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Can mango orchards rehabilitate degraded areas by nutrient cycling?

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DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.10.103

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 Journal of Environmental Management 231 (2019) 1176–1181

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Research article

Can mango orchards rehabilitate degraded areas by nutrient cycling? T

a,∗ b b
Juliana Chagas Rodrigues , Izildinha Souza Miranda , Adriano Marlisom Leão de Sousa
a
Department of Biosystems Engineering, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Pádua Dias Avenue, 11, 13418-900, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil
b
Socioenvironmental and Water Resources Institute, Federal Rural University of Amazônia, President Tancredo Neves Avenue, 2501, 66077-830, Belém, Pará, Brazil

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Degradation of areas reduces nutrient cycling in the environment, and mango tree (Mangifera indica L.) culti-
Mangifera indica L. vated in orchard could act as an alternative for degrading areas rehabilitation. The aim of this study was to
Litter production evaluate the nutrients contribution to soil via litter in mango orchard, which was used as an alternative for
Litter decomposition degrading areas rehabilitation in the northeast of Pará, Brazil. The study was performed in the forest, mango
Forest rehabilitation
orchard, and degrading area located in Salinópolis, Pará, Brazil. The total production and fractions (leaves,
Ecosystem services
branches, reproductive parts, and miscellaneous), as well as the nutrient production and their contribution to the
soil and litter decomposition were monitored. Mango trees have produced litter in similar quantities in the
forest, 7.06 and 8.95 Mg ha−1 yr−1, respectively. However, mango orchard has denoted litter production sea-
sonality, which was concentrated in less rainy season. Leaves fraction has presented larger contribution to litter
total production. Moreover, the contribution of nutrients coming from mango orchard to the soil via litter was
like forest. The decomposition was more rapid in mango orchard during the rainy season, when it took 5.51
months to decompose 50% of litter. Mango orchard may be used as an alternative to the rehabilitation of
degrading areas due to its contribution to nutrient cycling and soil protection.

1. Introduction largely produced in several countries, such as India, Thailand,

The fertility of some Brazilian soils depends directly on the vege-
tation (Quesada et al., 2011); its removal should cause direct impacts to
soil attributes and nutrient cycling (Silva et al., 2014), which represents
an exchange between the environment and living beings through soil,
where vegetal senescent parts, denominated litter, are usually deposed
and afterwards decomposed. The decomposition is affected by abiotic
and biotic factors, such as climate, litter chemical composition, and
community of decomposing organisms (García-Palacios et al., 2013;
Keiser et al., 2013). Climate is a determinant factor in tropical and
temperate regions (García-Palacios et al., 2013).
Plants that have a rapid growth and large canopy and are attractive
to the fauna and tolerant to changes in soil moisture (Hakim and
Miyakawa, 2013) are said to possess characteristics that are desirable
for the recovery of degrading areas. In addition, they can promote the
nutrient input to the soil by means of litter; these functional aspects can
be obtained with non-native species for forest rehabilitation (Chazdon
et al., 2016). Thus, in rehabilitation, only one species can be selected,
and this should retrieve at least one ecosystem function, such as cycling
nutrients.
Mango tree (Mangifera indica L.) is a plant originated from Asia and
Indonesia, Mexico, Pakistan, and Brazil (FAO, 2017). This tree is effi-
cient in nutrients absorption and survives well at low-fertility soils and
during dry periods (Ganeshamurthy and Reddy, 2015). Mango trees
provide ecosystem services, such as foods production, soil protection
(litter), and nutrient cycling (Almeida et al., 2014; Corrêa et al., 2006;
Kumar et al., 2015). In addition to environmental improvements,
mango tree cultivation in terms of production can be influenced by
environmental factors that represent 30% of the gap between the
average and best possible yield (de Bie, 2004). Therefore, im-
plementation of mango orchards requires the use of technologies, such
as the use of flowering inducers and irrigation, in some regions, which
will potentiate crop yield.
The objective of this study was to evaluate nutrients input to soil via
litter in a mango orchard, which was utilized as an alternative for the
rehabilitation of degrading areas in Brazil. The tested hypothesis was
that the mango orchard would produce litter in higher quantity;
moreover, it was believed that the mango orchard would provide a
more elevated nutritional input through more effective decomposition
when compared with degrading areas, and this would occur mainly
during rainy season.

