions.

This is a three-roll wrist. All three of its motions are rotational. The
axes are known as pitch (up and down), roll (rotation around the
axis of forward motion), and yaw (back and forth).
Grippers
The choice of grippers can determine whether a robot succeeds or fails in performing a task. A very
accurate and expensive robot equipped with the wrong gripper may be useless for a specific task.
The gripper, or hand, of the robot attaches to the wrist end of the arm and serves to handle or process
parts. The human hand is one of the most versatile end effectors in existence. Besides having pitch,
yaw, and roll control, the hand also has three joints in each finger and two in the thumb. While these
joints have only a simple rotational ability, the joints at the base of the fingers can also move side-
ways, thus allowing the hand to assume many shapes and grip objects of many different sizes and
shapes. The hand is also covered with positional feedback indicators, in the form of pressure and heat
sensors. These tell what (if anything) is being touched, how hard it is, and how hot or cold it is
relative to the hand's temperature. Figure 4-3-12 shows a human gripper and a robot gripper.
- 148 -
Figure 4-3-9 Three-axis Wrist from IBM 7576 Assembly Robot The wrist on this IBM robot has three
rotational axes,
Pneumatic Power
Pneumatic-powered devices use a compressible fluid such as air for their power. The movement of
compressed fluid can also be used to create a vacuum in some devices. The pneumatic power
supply consists of a compressor, a storage tank for holding the pressurized fluid, and a motor or
engine to run the compressor. Figure 4-3-13 shows actual components of a pneumatic system,
including a pneumatic power supply and parts of a regulator for injecting oil into
compressed air to lubricate the devices it powers.
- 149 -
The regulator also removes water

from the compressed air. This
pressurized fluid can be stored in tanks
and/or transported through high-
pressure tubing to the place(s)
where it is used.
If ambient air is used as the fluid, the
used air can be vented back into the at-
mosphere. Hydraulic fluids, on the
other hand, must be returned to the
storage tanks. Air that picks up
moisture becomes very corrosive. To
solve the moisture problem, some
pneumatic systems use an inert gas in
place of ambient air. The square inch
(psi) pressures in a pneumatic-powered
system may be 1 00 pounds per or more
Figure 4-3-10 Two-axis Wrists.

(a) The hero I wrist, (b) The Armatron wrist. (c) Tile Mobile Armatron wrist. Each of these wrists has
two rotational axes
- 150 -
Figure 4-3-11 Differential Wrist.

The differential wrist on the Armdroid educational robot uses two
motors. When these motors move in the same direction, the wrist
moves up or down; when they move in opposite directions, the
wrist rotates.
The "muscles" for a pneumatic-powered manipulator generally take the form of some type of
actuating cylinder. These cylinders produce a linear (straight-line) motion, which may be converted
into rotational motion through the use of a linkage similar to that used in steam engines.
The force (F) on the outward stroke of the piston is equal to 0.7854 times the square of the diameter
(D) of the piston times the pressure (P) of the fluid entering the cylinder, minus the sum of the return
spring pressure (S) and the friction tom (Ff) of the piston. The formula is thus
F= (0.7854 x D 2 x P) – (S+Ff)
Figure 4-3-12 Human and Robot Grippers.

Haman grippers and robot grippers use
similar nomenclature: The moving parts that Human gripper Fingers
do the gripping are called ringers
Figure 4-3-13 Components of a Pneumatic
Power Supply.
(a) A working pneumatic power supply,

showing all its components in place. (b) A
water condenser and a lubricator. The
condenser removes water from the
compressed air, rendering the air less
corrosive. The lubricator adds oil to the air
- 151 -
so that it will lubricate the parts it passes through.
The force (F) on the return stroke of the piston

is equal to the spring pressure (S) minus the
friction force (Ff) of the piston. Expressed
mathematically this is
F = S — Ff
If the fluid used is a compressible one (such as
air), the pressure applied to the piston will be
uneven (as a result of gravity and turbulence)
and will be affected by
the weight of the load on the piston.
Figure 4-3-15 shows a double-action cylinder. The force (F) on the outward stroke of the piston is
equal to 0.7854 times the square of the diameter (D) of the piston times the pressure (P) of the fluid
entering the cylinder, minus the friction force (Ff) of the piston. The formula is thus
F = (0.7854 x D 2 x P) – Ff
The force (F) on the inward stroke of the piston is equal to 0.7854 times the difference between
the square of the diameter (D) of the piston and the square' the diameter of the piston rod
`'t
(Dr), times the pressure (P) of the fluid enter* the cylinder, minus the friction force (Ff) of the
piston, Expressed mathematically). This is
F= (0.7854 x (D2 - Dr 2 ) x PI – Ff
The double-action cylinder has an advantage over the single-action cylinder: It can
be set to hold an in-between position. If a compressible fluid is used, the accuracy
of this in-between position will be affected by the weight of the load on the piston.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.
A 1-inch-diameter double-action cylinder has an air pressure of 150 psi applied against the piston
face, moving it outward. If the friction force of the piston is 20 pounds, what force will the piston rod
apply to its load?
Answer
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The force is equal to 0.7854 times the piston diameter squared times the air pres sure, minus the
friction force.
F (0.7854 x 1 2 x 150) — 20. = (0.7854 x 1 x 150) — 20 = 117.81 20
= 97.81 pounds
Pneumatic-powered manipulators are normally used only on small, speedy pick-and-place robots
with open-loop nonservo-controlled systems. These robots handle light loads and move from point
to point without any positional feedback information. Since there is no control over their speed of
motion, the robots usually can be stopped at only two or three positions in their range of travel
along each axis. The stop points are set up by mechanical switches or stops. Because these
robots make a noise each time they run into one of their mechanical stops, they are also known as
bang-bang robots. The pressure of the pneumatics holds the manipulator against the mechanical
stop and thus provides very accurate positioning.
Pneumatic power is the least expensive of the power types for robots and is relatively maintenance-
free. Small pneumatic-powered robots can achieve motion accuracies of up to 0.001 inch at
endpoints. Small open-loop nonservo-controlled pick-and-place robots may have cycle times of 3
to 5 seconds for light loads. The heavier the part, the longer the cycle time and the less accurate
the placement of the part. While bang-bang robots are the simplest type of robot, they also
represent the largest class of industrial robots in use. Because they handle many of industry's material
transfer tasks, they are sometimes classified as material transfer devices rather than as robots.
Electrical Power
Electrical power is clean and can be distributed through wires. The electrical power
supplied to small and mediumize robots is usually direct current (DC) electricity for
-s
use in controlling DC electric motors. Since most- companies use alternating current
(AC) electricity for input power to the robot's power supply, the electrical power supply must
convert the AC power to DC power. Usually, more than one voltage of DC power is required.
The "muscles" of an electrically powered manipulator are furnished by some type of
electromagnetic device such as relays and motors. DC electric motors, including linear solenoids,
pulse motors, rotational solenoids, servomotors, and stepping motors, are used for small and
medium-size robots. Most hobbyist robots are electrically powered.
Solenoids have two possible states: on and off. They move an armature to one of two positions,
depending on which state they are in. Solenoids are popular for controlling values and for starting
and stopping motors and are used, for example, on washing machines and automatic dishwashers.
Stepping motors move incrementally each time they receive a pulse. The direction in which they
move depends on the phasing of the pulse. By keeping track of the number and phase of the pulses
sent to the stepper motor, you can determine where the device driven by the motor is positioned.
- 153 -
Stepping motors are popular in robots that lack positional sensors. Servomotors are used to generate
feedback about where devices are and to control their movement.
Electric motors become very expensive when they are used to run large and powerful manipulators.
Such motors require voltages large enough to constitute a fire hazard in some industrial
atmospheres. Electric closed-loop servo-controlled jointed-arm robots have been successfully used
for transporting parts, inspecting dimensions of parts, arc welding, assembly, light-duty processing,
and for precise placement of needles during brain surgery,
Hydraulic Power
Hydraulic power uses a no compressible fluid to transmit energy. The hydraulic power supply
uses pumps to supply the force needed to move the hydraulic fluid under high pressure. The power
transmitted by the hydraulic fluid comes from the pressure the fluid exerts against things, and not
from compression of the fluid itself. The fluid is used to activate hydraulic actuators or
hydraulic motors. The power from the pump is then transmitted by the fluid through tubing to
the hydraulic devices. After the fluid has done its work, it must be returned to the fluid supply
tank, because it is too messy and dangerous to release into the environment and because it costs
money.
Since hydraulic fluid works under high pressure, very small solid particles in the fluid can
damage the hydraulic actuators and motors. Therefore, the hydraulic power supply must filter
such particles out of the fluid before placing it into the hydraulic lines. Hydraulic fluid can
also be damaged by reaching too high a temperature. When this happens, the fluid changes
color and is considered burnt. The fluid needs to be inspected periodically and replaced if it
is damaged or contaminated.
Figures illustrates the main components of a hydraulic power supply. The supply tank has a filter
to keep impurities out of the hydraulic system, and baffle plates to prevent turbulence, to trap air
from the fluid, to separate foreign material from the fluid and allow it to settle to the bottom of the
tank, and to increase heat transfer through the reservoir walls. Figure 4-3-16 shows actual parts of a
hydraulic system.
The "muscles" for a hydraulic-powered manipulator usually take the form of some type of
cylinder or motor. Hydraulic systems may use the same single-and double-action linear-motion
cylinders that pneumatic power supplies use. When supported by a double-action cylinder and
some type of feedback information, hydraulic-powered manipulators can achieve very accurate
- 154 -
linear positions.
(c)
Figure 4-3-16 Components of a Hydraulic System.

