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“Sufi” redirects here. For other uses, see Sufi (disam- throughout Persia.[23] The Twelver Shi'ite influenced
biguation). Alevi and Sunni Bektashi[24] orders both claim that all
Not to be confused with sophism. Sufi orders trace their spiritual lineage (silsilah or Silsila)
back to one of The Twelve Imams. Some orders in-
clude Alevi, Bektashi, Burhaniya, Mevlevi, Ba 'Alawiyya,
Sufism (Arabic: ;تصوفtaṣawwuf) is a concept in Islam,
defined by scholars as the inner, mystical dimension of Chishti, Rifa'i, Khalwati, Naqshbandi, Nimatullahi,
Oveyssi, Qadiria Boutshishia, Qadiriyyah, Qalandariyya,
Islam. Traditional Sufis, throughout history (i.e. Bayazid [25]
Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Sarwari Qadiri, Shadhiliyya and Suhrawardiyya.
Baghdadi, Al-Ghazali etc.) and presently, have main- Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as “a science
tained Sufism to be purely based on the tenets of Is- whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning
lam and the teachings of Muhammad.[1][2][3][4] Some aca- it away from all else but God”.[26] Alternatively, in the
demics like Kamuran Godelek, however, have argued that words of the Darqawi Sufi teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba, “a
Sufism has been heavily influenced by Neoplatonism.[5] science through which one can know how to travel into the
There are some who hold the notion that its essence has presence of the Divine, purify one’s inner self from filth,
also been expressed via other religions and metareligious and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits”.[27]
phenomena, while others believe Sufism to be totally Muslims and mainstream scholars of Islam define Su-
unique to Islam.[6][7][8][9][10][11] fism as simply the name for the inner or esoteric dimen-
Practitioners of Sufism (Tasawuf) referred to as Sufis sion of Islam[6] which is supported and complemented by
(ṣūfī) (/ˈsuːfi/; ِﻲ ُ often belong to different ṭuruq or
ّ )ﺻﻮﻓ outward or exoteric practices of Islam, such as Islamic
“orders”—congregations formed around a grand master law.[28] In this view, “it is absolutely necessary to be a
referred to as a Mawla who maintains a direct chain Muslim” to be a true Sufi, because Sufism’s “methods
of teachers back to the Prophet Muhammad.[12] These are inoperative without” Muslim “affiliation”.[29] In con-
orders meet for spiritual sessions (majalis) in meeting trast, author Idries Shah states Sufi philosophy is univer-
places known as zawiyahs, khanqahs, or tekke.[13] e.g. sal in nature, its roots predating the rise of Islam and
Khanqah Khairiyyah Sufis strive for ihsan (perfection of Christianity.[30] Some schools of Sufism in Western coun-
worship) as detailed in a hadith: “Ihsan is to worship Al- tries allow non-Muslims to receive “instructions on fol-
lah as if you see Him; if you can't see Him, surely He sees lowing the Sufi path”.[31] Some Muslim opponents of Su-
you.”[14] Jalaluddin Rumi stated: “The Sufi is hanging on fism also consider it outside the sphere of Islam.[6][32]
to Muhammad, like Abu Bakr.”[15] Sufis consider them- Classical Sufis were characterised by their attachment
selves to be the original true proponents of this pure origi- to dhikr, (a practice of repeating the names of God,
nal form of Islam. Sufis orders have faced criticism in the often performed after prayers)[33] and asceticism. Su-
Muslim world. Sufism is generally opposed by followers fism gained adherents among a number of Muslims as
of Wahhabist or Salafist movements within Sunni Islam, a reaction against the worldliness of the early Umayyad
causing tensions due to a resurgence of Sufi practice in Caliphate (661–750 CE).[34] Sufis have spanned sev-
Saudi Arabia.[16] The Islamic Republic of Iran bans the eral continents and cultures over a millennium, origi-
practice of Sufism and in recent years has arrested Sufi ac- nally expressing their beliefs in Arabic, before spreading
tivists and clerics[17] because it views Sufism is unauthen- into Persian, Turkish, and Urdu among dozens of other
tic and incompatible with Twelver Shi'ite Islam.[18][19][20] languages.[35]
Sufi orders (turuq) generally trace many of their original
precepts from the Islamic prophet Muhammad through
his cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib- with the
notable exception of Naqshbandi order, which does so 1 Etymology
through the first Caliph, Abu Bakr.[21] Sufi orders are
largely Sunni and follow one of the four schools of Sunni Two origins of the word sufi have been suggested. Com-
Islam and maintain a Sunni Aqidah or creed.[22] Over monly, the lexical root of the word is traced to ṣafā ()صفاء,
the years various Sufi orders have been influenced by which in Arabic means “purity”. Another origin is ṣūf
and adopted into various Shi'ite movements including ()صُوف, “wool” in Arabic, referring to the simple cloaks
Ismailism- which led to the Safaviyya order’s conver- the early Muslim ascetics wore. The two were combined
sion to Shi'ite Islam and the spread of Twelver Shi'ism by the Sufi al-Rudhabari who said, “The Sufi is the one
1
2 2 BELIEFS
who wears wool on top of purity”.[36][37] by working to restore within themselves the primordial
[45]
Others have suggested that the word comes from the term state of fitra, described in the Qur'an. In this state
ahl aṣ-ṣuffah (“the people of the bench”), who were a nothing one does defies Allah, and all is undertaken with
group of impoverished companions of Muhammad who the single motivation of love of Allah.
held regular gatherings of dhikr. These men and women To Sufis, Sufism involves the study and ritual purifica-
who sat at Al-Masjid al-Nabawi are considered by some tion of traits deemed reprehensible while adding praise-
to be the first Sufites in existence.[38][39] Abd al-Karīm worthy traits. This is independent of whether or not this
ibn Hawāzin Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all process of religious cleansing and purifying leads to es-
possibilities other than ṣūf on linguistic grounds.[40] oteric knowledge of Allah. This can be conceived in
According to the medieval scholar Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī, terms of two basic types of law (fiqh), an outer law con-
the word sufi is derived from the Greek word sofia cerned with actions, and an inner law concerned with
(σοφία), meaning wisdom.[41][42][43] one’s own actions and qualities. The outer law consists
of rules pertaining to worship, transactions, marriage, ju-
According to Qur'anist, the word Sufi derived from the dicial rulings, and criminal law—what is often referred
word suhufi(ie.Suhufi-papers, pages, records, scriptures to, broadly, as qanun. The inner law of Sufism consists
from a Qur'anic/Islamic stand point). Which further ex- of rules about repentance from sin, the purging of con-
plains their persistence in music and dancing (king David) temptible qualities and evil traits of character, and adorn-
or their visiting of tombs (Jesus by Mary) which they are ment with virtues and good character.[46]
best known for practicing.