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: rodriguesjc@usp.br (J.C. Rodrigues), izildinha.miranda@ufra.edu.br (I.S. Miranda), adriano.souza@ufra.edu.br (A.M.L. de Sousa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.10.103
Received 6 February 2018; Received in revised form 10 October 2018; Accepted 28 October 2018
0301-4797/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J.C. Rodrigues et al.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sites
The study was conducted in Salinópolis, northeast of Pará, Brazil.
This region's soil was classified as Oxisol perox (USDA, 1999). The
Köppen climatic classification is of tropical rainy type with little
drought period, subtype Am (Alvares et al., 2013).
Three areas were established for this research: forest (FO), mango
orchard (MO), and degrading area (DA). The forest (00° 39′ 52″ S, 47°
17′ 01″ W), considered the control area, is a remnant of Open
Ombrophilous Forest with Palm Trees, characterized by an understory,
where predominate Attalea speciosa Mart. Ex Spreng. (babaçu), Attalea
maripa (Aubl.) Mart (inajá), Astrocaryum aculeatum Meyer (tucumã),
and several species of lianas, among others.
The MO consists of the cultivar Tommy Atkins (00° 39′ 50″ S, 47°
17′ 04″ W). Currently, the orchard presents 22 years old (in 2015), a
total area of 25 ha cultivated in a non-irrigated system, spaced at
10 × 10 m, with average height of 5.35 m. The average fruit pro-
ductivity is 15.66 t ha−1. The orchard received NPK application ac-
cording to soil and leaf analysis. Trees were not pruned.
The degrading area (00° 40′ 09″ S, 47° 17′ 47″ W) has a history of
clearing and burning agriculture use to implement cashew trees
(Anacardium occidentale L.) for commercial purposes. This area was
abandoned in 2012 due to the production decline, getting in degrada-
tion state. After this event, secondary vegetation was established in an
initial stage of succession; however, the area is still in degradation. The
degrading area could be characterized by the loss of ecosystem services
previously provided, such as the reduction in soil physical-chemical
quality when compared with FO; the DA presents high soil bulk density,
1.86 g cm−3; little total porosity, 27%; and small amount of organic
matter, 12.85 g kg−1; whereas in the forest, the following values were
determined: 1.70 g cm−3; 34%; and 23.39 g kg−1, respectively, in the
depth 5–10 cm of the soil in FO.
2.2. Meteorological data
Rainfall and wind speed were monitored daily by a rain gauge (TB4,
Campbell Scientific) and by an anemometer (05106, Young). The sen-
sors were installed on top of a micrometeorological tower 10.5 m above
the MO. The sensor has been connected to the automatic data collection
system, datalogger (CR1000, Campbell Scientific), for realization of
sensor readings every 10 s and recording the totals every 10 min.
2.3. Litter production
Three plots of 20 × 20 m (400 m2) were selected in each site. In
every plot, four collectors were installed and randomly distributed at
0.5 m above the ground, totaling 12 collectors per area. The collectors
were wooden squares measuring 1 × 1 × 0.5 m, with background on
1.0 mm mesh nylon screen, to allow the material accumulation as well
as to provide the passage of the rain, avoiding that the process of de-
composition began in the collectors.
To quantify litter flow, the samples were monthly collected between
July 2015 and June 2016. Samples were packaged in identified paper
bags and sent to the laboratory. The material was manually separated in
fractions of leaves, branches, reproductive parts (flowers, fruit, and
seeds), and miscellaneous (remains of unidentified animals and vegetal
parts) due to the objective of evaluating the contribution of each frac-
tion by site. The collected material was dried in an air forced circulation
stove at 70 °C until a constant mass obtained. Then, those were weighed
in an analytical digital scale to obtain the dry mass. The means were
expressed in g m−2. Furthermore, litter production was estimated ac-
cording to the equation (Ferreira et al., 2014):
AP = (ΣAMP ×10000)/CA , where AP represents the average annual
production of litter (kg ha−1 yr−1), AMP denotes the average monthly
1177
Journal of Environmental Management 231 (2019) 1176–1181
production (kg ha−1 yr−1), and CA is the collector area (m2). Subse-
quently, the average annual litter production was converted to Mg
ha−1 yr−1.