A working hydraulic power supply. (h) A hydraulic cylinder (above) and a hydraulic motor (below). (c) A
hydraulic controller on a trainer.
Hydraulic-powered systems can also use rotary actuators or cylinders. Figure 3 25 shows single- and
-
double-action rotary actuators. The single-action rotary actuator can move through a rotational angle of
approximately 280°. The torque (T) developed by the actuator is equal to the fluid pressure (P) times the
vane area (A) times the center radius (Re) of the vane, minus any friction torque (Tf). The formula is
thus T= (P x A x RC) Tf –
The double-action actuator can move through only half the rotation of the single-action rotary
actuator—or approximately 140°—but it can develop twice the torque by applying pressure to
twice the vane area. The formula in this case is
T= (2 x P x A x RC) – Tf
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.
A single-action rotary cylinder has a vane center radius of 1 inch and a vane area
of 0.75 square inch. If the fluid pressure against the vane is 1,500 psi and the piston has 20 inch-
pounds of friction torque, what torque is delivered to the load on the cylinder shaft?
Answer
- 155 -
The torque output of the cylinder is equal to pressure times vane area times center radius, minus
friction torque.
T. (1,500 x 0.75 x 1) – 20
= 1,125 – 20
= 1,105 inch-pounds 92.08 foot-pounds
Several types of motors can be used in hydraulic systems. Figure 3-26 shows two of these types,
the gear motor and the vane motor. The latter works much as a waterwheel does.
Hydraulic-powered manipulators are used in medium-size and large robots. The pressure in a
hydraulic system may reach 1,000 pounds or more. Relatively small hydraulic motors can
move loads weighing thousands of pounds. For powering large robots, hydraulic motors are
less expensive than electric motors. Hydraulic actuators require relatively low voltages and can be
used in explosive atmospheres without danger of causing a fire or explosion. This makes
hydraulic-powered robots very popular in spray-painting applications. Large closed-loop
servo-controlled unit robots can attain position accuracies of up to 0.001 inch. Hydraulic servo-
controlled jointed-arm robots have been successfully used for spray painting, arc welding, and
material transfer. Since hydraulic devices can be moved by hand when the hydraulic pressure is
released from the system, these robots are generally trained by the walk-through teaching
method.
Other Power Sources

As the robot emerges from the factory into the surrounding world, it and its manipulator may be
powered by sources other than pneumatic, electrical, and hydraulic energy. In the past, robots
have used water, steam, and metal springs for power. These sources may again be used in the future,
along with gasoline or diesel fuel engines, solar power, wind power, and nuclear power.
SUMMARY
The industrial robot is made up of four or five parts: the manipulator, the controller, the
power supply, end-of-arm tooling, and (optionally) the vehicle, Manipulators are named
after their geometric shape and the shape of their work envelope, or cell, Common types Include
rectangular or Cartesian coordinates, cylindrical coordinates, SCARA, spherical or polar coordinates,
and revolute coordinates or jointed arm. The manipulator performs the required work motions for the
robot. At the end of the manipulator is an end effector—a gripper (hand) or an end-of-arm tool. The
power supply furnishes the power needed to move the manipulator. The most common power
supplies used are electrical, pneumatic, and hydraulic. The control unit—always some type of
computer—acts as the robot's brain.
The vehicle is used to move the robot if it cannot reach everything it needs from one base position.
- 156 -
FORMULAS
Single-action Cylinder
Outward stroke: F = (0.7854 x D2 x P) (S + Ff)
where F = force
D = diameter of piston
P = fluid pressure
Ff = friction force
S = return spring pressure
Return stroke: F = S – Ff
Double-action Cylinder
Outward stroke: F = (0.7854 x D 2 x P) Ff Return stroke: F = [0.7854 x (D2 – Dr2) x P] – Ff where
Dr = piston rod diameter
Single-action Rotary Actuator
T= (P x A x RC) – Tf
Where T = torque
A = vane area
RC = center radius of vane
Tf = friction torque
Double-action Rotary Actuator
T (2xPxAxRc) – T
- 157 -
CH4-4 Components of an Industrial Robot PART II
4-4
Components of an Industrial Robot
PART II
OVERVIEW
This chapter gives a detailed description of the robot's controller and its optional vehicle. It continues
from where the last chapter left off in describing the parts of the robot.
The manipulator is the part of the robot that does the work and that peopl e can see working. The
power supply furnishes the energy to do the work. However, without a controller for a brain, it isn't
a robot—it is just a remote-controlled devise, or teleoperator. Some of the robots in the factory
and most of the robots used in the office need a vehicle so they can move about the office and do
their task.
How is a robot controlled? Are industrial robots stationary or do they move about? These are some
of the questions answered in this chapter.
OBJECTIVES
The three types of robot controllers
The robot vehicle and mounting
KEY TERMS
Closed-loop Continuous-path control unit
Controller
Control unit
Feedback
flight-technology control unit
Low-technology control unit
Medium-technology
Control unit Nonservo-controlled Pick-and-place control unit
PLC
Point-to-point control unit
- 158 -
CONTROL UNITS
The control unit is the brain of the robot. It contains the instructions that direct the manipulator to
perform various movements in the proper manner and at the proper time to accomplish a
particular task.
Feedback is the process of receiving information on how well a task or posi tioning is
progressing. Control units either receive some type of feedback to follow the actual positioning of
the manipulator, or have no feedback control and must assume that the manipulator is where it is
supposed to be. Systems that use continuous feedback information are known as closed-loop servo-
controlled systems, Human beings use a closed-loop servo-controlled system known as kinesthesia
for knowing where their limbs are. Humans can add to their servo-controlled system any information
received from sight and touch inputs relating to the limb's position, Systems without feedback
information are called open-loop nonservo-controlled systems. A nondigital watch functions
without feedback about how well it is positioning its hands when telling time; a music box works
without feedback about how well it is playing a tune.
Human beings use a closed-loop servo system for most movements. The original signal sent to a
muscle gets the arm or leg to the approximate position desired, although it generally falls a little
short of its goal. Feedback messages from the muscles then tell the brain that the position is short
of the goal, and the brain sends the muscle a supplementary correction command. If feedback
signals are not received from the muscles, positioning the arm or leg is difficult and inexact.
Visual feedback can be used to overcome the loss of neurological feedback, But even with visual
feedback, a person's grip is very weak without muscle and pressure feedback signals.
Control systems and devices are nothing new to us. Our cars contain control devices in the form of
engine timing, automatic transmissions, cruise control, and automatic windows. Our radios and
televisions have control devices in the form of automatic gain control (AGC), automatic volume
control (AVC), automatic frequency control (AFC), and automatic fine tuning (AFT). Such
devices may be open-loop nonservo-controlled or closed-loop servo-controlled.
Servo Systems
Servo systems are used to control machinery. A system that works without sensors
is known as an open-loop nonservo system. A system that works with internal sensors to provide
feedback information is called a closed-loop servo system, or simply a servo system.
Open loop Nonservo Systems

-
Systems controlled entirely by on/off switches or by simple speed adjustments without feedback
are open-loop nonservo systems. Common examples of open loop nonservo systems include
-
light switches, light dimmers, gas pedals on cars, volume controls on a radio or television set,
stepper motors, mechanical stops, water faucets, manual transmissions, and clocks. Figure 4-4-
1 diagrams two simple open-loop nonservo systems.
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Figure 4-4-1 Open-loop Nonservo Systems.