The typical early Sufi lived in a cell of a mosque and
taught a small band of disciples. The extent to which Su-
fism was influenced by Buddhist and Hindu mysticism,
2 Beliefs and by the example of Christian hermits and monks, is
disputed, but self-discipline and concentration on Allah
quickly led to the belief that by quelling the self and
through loving ardor for Allah it is possible to maintain
a union with the divine in which the human self melts
away.[47]
2.1 Teaching
3 History
Main article: History of Sufism
3.1 Origins
a master of the way. Furthermore, the emphasis on prac- prescription of a Sufi master because they are deemed to
tices may obscure a far more important fact: The seeker be good for every seeker under every circumstance.[90]
is, in a sense, to become a broken person, stripped of all Some Sufi orders[91] engage in ritualized dhikr cere-
habits through the practice of (in the words of Imam Al- monies, or sema. Sema includes various forms of
Ghazali) solitude, silence, sleeplessness, and hunger.[86] worship such as: recitation, singing (the most well
Magic has also been a part of Sufi practice, notably in known being the Qawwali music of the Indian subcon-
India.[87] Mansur Al-Hallaj (d. 922), visited Sindh in or- tinent), instrumental music, dance (most famously the
der to study “Indian Magic”, where he accepted Hindu Sufi whirling of the Mevlevi order), incense, meditation,
ideas of cosmogony and divine descent and also seems to ecstasy, and trance.[92]
have believed in the Transmigration of the soul.[88] The Some Sufi orders stress and place extensive reliance upon
practice of magic intensified during the declining years Dhikr. This practice of Dhikr is called Dhikr-e-Qulb (in-
of Sufism in India when the Sufi orders grew steadily in vocation of Allah within the heartbeats). The basic idea
wealth and in political influence while their spirituality in this practice is to visualize the Allah as having been
gradually declined and they concentrated on saint vener- written on the disciple’s heart.[93]
ation, miracle working, magic and superstition.
5.1 Dhikr
5.2 Muraqaba
Main article: Dhikr
Dhikr is the remembrance of Allah commanded in the
Main article: Muraqaba
5.3 Visitation
6 Persecution
See also: Sufi-Salafi relations
Ali Dede the Bosnian’s book Three Hundred Sixty Sufi Ques-
tions.
Sufis and Sufism has been subject to destruction of Sufi
shrines and mosques, suppression of orders, and discrim-
ination against adherents in a number of Muslim coun-
tries where most Sufis live. The Turkish Republican state and his followers believed paid insufficient attention to
banned all the different Sufi orders and closed their insti- Shariah law. Prior to Majlisi’s rise, Shiism and Sufism
tutions in 1925 after Sufis opposed the new secular order. had been “closely linked”.[98]
The Iranian Islamic Republic has harassed Shia Sufi, re-
In 1843, the Senussi Sufi were forced to flee Mecca and
portedly for their lack of support for the government doc-
Medina and head to Sudan and Libya.[34][99]
trine of "velayat-e faqih" (i.e., that the supreme Shiite
jurist should be the nation’s political leader). In most According to a 2005 article in The Guardian:
other Muslim countries, attacks on Sufis and especially
their shrines has come from some Muslims from the more
puritanical schools of thought who believe Sufi practices
such as celebration of the birthdays of Sufi saints, and Before the first world war there were al-
Dhikr (“remembrance” of God) ceremonies[95] are Bid‘ah most 100,000 disciples of the Mevlevi or-
or impure innovation, and polytheistic (Shirk).[96][97] der throughout the Ottoman empire. But in
1925, as part of his desire to create a mod-
ern, western-orientated, secular state, Atatürk
6.1 History banned all the different Sufi orders and closed
their tekkes. Pious foundations were sus-
During the Safavid era of Iran, “both the wandering pended and their endowments expropriated;
dervishes of 'low' Sufism” and “the philosopher-ulama Sufi hospices were closed and their contents
of 'high' Sufism came under relentless pressure” from seized; all religious titles were abolished and
power cleric Muhammad Baqir Majlisi (d1110/1699). dervish clothes outlawed. [...] In 1937,
Majlisi—"one of the most powerful and influential” Atatürk went even further, prohibiting by law
Twelver Shi'a ulama “of all time”—was famous for any form of traditional music, especially the
(among other things), suppression of Sufism, which he playing of the ney, the Sufis’ reed flute.[100][101]
6.2 Current attacks 9
2006
2007
Since March 2005, 209 people have been killed and • March 3: ten villagers killed in a rocket attack on the
560 injured in 29 different terrorist attacks targeting 400-year-old shrine of Abu Saeed Baba. Lashkar-e-
shrines devoted to Sufi saints in Pakistan, according to Islam takes credit.[116]
data compiled by the Center for Islamic Research Col-
laboration and Learning (CIRCLe).[103] At least as of 2009
2010, the attacks have increased each year. The attacks
are generally attributed to banned militant organizations • 17 February: Agha Jee shot and killed in Peshwar,
of Deobandi or Ahl-e-Hadith (Salafi) backgrounds.[104] the fourth faith healer killed over several months in
(Primarily Deobandi background according to another Pakistan. Earlier Pir Samiullah was killed in Swat
source—author John R. Schmidt).[105] Deobandi and by the Taliban 16 December 2008. His dead body
Barelvi being the “two major sub-sects” of Sunni Mus- was later exhumed and desecrated. Pir Rafiullah was
lims in South Asia[106] that have clashed—sometimes kidnapped from Nowshera and his beheaded body
violently—since the late 1970s in Pakistan.[106] Although was found in Matani area of Peshawar. Pir Juma
Barelvi are fully described as Sunni Sufis,[107] whether the Khan was kidnapped from Dir Lower and his be-
destruction and death is a result of Deobandi’s banned headed body was found near Swat.[117] Faith healing
militant organizations persecution of Sufis(Barelvus).[108] is associated with Sufi Islam in Pakistan
In 2005, the militant organizations began attacking “sym-
bols” of the Barelvi community such as mosques, promi- Pakistani faith healers are known as pirs,
nent religious leaders, and shrines.[104] a term that applies to the descendants of Sufi
10 6 PERSECUTION
Muslim saints. Under Sufism, those descen- • 3 February: Remote-controlled device is triggered
dants are thought to serve as conduits to God. as food is being distributed among the devotees out-
The popularity of pirs as a viable healthcare side the Baba Haider Saieen shrine in Lahore, Pun-
alternative stems from the fact that, in much jab. At least three people were killed and 27 others
of rural Pakistan, clinics don't exist or are dis- injured.[116]
missed as unreliable.[118]
• 3 April: Twin suicide attack leaves 42 dead and al-
most a hundred injured during the annual Urs festi-
and suppressing it has been a cause of “extrem-
val at shrine of 13th century Sufi saint Sakhi Sarwar
ist” Muslims there.[119]
(a.k.a. Ahmed Sultan) in the Dera Ghazi Khan dis-
trict of Punjab province. Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan
• March 5: The shrine of Rahman Baba, “the most
(TTP) claims responsibility for the attack.[116][128]
famous Sufi Pashto language poet”, razed to the
ground by Taliban militants “partly because local
women had been visiting the shrine”.[116][120] 2012
• 8 March: Attack on shrine of “famous Sufi poet” • 21 June: Bomb kills three people and injures 31
Rahman Baba in Peshawar. “The high intensity de- others at the Pinza Piran shrine in Hazarkhwani in