2.4. Litter nutrients
For chemical analysis, the 12 samples from each site were mixed to
obtain a composite and monthly sample per site, in the fraction of
leaves, branches, and reproductive parts. The dried material was milled
in a Willey mill and sieved in 30 mesh sieves. Nutrient contents of the
litter were determined according to a methodology described by
Malavolta et al. (1997). Nitrogen (N) was established by Kjeldahl
method after sulfuric digestion. After nitric-perchloric digestion, phos-
phorus (P) was determined by spectrophotometry, whereas sulfur (S) by
turbidimetry, and potassium (P) by flame photometry. Finally, calcium
(Ca) and magnesium (Mg) were computed by atomic absorption spec-
trometry.
2.5. Litter decomposition
Litter decomposition rate was obtained according to Ferreira et al.
(2014) methodology, where 15 litter bags were randomly distributed
on the floor of each plot, totaling 135 litter bags. These were made of
nylon mesh of 2.0 mm in dimensions of 25 × 25 × 1.5 cm. In each litter
bag was conditioned 25 g of dry material (leaves), originally from the
spot where it was installed. Three litter bags were monthly collected in
each plot, during 30, 60, 90, 120, and 150 days throughout the less
rainy season (July to November 2015). Other 135 bags were similarly
sampled during rainy season (January to May 2016).
Samples were dried at 70 °C in an air forced circulation stove until
constant dry mass was obtained. The decomposition rate was achieved
by the equation: RM = (FM/IM) × 100 , where RM was the remaining
mass in the litter bag (%), FM was the final mass (g), and IM the initial
mass (g).
The decomposition constant (k) was obtained according to the
equation described by Thomas and Asakawa (1993), with the following
exponential model: Xt = X o × e−kt . Rearranging for: k= ln(Xt /X o)/t ,
where Xt is the remaining material dry mass after t days (g); Xo is the
dry mass of the material placed in the bag at time zero (t = 0) (g); t is
the time (days). The half-life (T0.5) was determined according to the
equation: T0.5 = ln(2)/k . When 95% (T0.05) of the material was de-
composed, the following equation was obtained: T0.05 = 3/k .
2.6. Statistical analysis
Descriptive statistics was utilized through arithmetic means and
standard deviations of the evaluated variables. The experimental design
was completely randomized. Litter production and decomposition were
subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) of repeated measurements,
and the means were compared by the Tukey test, at 5% significance
level. Moreover, nutrients input was also submitted to ANOVA, and the
means were compared by the Tukey test, at 5% significance level. The
statistical analyses were performed by Systat software (Systat, versão
12.02).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Litter production
Litter average annual production showed differences (p < 0.001)
between environments, seasons, and the interaction between them
(Table 1). Litter average annual production by FO (8.95 Mg ha−1 yr−1)
and MO (7.06 Mg ha−1 yr−1) were similar and superior to DA
(3.81 Mg ha−1 yr−1) (Table 2). In the forest, litter production was more
elevated in September (104.79 g m−2), whereas in MO and DA, the
production peak in October (186 g m−2) and July (43.14 g m−2),
J.C. Rodrigues et al. Journal of Environmental Management 231 (2019) 1176–1181

Table 1 dwarf cashew trees in Paraipada, Ceará state, where they obtained the
F values and significance levels associated with the effects of treatments (three mean total of 6.68 Mg ha−1 yr−1 (Soares et al., 2008). These outcomes
environments: forest, mango orchard and degrading area), seasons (less rainy demonstrated that remaining cashew trees in the area could not be
and rainy) and interaction between them on litter production and decomposi- compared with other crops. Higher values (7.37 Mg ha−1 yr−1) were
tion in Salinópolis, Pará.
also found in the 6-year-old secondary forest of northeast of Pará state
Variables Environment Season Environment x Season (Hayashi et al., 2012). Thus, DA endings revealed an elevated de-
gradation level, and it appears that forest succession, occurred so far,
Total production 10.563*** 9.752*** 5.859***
was unable to promote litter production analogous to the above areas.
Leaves production 8.031** 8.583*** 5.082***
Branches production 14.309*** 4.722*** 3.028*** Total litter production and its fractions have varied during the
Reproductive parts 6.549** 4.124*** 3.008*** studied period (Fig. S2). The variations in litter fractions percentages
production were also directly related to species phenology composing the sites.
Miscellaneous production 15.046*** 3.962*** 2.649***
Other studies have found similar results, ranging from 66% to 80% in
Remaining mass 10.064*** 0.085ns 5.009*
k 6.184** 5.331* 4.219*
tropical forests (Almeida et al., 2015; Kotowska et al., 2016) and 81% in
T0.5 5.778** 1.697ns 7.223** cashew trees plantations (Soares et al., 2008).
