CO2 – SILICATE MOULDING

PROCESS
PRESENTED BY
SUBRATA CHAKRABARTTI
RAW MATERIALS
 1. Silica Sand

2. Sodium Silicate (as binder)

3. Supply of CO2 gas.

A number of additives such as clays, carbonaceous materials

(mainly coal dust and pitch) and carbohydrate derivatives
(principally sugar and starch) are in common use for inclusion in
sand- sodium silicate mixtures to improve moulding properties,
knock out, breakdown and casting surface finish. Proper grades of
sand and sodium silicate required.
SILICA SAND
• Silica Sand should be preferably clean.

• Size grading of the sand influences following aspects of the process:-

1. The rate of strength development during

gassing with co2.

2. The extent of changes in bond strength

of gassed molds and cores during storage.

3. The permeability of moulds and cores and

the ease of co2 gas distribution.

4. The quality of casting surface finish.

Chemical constituents of sand:-

SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, Na2O, K2O.
• In-coming sand should be checked for :-

1. Particle size grading

2. Clay content.

3. Water content.

4. Temperature, especially if sand is

required for immediate use.

The prime requirement for any sand used for co2-silicate process is that it
should be dry, clean and free from clay.
Silica content > 95%
Size Grading : AFS No.48 to 97
• Trace Mineral Content :- Sands of high silica content are essential to obtain
good refractory properties. Burn-on problem occurs if sand contain > 0.05%
(K2O + Na2O) and (CaO + MgO) > 1%.

• Clay Content :- Clay in a sand used for CO2-Silicate process is harmful. It

causes reduction in bench life of sodium silicate mixtures, low bond strength
and friable surfaces & edges. Much depends on the type of clay present in
the sand. Kaolinite or ball clays cause less trouble than bentonite since they
absorb much less water from a sand silicate mixture.
• WATER CONTENT :- Dry silica sand is preferred. Use of wet sand
will lower green strength but may accelerate the hardening
reaction with CO2 gas.

• TEMPERATURE :- Below 100C, hardening reaction between CO2

gas and sodium silicate is slow and therefore causes excessive
gas consumption. Above 400C, there will be reduction in bench life
and mould & cores rapidly deteriorate and becomes friable.
Normal working temperature should be between 200 to 300C.
 SAND & BOND STRENGTHS
• At a given sodium silicate binder content, higher and faster rate of bond
strength (compressive strength) develops during gassing with fine grain
sands. Coarser grain size produces less bond strength than fine grain size.

• For each sand, there is a minimum sodium silicate requirement necessary to

produce a steady increase in strength as the period of gassing with CO2 is
extended.
Sodium Silicate :- 2 to 6%
Compressive strength :- 0 to 300 lbs/in2
Gassing time :- 0 to 120 seconds.
Fine grain size sands have a higher minimum sodium silicate requirement
than coarse sands.
 NON-SILICIOUS MOULDING MATERIALS

• For special moulding applications, Zircon, Olivine or Chromite are

used instead of silica sands. These materials are required where
good resistance to burn-on and metal penetration is required. Another
reason of their use is their high resistance to scabbing and expansion
type defects arising from their low thermal expansion coefficient
compared with silica sand.
CHROMITE SAND
• Chemical composition:-
Cr2O3 = 44% minimum.
Fe2O3 = 26% maximum.
SiO2 = 4% maximum.

• The difference in bulk density is important in calculating

amount of sodium silicate binder, otherwise exceptionally
high strength and knock-out problem will occur. For
example, if 4% sodium silicate is enough for silica sand,
sodium silicate required for chromite sand will be
4x(1.57÷2.82) ≈ 2.34%.
 • Following Table show the bond (compressive strength) with 2.25%
sodium silicate as binder and a CO2 flow rate of 0.88 ft3/min.

Gassing time, minute 6 12 18 24 30 42 60 90 120

Comp. Strength,lb/in2 3 11 26 40 49 100 135 217 275
• Fine and Medium grades of this material are available with
following sieve analysis:-

B.S.sieve +22 +30 +44 +60 +72 +10 +15 +20 -200 AFS
size 0 0 0 Clay

Fine nil 2% 3% 15% 70% minimum 12% 0.5%

max max max max max
Medium 5% 10% 10 10 10 to 10 7 to 12% 6% 0.5%
ma max to to 20% to 20% max max max
x 25% 25% 20%
ZIRCON SAND
• Chemical Composition :-

ZrO2 = 63% minimum

SiO2 = 32 TO 36%

Fe2O3 = 0.8% maximum

• This material has a bulk density of 2.97 gm/cm3 and tends to be

composed of fine sub-angular shaped grains. Its most valuable
properties are a low thermal expansion, high refractoriness.
• As gassed strength of Zircon sand with 2.25% sodium silicate of 2:1 ratio:-

Gassing time, 6 12 18 24 30 42 60 90 120

seconds
Comp. Strength, 15 71 74 150 154 177 197 237 263
lb/in2

• When heated to a temperature above 8000C, silicate bonded Zircon sands

have high retained strengths after cooling to room temperature. Despite this,
knock-out of Zircon silicate claimed to be good, possibly due to small volume
contraction, although very hard lumps may be formed.