vice almost destroyed the grave of the Rehman Baba (Peshwar). “A police official said the bomb was
and the gates of a mosque, canteen and conference planted in a donkey-cart that went off in the after-
hall situated in the spacious Rehman Baba Com- noon when a large number of people were visiting
plex. Police said the bombers had tied explosives the popular shrine”.[129]
around the pillars of the tombs, to pull down the
mausoleum”.[121]
6.2.2 Kashmir, India
• May 8: shrine of Shaykh Omar Baba
destroyed.[116][122]
In this predominately Muslim, traditionally Sufi
• 12 June: Mufti Sarfraz Ahmed Naeemi killed by region,[130] some six places of worship have been either
suicide bomber in Lahore. A leading Sunni Is- completely or partially burnt in “mysterious fires” in
lamic cleric in Pakistan he was well known for his several months leading up to November 2012.[131] The
moderate views and for publicly denouncing the most prominent victim of damage was the Dastageer
Taliban’s beheadings and suicide bombings as “un- Sahib Sufi shrine in Srinagar which burned in June 2012,
Islamic”.[123] injuring 20.[132] While investigators have so far found
no sign of arson, according to journalist Amir Rana the
2010 fires have occurred within the context of a surging Salafi
movement which preaches that “Kashmiri tradition of
• 22 June: Taliban militants blow up the Mian venerating the tombs and relics of saints is outside the
Umar Baba shrine in Peshawar. No fatalities pale of Islam”.[131]
reported.[116][124]
mourners outside the burning shrine cursed
• 1 July: Multiple bombings of Data Durbar Com- the Salafis for creating an atmosphere of hate,
plex Sufi shrine, in Lahore, Punjab. Two suicide [while] some Salafis began posting incendiary
bombers blew themselves up killing at least 50 peo- messages on Facebook, terming the destruction
ple and injuring 200 others.[116] of the shrine a “divine act of God”.[131]
• 7 October: 10 people killed, 50 injured in a dou-
ble suicide bombing attack on Abdullah Shah Ghazi 6.2.3 Somalia
shrine in Karachi[125]
• 7 October: The tomb of Baba Fariddudin Ganj Under the Al-Shabab [133]
rule in Somali, Sufi ceremonies
Shakkar in Pakpattan is attacked. Six people were were banned and shrines destroyed.[134] As the power
killed and 15 others injured.[116] of Al-Shabab has waned, however, Sufi ceremonies are
said to have “re-emerged”.[130]
• 25 October: 6 killed, and at least 12 wounded in
an attack on the shrine of 12th-century saint, Baba
Farid Ganj Shakar in Pakpattan.[126] 6.2.4 Mali
• 14 December: Attack on Ghazi Baba shrine in Pe- In the ancient city of Timbuktu, sometimes called “the
shawar, 3 killed.[127] city of 333 saints”, UNESCO reports that as many as
half of the city’s shrines “have been destroyed in a dis-
2011 play of fanaticism”, as of July 2012. A spokesman for
6.2 Current attacks 11
Ansar Dine has stated that “the destruction is a divine or- and scholars”.[141] Perpetrators were described as “groups
der”, and that the group had plans to destroy every single that have a strict Islamic ideology where they believe that
Sufi shrine in the city, “without exception”.[135] In Gao graves and shrines must be desecrated.” Libyan Interior
and Kidal, as well as Timbuktu, Salafi Islamists have de- Minister Fawzi Abdel A'al, was quoted as saying, “If all
stroyed musical instruments and driven musicians (music shrines in Libya are destroyed so we can avoid the death
is not Haraam under Sufi Islam) into “economic exile” of one person [in clashes with security forces], then that
away from Mali.[136] is a price we are ready to pay.”[141]
International Criminal Court Chief Prosecutor Fatou In September 2012, three people were killed in clashes
Bensouda described the Islamists’ actions as a “war between residents of Rajma (50 km south-east of Beng-
crime”.[137][138] hazi) and “Salafist Islamists” trying to destroy a Sufi
shrine in Rajma, the Sidi al-Lafi mausoleum.[142] In Au-
• A manuscript from Timbuktu belonging to Al- gust 2012 the United Nations cultural agency Unesco
Mukhtar ibn Aḥmad ibn Abi Bakr al-Kunti al- urged Libyan authorities to protect Sufi mosques and
Kabir. shrines from attacks by Islamic hardliners “who consider
the traditional mystical school of Islam heretical”. The at-
• A manuscript from Timbuktu belonging to Baba ibn
tacked have “wrecked mosques in at least three cities and
Ahmad al-Alawi al-Maliki al-Maghribi al-Shingiti.
desecrated many graves of revered Sufi scholars”.[143]
6.2.5 Egypt
6.2.7 Tunisia
A May 2010 ban by the ministry of awqaf (religious en-
In an article on the rise of Salafism in Tunisia, the me-
dowments) of centuries old Sufi dhikr gatherings (de-
dia site Al-Monitor reported that 39 Sufi shrines were
voted to the remembrance of God, and including danc-
destroyed or desecrated in Tunisia, from the 2011 rev-
ing and religious songs) has been described as a “an-
olution to January 2013.[144]
other victory for extreme Salafi thinking at the expense
of Egypt’s moderate Sufism”. Clashes followed at Cairo's
Al-Hussein Mosque and al-Sayyida Zeinab mosques be- 6.2.8 Russia, Dagestan
tween members of Sufi orders and security forces who
forced them to evacuate the two shrines.[95] In 2009, the Said Atsayev—also known as Sheikh Said Afandi al-
moulid of al-Sayyida Zeinab, Muhammad’s granddaugh- Chirkavi—a prominent 74-year-old Sufi Muslim spiritual
ter, was banned ostensibly over concern over the spread leader in Dagestan Russia, was killed by a suicide bomb-
of swine flu[139] but also at the urging of Salafis.[95] ing August 28, 2012 along with six of his followers. His
According to Gaber Qassem, deputy of the Sufi Orders, murder follows “similar religiously-motivated killings” in
approximately 14 shrines have been violated in Egypt Dagestan and other regions of ex-Soviet Central Asia, tar-
since the January 2011 revolution. According to Sheikh geting religious leaders—not necessarily Sufi—who are
Tarek El-Rifai, head of the Rifai Sufi Order, a number of hostile to violent jihad. Afandi had survived previous
Salafis have prevented Sufi prayers in Al-Haram. Sheikh attempts on his life and was reportedly in the process
Rifai said that the order’s lawyer has filed a report at the of negotiating a peace agreement between the Sufis and
Al-Haram police station to that effect. In early April Salafis.[145][146][147]
2011, a Sufi march from Al-Azhar Mosque to Al-Hussein
Mosque was followed by a massive protest before Al-
6.2.9 Iran
Hussein Mosque, “expressing outrage at the destruction”
of Sufi shrines. The Islamic Research Centre of Egypt,
The book Mystic Regimes. Sufism and the State in Iran,
led by Grand Imam of Al-Azhar Ahmed El-Tayeb, has
from the late Qajar era to the Islamic Republic by Matthijs
also renounced the attacks on the shrines.[97] Accord-
van den Bos discusses the status of Sufism in Iran in the
ing to the Muslim Brotherhood website ikhwanweb.com,
19th and 20th century.[148] According to Seyed Mostafa
in 2011 “a memorandum was submitted to the Armed
Azmayesh, an expert on Sufism and the representative of
Forces” citing 20 “encroachments” on Sufi shrines.[102]
the Ni'matullāhī order outside Iran, a campaign against
the Sufis in Iran (or at least Shia Sufis) began in 2005
6.2.6 Libya when several books were published arguing that because
Sufis follow their own spiritual leaders do not believe in
Following the overthrow of Muammar Gaddafi, several the Islamic state’s principle of "velayat-e faqih" (i.e., that
Sufi religious sites in Libya were deliberately destroyed the supreme Shiite jurist should be the nation’s political
or damaged.[140] In the weeks leading up to September leader), Sufis should be treated as second-class citizens.