T0.05 5.778** 1.696ns 7.221** Leaves fractions have demonstrated difference between the en-
vironments (p = 0.002), seasons, and the interactions among them
k: Decomposition constant; T0.5: Time of 50% of the material decomposition; (p ≤ 0.001) (Table 1) Between July and September, February and April,
T0.05: Time of 95% of the material decomposition. The level of significance is
and June, FO has presented the larger production of leaves fraction,
indicated (∗: p < 0.05, ∗∗: p < 0.01, ∗∗∗: p < 0.001, ns: not significant).
whereas in the period between October and December, major produc-
tion of this fraction was observed in MO (Fig. S2a). This was the highest
Table 2
contribution in total litter production, representing 76% in FO, 67% in
Litter production (mean ± standard deviation) by fractions and total, in the
three environments studied, in Salinópolis, Pará.
MO, and 79% in DA, followed by branches, reproductive parts, and
miscellaneous in FO, whereas for the other environments, the re-
Fraction Unit FO MO DA productive parts have represented greater contribution than the bran-
Leaves Mg ha−1 yr−1 6.80 ± 0.02 4.71 ± 0.04 3.01 ± 0.01 ches (Table 2).
% 76 67 79 In addition, there was a difference for the branches between the
Branches Mg ha−1 yr−1 1.30 ± 0.01 0.67 ± 0.01 0.25 ± 0.00 environments, seasons, and the interaction among them (p = 0.001)
% 14 9 7 (Table 1). The forest presented more elevated proportions of branches
−1 −1
Reproductive parts Mg ha yr 0.70 ± 0.01 1.64 ± 0.02 0.46 ± 0.00
fraction in July and between February and April, whereas for MO, the
% 8 23 12
Miscellaneous Mg ha−1
yr −1
0.15 ± 0.00 0.05 ± 0.00 0.10 ± 0.00 higher values were noted from November to February (Fig. S2b). Thus,
% 2 1 2 highest proportions of the fraction branches in FO were related to the
Total Mg ha−1 yr−1 8.95 7.06 3.81 occurrence of rainfall in the region, whereas in MO, the greatest con-
tribution of this fraction was related to the higher wind speed recorded
FO: Forest; MO: Mango orchard; DA: Degrading area.
during this period (Fig. S1), facts that increased the fall of woody parts
of plants.
respectively.
Reproductive parts fraction presented differences between en-
The annual average production of litter was inversely proportional
vironments (p = 0.005), seasons (p = 0.021), and the interaction
to precipitation, mainly in MO and DA (Fig. S1a), and directly pro-
among them (p = 0.025) (Table 1). In addition, those parts were also
portional to wind speed, especially in MO (Fig. S1b). Therefore, water
influenced by area's phenology. In MO, between October and De-
stress has led to the occurrence of a peak in average litter production
cember, the differences have occurred due to phenology influence in
throughout less rainy season in tropical regions (Zhang et al., 2014). In
the reproductive period of mango trees between August 26 and No-
relation to wind speed, the region of Salinópolis, where this study was
vember 24. Likewise, phenology also has influenced this fraction for FO
carried out, is influenced by sea breezes due to the proximity of the
between March and June, highlighting the differences of this environ-
Atlantic Ocean region (Germano et al., 2017), this causes an increase in
ment in relation to the others (Fig. S2c).
the wind speed in the less rainy season and influences the increase in
Reproductive parts fraction has represented a considerable propor-
the litter production in the region during this period.
tion in relation to other litter fractions in MO, 23% (Table 2). Mango
Furthermore, litter annual average production in FO
tree presents a flowering mechanism denominated mass flowering
(8.95 Mg ha−1 yr−1) was similar to that found in an Indonesian rain-
(Pérez et al., 2015). Through this mechanism, mango trees emit en-
forest (9.04 Mg ha−1 yr−1) (Kotowska et al., 2016) and was within
ormous quantities of inflorescence during a short season; therefore, the
ranges located in Amazon, such as those found in Mato Grosso state,
reproductive phase occurs during a restricted period. Despite the mass
which were between 8.59 and 13.2 Mg ha−1 yr−1 (Almeida et al.,
flowering, pollination in mango trees is inefficient, and less than 50% of
2015), and those found in northeast of Pará state, which were between
its flowers are pollinated. From these, less than 1% can reach the final
7.37 and 9.82 Mg ha−1 yr−1. Therefore, the values found have been
fruit development (Davenport and Nuñez-Elisea, 1997). Thus, during
exactly between a 10 years old secondary forest and mature forest, i.e.,
mango trees reproductive phase, reproductive parts fraction is mainly
between 8.40 and 9.82 Mg ha−1 yr−1 (Hayashi et al., 2012).
composed of fruits, which contribute significantly to a litter production
Moreover, the annual average production of MO
increase in the orchard.