• Size gradation of a typical Zircon sand is given below:-

B.S, Sieve size 22 30 44 60 100 150 200 -200
% Retained nil nil nil nil 5.9 67.7 25.3 1.0
CLAYS
• Additions of clay are made to silicate bonded sand mixtures for
following reasons:-

1. To improve the handling qualities of silicate bonded sands as

measured by the green strength and shatter index, and also to reduce
sticking to core boxes and patterns.

2. To raise the green strength of a mixture to prevent distortion and

sagging when patterns are stripped from moulds before gassing.

3. To improve the breakdown of moulds and cores.

• CLAYS are of two types:- Kaolinites (china clay, ball clay and fire clay) and
Montmorillonites (sodium & calcium bentonites). When it is necessary to
incorporate clay additions, the following points should be remembered:-

1. Ball clays should be used in preference to bentonite. Additions of 2 to 3%

may be necessary to obtain required green strength.

2. If bentonite is added to obtain high green strength, some loss in strength

after gassing may occur.

3. The mixture will require water, normally 0.5% for each I to 2% clay
present. This should be thoroughly dispersed in the sand before sodium
silicate and clays are added.

4. An addition of clay will reduce the flowability of the sand mixture which if
used for core blowing, may result in cores of low bulk density.
 Properties of sand-silicate mixtures with clays:-

Property Duration of No +1% Ball +2% Ball +3% Ball

gassing addition clay clay clay

Green 0.8 1.02 1.36 2.0

strength,
lbs/in2
As gassed 30 secs 33 70 94 108
strength,
lbs/in2 60secs 136 169 185 167

24hr 30secs 806 650 360 295

strength,
lbs/in2 60secs 304 325 232 217
 OTHER ADDITIVES

• COAL DUST:- Its function is to improve surface finish and breakdown

easier. Coal dust are produced from bituminous coals and contains about
30% volatile matters. 1 to 1.5% additions are normally recommended.

• PITCH:- It is used for good break-down and surface finish. The usual
additions are 0.5 to 1%.

• CARBOHYDRATES:- Amongst carbohydrates, Sugar acts as an excellent

break-down agent without any harmful effect.. 1 to 2% addition is normally
recommended. Dextrin can also be added to increase green strength and
assist breakdown. Starch can be used for the same purpose. Dextrin
develops higher green strength and has less harmful effects on gassed
strength & storage strength than starch.
SODIUM SILICATE
• Two types of Sodium Silicates are common in use in foundry:-

a) Aqueous solutions of sodium silicates without any additives.

b) Aqueous solutions of sodium silicates with additions such as sugar or

molasses.

• Various grades of sodium silicates are specified by referring to the

weight ratio by dividing the percentage of Silica by the percentage of
Sodium Oxide present in a solution of sodium silicate. For example, a
solution containing 30.4% of Silica(SiO2) and 15.2% of Sodium
Oxide(Na2O) has a SiO2:Na2O ratio of 2:1. This ratio, in conjunction with
the specific gravity, is sufficient to characterize any sodium silicate
solution.
• Three classes of binders are in use with CO2 process:-

i) Low ratio sodium silicates

ii) High ratio sodium silicates

iii) Sugar containing sodium silicate

• In sodium silicate, SiO2:Na2O = 2:1 is in general use in foundries. But

interest is growing in silicate binders having SiO2:Na2O as high as 2.5:1.
This offers faster rates of hardening with lower CO2 consumption, and
are suitable in foundries engaged in rapid mould and core production.
With this high ratio silicates, the need for control of gassing times and
CO2 flow rates during hardening becomes more critical.
• Principle Grades of Sodium Silicates

Grade %Na20 %Si02 %H20 Weight Ratio Gravity Viscosity

Si02/Na20 0Be Stormer Seconds

40 9.1 29.2 61.7 3.22 41.5 75

40 Clear 9.1 29.2 61.7 3.22 41.5 75
42 9.3 30.0 60.7 3.22 42.5 140
JW Clear 10.6 26.9 62.5 2.54 42.0 23
JW-25 10.6 26.9 62.5 2.54 42.0 23
47 11.2 31.9 56.9 2.84 47.0 250
49 FG 12.4 32.1 55.5 2.58 49.0 230
52 13.9 33.4 52.7 2.40 52.0 640
50 13.9 29.4 55.9 2.00 50.0 122
WD-43 13.1 23.6 63.3 1.80 43.8 25
30 Clear 10.6 27.07 62.33 2.55 42.3 20
20 Clear 8.75 28.55 62.70 2.55 40.4 55

• Gravity and Viscosity Values at 200 C

• Stormer Seconds x 2.75 = Centipoises
METHOD OF TESTING SODIUM SILICATE
The sodium oxide content of sodium silicate is determined by a chemical
titration of a sample with standard hydrochloric acid to pH 4.3 using either
a pH meter or a suitable indicator such as methyl orange. The usual
procedure is to accurately weigh a 25 gram sample of the silicate and
dilute to 500 ml with deionized water. A 50 ml aliquot is then titrated with
0.2 N HCI. For highly alkaline grades, a 15 gram sample is suggested.