2012, “armed groups motivated by their religious views” They should not be allowed to have government jobs,
attacked Sufi religious sites across the country, “destroy- and if they already have them, should be identified and
ing several mosques and tombs of Sufi religious leaders fired.[149]
12 7 ISLAM AND SUFISM
Since 2005 the Ni'matullāhī order—Iran’s largest Sufi are thought by some to be seen as allies of the govern-
order—have come under increasing state pressure. Three ment against Al-Qaeda.[149]
of their houses of worship have been demolished. Offi-
cials accused the Sufis of not having building permits and
of narcotics possession—charges the Sufis reject.[149]
7 Islam and Sufism
The government of Iran is considering an outright ban
on Sufism, according to the 2009 Annual Report of
the United States Commission on International Religious
7.1 Critique of Sufism’s anti-materialistic
Freedom. [150]
It also reports: aspects
8 Prominent Sufis
In contrast, Imam Shadhili taught that his followers need
not abstain from what Islam has not forbidden, but to
8.1 Abul Hasan al-Shadhili
be grateful for what God has bestowed upon them.[159]
This notion, known as the “Order of Gratitude-Tariqush
Shukr”, was espoused by Imam Shadhili. Imam Shadhili
gave eighteen valuable hizbs (litanies) to his followers out
of which the notable Hizbul Bahr[160] is recited worldwide
even today.
8.3 Ibn Arabi A Mughal era, Sufi Prayer Book from the Chishti order.
He was born in 1141 and died in 1236 CE. Also known Sufism is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam. It is not a sect,
as Gharīb Nawāz “Benefactor of the Poor”, he is the rather it is considered as the branch of Islamic teaching
most famous Sufi saint of the Chishti Order of the Indian that deals with the purification of inner self. By focusing
Subcontinent. Moinuddin Chishti introduced and estab- on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to
lished the order in the subcontinent. The initial spiritual obtain direct experience of God by making use of “intu-
chain or silsila of the Chishti order in India, comprising itive and emotional faculties” that one must be trained to
16 9 SUFI ORDERS
Main article: Bektashi The Naqshbandi order is one of the major Sufi orders
of Islam. Formed in 1380, the order is considered by
The Bektashi Order was founded in the 13th century by some to be a “sober” order known for its silent dhikr (re-
the Islamic saint Haji Bektash Veli, and greatly influenced membrance of God) rather than the vocalized forms of
during its fomulative period by the Hurufi Ali al-'Ala in dhikr common in other orders. The word "Naqshbandi"
the 15th century and reorganized by Balım Sultan in the ( )ﻧﻘﺸﺒﻨﺪیis Persian, taken from the name of the founder
16th century. of the order, Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari. Some
9.10 Qadiri 17
have said that the translation means “related to the image-died, he directed Umar (second Caliph) and Ali (the first
maker”, some also consider it to mean “Pattern Maker” Imam of the Shia) to take his cloak to Uwais. “Accord-
rather than “image maker”, and interpret “Naqshbandi” ing to Ali Hujwiri, Farid ad-Din Attar of Nishapur and
to mean “Reformer of Patterns”, and others consider it to Sheikh Muhammad Ghader Bagheri, the first recipient
mean “Way of the Chain” or “Golden Chain”. of Muhammad’s cloak was Uwais al-Qarni. The 'Original
As mentioned below, the conception of Naqshbandi may Cloak' as it is known is thought to have passed down the
require more elaboration and clarity as the explanation to generations from the prophet[170]
Abraham to Muhammad, to
this effect creating ambiguity and complicity with in it. Uwais al-Qarni, and so on.”
The meanings of “Naqshbandi” is to follow the pattern of The Oveyssi order exists today in various forms and in
head of the former. In other words, “Naqshbandi” may different countries. According to Dr. Alan Godlas of
be taken as “followup or like a flow chart” of practices the University of Georgia’s Department of Religion, a
exercised by the head of this school of thought. Sufi Order or tariqa known as the Uwaysi is “very active”,
having been introduced in the West by the 20th century
Sufi, Shah Maghsoud Angha. The Uwaysi Order is a Shi'i
9.7 Nimatullahi branch of the Kubrawiya.
Main article: Nimatullahi Godlas writes that there are two recent and distinct con-
temporary branches of the Uwaysi Order in the West:
The Ni'matullāhī order is the most widespread Sufi or- Uwaiysi Tarighat, led by Shah Maghsoud Sadegh Angha’s
der of Persia today. It was founded by Shah Ni'matullah daughter, Seyyedeh Dr. Nahid Angha, and her husband
Wali (d. 1367), established and transformed from his in- Shah Nazar Seyed Ali Kianfar. Dr. Angha and Dr. Kian-
heritance of the Ma'rufiyyah circle.[166] There are several far went on to found another the International Association
suborders in existence today, the most known and influ- of Sufism (IAS) which operates in California and orga-
ential in the West following the lineage of Dr. Javad Nur- nizes international Sufi symposia.
bakhsh who brought the order to the West following the Now developed into an international non-profit organi-
1979 Revolution in Iran. zation, the Oveyssi order has over five-hundred thou-
“Naqshbandi” does not meant for images or patterns fol- sand students with centers spanning five continents. With
lowed by the followers of this school of thoughts. “Naqsh- the use of modern technology and reach of the internet,
bandi” manes the “flow chart” OR to follow the sayings weekly webcasts of the order’s lecture and zekr sessions
and doings of former. are broadcast live through the order’s official website.[171]
The “Noorbakshia”[167] (Arabic: )شalso called Nubak- The Qadiri Order is one of the oldest Sufi Orders. It de-
shia is an Islamic sect and the Sufi order[168][169] and way rives its name from Abdul-Qadir Gilani (1077-1166), a
that claims to trace its direct spiritual lineage and chain native of the Iranian province of Gīlān. The order is one
(silsilah) to the Islamic prophet Muhammad, through Ali, of the most widespread of the Sufi orders in the Islamic
by way of Imam Ali Al-Ridha. This order became fa- world, and can be found in Central Asia, Turkey, Balkans
mous as Nurbakshi after Shah Syed Muhammad Nur- and much of East and West Africa. The Qadiriyyah have
bakhsh Qahistani who was attached with Kubrawiya or- not developed any distinctive doctrines or teachings out-
der Sufi order (“tariqa”) . side of mainstream Islam. They believe in the fundamen-
tal principles of Islam, but interpreted through mystical
experience.