(7.06 Mg ha−1 yr−1) was similar to the mean production found in
There was a difference, for the miscellaneous, between the en-
mango trees cultivated in multi-layered agroforestry systems (AFS)
vironments (p < 0.001), seasons (p = 0.02), and the interaction
(7.87 Mg ha−1 yr−1) in Rondônia state (Corrêa et al., 2006), and to the
among them (p = 0.005) (Table 1). Miscellaneous fraction was more
AFS of rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex Adr. de Juss.) Muell.-
elevated in FO between August and September, whereas between
Arg.) and cacao (Theobroma cacao L.), where production of
February and April, the values were superior in DA (Fig. S2d). Mis-
7.66 Mg ha−1 yr−1 and 6.49 Mg ha−1 yr−1 were observed, respectively
cellaneous fraction in MO was significantly little (Table 2) due to the
(Fontes et al., 2014; Kotowska et al., 2016). These outcomes exhibit
greater ease of separating fractions in this environment.
that mango trees present litter production efficiency like AFS.
On the other hand, the DA have denoted annual average production
of litter (3.81 Mg ha−1 yr−1) lower than the results found for young

1178
J.C. Rodrigues et al.
Table 3
F values and significance levels associated to the effect of treatments (three
environments: forest, mango orchard and degrading area) on the nutrient
contribution of litter in Salinópolis, Pará.
Nutrients Leaves Branches Reproductive parts
N 80.217*** 13.283*** 1.306ns
P 6.809* 0.119ns 2.092ns
K 1.874ns 5.411** 1.017ns
Ca 21.465*** 9.364*** 2.235ns
Mg 39.268*** 0.134ns 0.215ns
S 12.713*** 11.498*** 6.295**
N: Nitrogen; P: Phosphorus; K: Potassium; Ca: Calcium; Mg: Magnesium; S:
Sulfur. The level of significance is indicated (*: p ≤ 0.05, **: p ≤ 0.01, ***:
p ≤ 0.001, ns: not significant).
3.2. Litter nutrients
There was a difference in the N content between the leaves and
branches fractions (p < 0.001) (Table 3). Nitrogen contents in leaf
fraction were lower and similar in MO (6.39 g kg−1) and DA
(5.83 g kg−1) than in FO (9.23 g kg−1) (Table S1). In the branches
fraction, the N contents were higher and similar in FO (6.73 g kg−1) and
DA (6.35 g kg−1) in relation to MO (4.38 g kg−1).
The content of P differs between environments only in terms of
leaves fraction (p = 0.003) (Table 3); this content was greater and si-
milar in FO (0.39 g kg−1) and MO (0.43 g kg−1) than in DA
(0.24 g kg−1) (Table S1).
There was difference in the K content between the environments
only for the fraction branches (p = 0.01) (Table 3); these levels were
lower and similar in FO (0.87 g kg−1) and MO (0.83 g kg−1) relative to
DA (1.79 g kg−1) (Table S1).
The Ca content differs between environments fractions leaves
(p < 0.001) and branches (p = 0.001) (Table 3). The Ca contents in
leaf fraction were smaller and similar in FO (7.20 g kg−1) and DA
(4.80 g kg−1) than in MO (16.19 g kg−1) (Table S1). In the branched
fraction, Ca contents were higher and similar to MO (10.12 g kg−1) and
FO (7.43 g kg−1), whereas FO was like DA (5.02 g kg−1).
There was a difference in the Mg content between the environments
just for the leaves fraction (p < 0.001) (Table 3). These levels were
different between the studied environments, FO (2.28 g kg−1), MO
(2.74 g kg−1), and DA (1.39 g kg−1) (Table S1).