Calculations:
% Na2O = ml HCIxNormality x 3.1 sample weight
Viscosity
The viscosity of liquid sodium silicate solutions may be determined by
either a Stormer or a Brookfield Viscometer. The instruments must be
standardized against Bureau of Standard oils in the viscosity range of the
material being measured. The standard temperature for reporting
viscosity data is at 200C. Readings may be taken at other temperatures
and extrapolated to 200C by referring to Chart 1. Data may be reported
as either Stormer Seconds or Centipoises. The conversion factor for
converting Stormer Seconds to Centipoises is 2.75 (Stormer Seconds x
2.75 = Centipoises.) The single most important factor in obtaining
satisfactory results, besides careful instrument calibration, is a precise
determination of the temperature of the silicate solution.
• Gravity Determination

The gravity of liquid sodium silicates is usually measured at 200C using a

Baumé hydrometer standardized against a Bureau of Standards certified
hydrometer.

Measurements may be taken at temperatures other than 200C and

extrapolated to 200C for reporting purposes.

The relationship between degrees Baumé and Specific Gravity is: Degrees
Baumé = 145 - 145/ Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity = 145/ (145 - degrees Baumé )
• Total Solids
The total solids of liquid silicates is the residue remaining after careful ignition
of a small sample in a muffle furnace. The procedure consists of accurately
weighing a 1 to 2 gram sample into a tared, previously fired, porcelain
crucible and igniting to 10500C for one half hour. A few drops of 30%
hydrogen peroxide should be added to prevent spattering. After cooling in a
desiccator, reweigh the crucible. The weight of the residue is the % solids and
is reported to the nearest 0.01%.
• Silicon Dioxide

For all but the most critical situations, the SiO2 content may be calculated
by subtracting the % sodium oxide from the % total solids as determined
by the previously described procedures. For more precise purposes, a
weighed sample is diluted with deionized water and acidified with dilute
hydrochloric acid. After evaporating to dryness on a hot plate, the resultant
silica gel is rinsed free of chlorides. The residue is ignited in a muffle
furnace in a carefully weighed crucible. After cooling and weighing, the
residue is calculated directly as SiO2.
• Ratio

Sodium silicates are often described by the weight ratio of the silicon
dioxide to the sodium oxide, with the sodium oxide as unity. It may be
calculated directly by dividing the % SiO2 (determined from either one of
the above described procedures) by the % Na2O that has been chemical
determined. A more rapid, but still quite accurate, method consists of
carefully measuring the gravity and viscosity at 200C. By referring to Chart
3, the ratio of the SiO2/Na2O ratio can be determined.

Chart 2, shows the interrelationships of the ratio, gravity, and the solids
content for the various liquid sodium silicates.
CARBON DIOXIDE
At normal temperature & pressure, CO2 is a gas, but is more conveniently and
economically supplied as either liquid or solid. It must be then converted to the
gas phase in order to effect the hardening of silicate bonded moulds & cores.

CO2 exist as a liquid under pressure, minimum being 60 lbs/in2 and at a

temperature of -56.70C as temperature increases, pressure also increases. At
21.10C, the pressure will be 838 lbs/in2.

Solid CO2 at atmospheric pressure has a surface temperature of -78.50C and

will vaporize unless stored at or below this temperature. On heating, it
transform directly into gaseous state without passing through an intermediate
liquid stage.
• Supplies of CO2 in foundries in three forms:-

1. As blocks of solid CO2, known as ‘Dry ice’. Also known as ‘Cardice’ and ‘
Drikold’.

2. In cylinders as a liquid under high pressure at atmospheric temperature.

3. As a static storage vessel / tank equipped with refrigeration to maintain a

temperature of -180C.
 SOLID CO2

• Supplied in cylindrical or rectangular blocks weighing 11 or 23 Kgs. These are

packed into jacketed steel pressure vessels known as converters or
liquefiers. Heat is supplied through the jacket of the converter using either
steam or water and the rate at which gas pressure develops (and at which
CO2 gas can be discharged) depends upon the method of heating employed.
Temperature of water normally should be less than 70C.

Heating Time to reach pressure Average rate & time of steady

medium discharge (after which rate diminishes)
Pressure Time Rate (ft3/min) Time (min)
(lbs/in2) (minute)
Steam 200 2 25 30
600 11.5 29.2 25
Water at 200 17 11.7 60
500C(45 600 26 11.7 45
gal/hr)
Water at 200 25 3 180
100C(45 550 135 1.3 380
gal/hr)
 CO2 IN CYLINDERS
• In foundries CO2 cylinders are available as 12.7 Kgs, 22.6Kgs or 34Kgs.
These are equivalent to 238ft3, 425ft3 &638 ft3.

• Cylinders are of two types– Siphon & Non-siphon.

• In case of Non-siphon cylinders, CO2 is drawn from high pressure gas phase
at the top of the cylinder (rate changes from 34ft3/hr i.e.1M3/hr to 51ft3/hr i.e.
1.4M3/hr) If more gas is required, two or more cylinders should be joined by
manifold.

• Siphon cylinders are fitted with an internal dip tube extended from the valve
to the base of the cylinder, permitting withdrawal of liquid phase CO2. A
heater is required to convert liquid CO2 into gaseous state. These cylinders
can be manifolded and practice is to use 4 or 8 cylinders together.