9.9 Oveyssi (Uwaiysi)
Main article: Uwaisi 9.11 Senussi
The Oveysi (or Uwaiysi) order claim to be founded 1,400 Main article: Senussi
years ago by Uwais al-Qarni from Yemen. Uways re-
ceived the teachings of Islam inwardly through his heart Senussi is a religious-political Sufi order established by
and lived by the principles taught by him, although he Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi. Muhammad ibn Ali as-
had never physically met Muhammad. At times Muham- Senussi founded this movement due to his criticism of
mad would say of him, “I feel the breath of the Merciful, the Egyptian ulema. Originally from Mecca, as-Senussi
coming to me from Yemen.” Shortly before Muhammad lef tdue to pressure from Wahhabis to leave and settled
18 10 RECEPTION
in Cyrenaica where he was well received.[172] Idris bin States, where Sufism is perceived as a peaceful and apo-
Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi was later recognized litical form of Islam.[176]
as Emir of Cyrenaica[173] and eventually became King The Islamic Institute in Mannheim, Germany, which
of Libya. The monarchy was abolished by Muammar works towards the integration of Europe and Muslims,
Gaddafi but, a third of Libyan still claim to be Senussi. sees Sufism as particularly suited for interreligious dia-
logue and intercultural harmonisation in democratic and
pluralist societies; it has described Sufism as a symbol
9.12 Shadiliyya of tolerance and humanism—nondogmatic, flexible and
non-violent.[177] According to Philip Jenkins, a Profes-
Main article: Shadhili
sor at Baylor University, “the Sufis are much more than
tactical allies for the West: they are, potentially, the
The Shadhili is a Sufi order founded by Abu-l-Hassan greatest hope for pluralism and democracy within Mus-
ash-Shadhili. Followers (murids Arabic: seekers) of the lim nations.” Likewise, several governments and organ-
Shadhiliyya are often known as Shadhilis.[174][175] isations have advocated the promotion of Sufism as a
means of combating intolerant and violent strains of Is-
lam.[178] For example, the Chinese and Russian[179] gov-
9.13 Suhrawardiyya ernments openly favor Sufism as the best means of pro-
tecting against Islamist subversion. The British govern-
Main article: Suhrawardiyya ment, especially following the 7 July 2005 London bomb-
ings, has favoured Sufi groups in its battle against Muslim
The Suhrawardiyya order (Arabic: )سهرورديةis a Sufi order extremist currents. The influential RAND Corporation,
founded by Abu al-Najib al-Suhrawardi (1097–1168). an American think-tank, issued a major report titled
“Building Moderate Muslim Networks,” which urged the
US government to form links with and bolster[180] Mus-
9.14 Tijaniyya lim groups that opposed Islamist extremism. The report
stressed the Sufi role as moderate traditionalists open to
Main article: Tijaniyyah change, and thus as allies against violence.[181][182] News
organisations such as the BBC, Economist and Boston
Globe have also seen Sufism as a means to deal with vio-
The Tijaniyyah order attach a large importance to culture lent Muslim extremists.[183]
and education, and emphasize the individual adhesion of
the disciple (murīd).
10.2 Influence on Judaism
10.1 Perception outside Islam Both Judaism and Islam are monotheistic. However,
there is evidence that Sufism did influence the develop-
ment of some schools of Jewish philosophy and ethics. A
great influence was exercised by Sufism upon the ethical
writings of Jews in the Middle Ages. In the first writing of
this kind, we see “Kitab al-Hidayah ila Fara'iḍ al-Ḳulub”,
Duties of the Heart, of Bahya ibn Paquda. This book was
translated by Judah ibn Tibbon into Hebrew under the ti-
tle "Ḥōḇōṯ Ha-lleḇāḇōṯ".[184]
the Jewish mainstream through Bahya ibn Paquda’s work, Abraham Maimuni’s principal work is originally com-
which remains one of the most popular ethical treatises posed in Judeo-Arabic and entitled "כתאב כפאיה
in Judaism. "אלעאבדיןKitāb Kifāyah al-'Ābidīn (“A Comprehensive
It is noteworthy that in the ethical writings of the Sufis Guide for the Servants of God”). From the extant surviv-
Al-Kusajri and Al-Harawi there are sections which treat ing portion it is conjectured that Maimuni’s treatise was
of the same subjects as those treated in the "Ḥovot ha- three times as long as his father’s Guide for the Perplexed.
Lebabot” and which bear the same titles: e.g., “Bab al- In the book, Maimuni evidences a great appreciation for,
Tawakkul"; “Bab al-Taubah"; “Bab al-Muḥasabah"; “Bab and affinity to, Sufism. Followers of his path continued to
foster a Jewish-Sufi form of pietism for at least a century,
al-Tawaḍu'"; “Bab al-Zuhd”. In the ninth gate, Baḥya
directly quotes sayings of the Sufis, whom he calls Pe- and he is rightly considered the founder of this pietistic
school, which was centered in Egypt.
rushim. However, the author of the Ḥōḇōṯ Ha-lleḇāḇōṯ
did not go so far as to approve of the asceticism of the The followers of this path, which they called, inter-
Sufis, although he showed a marked predilection for their changeably, Hasidism (not to be confused with the [later]
ethical principles. Jewish Hasidic movement) or Sufism (Tasawwuf), prac-
The Jewish writer Abraham bar Ḥiyya teaches the asceti- ticed spiritual retreats, solitude, fasting and sleep depriva-
cism of the Sufis. His distinction with regard to the ob- tion. The Jewish Sufis maintained their own brotherhood,
[185]
servance of Jewish law by various classes of men is essen- guided by a religious leader—like a Sufi sheikh.
tially a Sufic theory. According to it there are four prin- Abraham Maimuni’s two sons, Obadyah and David, con-
cipal degrees of human perfection or sanctity; namely: tinued to lead this Jewish-Sufi brotherhood. Obadyah
Maimonides wrote Al-Mawala Al Hawdiyya (“The Trea-
tise of the Pool”)—an ethico-mystical manual based on
1. of “Shari'ah”, i.e., of strict obedience to
the typically Sufi comparison of the heart to a pool that
all ritual laws of Islam, such as prayer, fasting,
must be cleansed before it can experience the Divine.
pilgrimage, almsgiving, ablution, etc., which is
the lowest degree of worship, and is attainable The Maimonidean legacy extended right through to the
by all 15th century with the 5th generation of Maimonidean
Sufis, David ben Joshua Maimonides, who wrote Al-
2. of Ṭariqah, which is accessible only to a Murshid ila al-Tafarrud (The Guide to Detachment),
higher class of men who, while strictly adher- which includes numerous extracts of Suhrawardi's Kali-
ing to the outward or ceremonial injunctions of mat at-Tasawwuf.
religion, rise to an inward perception of men-
tal power and virtue necessary for the nearer
approach to the Divinity
11 In popular culture
3. of "Ḥaḳikah”, the degree attained by those
who, through continuous contemplation and in-
ward devotion, have risen to the true percep- 11.1 Films
tion of the nature of the visible and invisible;
who, in fact, have recognized the Godhead, and • The Jewel of the Nile (1985), the eponymous Jewel
through this knowledge have succeeded in es- is a Sufi holy man.
tablishing an ecstatic relation to it; and
• In Hideous Kinky (1998), Julia (Kate Winslet) trav-
4. of the “Ma'arifah”, in which state man com- els to Morocco to explore Sufism and a journey to
municates directly with the Deity. self-discovery.
British folk singer Richard Thompson is a long-time Sufi. • Nuh Ha Mim Keller (b. 1954) – Jordan
12.6 Eastern Europe 21
• Meher Ali Shah (1859–1937) – Pakistan • The Great Mosque of Touba, home of the Mouride
Sufi order of Senegal
• Mohammad Abdul Ghafoor Hazarvi (1911-1970) -
Pakistan • Haqqani Anjuman Faquiri Huzra Mubarak in Bag-
mari, Kolkata(State:WB, County:Ind);established in
• Muhammad Abdul Qadeer Siddiqi Qadri (1871– 1876 by Maulana Sufi Mufti Azangachhi Shaheb .
1962) – India
• Wali tomb, south of Karima, Sudan
• Hazrat Maulana Sufi Mufti Azangachhi Shaheb (b.