(a) A circuit controlled by a switch—perhaps the simplest open-loop nonservo system. (b) A circuit
controlled by a potentiometer.
Closed-loop Servo Systems

Systems that use internal sensors to see how well they are doing their jobs are called closed-loop
servo systems. The sensors may be as simple as the limit switch on an automatic garage door
opener or as complicated as an optical incremental encoder on an advanced robot. Common
examples of closed-loop servo systems include a heater with a thermostat, an oven with a ther-
mostat, a governor on an engine, a DC motor with a tachometer or encode; a motor with a
limit switch, a stepper motor with an encoder, an automatic gain control, an automatic
transmission, and an automatic volume control.
All closed-loop servo systems have at least the following six parts: a command or input signal, a
compare; an amplifier, an output device, a sensor device, and a feedback signal. The command or
input signal specifies a desired position, speed, or other end state (depending on what the machine
is supposed to do). The feedback signal identifies how well the machine has carried out the
command by noting the actual position, speed, or whatever of the machine. The comparer
compares the input signal and the feedback signal. If the signals are the same, the comparer
issues no signal and the output device stops. If the two signals are different , the comparer
transmits some type of difference signal, causing the output device to move. The amplifier is used to
raise the comparer signal to a power level capable of activating the output device. The output device is
the motor (or whatever) that is to be controlled. Figure 4-4-2 shows a simple closed-loop servo
system.
Motors used in a closed-loop servo system are often called servomotors. The motor portion of a
servomotor can be a DC motor, an AC motor, a stepper motor, or even a hydraulic motor. What
makes the servomotor special is that it includes some type of feedback system for assessing how
well it is doing its task. Figure 4-4-3 shows two servomotors, both of which are DC motors that use
optical incremental encoders for feedback. Encoders are explained in Chapter 6
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Figure 4-4-2 Closed-loop Servo System.

The closed-loop servo system has a feedback reference signal from the output telling how well the
system is progressing toward carrying out the input command signal.
OPERATING METHODS OF ROBOT CONTROL UNITS
Control units can also be classified according to the operating method used by the robot. These
methods include limited-sequence pick-and-place units, point-to-point units, and continuous-path
units.
Figure 4-4-3 Servomotors.

(a) A servomotor from a Qume printer. (b) A servomotor from a Rhino robot. Both servomotors are
DC motors with optical encoders
Pick-and-Place Control Units

Limited-sequence pick-and-place control unit robots are generally small and pneumatic powered
with no position information feedback. That is they are open-loop nonservo-controlled robots. Pick-
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and-place control units are sometimes referred to as low technology control units. The simplest type
-
of control unit for a pick and place robot uses a rotating control drum - each rotation represents one
-
work cycle for the robot. On the drum's surface are places to insert pegs to determine where and
when to position the robot against a particular stop and when to open and close its
gripper. The stops themselves are mechanical limit devices adjusted by hand along an axis.
The pick-and-place control unit is best-suited for short sequences of operations, such as:
 Move robot to starting position.

 Grasp a part.
 Remove the part from a machine (or conveyor belt, or whatev er).
 Move to second position.
 Insert the part into another machine (or deposit it on another conveyor belt, or
whatever).
 Prepare to start another cycle.
Pick-and-place robots are programmed by adjusting the mechanical limit stops on the axes of the
manipulator and by placing pegs as desired on the control unit's drum memory. Most open-loop
nonservo-controlled pick-and-place robots are Cartesian-coordinates or cylindrical-coordinates
robots, since the linear slides work well for the placement of mechanical stops and limit switches.
The main style of control device used on pick-and-place robots is some type of on/off mechanism.
The control drum on a washer, called a timer, is comparable. Electrical contacts on the timer start
and stop the motor, turn the water on and off, and engage or disengage the spinning of the tube.
These electrical contacts are really electrical on/off switches. Typically, they activate a solenoid
motor or electric magnet that performs the mechanical turning on and off of some device. Figure 4-
4-4 shows a timer drum and an electrical solenoid motor.
A modern pick-and-place robot may use an electronic controller instead of an electromechanical
drum. Either way, the controller activates solenoids that turn on or off the air supply in the cylinders
of the pneumatic manipulator. This causes that axis of the manipulator to extend or retract.
It is also possible to buy a pick-and-place robot manipulator without a controller. In this case, the
manipulator may be controlled by the PLC (programmable logic controller) that controls the rest of
the machines on the production line. A PLC is a special-purpose electronic computer designed to
handle the input and out-put signals to mechanical
devices (see Figure 4-4-5). PLCs have replaced the old
relay controller logic.
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Figure 4-4-4 Timer Drum and Solenoid Motor. A timing drum uses a timer motor to turn a rotary
switch. Contacts on the rotary switch connect to various devices. For example, a solenoid motor
that opens and closes a valve could be one device
Point-to-Point Control Units
The point-to-point control unit can reach any point within its work envelope and can have
as many points in its work sequence as a particular task may require, lim ited only by the size
of the control unit's memory. A robot with this type of control unit can do much more
complicated tasks than can a robot with pick-and-place controls. Point-to-point control
units are also known as medium-technology control units. Point-to-point robots arc
programmed through the use of a manual teaching device whereby a person moves the robot
through the sequence of points that it will be required to repeat in performing the task. Alternatively,
the point's coordinates may be entered directly into the robot's memory.
The manual teaching method requires that, at each desired point of the se quence, the training
person press a button telling the robot's control unit to re member that point. This programming
phase is done at a slow speed. Later, when the robot is running at normal speed, its movement
from point to point in the task sequence will occur in an approximately straight line. The
exact path taken by the robot between points is not programmable.
Remote programming, an alternative method of programming the robot, i s most often done
when the robot is part of a group of computer-controlled robots. The programmer enters the
point coordinates into the computer, and the computer calculates the necessary point and
slide positions to get the robot to that point. Since the position sensors on different robots (even
robots of the same make and model) differ slightly, no two robots will agree about exactly
where the manipulator is located. Consequently, the computer may have to develop a
correction table for translating a program from one robot to another.
Point-to-point controlled robots are generally more expensive and can handle heavier loads
than pick-and-place robots. Most point-to-point robots are hydraulic-powered units,
although some electrically powered point -to-point robots are manufactured.
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An electrical point-to-point robot not equipped with position feedback could use stepper
motors to control its position. Stepper motors have been used for years on electronic computer
input and output devices—printers, flexible di s k e t t e drives, and hard disk drives. Stepper
motors, for example, move the paper in a printer forward or backward, one step at a
time, and position a disk drive's read/write head to the proper place for reading or
writing a specific circle of information.
Figure 4-4-5 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC).
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(a) The inside of a small programmable logic controller that handles eight input and eight output
lines. (b) The outside of the controller. (c) The removable terminal for the controller. (d) The
terminal with its protective cover in place.
Stepper motors are multiple motors that advance their rotor by one pole for each voltage pulse they
receive. Figure 4-4-6 shows a cross-section of a three-phase stepper motor. To function, a stepper
motor must have a minimum of two phase windings. The rotor in Figure 4-4-6 is shown after the
phase A-Winding has been activated. Residual magnetism is usually sufficient to hold the rotor in
this position after the increase A-winding is deactivated, although the winding can be kept activated
to increase the holding force, if necessary.
If the phase B winding is activated next, the rotor will turn counterclockwise to align with the B
stator poles. (The counterclockwise direction of movement is due to the fact that the rotor pole
between stator poles B and C is closer to stator pole B than is the rotor pole at stator pole A.) If the
phase windings are alternately activated in the sequence A, B, C, A, B, C... the rotor will rotate
counterclockwise. If instead the phase windings are alternately activated in the sequence A, C, B, A,
C, B . . . the rotor will rotate clockwise.
Each activation of a phase winding causes the rotor to move one-half the distance between two
stator poles. With six poles, then, the rotor rotates one-twelfth of a circle (30°). Every increase in
the number of poles decreases the number of degrees of rotation per phase-winding activation
Continuous-path Control Units

The continuous-path control unit robot can reach any point within its work envelope and can have as
many points in its sequence as a particular task may require, just as the point-to-point robot can.
But in addition it can map the exact path to take between points. This allows the r obot to be
used for some semiskilled tasks that require control of the path motion between points, as in
automobile spot-welding or spray-painting. In fact, a continuous-path robot is more consistent at
replicating an exact path than a human worker can be
Figure 4-4-6 Stepping Motor.