• Bulk supplies of CO2 can be availed with bulk liquid storage installations,
equipped with refrigeration to maintain an internal temperature of -170C and
pressure equals to 300 lbs/in2. Installations include steam or electrically
heated vaporizers to produce CO2 in gaseous state.
• CO2 obtained from any of the sources mentioned before is at a pressure
greatly in excess of atmospheric pressure. For CO2 cylinders & liquefiers,
the pressure is about 800 lbs/in2 and with bulk tanks it is about 300 lbs/in2

• For both safety & economy, the pressure of CO2 gas supply should be
reduced before it is used at the gassing station. Operators must never be
allowed to use gas at cylinder pressure because of the possibility of
serious accidents. Cylinders should always stood upright when in use. For
regular operation on a relatively small scale, it is convenient to employ a
band of manifold cylinders feeding a number of feeding points
simultaneously.
 EXAPLE OF MANIFOLD FOR CO2 GASSING
MANIFOLD PRESSURE
GAUGE MANIFOLD
(5' Long,1.5"I.D. 1000/1100 PSI (5' Long,1.5"I.D.
Thickwall Pipe) Thickwall Pipe)

ISOLATING

VALVE
STOP
VALVE
NOTES:-

Seamless Pipe
1. Entire syatem shoukd

0.75"I.D.
PRESSURE
REDUCING

be slightly inclined.
VALVE

2. Filling pressure = 1000 psi

300psi
(60 kg/cm2)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
CO2CYLINDERS

CONTROL
CO2 CYLINDERS

VALVE
(23kg Capacity) (23kg Capacity)
NON-RETURN

( 30 psi )
MANIFOLD
VALVE

(1" I.D. Seamless Pipe)

VALVE
1"i.d."C" Class pipe

STOP
MOISTURE

1524.0
TRAP 127.0
(1'diax 4' height
with0. 375" shell
Thickness)
VALVE
STOP

0.5" RUBBER HOSE

EVAPORATOR
• PRESSURE CONTROL EQUIPMENT: A wide range of pressure reducing
valves is available for use with CO2.

• RING MAIN DISTRIBUTION:- The prime objective of a distribution system is

to ensure that CO2 is available at the right place & in sufficient quantities.
Ring mains are usually supplied with CO2 from bulk tank. The exact pressure
employed in a distribution system is decided by the size of the job, distance
involved and the relative off-take positions.

Pipe size with respect to pressure are critical and thereby important since no
pressure loss can be tolerated. Also, number of gassing points to be fed and
the maximum off-take at each point are particularly important in assessing the
size of the pipe work required.

• VAPORIZATION CAPACITY:- Sufficient vaporizers must be installed to

provide adequate gas during periods of peak demand when all gassing points
may be in use simultaneously. Inadequate vaporization capacity will result in
gas starvation at the gassing point, leading to extended gassing times and
quality reduction of cores and moulds.
• GAS PURITY:- Industrial CO2 contain not more than 0.2% by volume (200 ppm) of
residual gasses (which are basically air).
Maximum Water content should not be more than 0.015% by weight (150 ppm).

• ECONOMICS:- In general, it becomes economic to install bulk storage for CO2 when
the annual consumption exceeds 20MT. There are a number of indirect savings to be
gained when using CO2 in bulk. These include likelihood of shutdowns resulting from
interruption of supplies; savings on labour required for cylinder handling; a reduction
of losses arising from leakages at connection points & hoses.
Leakage is one of the most common sources of CO2 loss and waste. Routine checks
for leakage should be done. Serious leaks normally detected by ear, but small leaks
may only be revealed by the application of a soap & water mixture to suspect joints.

• CONTROL OF CO2 GAS FLOW RATE & GASSING TIME:- Control of gas flow rates
and duration of gassing time is essential. Control of gas flow rate can only be
obtained by the use of Flow gauges / Flow controller (may be controller + timer) and
a timing unit. Timing units of ranges 1-15 minutes, 0.25-5 minutes, 3-60seconds are
available. Recording instruments are also available which will measure and
continuously plot CO2 gas consumption in a foundry.
PRINCIPLES OF CO2 GASSING
• A fast bonding reaction occurs when CO2 gas reacts with sodium silicate
exposed as a thin film on the surface of sand grain. In small cores & moulds
of simple shape, uniform distribution of CO2 gas is no problem.

• When complicated shapes of different section sizes are involved, the gas will
always tend to flow the path of least resistance. So proper design of gassing
system is necessary to ensure thorough hardening in all regions of mould or
core. Control of gassing time and flow rate is necessary to produce
consistent & uniform hardening of silicate bonded moulds & cores.

• These are important for following two reasons:

a) The bond strength of moulds & cores in the as-gassed state and
subsequently during storage, is effected by gas flow rate employed.

b) Efficient distribution of gas through mould & cores during hardening

operation depends on flow rate control.
• TIME DEPENDENCE:-
- Using a constant gas flow rate, the strength increases rapidly as the
gassing time is increased.
- Also, the weight of sand hardened around the end of an open gassing
probe buried in a mould is proportional to gassing time.

• The significance of these is important when designing a gassing system for a

large mould or core. If CO2 is injected at a single point, very prolonged
gassing time will be necessary to ensure thorough hardening
• CO2 FLOW RATES:- Flow rate is important for two reasons: i) Strength of
bond obtained and ii) Distribution pattern of the gas. The following Table
shows reduction in as-gassed strength over stored for 24 hrs at 240C caused
by gassing at a high flow rate.