1828 or 1829- d. 1932) - India • The Rumi Museum in Konya, Turkey
• Muhammad Akram Awan (b.1934) - Pakistan • An illustration of Ibrahima Fall, leader of the
Mouride Order
• Muhammad Ilyas Qadri (b. 1950) – Pakistan
• The Mughal Emperor Jahangir preferring a Sufi
• Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri (b. 1951) - Pakistan shaikh to kings
• Omer Tarin (b. 1966)- Pakistan • Mazar e Soltani, Bidokht, Gonabad County. Shrine
Of four Qutbs (masters) of the Nimatullahi Sufi or-
• Qalandar Baba Auliya (1898–1979) – Pakistan der
• Saheb Qiblah Fultali (1913–2008) – Bangladesh • Mausoleum of Makhdoom Shah Daulat (d 1608),
Ibrahim Khan, The Mughal governor of Bihar com-
• Shah Shahidullah Faridi (1915–1978) – Pakistan pleted his mausoleum in 1616, during the reign of
the Mughal Emperor Jahangir.
• Syed Muhammad Zauqi Shah (1878–1951) – Pak-
istan • The shrine of Shah Arzani constructed during the
reign of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir.
• Syed Waheed Ashraf (b. 1933) – India
• Pir Dastgir from the Mughal Empire.
• Tajuddin Muhammad Badruddin (1861-1925) – In-
dia
• Grave of Ma Yuanzhang, the Sufi Grand Master, in [5] Kamuran Godelek. The Neoplatonist Roots of Sufi Philos-
China ophy. Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy, Boston,
Massachusetts, USA, August 10–15, 1998. Archived
• Sufi mosque in Srinagar India. from the original on 2003-03-11. Retrieved 2015-01-17.
23
[6] Alan Godlas, University of Georgia, Sufism’s Many Paths, [28] Insights into Islamic Esoterism and Taoism (Sophia Peren-
2000, University of Georgia nis 2003)
[7] Nuh Ha Mim Keller, “How would you respond to the [29] The New Encyclopedia Of Islam By Cyril Glassé, p.500
claim that Sufism is Bid'a?", 1995. Fatwa accessible at:
[30] Munn, Richard C. (January–March 1969). “Reviewed
Masud.co.uk
work(s): The Sufis by Idries Shah”. Journal of the Amer-
[8] Zubair Fattani. “The meaning of Tasawwuf”. Islamic ican Oriental Society (American Oriental Society) 89 (1):
Academy. 279–281. JSTOR 598339.
[49] An Introduction to Shiʻi Islam: The History and Doctrines [67] Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islam: Religion, History, and Civi-
of Shi'i Page 209 lization, HarperSanFrancisco, 2003. (Ch. 1)
[50] See Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practi- [68] Dina Le Gall, A Culture of Sufism: Naqshbandis in the
cal Introduction to the Sufi Path, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, Ottoman World, 1450–1700, ISBN 978-0-7914-6245-4.
ISBN 978-0-9815196-1-6, for a detailed description of
the practices and preconditions of this sort of spiritual re- [69] Arthur F. Buehler, Sufi Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian
treat. Naqshbandiyya and the Rise of the Mediating Sufi Shaykh,
ISBN 978-1-57003-783-2.
[51] See examples provided by Muzaffar Ozak in Irshad: Wis-
dom of a Sufi Master, addressed to a general audience [70] Victor Danner, The Islamic Tradition: An introduction.
rather than specifically to his own students. Amity House. February 1988.
[52] Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, Classical Islam and [71] Masatoshi Kisaichi, “The Burhami order and Islamic
the Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition, ISBN 978-1-930409-23-1 resurgence in modern Egypt.” Popular Movements and
[53] “Khalifa Ali bin Abu Talib - Ali, The Father of Sufism - Democratization in the Islamic World, pg. 57. Part
Alim.org”. Retrieved 27 September 2014. of the New Horizons in Islamic Studies series. Ed.
Masatoshi Kisaichi. London: Routledge, 2006. ISBN
[54] IslamOnline.net 9781134150618
[55] Massignon, Louis. Essai sur les origines du lexique tech- [72] “Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal”, Babou,
nique de la mystique musulmane. Paris: Vrin, 1954. p. Cheikh Anta, The International Journal of African Histor-
104. ical Studies, v. 40 no. 1 (2007) pp. 184–6
[56] Imam Birgivi, The Path of Muhammad, WorldWisdom, [73] Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal, Khadim
ISBN 0-941532-68-2 Mbacke, translated from the French by Eric Ross and
[57] Hodgson, Marshall G.S. (1958). The Venture of Islam, edited by John Hunwick. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener,
Vol 1: The Classical Age of Islam. Chicago and London: 2005.
University of Chicago Press. p. 394.
[74] See in particular the biographical introduction to Michel
[58] An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Re- Chodkiewicz, The Spiritual Writings of Amir Abd Al-
trieved 27 September 2014. Kader, ISBN 978-0-7914-2446-9.
[59] Lloyd Ridgeon, Morals and Mysticism in Persian Sufism: [75] From the article on Sufism in Oxford Islamic Studies On-
A History of Sufi-Futuwwat in Iran, p. 32. Abingdon-on- line
Thames: Routledge, 2010.
[76] Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical In-
[60] Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, translated by troduction to the Sufi Order, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN
William McGuckin de Slane. Paris: Oriental Transla- 978-0-9815196-1-6
tion Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Sold by Institut
de France and Royal Library of Belgium. Vol. 3, p. 209. [77] For a systematic description of the diseases of the heart
that are to be overcome in order for this perspective to take
[61] Ahmet T. Karamustafa, Sufism: The Formative Period, pg. root, see Hamza Yusuf, Purification of the Heart: Signs,
58. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. Symptoms and Cures of the Spiritual Diseases of the Heart,
[62] J. Spencer Trimingham, The Sufi Orders in Islam, Oxford ISBN 978-1-929694-15-0.
University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-512058-5.
[78] Concerning this, and for an excellent discussion of the
[63] The most recent version of the Risâla is the translation concept of attraction (jadhba), see especially the Intro-
of Alexander Knysh, Al-Qushayri’s Epistle on Sufism: Al- duction to Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee, The School of
risala Al-qushayriyya Fi 'ilm Al-tasawwuf (ISBN 978- the Shadhdhuliyyah, Volume One: Orisons, ISBN 977-00-
1859641866). Earlier translations include a partial ver- 1830-9.
sion by Rabia Terri Harris (Sufi Book of Spiritual Ascent)
and complete versions by Harris, and Barbara R. Von [79] Muhammad Emin Er, al-Wasilat al-Fasila, unpublished
Schlegell. MS.
[65] For the pre-modern era, see Vincent J. Cornell, Realm of [81] Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam,
the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism, ISBN ISBN 978-0-8078-1271-6 .
978-0-292-71209-6; and for the colonial era, Knut Vikyr,
Sufi and Scholar on the Desert Edge: Muhammad B. Oali [82] See especially Robert Frager, Heart, Self & Soul: The Sufi
Al-Sanusi and His Brotherhood, ISBN 978-0-8101-1226- Psychology of Growth, Balance, and Harmony, ISBN 978-
1. 0-8356-0778-0.