This is a three-phase permanent magnet stepper motor.
Continuous-path control units are the most

expensive of all control units. They require a large
memory capacity to be able to record many times a
second the exact position along a path. Continuous-
path control units are also known as high_
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technology control units. Manually programming a continuous-path robot consists of leading the robot
through its task at full operating speed. Most continuous-path robots need some type of positional
feedback system in order to keep their positioning accurate.
THE VEHICLE AND THE ROBOT'S BASE
The vehicle for a robot is the device used to move it into a position in which the manipulator can do
its work. The base of the robot provides a stable foundation for the manipulator.
Stationary Robots
Many industrial robots have fixed-position bases and thus do not have a vehicle. Even with a fixed-
base robot, a stable mounting is essential. If the mounting of the robot is unstable, the endpoint
accuracy of the robot will be impaired. In some instances, it has been necessary to tear out the old
factory floor and lay a new, more stable floor to get the robot to work accurately.
Most fixed-base robots use floor mountings, although side or overhead mounts may be used to
save floor space; however, getting a stable wall mount is more difficult than getting a stable floor
mount.
Overhead mounting involves supporting the arm from above. An overhead pendulum mounting that
allows the robot to swivel at approximately its center of gravity can achieve approximately SO percent
higher acceleration than can a conventional floor-mounted jointed-arm robot. While it is possible to
mount a floor-mount robot from a ceiling mount, it is difficult to do so. A more common overhead
mount for a robot arm is used by the gantry robot. Here, the arm is suspended in much the
same way as the manipulator of an overhead crane is.
Figure 4-7 shows some possible robot base mountings.
Mobile Robots
An industrial robot that serves several machines may be mounted on a carriage vehicle that takes the
robot along a track from machine to machine. The vehicle must hold the robot base in a prescribed
position and must make the base very stable. The robot's center of gravity must be kept within
the wheelbase of the vehicle. The vehicle may possess from one to six axes of motion.
If the vehicle uses free-moving wheels for its motion, some method of steering the vehicle must
be provided. At least three wheels, placed to form a triangle, are required for stability. The odd
wheel can be either the front wheel or the rear wheel, and the steering can be done by either a
single wheel (the simpler method) or a pair of wheels. Likewise, the drive power can be applied
to a single drive wheel or to two or more wheels. Using a single drive wheel is the simplest ap -
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proach. Using two drive wheels works best with some type of differential between the wheels, if
the vehicle is to make turns—unless, of course, the steering is to be accomplished by turning the two
wheels at two different speeds. Figure 4-8 shows some possible three- and four-wheel vehicle
configurations. A vehicle-mounted robot must be equipped with some type of sensors to position
the vehicle so that the manipulator can do its work accurately.
Figure 4-4-7 Fixed-base Mounted Robots.
(a)A ceiling-mounted robot. This is generally not a practical arrangement. (b) An overhead gantry
mount, the most common way to mount a robot from above. (c) A wall-mounted robot. This
arrangement saves floor space, but unless the wall is very rigid, the robot will lose some accuracy.
(d) A floor mounted robot. This setup requires a very stable floor.
A robot's center of gravity on a vehicle should be as low as possible. This will make the robot more
stable during acceleration, deceleration, turning, and going up and down nonlevel surfaces. If the
center of gravity ever falls outside one of the wheels, the vehicle will tip over (see Figure 4-4-9).
Spreading the wheels out as far as possible improves
stability. Large wheels allow the robot to move over
rougher surfaces than can be negotiated on smaller
wheels. Treaded vehicles can move over rougher
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surfaces than can wheeled vehicles but are more difficult to construct.
Figure 4-4-8 Configurations for Wheeled Vehicles.
These are some of the combinations that can be used to drive and steer a three- or four-wheel robot
vehicle.
Wheels are the most common locomotive device for a robot vehicle. Some vehicles make use of
treaded devices similar to those used on tanks and Caterpillar machinery. A few rough-terrain robots
are given multiple-leg devices that move the way a spider's legs do. The Odex I robot, from Odetics,
Inc., was the first functional robot to be able to walk on any terrain (see Figures 4-4-10 and 4-4-
11).
Robots generally do not try to copy the two-legged style of locomotion used by humans because this
style is inherently unstable. The human processes of walking and running are both forms of
controlled falling. If you find this difficult to imagine, just watch a baby human who is learning
to walk. Walking on two legs requires sophisticated stabilization sensors, stabilization recovery or
correction devices, and the ability to shift weight from one leg to the other.
Figure 4-4-9 Vehicles and Center of Gravity.

A vehicle is stable as long as its center of gravity
falls within the wheelbase of the vehicle. The
lower the center of gravity, the steeper the incline
the vehicle can safely ascend or descend.
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Figure 4-4-10 Odex I Climbing into a Truck. The Odex I robot here is climbing into the bed of a pickup
truck through remote control.
Figure 4-11 Odex I on Stairs.

(a) The original Odex I in a museum. (b) The Odex I climbing stairs under internal control.
(Courtesy of Odetics, Inc., Anaheim, California)
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CH4 ROBOTIC ARM 4-4 End-of-arm Tooling
SUMMARY
The industrial robot is made up of four or five parts: the manipulator, the controller, the power
supply, end-of-arm tooling, and (optionally) the vehicle.
The control unit—always some type of computer—acts as the robot's brain. Control units are named
for the type of control they provide: limited-sequence, point-to-point, or continuous-path. All
controllers require some type of memory. Limited-sequence controllers have the least amount of
memory and may be mechanical in nature. Point-to-point controllers keep track of where they are
located and record the points they must pass through while doing a task. Continuous-path controllers
require the most memory and record where they are many times per second.
The vehicle is used to move the robot if it cannot reach everything it needs from one base position. This
makes the base less stable and may reduce the accuracy of the robot's Positioning.
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CH4-5 END-OF-ARM TOOLING
4-5
END-OF-ARM TOOLING
OVERVIEW
Robot end-of-arm tooling is not limited to various kinds of gripping devices. Such tooling may also
take the form of tools for doing such work as drilling, grinding, painting, and welding. In this
chapter; the term gripper refers both to devices that grip materials and parts, and to devices that
do work on parts.
What specific types of end-of-arm tooling are used? How important are these to a robotics
project? How much force should a gripper exert? These are a few of the questions answered in
this chapter.
OBJECTIVES
The great variety of grippers available
The importance of choosing the right gripper
How to calculate the force required to do a job
KEY TERMS
Acceleration
Center of gravity
Coefficient of friction
Compliance surface
Deceleration
End effector
End-of-arm tooling
Gripper
Hand
Mandrel lifting device
Pin lifting device
Pneumatic finger
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GRIPPERS AND HUMAN HANDS
The first gripper, or artificial hand, was probably a hook replacin g a lost human hand. An
artificial hand that looked like a human hand is first recorded in 1509— an iron hand made for a
German knight, Goetz von Berlichinger. Medical robotics continues to improve artificial hands or
grippers.
As research in nuclear science became active, grippers became popular for moving things
remotely. Remote-controlled grippers are called teleoperators. Figure 5-1 shows two short-range
teleoperators. Most teleoperators rely on visual feedback to supply status reports on how a task is
progressing; more recent teleoperators have been equipped with touch feedback sensors.
Astronauts train to manipulate robotic teleoperators in space from within the safety of the
spacecraft.
The robot's end-of-arm tooling may also be known as a gripper, a hand, or an end effector. It
attaches to the wrist end of the arm and may serve either to handle parts or to process parts. End-
of-arm tooling is not always included with the basic robot. If you buy a welding robot or a
painting robot, the wrist and gripper may well be included as part of a complete package, but more
general-purpose robots, such as for machine loading and unloading, where a gripper
specifically suited to the part being moved is needed, are commonly sold without grippers.
Figure 5-2 shows the human hand, with its twenty-seven bones and twenty-two degrees of
freedom. No robot gripper even approaches the human hand's versatility. When a robot is
substituted for a human in a task, it is natural to think of using a gripper that resembles the
human hand, yet this may not prove to be the best gripper for the task.
Figure 4-5-1 Teleoperators.

These teleoperators arc from a toy store, but teleoperators are nonetheless a very serious matter when
it comes to handling hazardous materials or working in dangerous surroundings.
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Figure 4-5-2 Human Hand.

The human hand is the most effective and versatile
General-purpose gripper in the world. With twenty-seven
bones and twenty-two degrees of freedom, it is also very
complex.
The human wrist and hand are extremely complicated.
In addition to the wrist's pitch, yaw, and roll control, the
hand has three joints in each finger and two in the
thumb. While these joints have only a simple rotational
ability, the joints at the base of the fingers can also move
sideways, thus allowing the hand to take many shapes
and to grip objects of many different sizes and shapes.
The hand is also covered with positional feedback
indicators—pressure and heat sensors—that tell how hard
an object being touched is and how hot or cold it is
relative to the hand's temperature.
End-of-arm tooling for robots can be subdivided into two
categories: grippers for moving parts and materials, and
tools for working on parts and materials. Examples of
grippers are multi finger grippers, clamps, scoops, ladles, hooks, forks, vacuum cups, vacuum
surfaces, magnetic devices, and sticky fingers. Examples of tools are drills, torches, screwdrivers,
spray-painting heads, spinning heads, and riveting heads.
In some situations, a robot must change its gripper during its task. If so, the robot's wrist must be
fitted with a quick-disconnect device. The robot then selects the proper gripper at the proper time
from a gripper carousel. Figure 5- 3 shows a 151 Manufacturing Inc. two-finger gripper mounted on
a low-profile pneumatic cylinder with a manual quick-disconnect pin. The ring through the head of
the pin is visible at the lower middle portion of the picture.
Figure 4-5-3 ISI Two-
finger Gripper Assembly.
The ISI two-finger gripper
assembly includes a low-
profile pneumatic cylinder
(on the left). In the middle
is the quick-disconnect
head adapter, with the
head of the release pin
showing. On the right is
the two-finger gripper.
(Photo courtesy of IR
Manufacturing Inc.,
Fraser, Michigan)
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Some companies specialize in the designing and manufacture of robot grippers. Two such
companies are Barry Wright Corporation and ISI Manufacturing Inc. Figure 5-4 shows some of
the grippers offered by the latter company.
CHARACTERISTICS OF END-OF-ARM TOOLING

The industrial robot's hand has not reached the state of development of the human hand, although
experiments have been conducted with the aim of designing a mechanical hand with fingers and a
thumb that will have the same rotational joints as on a human hand.' Even so, an industrial robot's
hand can be designed to do a better job at some particular tasks than can the human hand. For
instance, with the proper metal hand, a robot can handle red-hot objects; with suction cups, a robot
Figure 4-5-4 1S1 Gripper Parts.