The S content presented difference between the environments for
the leaf fractions, branches (p < 0.001), and reproductive parts
(p = 0.006) (Table 3). The S content in the leaves fraction was larger
and similar in FO (1.49 g kg−1) and at MO (1.21 g kg−1) than in DA
(0.53 g kg−1) (Table S1). In the branches fraction, S content was
smaller and similar at MO (0.41 g kg−1) and DA (0.44 g kg−1) in rela-
tion to FO (0.65 g kg−1). Similar result was observed for reproductive
parts fraction at MO (0.65 g kg−1), in DA (0.63 g kg−1), and in FO
(0.94 g kg−1).
In the forest, for leaves fractions, nutrient contents have followed
the descending order: N > Ca > Mg > S > K > P; for branches:
Ca > N > Mg > K > S > P; and for reproductive parts:
N > K > Ca > Mg > P > S (Table S1). These patterns were dis-
tinct from those observed by different forest areas, in leaves fraction,
such as those found in rainforest in the Amazon, where the decreasing
order was: N > Ca > Mg > K > P (Hayashi et al., 2012). In addi-
tion, in Indonesian forests the order was: N > Ca > K > Mg >
S > P (Kotowska et al., 2016).
Leave fraction nutrients obtained in FO (Table S1) were not com-
parable to other areas in the Amazon. The values of N and P were in-
ferior to those observed in the leaves of the upper Rio Negro forest in
Venezuela, which were 16.95 g kg−1 for N; 0.90 g kg−1 for P (Sobrado,
2014); N and K were inferior to those obtained in successional forests in
the northeast of Pará. The values observed in this region were
1179
Journal of Environmental Management 231 (2019) 1176–1181
13.35 g kg−1 for N and 1.24 g kg−1 for K (Hayashi et al., 2012). In
contrast, in the same successional forests, the values of P (0.23 g kg−1),
Ca (4.40 g kg−1), and Mg (1.55 g kg−1) were lower than those observed
in this study. The distinct floristic diversity among forest environments
could justify the divergence between nutrient contents obtained in this
study, and those found in the literature (Hayashi et al., 2012; Sobrado,
2014).
In MO, the quantity of nutrients obtained in the leaves has followed
the order: Ca > N > Mg > S > K > P (Table S1). These outcomes
differ from the orders: Ca > N > K > Mg > S > P, and Ca >
N > K > P > Mg, obtained by Almeida et al. (2014) and Silva et al.
(2014), respectively, for mango trees 25 years old. The major im-
portance of Mg found in mango trees leaves was in consequence of the
liming with dolomitic limestone performed in 2013 in the orchard area.
The outcomes obtained for leaves in MO were similar to those lo-
cated in cultivar Palmer, in Vista Alegre do Alto, in the State of Sao
Paulo, where it was determined 7.0 g kg−1, 0.3 g kg−1, and 1.1 g kg−1,
for N, P, and S respectively (Almeida et al., 2014). On the other hand,
values obtained in the same area for K (4.0 g kg−1), Ca (36.8 g kg−1),
and Mg (1.9 g kg−1) were notably superior to those found in this study.
Leaves nutrients values were also higher in mango trees of several
varieties, mainly, Tommy Atkins, in Petrolina, in Pernambuco state,
where the following values were perceived: 15.19 g kg−1 for N,
2.13 g kg−1 for P, 11.57 g kg−1 for K, and 18.61 g kg−1 for Ca, being
only superior for Mg, which in Petrolina was 1.8 g kg−1 (Silva et al.,
2014).
The order of nutrients in the mango trees branches fraction was:
Ca > N > Mg > K > S > P (Table S1). The outcomes obtained
from this research were different from the results obtained in studies
about macronutrients accumulation and distribution in cultivar Sensa-
tion, in South Africa, which were presented the order K > Ca >
N > P > Mg for the bark and the wood (Stassen et al., 2000). This
study outcome for MO branches (21% for N, 13% for P, 7% for K, 33%
for Ca, and 24% for Mg) was superior to those determined by the au-
thors for Ca and Mg, 20% and 22%, respectively, and inferior for N, P,
and K.
The nutrients in the fraction of mango trees reproductive parts have
followed the order: N > K > Ca > Mg > P > S (Table S1). Dif-
fering from the results obtained in the fruits of cultivar Tommy Atkins,
in the Rio Grande do Norte state, where it was found: Ca > K >
Mg > N > P (Medeiros et al., 2004). These authors have found
higher nutrients quantity in the reproductive parts (1.83 g kg−1 for P,
13.97 g kg−1 for K, 14.2 g kg−1 for Ca, 6.53 g kg−1 for Mg), except for
N (5.73 g kg−1), than the amounts presented in the same studied MO
fraction (Table S1).