• With 4% Sodium Silicate of 2:1 Ratio

Gas Flow Rate Gassing Time
(ft3/min)
60 Seconds 120 Seconds
As
As--gassed 0.088 174lbs/in2 262lbs/in2
1.06 102lbs/in2 134lbs/in2
Stored for 0.088 453lbs/in2 271lbs/in2
24hrs
1.06 >636lbs/in2 593lbs/in2

• From above Table, it is clear that very high strengths can be developed
during storage, due to dehydration in air of the large quantity of chemically
unreacted sodium silicate remaining after gassing.
• CO2 DEHYDRATION OF SILICAES :- CO2 gas can harden aqueous sodium
silicate by two alternative mechanisms- (a) a chemical reaction involving the
formation of a silica hydro gel bond. (b) physical dehydration resulting in the
production of an adhesive sodium silicate bond. By using a higher gas flow
rate, dehydration flow rate is favored.

• WEIGHT CHANGES DURING CO2 GASSING:- At high flow

rates of gassing, weight decreases due to the combined action
of CO2 absorption and loss of water. At low flow rates, weight
increases as the magnitude of the weight loss due to loss of
water is less which is a linear function of CO2 flow rate.

• TEMPERATURE CHANGES DURING CO2 GASSING:- At low flow rates,

temperature increases due to exothermic reaction of formation of silica hydro
gel. For example, at 0.088 ft3/min, the temperature rises by 4.50C. At high
flow rates, temperature drops due to removal of water from the aqueous
sodium silicate binder. At 1.06 ft3/min, the temperature drops by13.40C.
• GAS PRESSURE:- The only method of regulating the consumption of CO2
gas is by means of a pressure control valve and gauge.

• EFFECT OF SAND TEMPERATURE:- Hardening reactions between CO2 gas

and sodium silicate is temperature depended. At low temperature, hardening
is retarded and also the viscosity of sodium silicate increases. Below 100C,
reaction is extremely slow.

38C
Compessive Strength

18C

10C

Gassing Time
GASSING TECHNIQUES AND GAS FLOW PATTERNS;- Following gassing
techniques are used in foundries-
1.Probes, either singly or, in multiple arrangements connected
to a common manifold.

2. Hoods, generally used for gassing molds through the parting

surface after stripping green.

3. Vented arbors or, mandrels, a system used in repetition core

production.

4. Hallow patterns and double wall core boxes, where gas is

distributed through vents in the pattern face.

5. Gassing in a chamber from which air has first been removed

by a vacuum pump.
In large molds and cores, the pattern of CO2 gas distribution is greatly
influenced by gas flow rate. Better through-hardening often being obtained with
high flow rates.
• DETECTION OF CO2 FLOW PATTERN:- A simple die indicator technique
may be employed. This involves use of phenolphthalein, which when
dissolved in aqueous sodium silicate, produces a red color which disappears
after being exposed to CO2 gas.

• PROBE GASSING:-
Probes usually consist of open-ended pipes which are inserted into a mold or
core for gassing purposes. The efficiency of gassing depends upon the
design of the probe used, the CO2 flow rate used and the general techniques
involved, i.e. venting and method of inserting the probe.
Probes with smaller I.D. are more effective than wide diameter probes in
producing a more uniform distribution of CO2 gas and a large volume of
hardened sand for a given gas flow rate and time. For example, a 1.6mm
diameter probe can be used to cut a hole through the center of each core, the
probe being then partly withdrawn to leave 13mm length embedded in the top
of the core through gas is injected.
Within limits, high CO2 flow rates produce a better gas distribution and
therefore a more uniform hardening. The most successful technique is
that the gassing probe was inserted only 2” from the top of a hole
previously vented through the core to within 3” of the base. This produced
a very uniform pattern of hardened sand from top to the bottom of the
core.

In order to economize in the use of CO2 gas, all probes should be

attached to the gas supply by means of positive action on/off valves. The
escape of gas to atmosphere through a mold or core should be restricted
by the use of pads or shields which make close contact with the sand
surface and through the probes penetrate into the sand mass.
• HOOD GASSING:-
This is used in conjunction with mechanized mold and core making plants
operating with co2 silicate process, Gassing stations employing hoods over
the top surface of molds or cores, can be situated besides molding pr core
making machines forming a twin station unit. Alternatively, a series of
machines can feed a common gassing station. The efficiency of this gassing
technique again depends on co2 flow rate employed, whether the gassing is
effected from top or bottom of the mold and on the venting practice
employed. At most gassing stations, hood cover the tops of molds or cores,
the co2 gas displacing the air downwards through the sand mass.

A better distribution of gas can be obtained by upward displacement of the

air and this practice is feasible when the sand posses a reasonably high
green strength.

• VACUUM GASSING:-

Very efficient hardening can be achieved by passing co2 gas into a chamber
containing molds and cores, having first evacuated all the air from the
chamber by means of a vacuum pump.