The top center item is a low-profile pneumatic cylinder. The upper left item is an MGH5 gripper.
The lower left item is an MGH1 gripper. The lower right item is a GHAO gripper head, without any
fingers. The upper right item is an MGH2 gripper. At the center is the pin used for connecting and
disconnecting grippers. (Photo courtesy of ISI Manufacturing Inc., Fraser, Michigan)
can handle large sheets of glass or other smooth materials without ever dropping them; and with an
electromagnet attachment, it can be used to pick up and deposit objects made from magnetic
materials such as iron, steel, and nickel.
The robot's hand may also have sensors in it—proximity switches, fiber optics and light sensors,
pressure switches, magnetic-field sensors, vibration detectors, or speed-of-motion sensors. The wrist
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of the robot may be equipped with microphones or television cameras to provide artificial hearing or
sight. Experimental grippers are now being made with a plastic skin that contains a matrix of tiny
wires to give the gripper a sense of feeling or pressure.
Specialized Utility for a Job
For most industrial applications the robot's hand or end effectors must be designed to perform a
specific job. Consequently, when a robot is assigned a new task, it generally needs a different gripper
or end effector to do the work. Even a change in the size of the parts being processed by a machine
that a robot is tending may require a change in the robot's gripper.
A robots end effectors are not limited to replicating what a human hand can do. In some
cases, two different types of end effectors may be used on the same arm: one to load the
unmachined part, and another to unload the machined part. A robot tending more than one machine
may need to change end effectors as it goes from one machine to another. Something similar to this
occurs when a human puts down a hammer and picks up a saw during a construction task.
When a robot needs to switch to a drill or welding gun, that tool becomes the end effector.
Figure 4-5-5 shows a few of the many
available types of grippers. Figure 4-5-6
shows several two-finger grippers.
Figure 4-5-7 shows two more types of
end-of-arm tooling.
Figure 4-5-5 Types of Robotic Grippers

or Hands.
(a) Inflatable bladder. (B) Two-finger
gripper, (c) Vacuum cups, (d) Three-
finger gripper.
(e) Magnet bead, (f) Tubing pickup
device,
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Figure 4-5-6 Two-finger Grippers.

(a) The two-finger parallel-jaw gripper of the
Armatron. (b) The two-finger parallel jaw of an IBM
gripper, (c) The nonparallel two-finger gripper of the
Mobile Armatrou. (LI) The nonparallel two-finger
gripper of the Hero I robot.
Figure 5-7 Three-finger Gripper and Arc-welding End

Effector.
{a) the three-finger gripper of the Armdroid
educational robot. (b) The arc-welding end effector of
the AR-1 welding robot.
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Designing a two-finger clamp-like gripper involves taking many different details into
consideration. The size and shape of the part or parts to be handled by the robot during a task
greatly influence the size and shape of the required gripper. The weight, hardness, and surface material of
the part to be handled determine whether the fingers or jaws of the gripper should be smooth, rough or
padded and how powerfully they should grip the part. The speed at which the part is moved during
handling also affects how strong a grip is required. A padded or soft surface can be used to adjust
for minor mispositioning of the robot's gripper; in this case, the material used is called a
compliance surface. Handling very cool or very hot parts requires special gripper materials. Jaws
may need to be curved (to handle round parts) or straight (to handle flat-sided parts). Straight
jaws may be designed to move in parallel, like parallel-jaw pliers, or at a varying angle, like a
regular pair of pliers; they may grasp the part from the outside (as they clamp together) or from
inside (as they spread apart).
Other factors influencing the design of the gripper are the gripper's power source, its mode of
activation, the degree of accuracy that must be attained in the positioning of the part or tool, and the
need to change grippers (or not) during the task. Like the manipulator, the gripper can be powered by
electricity, pneumatics, or hydraulics. Hydraulic power gives the best weight-to-strength ratio.
Pneumatic power makes the fastest movement possible. Electric power, while clean and reliable, re-
quires larger and heavier grippers, but it does produce better positional accuracy.
The gripper may be activated by a spring-loaded device as it contacts a part, by a proximity sensor,
by some other type of sensor, or by preprogrammed commands in the robot's sequence of
instructions. The ultimate accuracy of positioning achieved with a part or tool depends on the
positional accuracy of the manipulator as well as on the gripper's construction. If a robot changes
its own grippers while performing a task, positional accuracy will be more difficult to maintain.
Generally, the cost of a manipulator goes up exponentially as its capacity for positional accuracy
increases. The gripper can counteract some of the manipulator's inaccuracies by means of a remote
center compliance (RCC) device.
Remote Center Compliance (RCC)
Drilling precisely drilled holes or assembling small parts requires very tight positional tolerances, and
making manipulators capable of these positional tolerances is very expensive. Human workers
position things correctly by using eye–hand coordination—a technique few present-day robots can
use effectively; however, many robots use a gripper with a remote center compliance (RCC) device,
which contains a built-in multiaxis floating joint to adjust for these misalignments—much like the
universal joint in the power train of an automobile compensates for misalignment between the axle
and the transmission.
Figure 4-5-8 presents a sketch of one type of RCC. As a small part is being inserted into a hole in an
assembly, the RCC device centers the part in the hole.
To accomplish this result the hole must have an enlarged tapered edge. As the Part contacts the
tapered edge, it applies pressure on the RCC device mechanism to adjust its position toward the
center of the hole, thereby moving the part into correct alignment.
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A drilling jig or template, fastened to the surface of a part to be drilled, helps guide a human worker
in positioning the drill correctly. A device similar to a drilling jig can be used to help a robot
equipped with an RCC device in its gripper to position a drill correctly.
The RCC device discussed to this point is a passive compliance device. It is also possible to use
force sensors and computer circuits to make an active RCC device. To do this, sensor information is
organized into a history of the offsets used when positioning the parts. The history can then be used
to make adjustments for the wearing or aging of a robot and to detect wear and tear on the machines
that make the parts used in the robot's task
Figure 4-5-8 Passive Remote Center Compliance Device.
A passive RCC device uses an adjustment mechanism to move a part toward the center of a hole.
Here the RCC device shifts the piece to be inserted from its initial position A to centered position B
Power for Grippers
Four types of powerare used for grippers: pneumatic, electrical, hydraulic, and
springs. For robotic manipulators sold without the gripper, the user must buy a
gripper separately and find a way to route power to it. A few manipulators have provisions for
gripper power built into them. Figure 4-5-9 shows the end of the manipulator for an Eshed
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SCORBOT ER VII robot, the top connector, which is being used, supplies the pneumatic-
powered gripper; the unused bottom connector can supply electric power and control signals to
a gripper.
Pneumatic Power
Pneumatic power for a gripper can come from an external source of compressed air or a vacuum, as
well as from a pneumatic-powered manipulator. While an electrically powered or hydraulic-powered
manipulator could use a pneumatic-powered gripper, such a manipulator generally uses. A more
sophisticated type of gripper. Vacuum cups and plate grippers require pneumatic power, as do
pneumatic gripper devices such as pneumatic fingers, mandrel lifting devices, and pin lifting devices.
A pneumatic finger grips an object by bending it, a mandrel lifting device by expanding inside it, and
a pin lifting device by contracting around the outside of it. Figure 5-10 presents sketches of these
devices.
Figure 5-10 Pneumatic Lifting Devices.
A pneumatic finger. When compressed air enters the finger, the folded edge expands and the finger
bends toward the smooth edge. (b) A mandrel lifting device. It picks up the part by expanding to fill
the inside of the part. (c) A pin lifting device. It lifts a part by contracting around the outside of the
part.
Electric Power Electric power may be used by itself or in conjunction with some other type
of gripper power. Using an electromagnetic pickup device on a gripper necessitates using electric
power, as does a gripper equipped with sensing devices. Most electrically powered manipulators
have electrically powered grippers. If the end effector is a tool rather than a gripper, it is likely to be
electrically powered.
Hydraulic Power Hydraulic power can be used to open and close grippers and to power
some rotating tools. Hydraulic-powered grippers are the strongest grippers available and possess the
best power-to-weight ratios. Because of the specialized requirements of hydraulic systems, however,
hydraulic grippers are normally used only on hydraulic-powered manipulators.
- 179 -
Springs are generally used to open a gripper; some other source of power must then be used
to close the gripper. That way, a power failure will not cause a gripper to close suddenly on an
unsuspecting human. Any type of robot can use spring power on a gripper.
How Grippers Work
At least seven methods are used by grippers to grip a Part: grasp it, hook it, scoop it, inflate around
it, attract it magnetically, attract it by a vacuum, or stick to it. Grasping a part involves applying
mechanical force to it at least two points—for example, by pinching it between two or more
fingers, or h)' spreading two fingers apart against the inside of the part. Hooking a part consists
of placing a hook through a hole in the part and lifting it. Scooping involves using a ladle to pick
up a mass of undifferentiated parts, or a formless material such as a liquid or sand. Inflating
around a part requires inflating a bladder around either the inside or the outside of a part.
Magnetic attraction involves using an electromagnet or a permanent magnet to attract magnetic
materials such as parts made of iron. If a permanent magnet is used, some type of mechanical
device, such as a pin, must be used to eject the part from the gripper once it has been carried to
its destination. Vacuum attraction works best on smooth-surfaced materials. It can be used to
handle difficult, unwieldy parts such as automobile windshields. Sticking to a part is
accomplished by equipping the gripper with a sticky surface. Once again, a mechanical device is
required to eject the part from the gripper when it should be released.
Things to consider in deciding what type of gripper a robot should use in clude: the weight of the
part; the gripping distance from the center of gravity of the part; the coefficient of friction
between the part and the gripper; the gravitation force (G) involved in moving the part, including
acceleration and deceleration; the angle of the gripper's fingers to each other; the necessary
safety factor; and the part's characteristics (such as composition, fragility, rigidity, shape, surface,
and magnetic qualities).
CALCULATING GRIPPER PAYLOAD AND GRIPPING