For mango tree cultures, the researches about nutrients in the
fractions of branches and reproductive parts are few. In this scenario,
studies related to leaves are predominant due to the foliar analysis in-
terests on nutrients management at the orchards (Almeida et al., 2014;
Kumar et al., 2015; Silva et al., 2014), especially during the re-
productive cycle aiming at final production (Medeiros et al., 2004;
Stassen et al., 2000).
In DA, the nutrients of leaves and branches fractions have followed
the order: N > Ca > K > Mg > S > P, and for reproductive parts:
N > Ca > K > Mg > P > S. Leaves and branches results were
comparable to those found by Soares et al. (2008), who studied the
cashew trees in Ceará state, although there are differences between the
study areas and the culture features, such as liming and fertilizing.
Nonetheless, in quantitative terms, the obtained standards (Table S1)
were minor to those found by the authors (40.18 g kg−1 for N,
0.75 g kg−1 for P, 9.52 g kg−1 for K, 29.05 g kg−1 for Ca, 11.09 g kg−1
for Mg, 2.49 g kg−1 for S).
The chemical quality of the litter is provided by the nutrients ab-
sorbed by the plants, and these nutrients are available through soil, air,
or rainfall. In the forest and DA, the availability occurs naturally,
whereas for agricultural areas, there are nutrient increments through
J.C. Rodrigues et al.
Table 4
Constant and decomposition time (mean ± standard deviation), during the less
rainy and rainy seasons, in Salinópolis, Pará.
Environment k T0.5 T0.05
months
Less rainy
FO 0.0022 ± 0.0006 A 10.94 ± 2.72 A 47.37 ± 11.79 A
MO 0.0027 ± 0.0006 A 8.91 ± 1.86 A 38.58 ± 8.07 A
DA 0.0025 ± 0.0014 A 8.53 ± 3.85 A 36.94 ± 16.68 A
Rainy
FO 0.0032 ± 0.0011 AB 8.04 ± 2.57 A 34.81 ± 11.10 A
MO 0.0041 ± 0.0008 A 5.51 ± 1.20 A 23.85 ± 5.20 A
DA 0.0020 ± 0.0004 B 11.88 ± 2.49 B 51.44 ± 10.78 B
FO: Forest; MO: mango orchard; DA: Degrading area; k: Decomposition con-
stant; T0.5: Time of 50% of the material decomposition; T0.05: Time of 95% of
the material decomposition. Values followed by the same letter vertically in-
dicate a comparison between environments for each season: less rainy and
rainy. These have no statistical difference according to the Tukey test
(p ≤ 0.05).
anthropic intervention, such as fertilizers addition. These substances
are used to recover nutrients extracted by the plant, pruning and har-
vesting as well as enhance productivity.
3.3. Litter decomposition
There was a difference of remaining litter mass between the en-
vironments (p < 0.001) and the interaction between them and the
seasons (p = 0.011) (Table 1). Litter remaining mass was alike between
the environments (67% for MO, 70% for DA, 72% for FO) during the
less rainy season, whereas it was distinct (p < 0.001) throughout the
rainy season (52% for MO, 74% for DA, 63% for FO) (Table 4). These
outcomes highlight that litter decomposition was influenced by rainfall
differently in the environments (Fig. S2). During less rainy season, the
remaining mass was in average 6% higher than during the rainy season,
corroborating with tropical rainforest studies in Australia where the
decomposition levels are more elevated in the rainy season when
compared with the less rainy season (Parsons et al., 2014a, 2014b).
Litter decomposition is directly related to environmental conditions
(García-Palacios et al., 2013). The decrease in temperature and hu-
midity reduce decomposition rates due to microbial activities, the
quality, and litter composition (Freschet et al., 2013; García-Palacios
et al., 2013; Keiser et al., 2013). An increase in rainfall and minimum
air temperatures favors soil fauna, providing better conditions for litter
decomposition (García-Palacios et al., 2013).