[66] Leonard Lewisohn, The Legacy of Medieval Persian Su- [83] Hakim Moinuddin Chisti, The Book of Sufi Healing, ISBN
fism, Khaniqahi-Nimatullahi Publications, 1992. 978-0-89281-043-7
25
[84] For an introduction to the normative creed of Islam as es- [104] Sunni Ittehad Council: Sunni Barelvi activism against
poused by the consensus of scholars, see Hamza Yusuf, Deobandi-Wahhabi terrorism in Pakistan – by Aarish U.
The Creed of Imam al-Tahawi, ISBN 978-0-9702843- Khan| criticalppp.com| Let Us Build Pakistan
9-6, and Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Maghnisawi, Imam
Abu Hanifa’s Al-Fiqh Al-Akbar Explained, ISBN 978-1- [105] John R. Schmidt states, “although most Deobandis are no
933764-03-0. more prone to violence than their Christian fundamental-
ist counterparts in the West, every jihadist group based in
[85] The meaning of certainty in this context is emphasized in Pakistan save one is Deobandi, as are the Afghan Taliban”.
Muhammad Emin Er, The Soul of Islam: Essential Doc- The Unraveling: Pakistan in the Age of Jihad | John R.
trines and Beliefs, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-0- Schmidt| 2011
9815196-0-9.
[106] “Sects Within Sect: The Case of Deobandi–Barelvi En-
[86] See in particular the introduction by T. J. Winter to Abu counter in Pakistan”. Tandfonline.com. 1 January 1970.
Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali, Al-Ghazali on Disciplin- Retrieved 24 February 2013.
ing the Soul and on Breaking the Two Desires: Books XXII
and XXIII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences, ISBN [107] Chakrabarty, Rakhi (Dec 4, 2011). “Sufis strike back”.
978-0-946621-43-9. The Times of India. Retrieved 5 March 2013.
[87] Akbar Ahmed, Diiscovering Islam, Making sense of Mus- [108] Researcher Amir Rana (a researcher and editor quarterly
lim History and Society,ISBN 0-415-28525-9(Pbk) research journal Conflict and Peace Studies. What is
young Pakistan thinking?) claims than Deobandi them-
[88] Klaus K. Klostermaier, A Survey of Hinduism, ISBN 978- selves are often Sufi, as "Naqshbandi, the major Sufi
0-7914-7082-4 (Pbk) cult in Pakistan, is mainly comprised of the Deobandis”
(source: Rana, Amir. “Where sufism stands”. 1 August
[89] Abdullah Jawadi Amuli, “Dhikr and the Wisdom Behind
2010. Express Tribune Blogs. Retrieved 4 March 2013.).
It”
Maulana Qasim Nomani, the Rector of Deobandi sem-
[90] Hakim Moinuddin Chisti The Book of Sufi Healing, ISBN inary Darul Uloom Deoband has denied either that his
978-0-89281-043-7 school is anti-sufi or promotes militancy, stating Deoband
scholars like Ashraf Ali Thanwi, and others were Sufi
[91] Naqshbandi Way of Dhikr saints as well and they had their Khanqahs (Sufi hospice).
[92] Touma 1996, p.162 Who said we are against Sufism? We very
much follow the Sufi traditions and all of our
[93] What is Remembrance and what is Contemplation? elders were Sufi practitioners of Sufi tradition
[94] Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical In- (source: Ali, Md. “Deoband hits back, re-
troduction to the Sufi Path, ISBN 978-0-9815196-1-6, p. jects “baseless” charge of radicalizing Mus-
77. lim youth”. 19 October 2011. TwoCir-
cles.net. Retrieved 4 March 2013.)
[95] Salafi intolerance threatens Sufis| Baher Ibrahim|
guardian.co.uk| 10 May 2010 According to the Jamestown Foundation, Deobandi have
also been victims of sectarian strife.
[96] Mir, Tariq. “Kashmir: From Sufi to Salafi”. November 5,
2012. Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting. Retrieved 20 Scores of Deobandi leaders and members
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[98] Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shiʻi Islam: these assassinations. (source: Jamal, Arif.
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26 August 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2013. inspires_modern_science.htm
27
[154] Muhammad Emin Er, The Soul of Islam: Essential Doc- [175] Home - ZIKR
trines and Beliefs, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-0-
9815196-0-9. [176] Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane
Idleman Smith: Islam and the West Post 9/11, Ashgate
[155] Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam Publishing Ltd., p. 67
(1975) pg. 99
[177] Jamal Malik, John R. Hinnells: Sufism in the West, Rout-
[156] (source: [pp. 778–795 of The Reliance of the Traveller, ledge, p. 25
by Shaykh Nuh Ha Meem Keller])
[178] Philip Jenkins (January 25, 2009). “Mystical power”.
[157] The Amman Message Summary. Retrieved on Feb 2, Globe Newspaper Company. Retrieved 26 June 2014.
2010.
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trieved 26 June 2014.
[159] “Thareeqush Shukr”. Shazuli.com. Retrieved 2012-08-
13. [180] “Sufism: Of saints and sinners”. The Economist Newspa-
per. Dec 18, 2008. Retrieved 26 June 2014.
[160] “Deen islam -Hizb ul Bahr - Litany of the Sea”. Retrieved
[181] “MUSLIM NETWORKS AND MOVEMENTS IN
27 September 2014.
WESTERN EUROPE”. Pew Research Center. Govern-
[161] K. al-Wasa'il, quoted in The Unlimited Mercifier, Stephen ment Promotion of Sufism. September 15, 2010. Re-
Hirtenstein, p. 246 trieved 26 June 2014.
[162] Memoirs of the Saints, p.108 [182] Angel Rabasa, Cheryl Benard, Lowell H. Schwartz, Peter
Sickle (2007). “Building Moderate Muslim Networks”.
[163] Trimingham (1998), p. 1 RAND Corporation. Retrieved 26 June 2014.
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[165] “Mourides Celebrate 19 Years in North America” by [184] A Sufi-Jewish Dialogue: Philosophy and Mysticism in
Ayesha Attah. The African magazine. (n.d.) Retrieved Bahya ibn Paquda’s Duties of the Heart, Diana Lobel
2007-11-13.
[185] Jewish pietism of the Sufi type, Mireille Loubet
[166] Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). The Garden of Truth. New
[186] Zeeshan Jawed (4 June 2005). “Soundscape for the soul”.
York, NY: HarperCollins. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-06-
The Telegraph (Calcutta). Retrieved 2008-04-23.
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[168] Beyond Lines of Control: Performance and Politics on the influence of Muslim literature in the United States has
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[169] Encyclopaedia Of Untouchables : Ancient Medieval And Chronicle
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[170] Dr. Ronald Grisell (1983). Sufism. Ross Books. pp. 23.
16 Further reading
ISBN 978-0-89496-038-3
• Abrahamov, Binyamin, Philosophical Mysticism, in
[171] “The Expansion of M.T.O. Shahmaghsoudi”. MTO Shah- Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An
maghsoudi. Retrieved 2011-12-26."Through Hazrat Pir’s Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited
deep commitment to his father’s wish, the M.T.O. Shah- by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara,
maghsoudi, School of Islamic Sufism, which he now leads, ABC-CLIO, 2014. ISBN 1610691776
has developed into an international non-profit organiza-
tion with over 500,000 students who attend centers located • Abun-Nasr, Jamil. Muslim Communities of Grace:
throughout five continents in America, Europe, Australia, The Sufi Brotherhoods in Islamic Religious Life.