CO2 GAS CONSUMPTION:-CO2 gas required to harden 1 lb
(0.45 kg) of sodium silicate solution (SiO2:Na2O ratio 2:1,
1120TW) is given below for cores made in unvented boxes with
sand mixtures containing 4% silicate.
Core dia, in 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4

Core length,ft 1 1 5 5 1 1 3 3 4 4 5 5
Gassing time, 30 60 30 60 30 60 30 60 30 60 30 60
sec
CO2 required 1.0 1.0 1.61 1.12 0.65 0.9 0.99 0.99 0.76 0.76 0.78 0.786
to harden 1lb 3 6
of sodium
silicate, ft3

In practice gas consumption will depend upon the degree of hardening

required, flow rate, time used and gassing technique employed. The example
referred above suggests that an efficient practice should be able to operate with
a co2 consumption of less than 5ft3 per pound (0.3m3/ kg) of silicate.
METALLURGICAL ASPECTS OF CO2-SILICATE
PROCESS
• DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY:-

One of the main benefits is the high standard of dimensional accuracy

obtained. This is in part attributable to the fact that hardening can be
effected before molds and cores are stripped from patterns or core
boxes and partly to the rigidity or dimensional stability of such molds
and cores when exposed to hot liquid metal. Iron castings made in co2-
silicate molds tend to be dimensionally smaller, and weigh less, than
castings made in green sand molds from the same pattern equipment.

The following figures indicate that castings made by the co2 process
can be produced to close weight & size tolerances over a wide range of
temperature than is normally possible with green sand practice.
 3.085"

3.075"
NATURAL CLAY BONDED SAND

3.065"

MEAN CASTING DIAMETER

3.055"

NATURAL CLAY BONDED SAND

3.045" & COAL DUST

3.035"

3.025"
CO2-SILICATE SAND
3.015"

3.005"

POURING TEMPERATURE
IMPROVED CASTING DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY
DUE TO USE OF CO2 PROCESS MOLDS.
(SPHERICAL PATTERN DIMENSION 3" )
 NATURAL CLAY BONDED SAND

MEAN CASTING WEIGHT

NATURAL CLAY BONDED SAND

AND COAL DUST

CO2-SILICATE SAND

POURING TEMOERATURE
REDUCTION IN CASTING WEIGHT DUE TO
CO2-SILICATE SAND
• Above facts are confirmed by the following data relating to the production of two
types of ingot molds weighing approximately 3.5 and 4.75 tons respectively. This
castings are normally made with dried molds and cores prepared from clay-bonded
sands, but due to unsoundness, a range of castings was made using co2-silicate
process for both mold and core production. These castings were found to be sound
on inspection, required no feed metal and were lighter than usual by as much as
lbs.

• Comparison of soundness, feed metal required & casting weights for both ingot
molds are shown below:-

DRY SAND PROCESS CO2 PROCESS

CASTING WEIGHT lbs lbs

TYPE “A” MOLDS 7980, 7882 7840, 7812

TYPE “B” MOLDS 10892 10780

FEED METAL 50 lbs approx. NONE

REQUIREMENT
CASTING SOUNDNESS Large Cavities under feeder All castings sound
heads
• IMPORTANCE OF FIRM COMPACTION:-

To obtain benefit in terms of dimensional accuracy from the co2 process,

it is vital that molds and cores should be firmly compacted to a high bulk
density. Hard ramming is still essential. It must be noted that while the
practice of molding with a thin facing of silicate-bonded sand backed
with a clay-bonded mixture is often satisfactory for small castings,
dimensional inaccuracy and unsoundness may result if the same
technique is applied to the production of large and heavy castings. For
the latter case, it is preferable for the entire mold from silicate bonded
sand.

Inaccuracies may arise from the practice of over-rapping patterns and

core boxes to obtain a satisfactory strip. Poor maintenance of patterns
and core boxes will increase the risk of difficulties arising from the
practice.
• CASTING SOUNDNESS:-

Mold wall movement resulting in an enlargement of the mold cavity while

castings are solidifying is one of the main causes the problem of
unsoundness and inaccuracy in dimensions encountered in iron castings.
Use of co2-silicate process minimizes these problems and so employed for
mold and core production where a high standard of castings soundness is
essential.

• CASTING SURFACE DEFECTS:-

Finning(Vening):- This is a form of metal penetration into cracks in sand cores

which occurs when hot box, cold setting resin binders or linseed oil core
binders are used. With cores made by co2-silicate process it is rarely, if ever,
encountered. The basic cause of finning is cracking of a core surface due to
stresses set up by the expansion accompanying the transformation of silica
sand from the ά to β form on heating and the inability of the binder to yield by
plastic deformation. Liquid metal penetrates these cracks to form the well-
known fin. In case of co2-silicate process, the absences of this defect is due
to the plastic nature of this bond.
• Scabbing:- This is another form of surface defect which is rarely
encountered with molds and cores made by co2-silicate process. Scabs on
castings arise when surface of a mold, having expanded under the influence
of heat, tends to laminate at a weakly bonded plane and shears off. Remedial
actions for this type of defects are:-

1) Thorough mixing of the sodium silicate binder and the sand.

2) A complete through- hardening of molds and cores on
gassing rather than localized surface hardening.
3) Avoiding the use of a silica sand with poor grading/ size
distribution.
4) Ensuring that no residual water or isopropanol from spirit-
blacking washes remains in pockets or corners of molds.
Critical areas of a mold should be heated with a gas torch to
remove any residual water or alcohol.
• BLOW HOLE DEFECTS:-

Due to low volatile content of most silicate bonded sands, surface blow
defects are uncommon. Where such troubles occur, they are due to the
presence of badly distributed and unhardened sodium silicate caused by
incomplete mixing of the sand. The occurrence of numerous small blow holes
in association with a drossy surface is probably caused by the use of resin-
bonded alcohol-based washes. These defects occur due to:-

1) A thick application of the wash on a mold or core surface.