Litter decomposition process was more rapid in the early 30 days in
both seasons. In less rainy season, there was mass loss stability between
30 (RM30: 80%-FO; 77%-MO; 81%-DA) and 150 days in all three study
areas (Table 4). During the rainy season, litter was decomposed in
different intensities in each environment. In the MO, litter decom-
position process was higher than FO and DA. Litter mass loss was sta-
bilized in DA, whereas in the other areas the decomposition was not
steadier. Litter decomposition was initially rapid and then started to be
gradual following the exponential model (Hayashi et al., 2012; Soares
et al., 2008).
The k values exhibited dissimilarities between seasons (p < 0.001)
and interaction between them and the environment (p = 0.04)
(Table 1). Mean k values were alike among the studied environments
during the less rainy season, whereas in the rainy period, there were
differences (p < 0.001) (Table 1). The higher k was obtained in MO
during the rainy season, in relation to FO and DA. The mean values of k
found in the three study areas during the less rainy season were 19%
inferior when compared with rainy season. In the studied spots,
throughout both seasons, the k values have been inferior to those found
in literature (Corrêa et al., 2006; Fontes et al., 2014; Hayashi et al.,
1180
Journal of Environmental Management 231 (2019) 1176–1181
2012; Soares et al., 2008). Lower k values decrease the liberation and
reduce the litter nutrients transfer to the soil (Fontes et al., 2014).
The results obtained in FO for k have been situated close to forests
between 10 and 20 years old, 0.0033 and 0.0035 respectively, during
the rainy season (Table 4). Throughout the less rainy season, the ob-
tained values in this research were inferior to those found in literature,
between 0.0033 and 0.0053, for forests between 10 years old secondary
forest and mature forest, in Amazon (Hayashi et al., 2012).
The MO presented inferior k values to the literature in both seasons.
Values of 0.08 were observed for mango trees in multi-stratified AFS, in
Amazon, whereas 0.58 in cacao AFS was noted in Brazilian northeast
(Corrêa et al., 2006; Fontes et al., 2014). DA has also exhibited out-
comes inferior to the literature, where 0.65 was obtained in 8 years old
cashew trees cultivation (Soares et al., 2008).
Even though this study was performed in Amazon, its results diverge
from the expected because tropical regions tend to denote faster de-
composition (García-Palacios et al., 2013), i.e., k values elevated due to
eminent air temperatures and rainfall common in the region. This di-
vergence may be related to the occurrence of the El Niño (NOAA,
2016). In the Amazon, El Niño causes a decrease in cloud formation
and, consequently, a reduction in rainfall volume (Jiménez-Muñoz
et al., 2016).
Litter decomposition duration (T0.5, and T0.05) was different be-
tween environments (p = 0.006) and the interaction between these and
seasons (p = 0.002) (Table 1). During the less rainy season, litter de-
composition required 10% more time to occur than throughout rainy
season. These research findings were inferior to those observed in lit-
erature (Table 4), except for FO in rainy season, which were close to
T0.5, and T0.05 between 7.00 and 6.60 months, and of 30.30 and 28.57
months for forests between 10 and 20 years old, respectively (Hayashi
et al., 2012). For agroforestry systems containing mango trees and
cacao, 0.29 and 0.04 months, respectively, were obtained for T0.5, and
1.25 and 0.17 months for T0.05 in this order (Corrêa et al., 2006; Fontes
et al., 2014). In cashew trees, 0.04 and 0.15 months were found for T0.5,
and T0.05, respectively (Soares et al., 2008).
The differences between these research outcomes and literature for
k, T0.5, and T0.05 were related to the diverse study places and seasons
analyzed in the study, since none of them considered rains seasonality.
In addition, this study was performed in two seasons, less rainy and
rainy.
4. Conclusions
In general, mango trees, even in monoculture condition, have pro-
duced litter in similar quantities to forest. Nonetheless, the MO has
presented seasonality of litter production, which was concentrated in
less rainy season. In addition, nutrients input to the soil via litter in MO
was analogous to forest, only differing from the DA. The decomposition
process was faster in MO than DA, especially during the rainy season.
Therefore, MO could be used as an alternative method for DA re-
habilitation as this provides nutrient cycling recovery and soil protec-
tion.
Acknowledgments
This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de
Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior – Brazil (CAPES) – Finance
Code 001 [482732/2012-1] and the Fundação Amazônia de Amparo a
Estudos e Pesquisas [136/149069-2014]. The authors would like to
thank the CAPES for providing scholarship to the first author and Enago
(www.enago.com) for the English language review.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.10.103.
J.C. Rodrigues et al.
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