FORCE
The maximum payload that a manipulator can handle is usually identified by the manufacturer, and
sometimes a gripper may be given a payload specification by its manufacturer. When both are
given, the lower payload specification of the two is the one that must be followed. While the
gripper specification tells exactly how much payload the gripper can hold, the manipulator
specification is less straightforward. Since a manipulator may be sold without either a wrist or a
gripper, the payload specification may simply represent the amount of weight that can be attached
to the end of the manipulator as sold. Thus, if the manipulator can handle 60 pounds, including a
10-pound wrist and a 6-pound gripper, the gripper can handle only 44 pounds (60 — 10 — 6 = 44).
Of course, the manipulator might include a wrist, in which case the manipulator's payload
specification only needs to be adjusted for the weight of the gripper.
- 180 -
Calculating the force that needs to be exerted by a gripper to do a certain job involves considering the
following factors: the angle at which the part is grasped and moved; the thickness of the part; the
width of the gripper jaws; the distance from the center of gravity of the part; the coefficient of
friction between the gripper and the part to the center of force (the center of the contact area of
the jaws); the acceleration with which the part is to be moved; and any required safety factor. Not all
these factors are relevant to every problem.
The angle of gripping varies from 00 for gripping and moving in a vertical plane to 900 for gripping
and moving in a horizontal plane.
The thickness of the part, the width of the jaws, and the distance from the center of gravity of
the part are needed to calculate the torque that exists when a part is picked up at a place other than
its center of gravity. The center of gravity of
a part is the point where it's mass seems to be concentrated—that is, the point where the part
is balanced.
The coefficient of friction measures how efficiently the gripper holds the part. If the part and the
gripper surface are both rough, the coefficient of friction may be greater than 1. If the gripper
surrounds the part or if the gripper runs a fork through holes in the part, the coefficient of friction
can be treated as equal to 1 and thereafter ignored, For most gripping tasks, the coefficient of friction
is less than 1.
The acceleration or deceleration of a part is the rate of change of velocity of the part. It puts added
force on the gripper, trying to pull the part away from the gripper. For convenience, acceleration
is measured in Gs '. Normal gravitational force is a 1-G acceleration. If the part moves upward, the
1 G of gravity must be added to the acceleration. If the part moves downward, the part's acceleration
must be subtracted from the 1 G of gravity. The calculated G force is then multiplied by the part's
weight to get the total resisting force of the part.
Finally, the safety factor is a fudge factor to counteract unaccountable errors or unforeseen factors.
A typical safety factor is 2: After all the forces required for a task have been calculated, the final
number is simply doubled.
A few sample problems should help clarify the preceding material.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.
Determine how much force the jaws of a gripper must exert to hold a part in a vertical plane under
the following conditions:
The part weighs 20 pounds and is of a nonuniform shape.
The gripper's jaws are parallel to each other and are grasping the part by its vertical sides.
The part is grasped 24 inches from its center of gravity.
The jaws' gripping surface is 4 inches wide.
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The part is 2 inches thick at the point where it is being grasped.

The part is being lifted with a maximum acceleration of 2.5 Gs, including normal gravitational force.
The coefficient of friction between the part and the gripper is 0.85.
A safety factor of 2 must be included.
These conditions are represented in Figure 5-11.
Answer
First we must determine what information we need to solve this problem. Since the gripper is both
grasping and moving in a vertical plane, we do not need to know about conditions (c), (d), and (e).
The part exerts a stationary force of 20 pounds. Moving at 2.5 Gs, this force becomes 20 x 2.5 = 50
pounds.
Figure 4-5-11 Conditions for Sample Problem 1.

In mechanics, the force pressing two surfaces together is called the normal force. The force acting
parallel to these surfaces, which tends to prevent any sliding of these surfaces relative to each other,
- 182 -
is the friction force. The normal force and the friction force are related through the coefficient of
friction as follows:
Friction force = coefficient of friction x normal force F = uN or N = F/u
For the problem shown, since the equivalent weight of 50 pounds is opposed by
two friction forces (one on each face of the part), each friction force is 25 pounds.
N = Ff = 25/0.85 = 29.4 pounds on each face of the part

(note thati.t. was given as 0.85)
If a factor of safety of 2 is applied, then N = 2 x 29.4 = 58.8 pounds. The force of 58.8 pounds is
exerted by the gripper on each of the two sides of the part.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.
What force is required if the gripper operates under the same conditions as in Sample Problem I, but
in a horizontal plane? Figure 5-12 depicts these conditions and the stationary forces involved.
Answer
This time we need all the given information. The force exerted by the part while stationary is no
longer just its weight, but its weight times the distance between the part's center of gravity (CG)
and the center of force (CF). That is, the overall torque (T) on the jaws equals weight (W)
times distance (d). The weight equals mass (m) times gravity (G), or 20 pounds. The distance
equals 24 inches. The width of the jaws (b) equals 4 inches. The width of the part (p) in the
jaws equals 2 inches. The equation for
the torque is
T= m x G x d
= F2(b/2) + F1(b/2)
= (b/2) x (F1 + F2)
Ignoring p,
F1+ F2 = 2 (m x G x d)/b
Including p,
F1+ F2 = 2 (m x G x d) / (b2+P2)1/2
By Newton`s First Law
F1 = F2
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In this case, the gripper provides both forces, so

F = F1 +F2
Thus,
F = 2(m x G x d) / (b2 + p2)1/2
= (2 x 20 x 24) / (4 2 + 2 2 )1/2
= 214.66252 pounds
To factor in the 3 Gs of acceleration, multiply by 3, giving 643.98 pounds. To factor in the
coefficient of friction of 0.85, divide by 0.85, giving 757.62 pounds. To factor in the safety factor of
2, multiply by 2, giving 1,515.247 pounds.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
What would the required force be if the jaws were 8 inches wide in Sample Problem 2?
Answer
This would change the force equation to
F = (2 x 20 x 24)/082 + 22) = 116.4171 pounds

This would change the final answer to 821.76 pounds.
The preceding sample problems show the importance of grasping a part as close to its center of
gravity as possible. In addition, acceleration and deceleration in the movement of parts should be
minimized.
SUMMARY
The robot's end-of-arm tooling may also be known as a gripper, a hand, or an end effector.
On an industrial robot such tooling is critical to the robot's effectiveness. End-of-arm tooling can be
subdivided into grippers for moving parts and materials and tools for doing work on parts and
materials. The manufacture of grippers and end effectors is a highly specialized area of robotics. A
build-in remote center compliance MCC) device can help a gripper overcome slight positional
misalignments.
- 184 -
FORMULAS
Required Force for Vertical Grasp

The effective force required to hold a part when grasping it in a vertical direction and moving it in
a vertical direction is
Fr =W x G
Where
Fr = required force
W = Weight of part
G = Gravitational force
Force with Safety Factor

