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Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I
Geology is the science that deals with the history and structure of the
earth and its life forms, especially as recorded in the rock record. A basic
understanding of its concepts and processes is essential in the petroleum
industry, for it used to predict where oil accumulations might occur. It is
the job of the petroleum geologist to use knowledge to reconstruct the
geologic history of an area to determine whether the formations are likely
to contain petroleum reservoirs. It is also the job of the geologist to
determine whether the recovery and production of these hydrocarbons
will be commercially profitable.
A Geologist is a scientist who studies the solid and liquid matter that
constitutes the Earth as well as the processes and history that have
shaped it. Geologists usually engage in studying geology. Geologists,
studying more of an applied science than a theoretical one, must
approach Geology using physics, chemistry and biology as well as other
sciences.
Petroleum geology is the utilization of geology in the exploration and

exploitation of deposits of petroleum and natural gas. The formation of a
commercial deposit of petroleum arises from an influx of petroleum into
a reservoir bed that occurs in a trapping situation and is large enough to
exploit at a profit.
Petroleum geology is also the study of origin, occurrence, movement,

accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels. It refers to the
specific set of geological disciplines that applied to the search for
hydrocarbons (oil exploration).
Geology is of major importance to the petroleum industry for the

following reasons:
• It is necessary to drill through the rock structure of the earth in
order to gain access to the hydrocarbon reservoir.
• Hydrocarbon is generated in the source rock.
• Hydrocarbon is stored within the rock structure of the earth.
• Hydrocarbons must be produced from the rocks of the earth.
Dr. A.A. Kadi 30 Basic Petroleum Geology and Exploration surveying

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Basic Concepts of Geology

Petroleum is a mineral substance composed of hydrocarbons and
produced from the natural accumulations of organic matter of a faunal
and/or floral provenance. Petroleum is a gaseous, liquid or semisolid
substance, present in the pore space of porous rocks, referred to as
reservoir rocks, which are mainly of sedimentary origin.
The Earth is a complex, ever-changing, body. Earthquakes and volcanoes

provide every-day evidence of surface activity caused by the subsurface
processes of the planet. These natural phenomena provide clues as to the
workings and internal composition of the planet. Geologists worked for
years to understand the immense driving forces behind these phenomena
and what makes the Earth "tick". These studies have led to the conclusion
that the Earth is tectonically active (i.e., parts of the surface move relative
to each other) and compositionally heterogeneous (i.e. rocks vary greatly
in composition from place to place). The history of the planet is stored in
the rocks in a way that geologists have learned to read over the years.
This history known as the Geological Record.
The earth is composed of three basic layers: the core, the mantle, and the
crust. The crust is the layer that is of most importance in petroleum
geology. Geologists distinguish between oceanic crust and continental
crust. Oceanic crust lies under the oceans, is thin about 5-7 miles (8-11
km), and is made up primarily of heavy rock that is formed when molten
rock (magma) cools. Continental crust is thick about 10-30 miles (16-48
km) and is composed of rock that is relatively light as compared to
oceanic crust.
The crust is continuously changing and moving because of two major

forces of nature Orogeny and weathering/erosion. Orogeny, or mountain
building, is a process in which the layers of the crust folded and pushed
upward by such processes as plate tectonics and volcanism. Weathering
and erosion are the opposing forces in which the sediments are broken
down and transported.

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Figure 2.1 illustrates the structure of the Earth. There is a central solid iron core,
surrounded by a liquid iron core, the lower mantle and the upper mantle. The
upper mantle consists of a weak, molten asthenosphere and finally there is a
strong lithosphere with a surficial crust of light rock. About 90% of the earth’s
crust is made up of the four elements: iron, oxygen, silicon and magnesium,
which are the fundamental building blocks of most minerals. Iron, being heavy,
sinks to the core, and lighter elements such as silicon, aluminum, calcium,
potassium and sodium have risen to the crust.

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There are two types of weathering:

Physical: occurs when physical processes that do not change the rock’s
chemical composition fragment solid rock. These processes include wind
(Aeolian forces), water (freezing, flowing, wave action, etc.), heat, and
even glacial movement. Frost wedging is one example of physical
weathering.
Chemical: occurs when minerals in a rock are chemically altered or

dissolved. The weathering of potassium feldspar to form kaolinite, a clay,
is an example of chemical weathering.
Weathering and erosion are closely interrelated geological processes. As

a rock weathers, it becomes susceptible to erosion. Erosion is the removal
of weathered debris. These and additional forces and processes have
resulted in the creation of subsurface geological formations in which
petroleum reservoirs are found.
Geology of Petroleum Systems

The accumulation of economic volumes of petroleum (oil and/or gas) in
the subsurface requires that several essential geological elements and
processes be present at specific time and space. Source rocks generate and
expel petroleum when sufficient thermal energy imparted to the
sedimentary organic matter (kerogen) to break chemical bonds. This
heating induced usually by burial by overburden rock. Once expelled,
petroleum migrates either along faults and/or along highly permeable
strata. Accumulations form only when high porosity strata (reservoir
rocks) charged with migrating petroleum and the petroleum prevented
from further migration.
These petroleum traps formed only when geologic movements result in

subsurface topographies (structural and stratigraphic) that block
migration and when the reservoir rocks covered by low permeability,
strata (seal rocks). Traps must be available at the time of oil expulsion and,
once charged, their integrity must preserved until exploited. These
elements and processes constitute the Petroleum System (Figure 1).