Africa and Asia.” London, Hurst, 2007.
[172] Metz, Helen Chapin. “The Sanusi Order”. Libya: A • Al-Badawi, Mostafa. Sufi Sage of Arabia.
Country Study. GPO for the Library of Congress. Re-
Louisville: Fons Vitae, 2005.
trieved 28 February 2011.
• Algan, Refik & Camille Adams Helminski, transla-
[173] A. Del Boca, “Gli Italiani in Libia - Tripoli Bel Suol
d'Amore” Mondadori 1993, p. 415
tors, Rumi’s Sun: The Teachings of Shams of Tabriz,
(Sandpoint, ID:Morning Light Press, 2008) ISBN
[174] Hazrat Sultan Bahu 978-1-59675-020-3
28 16 FURTHER READING
• Ali-Shah, Omar. The Rules or Secrets of the Naqsh- • Ernst, Carl. The Shambhala Guide to Sufism.
bandi Order, Tractus Publishers, 1992, ISBN 978- HarperOne, 1999.
2-909347-09-7.
• Fadiman, James and Frager, Robert. Essential Su-
• Angha, Nader. “Sufism: A Bridge Between Reli- fism. Boulder: Shambhala, 1997.
gions”. MTO Shahmaghsoudi Publications, 2002, • Farzan, Massud. The Tale of the Reed Pipe. New
ISBN 0-910735-55-7 York: Dutton, 1974.
• Angha, Nader. “Sufism: The Lecture Series”. MTO • Gowins, Phillip. Sufism—A Path for Today: The
Shahmaghsoudi Publications, 1997, ISBN 978-0- Sovereign Soul. New Delhi: Readworthy Publica-
910735-74-2. tions (P) Ltd., 2008. ISBN 978-81-89973-49-0
• Angha, Nader. “Peace”. MTO Shahmaghsoudi • Khan, Inayat. “Part VI, Sufism”. The Sufi message,
Publications, 1994, ISBN 978-0-910735-99-5. Volume IX—The Unity of Religious Ideals
• Aractingi, Jean-Marc and Christian Lochon, Se- • Koc, Dogan, “Gulen’s Interpretation Of Sufism”,
crets initiatiques en Islam et rituels maçonniques- Second International Conference on Islam in the
Ismaéliens, Druzes, Alaouites,Confréries soufies; éd. Contemporary World: The Fethullah Gülen Move-
L'Harmattan, Paris, 2008 (ISBN 978-2-296-06536- ment in Thought and Practice, December 2008
9). • Lewinsohn (ed.), The Heritage of Sufism, Volume
• Arberry, A.J.. Mystical Poems of Rumi, Vols. 1&2. I: Classical Persian Sufism from its Origins to Rumi
Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1991. (700-1300).
• Michon, Jean-Louis. The Autobiography (Fahrasa)
• Austin, R.W.J.. Sufis of Andalusia, Gloustershire:
of a Moroccan Soufi: Ahmad Ibn 'Ajiba (1747–
Beshara Publications, 1988.
1809). Louisville: Fons Vitae, 1999.
• Azeemi,Khwaja Shamsuddin. Muraqaba: Art and • Nurbakhsh, Javad, What is Sufism? electronic text
Science of Sufi Meditation, Houston:Plato Publish- derived from The Path, Khaniqahi Nimatullahi Pub-
ing,Inc., 2005, ISBN 0-9758875-4-8. lications, London, 2003 ISBN 0-933546-70-X.
• Barks, Coleman & John Moyne, translators, The • Rahimi, Sadeq (2007). Intimate Exteriority: Sufi
Drowned Book: Ecstatic & Earthy Reflections of Ba- Space as Sanctuary for Injured Subjectivities in
hauddin, the Father of Rumi, (NY: HarperCollins, Turkey., Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 46,
2004) ISBN 0-06-075063-4 No. 3, September 2007; pp. 409–422
• Bewley, Aisha. The Darqawi Way. London: Diwan • Schimmel, Annemarie, Mystical Dimensions of Is-
Press, 1981. lam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina
Press, 1983. ISBN 0-8078-1223-4
• Burckhardt, Titus. An Introduction to Sufi Doctrine.
Lahore: 1963. • Schmidle, Nicholas, “Pakistan’s Sufis Preach Faith
and Ecstasy”, Smithsonian magazine, December
• Chopra, R M, “Great Sufi Poets of The Punjab”, Iran 2008
Society, Calcutta, 1999.
• Sells, Michael (ed.), Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi,
• Colby, Frederick. The Subtleties of the Ascension: Qur'an, Mi'raj, Poetic and Theological Writings,
Lata'if Al-Miraj: Early Mystical Sayings on Muham- ISBN 978-0-8091-3619-3.
mad’s Heavenly Journey. City: Fons Vitae, 2006.
• Shah, Idries. The Sufis. New York: Anchor Books,
• Dahlén, Ashk, Sufi Islam, The World’s Religions: 1971, ISBN 0-385-07966-4.
Continuities and Transformations, ed. Peter B.
• Shah, Sirdar Ikbal Ali. “The General Principles of
Clarke & Peter Beyer, New York, 2008.
Sufism,” The Hibbert Journal, Vol. XX, October
• Dahlén, Ashk, Female Sufi Saints and Disciples: 1921/ July 1922.
Women in the life of Jalal al-din Rumi, Orientalia • Shaikh Sharfuddin Maneri. Letters from a Sufi
Suecana, vol. 57, Uppsala, 2008. Teacher. Mountain View, CA: Golden Elixir Press,
• Emin Er, Muhammad. Laws of the Heart: A Prac- 2010. ISBN 978-0-9843082-4-8.
tical Introduction to the Sufi Path, Shifâ Publishers, • Seker, Nimet. Jewish and Muslim Mysticism: Jewish
2008, ISBN 978-0-9815196-1-6. Mystics on the Sufi Path Qantara.de April 2010
• Emin Er, Muhammad. The Soul of Islam: Essential • Wilcox, Lynn. “Women and the Holy Qur'an: a Sufi
Doctrines and Beliefs, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN Perspective”. MTO Shahmaghsoudi Publications,
978-0-9815196-0-9. 1998, ISBN 0-910735-65-4
29
17 External links
• A Sufi Metamorphosis: Imam Ali
• Sufism at DMOZ
• Sufism, Sufis, and Sufi Orders - Sufism’s Many Paths
• Pak Naqshbandi
• A Survey Of Decisive Arguments And Proof For
Tasawwuf - Sufism in Islam
30 18 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, Sulzliu, Stracalai, Robmlogic, Jim1138, Scythian77, AdjustShift, Dexterisme, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist,
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mad b. Abdallah, Xtremedood, Elioun, Yasufi ibn Luqman, Zeanali12 and Anonymous: 1562
18.2 Images
• File:'Ali_Dede_al-Busnawi_-_Three_Hundred_Sixty_Sufi_Questions_-_Walters_W585_-_Closed_Top_View_A.jpg
Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/%27Ali_Dede_al-Busnawi_-_Three_Hundred_Sixty_Sufi_
Questions_-_Walters_W585_-_Closed_Top_View_A.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Museum: <a
href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola filesystems folder home.svg' src='//upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png'
width='20' height='20' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.
svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_
filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='128' data-file-height='128'
/></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/7580' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
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data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist:
'Ali Dede al-Busnawi (died 1007 AH/AD 1598)