Fs=Fr x S
Where S = Safety factor
Fs = Force with safety factor added in
Torque
T=Wxd
Where
T = Torque
W= Weight
d= Distance at which weight is applied
Weight
W =m x G
Where
m= Mass of the part
Required Force for Horizontal Grasp
The force (torque) required to hold a part horizontally at other than the part's center is
T = (2 x M x G x d) / (b2 + p2)1/2
Where
- 185 -
b= Width of jaws
d= Distance from CC to CF
p = Thickness of the part
- 186 -
CH 4-6 Project Control
4-6
Control
OVERVIEW
This paper describes the use of the open source hardware platform, denominated "Arduino", for
controlling solenoid valves using resistor, diode and resistance with your Arduino compatible
controller. Solenoids are electromagnetically driven actuators. When voltage is applied to the
solenoid coil the electromagnetic force pulls the center plunger in. It is an excellent mechanical
solution for all kinds of DIY projects requiring short quick linear actuation. Solenoids are most often
found in latching and trigger-like mechanisms, such as door locking systems, paintball guns, pinball
machines, dot matrix printers, and fuel injectors.
The project focused on control of solenoid valve. The main objective is to design and develop GUI
software for solenoid control experiment, where Arduino controllers’ design approaches has been
applied. The controllers have been designed and the system is simulated using MATLAB to. The
computer is connected to Solenoid via Arduino.
- 187 -
Introduction
In this chapter we will be building a simple circuit that will allow us to control a solenoid using the
popular physical computing platform arduino. I became interested in controlling solenoids for
robotic applications. A similar circuit can be used to control a motor or other devices that require
more current than the arduino can provide directly from its output pins. Since the solenoid requires
higher current than the arduino can provide we will be using an alternative power source for the
solenoid (a couple batteries) and will be "driving" it with a TIP120 transistor.
A Few Considerations:
Before choosing this solenoid valve for this project there are a few things that should be considered:
(1) - Air can flow in Two direction through this valve
(2) - There is a 6 PSI minimum pressure requirement on the inlet otherwise the valve will not shut
off.
(3) - This solenoid valve is not rated for food safety
Parts
Figure 1-1: Parts of the electronic project
- 188 -
The breadboard layout

When we put together the breadboard, there are two things to look out for.
Firstly, make sure that the transistor is the right way around. The flat side of the transistor should be on the
right-hand side of the breadboard.
Secondly the striped end of the diode should be towards the +5V power line
Figure 1-2: Breadboard Layout
- 189 -
The Schematic Diagram

A schematic, or schematic diagram, is a representation of the elements of a system using abstract,
graphic symbols rather than realistic pictures. A schematic usually omits all details that are not
relevant to the information the schematic is intended to convey, and may add unrealistic elements
that aid comprehension. In next figure showing how the parts of an electronic project are connected
together
Figure 1-3: Schematic Diagram
The pin D3 of the Arduino is connected to the resistor. Just like when using an LED, this limits the
current flowing into the transistor through the base. There is a diode connected across the
connections of the motor. Diodes only allow electricity to flow in one direction (the direction of their
arrow). When we turn the power off to a solenoid, we get a negative spike of voltage that can
damage the Arduino or the transistor. The diode protects against this, by shorting out any such
reverse current from the solenoid.
- 190 -
This handy little diagram shows how we will be connecting everything. Don’t worry if it looks a
little overwhelming, we will be going through this step by step!
Hint: The diagram for only one solenoid to be simple to view
Setup the circuit

Step 1 – Powering the Breadboard with Solenoid
The solenoid works with anywhere between 6-12V which is too high to use with the standard
Arduino 5V. To get around this problem we will be using a 12V power supply – the solenoid will
operate at 12V while the Arduino’s built in voltage regulator will turn that 12V into the 5V that it
needs to operate. To gain access to the raw voltage going into the DC barrel jack on the Arduino Uno
we will use the “Vin” pin located next to the ground pin on the Arduino.
Start by connecting one of the jumper wires to the “Vin” pin on the Arduino and running it over to
the positive rail on the side of the solder less breadboard. Next, run a wire from the Ground pin on
the Arduino over to the negative rail on the solder less breadboard.
We now have 12VDC power on the breadboard! With the exception of the “Vin” pin, 12V is more
than enough to damage your Arduino so do not plug ANY other pins from the Arduino into the
positive rail on the breadboard.
The connections on the solenoid do not matter, the coil does not care which side is positive or
negative.
- 191 -
Step 2 – The Transistor & Resistor& Snubber Diode

The current draw of this solenoid is higher than a standard transistor can handle so we will be using a
TIP120 Darlington Transistor.
The TIP120 acts as a gatekeeper between the Arduino realm and the high power realm
composed of the solenoid and its battery pack. The Arduino can tell the TIP120 how much
power to pass from the external battery pack to the solenoid but the Arduino does not share
any of its power or share pins with the solenoid or its batteries. The TIP120 is the go in
between.TIP120 is a 60V 5A NPN Darlington with an Emitter-Base Voltage of 5V and Base
Current (DC) of 120 mA.TIP121 and TIP122 are the 80V and 100V versions. The TIP122
will work as a replacement for the TIP120.TIP31 is a 40V 5A NPN. It has a Base Current
(DC) of 1 Amp making it unsuitable to drive with an Arduino pin. We can use power
MOSFET like IRF540. It has a max saturation voltage loss of only 0.004V at a current of
0.5A.in this case we are going to “collect” the negative from the solenoid and “emit” it to the ground
of the circuit. So let’s run a wire from the solenoid negative to the middle pin (collector) of the
transistor.
This resistor limits the current going to the base (control line) of the transistor; no resistor would
result in no current limit, and could result in a transistor blowing up! We will be using a 1K ohm
resistor in this case; it can be placed from the base of the transistor as shown.
Figure 1-6: installation the transistor & resistor
Since a solenoid is an inductive load we need to include a snubber diode across the contacts. Snubber
diodes help eliminate transient voltages caused when a magnetic coil (such as those found in a
- 192 -
motor, relay, or solenoid) suddenly loses power. Without this diode in place the transient voltage
spikes can damage other elements of the circuit. Hardly matters if you replace the 4001 to 4007
series. It depends upon the reverse voltage and forward current. There will be no change in the
circuit if you replace the 4001 with the better one. It would protect your circuit at high voltage
otherwise. If there is fast rectifier diode, then it creates some issue due to its switching properties.
The snubber is placed from the negative side of the coil to the positive side. Since diodes only allow
current to flow in one direction we need to make sure we get this right, otherwise it will be a dead
short between power and ground. Ensure the side with the White stripe is connected to
power/positive side of the solenoid! In our circuit the Red wire is the positive 9V so we will connect
it to this side.
Step 3 – Connecting To Ground
Now we will connect the transistor’s emitter to the ground rail on the breadboard. The circuit is
complete!
Figure 1 7: full circule for one solenoid
- 193 -
Control the solenoid

How The Control Done!!
Since the transistor is doing all of the heavy lifting in this circuit we do not need to do much in terms
of coding. When Arduino pin 4 is set to HIGH this will connect the transistors collector to the
transistor’s emitter, which will activate the solenoid.
Let’s go write the code!
Writing the Code!!

We are starting with the Bare Minimum Sketch found in the IDE, So first we will need a variable for
the Arduino pin it should look something like this:
Figure 1-8: Identify the output pin on the arduino we used
Next we need to set the Arduino pin to act as an output:
Figure 1-9: Sets the pin as output.
- 194 -
Now that it is set as an output we can tell it what to do:
Figure 2-1: Full arduino code
Both sides of the serial connection (i.e. the Arduino and your computer) need to be set to
use the same speed serial connection in order to get any sort of intelligible data. If there's a
mismatch between what the two systems think the speed is then the data will be garbled.
9600 bits per second is the default for the Arduino, and is perfectly adequate for the
majority of users, you’d need to set whatever software you're using on your computer (like
the Ardunio IDE's serial monitor) to the same speed in order to see the data being sent. The
function Serial.print will send text “1” or “2” over the serial port, but each time the text is
printed, it is run right up against the previous print in your Serial Monitor. There is no space,
and no return or new line (it doesn’t drop down to the next line). Serial.print sends exactly
what you tell it to send and nothing more. If we want to create a new line each time we call
Serial.print, we used Serial.println. Serial.available () will return 'true' if data has been send
to the Arduino and is there ready to be processed. Incoming messages are held in what is
called a buffer and Serial.available () returns true if that buffer is Not empty.
- 195 -
GUI interface with Arduino