2) An excess of resin in the wash applied.

3) A high total volume of gas evolution from a wash material.

4) A fast rate of gas evolution from wash material.

• SURFACE FINISH:-

Molds and cores made by the co2-silicate process are normally given
protective coating to prevent occurrence of metal penetration and the
formation of burn-on. Metal penetration is the result of molten metal passing
into voids of sand mass to produce a heterogeneous sand-metal aggregate
adhering to the casting surface. Burn-on is the adherence of sintered or,
partly fused binder or, sand to a casting surface. Both condition create a
rough surface finish which may necessitate additional fettling. Following are
the remedial measures:-
1) The substitution of fine grain size sands for coarse and medium grain size
sands in the production cores and molds. This is especially important where
a high ferro-static pressure is involved i.e. during the production of large
castings.

2) The use of sand mixtures which contain carbonaceous additives such as

coal dust, or pitch. Pitch is more effective for improving surface finish.

3) The compaction of cores and molds to a high bulk density.

4) The avoidance of excessively high pouring temperatures which are likely to

increase the severity and depth of metal penetration.

5) The use, for very large castings, of facing sand mixtures based on either
zircon or Chromite sands. This reduces penetration and
burn-on because mold/metal reactions are less extensive.
MOLD & CORE WASHES FOR CO2 PROCESS:-
The purpose of using washes are (a) To improve the smoothness of the surface. (b) To reduce
sand burn-on to the casting surface. (c) To prevent metal penetration into a mold or core.

By strengthening the mold or, core surface, the use of paints and washes will reduce the risk of
surface erosion.

Mold & core coatings functions by forming a highly refractory layer at the metal/mold interface
and by filling up vacant spaces between sand grains in the mold surface. Use of coatings will
substantially reduce fettling cost. Coating materials containing blackings, which are widely used
in the iron foundry industry, may also produce a reducing atmosphere at the mold surface.

Refractory base – This is either a carbonaceous or mineral material. Carbonaceous materials

include crushed charcoal, coke, lump black, retort carbon or graphite (plumbago). Mineral bases
are silica flower, zircon, magnesite, olivine, talc, molochite, fused alumina, chamotte.

Binder – With non-aqueous carrier liquids, the binder is usually a synthetic resin. This produces
a strong bond at mold/coating interface, while at the same time bonding the refractory particles
together.

Liquid carrier – For use with mold and cores made by the co2 process, the liquid carrier must be
either isopropanol or industrial methylated spirit. When a protective coating has been applied to
a mold or core, the carrier is flamed off, the heat generated being sufficient to harden the resin in
the coating.
MOLD PRODUCTION
• Because of the great flexibility of the process, it has been adopted in
various molding processes like floor molding, core assembly molding and
machine molding. In many applications it has replaced green sand, dry
sand and loam molding due to the increased speed with which even
complicated molds can be made ready for use in the absence of any need
for stove drying. The selection of a suitable composition of silicate sand
mixture for molding purposes is largely determined by the particular
molding practice employed in the individual foundry. The requirements of a
machine molding sand made with a continuous mixer can be very different
from those of a sand mixture intended for core assembly and floor molding
which may be made at sufficient intervals in a batch mixer. In the first
instance, rapid hardening properties on gassing may be essential and a
shorten bench life acceptable, but for core assembly or floor molding
applications slower hardening mixtures with a long bench life are often
preferred.
• FLOOR MOLDING:-

It comprises pit molding or in large molding boxes. These molds are

generally hand-rammed. It should satisfy following requirements –

1) Sand mixtures are required to have a long bench life.

2) The mixtures used have comparatively high green strength.

3) Rapid hardening is not considered essential.

4) For strong mold surfaces foundries rely extensively on continued air-

hardening after partly hardening a mold with co2 gas.

These requirements are met by using the higher density and more viscous
grades of the 2:1 ratio sodium silicate binders. Ungassed molds left to
stand in air gradually harden due to evaporation of water.
It should be noted that the strength obtained by air hardening is confined
mainly to the mold surface and that sub-surface regions tend to remain
soft. For this class of work, molders frequently require a sand mixture with
a green strength of 1 to 2psi and for this purpose a clay addition is often
made to the mixture. Extended periods of milling are also employed in
some foundries as a method of raising green strength. In many instances,
these higher green strengths mixtures have enabled the co2 to be used in a
manner similar to standard dry sand molding. For example, patterns can be
stripped with the mold still in green state with the advantage that patching
and repairing work is easily carried out. Such molds would be gassed using
either a hood cover or, a series of probes inserted at intervals around the
edge of the mold.

In the interest of economy, molds are frequently made with a 2 to 4” facing

of silicate bonded sand backed with a clay-bonded sand mixture. For heavy
section castings, this technique does not provide sufficient strength and to
prevent castings from swelling and distorting, molds must either be
rammed up completely in a silicate bonded mixture or, be reinforced with a
backing of brick work.
• CORE ASSEMBLY WORK:-
The co2-silicate process is ideal for core assembly work. Core assembly
work was mainly based on the use of oil sand cores which suffered from the
disadvantages of core distortion caused by the initial handling and
subsequent baking. This distortion, besides resulting in inaccurate molds,
necessitated additional machining allowances and incurred higher fettling
cost. However, with the co2-silicate process, cores can be hardened in the
core box, giving strong, rigid and accurate cores which on stripping can be
handled and used immediately, or stored pending use without fear of
distortion. Following benefits are obtained by using the co2-silicate process
for core assembly work:-

1) Very accurate cores are obtained.