A graphical user interface (GUI) is a pictorial interface to a program. A good GUI can make
programs easier to use by providing them with a consistent appearance and with intuitive controls
like pushbuttons, list boxes, sliders, menus, and so forth. The GUI should behave in an
understandable and predictable manner, so that a user knows what to expect when he or she performs
an action. For example, when a mouse click occurs on a pushbutton, the GUI should initiate the
action described on the label of the button. This chapter introduces the basic elements of the
MATLAB GUIs. The chapter does not contain a complete description of components or GUI
features, but it does provide the basics required to create functional GUIs for your programs.
Setup GUI
First thing we will do Open MATLAB, write a command guide and press enter. This will open
new window as shown in following figure.
Figure 2-2: Blank of GUI
Click on Blank GUI (Default) in Create New GUI Tab as shown in above figure. And Click on OK.
This will led to another window.
A pushbutton is a component that a user can click on to trigger a specific action. The
pushbutton generates a callback when the user clicks the mouse on it. A pushbutton is
created by creating a uicontrol whose style property is 'pushbutton'. A pushbutton may be
added to a GUI by using the pushbutton tool in the Layout Editor. Now Click on Push
Button. And draw a three button. As shown in figure.
- 196 -
Figure 2-3: Sets the pushbutton which will send the signal
Double click on the Pushbutton component and change the String property to Display Text!
And change the Tag property to display Text push-button.
Figure 2-5: proberty inspector of gui

Now click on static text as shown in the Layout Editor. And draw a three text. Double click
the Static Text component to bring up the Property Inspector. Then edit the 'String'
property.
- 197 -
We can also set the 'Tag' property so we can edit it finally we can run the GUI will look as
shown below.
(Some decorations have been added)
Figure 2-5: Finall GUI frontal
Coding
when we save application , It will open an Editor window which may have some inbuilt
code.we will go to Function list and click on ( untitled openingfcn ) its will look as shown
below.
- 198 -
On next line write 4 line of code. In my case Arduino board is in 'COM3' port. So in 3rd line
it is written as a= arduino ('COM3').
Figure 2.6 identify the Arduino port to used

Now we need to coding the buttons, same way we will go to Function list and click on
(pushbutton1_callback) and writing on next code line, it will look as shown below.
Hint: same way for pushbutton2 but the last order will be a digital Write (12, 0);
Figure 2-7: setup the pushbutton programming

NOW for the Exit button
- 199 -
Figure 2-8: Setup the Exit Pushbutton programming

Now for web cam view
Save this file by Ctrl+S. And Run the file by pressing F5. So the figure window will open
which will have same look as GUI window. Make sure you have done exactly same thing
which i have done. Now Click on Retract button, this will Retract our arm actuator, same
way Press extend button this will make actuator extend. And press Exit button to close the
APP windows.3. Referencing
- 200 -
Ch5 conclusion
CH5
Conclusion
The proto-type robotic arm pick and place system utilizes programmable logic
controller, and pneumatic components such as linear cylinder, gripper, and
directional valves. The robotic arm pick and place system is composed of a
loading station, testing station, processing station, and sorting station. It can
be generalized that the robotic arm pick and place system has satisfied the
motion sequence of the system intended to manipulate every process by
ladder programming through the use of programmable logic controller (PLC).
Ladder programming is the primary programming language used to execute
the motion sequence of the robotic arm pick and place system. The electro-
pneumatics and programmable logic controller are found to be interdependent
to each other. Each of the pneumatic components has its own purpose and
function in the system. Programmable logic control (PLC) was used to control
these pneumatic components. With PLC, the manipulations of the robotic arm
pick and place system, work, is made easy. It also requires minimal work area
compared to hard-wiring system. The accuracy of the robotic arm pick, with
the right program installed in the robotic arm pick and place system, also
decreases the quantity of human failures.
Our design uses extremely simple ideas and mechanisms to achieve a
complex set of actions and is intended to imitate the action of an operators.
However, these hydraulic arms are expensive for small scale industries. If the
major problem of high initial cost is addressed, a robotic hydraulic arm can be
introduced in any industry to bring in automation. The mechanical links and
parts that have been fabricated are very simple. The Hydraulic Arm Reach the
greatest distance to deliver a given object. Pick up the heaviest possible
object. Deliver the most objects in a given amount of time. Have a system to
- 201 -
Ch5 conclusion
weight the object it picks up. Rotate as well as reach and grab. Dig and
recover objects.
Our project uses an open source hardware platform, called "Arduino", for
controlling solenoid valves using resistor, diode and resistance with your
Arduino compatible controller. Solenoids are electromagnetically driven
actuators. When voltage is applied to the solenoid coil the electromagnetic
force pulls the center plunger in. It is an excellent mechanical solution for all
kinds of DIY projects requiring short quick linear actuation.
In our project we designed and developed a GUI software for solenoid control,
where Arduino controllers’ design approaches has been applied. The
controllers have been designed and controlled using MATLAB. The solenoids
are connected to the computer via Arduino.
Thus the aim for the automation in manufacturing units are
Reduction in production time – having a machine that is automated definitely
speeds up the production time since no thinking is needed by the machine,
there is better repeatability, and less human error.
Increase in accuracy and repeatability – when an automated machine is
programmed to perform a task over and over again, the accuracy and
repeatability compared to an employee is far greater.
Less human error – no one is perfect, and we are all prone to making
mistakes. Which is why a machine that performs repeated tasks is less likely
to make mistakes than an employee.
Less employee costs – by adding automated machines to an operation,
means less employees are needed to get the job done. It also indicates less
safety issues, which leads to financial savings. With having less employees,
there are numerous costs that are diminished or reduced such as payroll,
benefits, sick days, and etcetera.
Increased safety – having automated machines means having less employees
who perform tasks that can be dangerous and prone to injury, which can make
the work environment safer.
Higher volume production – investing in automated equipment creates a
valuable resource for large production volumes, which in turn, will increase
profitability.
- 202 -
Ch6 REFERENCES
CH6
REFERENCES
Books:
1. Robotics introduction, programming, and projects 2nd edition - by James L. Fuller
2. Aviation Maintenance Technician Handbook–Airframe, Chapter12: Hydraulic and pneumatic

Power Systems , Chapter 13: Aircraft Landing Gear Systems
3. Hydraulics and Pneumatics: A technician's and engineer's guide
4. Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power for Production
5. INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS AND PNEUMATICS
6. Mat lab - Graphics and GUIs with Mat lab, 3rd Edition
Technical Reports:
7. Hydraulic System of Landing Gear in Aircraft by: AHMAD NAZIH Reg. Number:
0095626 17-April-2014.
8. Aircraft Landing Gear System Guided By Dr. Ujjwal Kumar Saha Presented By: Rishikesh
K. Singh Roll No. 134103054
9. Wikipedia site
Others:
1. Some experts’s comments and subjects in forum.arduino.cc/
2. Some experts’s comments and subjects in www.electro-tech-online.com

- 203 -

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HYDROLIC & PNUMATIC

INTRODUCTION, APPLICATIONS, AND PROJECTS

Dr. Haitham Elshimy

Main Application Robotic Arm – pneumatic Driven

PART TWO MAIN PROJECT – ROBOTIC ARM... - 103

PART ONE HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC

Establishment of Industry Standards

Advantages Offered by Air and Oil

Basic Elements of Fluid Power System

Application of Fluid Power

Selection of the Fluid Medium

Advantages of Unit Installations

Cost of Fluid Power Systems

Figure 6 shows an automatic lathe which is designed for high-speed, high-production

The hydraulic unit

2.2 characteristics that must be considered

and higher operating temperatures.

2.3 Types of Hydraulic Fluids

The three principal categories of hydraulic fluids are:

2-4 DEVELOPMENT OF HYDRAULICS

The buoyant force can be expressed as:

ρb = density body (kg/m3)

Vw = volume water (m3)

*Archimedes' Principle explains why steel ships float

2.5 Fluids and their properties

Characteristics of Hydraulic Fluids:

Compressible and incompressible fluids

Density and specific gravity

The pressure on any horizontal plane in a fluid must be constant

Fluids at rest, with the free surface horizontal.

2.6 Fluid Power Advantages

Hydraulic systems also share many benefits for the machines in

In spite of possessing all these highly desirable features,

2.7 Aircraft Hydraulic Systems

Hydraulic Fluid Contamination

Hydraulic Sampling Schedule

Hydraulic System Flushing

2.8 Hydraulic system components:

Power Pump -- it changes mechanical horsepower (HP) to hydraulic HP.

system automatically goes to bypass.

Aircraft Hydraulic System Reservoir:

Aircraft Hydraulic System Power Pumps:

Types of Power Pumps:

Principle of the Shear Shaft

Principle of the Reciprocating Piston Pump

Engine driven pump

Pumps can also be classified as:

Variable axial pump

Automatic cut-out valve (ACOV):

Hydraulic System Check Valves

Function of Check Valves

Check Valve Used in Aircrafts

Pressure Control (Pressure limiting device-relief valves)

Circuits Using Pressuring Limiting Devices (PLDs)

Hydraulic System Accumulator

Pressure Regulation in Hydraulic Systems

Douglass Pressure Regulator

Poppet Type - Stacked Poppet

2.9 Actuation Cylinders

A. Single Piston, Single Rod

B. Single Piston, Double Rod

C. Double Piston, Double Rod

Single Action Cylinders