2) No distortion takes place on stripping or, during transport.

3) Handling is greatly felicitated.

4) Cores of complicated design can be made on account of being hardened

in situ.
• MACHINE MOLDING:-
This can be subdivided into three categories:-
1. Molding using jolt-squeeze action machines.
2. Repetition molding based on sand blowers with built-in
gassing facilities.
3. Slinger molding.

For this type of work rapid gassing mixtures are often required and long
bench life is less essential. Also comparatively low bond strengths are often
acceptable whereas cores need a stronger bonds to withstand repeated
handling. For these reasons molding sand mixtures frequently contain the
lower density grade of 2:1 ratio silicate, the concentration being maintained at
2.5 to 4% silicate. Use is made also of silicate binders having Sio2:Na2o ratios
between 2.3:1 and 2.5:1 for this application. The addition of clays to produce
green strength is mainly restricted to those instances where molds are
stripped green before gassing.
• Jolt-squeeze machines:- Both jolt action and jolt-squeeze action molding
machines are used for compacting sodium silicate bonded sands. Due to
the low green strength and shatter index of these sands few difficulties are
encountered in achieving good compaction with such machines. Rollover
machines are widely used where molds are stripped in the green state
before gassing. For the latter applications, molding sands generally
contain clay additions to provide an increase in green strength, particularly
if complicated patterns with deep draws are involved. After stripping, molds
are conveyed to a gassing station.

With pin-lift molding machines it is necessary to harden the molds before

stripping. This may entail gassing through a hollow pattern or, through a
hood or, squeeze head covering the back of the mold.
• Blower / Shooter unit:- Specially designed molding machines built to
operate exclusively on the co2 process are in existence. Essentially this is
a three station machine equipped with two pattern carriages which
produces box less molds. The other station consists of a blow-fill and
squeeze unit where the molds are formed. The two side stations have
facilities for gassing and ejecting the hardened molds from the boxes. This
machine carries two patterns enabling cope and drag molds to be made
consecutively. While one box and pattern are at central fill and squeeze
station, the previous mold, indexed to one of the gassing stations, is being
hardened.

Machines are available for the production of molds measuring up to

16”×16” at thickness between 1 to 5”. One of the main applications of this
type of machines is for stack molding of items such as pipe bends,
junctions, rings and small camshafts.
• Sand Slinger unit:- This system being versatile in application for a variety
of pattern sizes and suitable for both one-off and repetition work.

The silicate bonded sand is first dumped over the pattern up to the height
of box bars and the sand is tucked around the pattern by hand. The
assembly is then transferred to the slinger machine where a backing
mixture is rammed into place and compacts the facing sand. Knocked-out
silicate bonded sand remitted with clay and water is used for the backing
mixture. After the surplus sand is removed from the molds they are
transferred to the rollover stripping machine. The molds are then gassed
by a hood covering the mold cavity.

This process provides hard, accurate molds which coupled with rigid and
carefully located cores, ensure that in excess of 3M in length can be
produced with no more than 5mm machining allowances.
• MIXING, DISTRIBUTION & BENCH LIFE:-
-Correct preparation of sand-silicate mixtures will prevent many of the
problems that can occur at latter stages of the process. Ideally, the mixing
operation should –

- Produce a uniform distribution of the silicate binder, coating all the sand
grains evenly.

- Cause the minimum water evaporation and air drying of aqueous sodium
silicate.

- Cause the least rise in temperature throughout the sand mass.

Sodium silicate has a tendency to disperse as fine globules through a sand

mass. This must be prevented since the object is to spread the silicate
uniformly as a thin film over the surface of the sand grains. Unless good
distribution is obtained excessive quantities of silicate will be necessary to
achieve the required level of strength and poor breakdown may result.
• Distribution is assisted by using silicates of low viscosity and density.
Depending upon situation, addition of 0.1-0.2% water may be found
beneficial. There is a risk that friable cores and molds will be produced if
water addition is excessive. It is possible to over-mix silicate bonded sands.
Lengthy or, vigorous mixing is sometimes used as a method of raising the
green strength of a sand mixture but this practice has the following
disadvantages:

1. Evaporation of water during the mixing process will reduce the bench life.

2. The as-gassed strength will be difficult to control.

3. There is an increased risk that molds and cores will become friable and
loose strength during storage.

4. The stronger and tougher mixtures produced may be difficult to compact

by blowing or shooting.
• SOME BASIS OF CO2 (GAS) CALCULATIONS:-

1. (a). CO2 withdrawal rate from non-siphon cylinder

= 4 lbs / hour or 34 ft3 / hour = 0.56 ft3 /min.
(b). CO2 withdrawal rate from siphon cylinder
= 75 lbs / hour or 640 ft3 / hour = 10.66 ft3 / min.

2. Sand density = 120 lbs / ft3

3. Binder: 4% sodium silicate (2:1)

4. CO2 gas requirement per pound of sodium silicate (2:1)

= 1 ft3 ( But in practice it is assumed as 5 ft3 due to losses)

5. 18.7 ft3 of CO2 gas equals to 1 kg.

6. Line pressure for flow of co2 gas into the mold : 20 to 30 psi.