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A Petroleum System is a dynamic hydrocarbon system that functions in a

restricted geologic space and time scale. A Petroleum System requires timely
convergence of geologic events essential to the formation of petroleum deposits.
Petroleum geology is principally concerned with the evaluation of seven

key elements in Sedimentary Basins to obtain an idea of the subsurface
and overall petroleum system:
• Source
• Reservoir
• Seal
• Trap
• Timing
• Maturation
• Migration
Figure 2.2 a. Petroleum System Processes

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Figure 2.2 b. Elements of a Petroleum System.
All petroleum systems contain: 1. at least one formation of organic-rich

sediments that has been buried to a sufficient depth by overburden rock
such that petroleum is generated and expelled, 2. Pathways (permeable
strata and faults) that allow the petroleum to migrate, 3. Reservoir rocks
with sufficient porosity and permeability to accumulate economically
significant, Quantities of petroleum, and 4. Sealing rock; (low
permeability) and structures, which that retain migrated of petroleum
within the reservoir rock. The top and bottom of the oil window
approximate as a function of burial depth. In actual basins, these depths are
not uniform and vary as a function of organic matter type, regional heat
flow from basement, in thermal conductivity of the different lithologies, and
burial history (e.g., deposition rates, uplift, erosion, and hiatus events).
Rocks
The earth’s crust is composed of three basic rock types: igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic.
Igneous rocks: formed from the crystallization of molten rock (magma or

lava) from within the earth’s mantle. Common igneous rocks include
granite, basalt, and gabbro.

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Metamorphic rocks: formed from pre-existing rocks by mineralogical,

chemical and/or structural changes in response to marked changes
temperature, pressure, shearing stress, and chemical environment. These
changes generally take place deep within the earth’s crust. Examples of
common metamorphic rocks include slate, marble and schist.
Sedimentary rocks: formed as sediments, either from eroded fragments

of older rocks or chemical precipitates. Sediments lithify by both
compaction, as the grains are squeezed together into a denser mass than
the original, and by cementation, as minerals precipitate around the
grains after deposition and bind the particles together. Sediments are
compacted and cemented after burial under additional layers of
sediment. Thus, sandstone forms by the lithification of sand particles and
limestone by the lithification of shells and other particles of calcium
carbonate. These types of rocks typically deposited in horizontal layers,
or strata, at the bottom of rivers, oceans, and deltas. Limestone,
sandstone, and clay are typical sedimentary rocks.
Petroleum-Bearing Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are the source of petroleum, provide the reservoir rock,
and trap to hold the petroleum in the earth’s crust. There are the least
abundant rocks on the earth’s crust, making up about 7.9% of the earth’s
crust. Because most reservoir rocks are sedimentary rocks, they are of
particular interest to us in the study of petrophysics. Therefore,
Sedimentary rocks are the most important and interesting type of rock to
the petroleum industry because most oil and gas accumulations occur in
them; igneous and metamorphic rocks rarely contain oil and gas.
All petroleum source rocks are sedimentary. Furthermore, most of the

world’s oil lies in sedimentary rock formed from marine sediments
deposited on the edges of continents. For example, many large deposits lie
along the Gulf of Mexico and the Persian Gulf.

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The Rock Cycle
Figure 2.3 The rock cycle
The start and end of all rocks is the magma in the mantle. This is cooled to
create igneous rocks. These can be broken down into sediments. The
sediments are turned into sedimentary rocks. This can be buried deeper
with heat and pressure, turning into metamorphic rocks. If these are then
heated, we return to the magma. Inside this major cycle are subsycles.
Igneous rocks can be heated to give metamorphic rocks. Any rocks can be
broken into sediments to give sedimentary rocks.
Basic Classification and Types of Sedimentary Rocks

The two main groups of sedimentary rocks can classified based on their
origin.
1. Clastics Sedimentary Rocks-formed as a result of the weathering or

fragmentation of pre-existing rocks and minerals and classified based on
their textures, primarily the sizes of the grains. Sedimentary rocks are

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divided into coarse-grained: conglomerates, medium-grained:

sandstones, and fine-grained: siltstones, mudstones, and shale's. Within
each textural category, mineralogy, which reflects the parent rock, for
example, a quartz-rich sandstone or a feldspar-rich sandstone further
subdivides Clastics.
2. Chemical or Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks-formed as a result of

chemical processes. Primary carbonate deposition results from the
precipitation and deposits formed by plants and animals that utilize
carbonates in their life processes. The most abundant mineral chemically
or biochemically precipitated in the oceans is calcite, most of it the shelly
remains of organisms and the main constituent of limestone. Many
limestones also contain dolomite, a calcium-magnesium carbonate
precipitated during lithification. Gypsum and halite are formed by the
chemical precipitation during the evaporation of seawater.
Sandstones
Sandstones are Clastics sedimentary rocks composed of mainly sand size
particles or grains set in a matrix of silt or clay and more or less firmly
united by a cementing material (commonly silica, iron oxide, or calcium
carbonate). The sand particles usually consist of quartz, and the term
“sandstone”, when used without qualification, indicates a rock
containing about 85-90% quartz.
Carbonates, broken into two categories, limestones and dolomites.

Carbonates are sediments formed by a mineral compound characterized
by a fundamental anionic structure of CO3-2. Calcite and aragonite CaCO3
are examples of carbonates. Limestones are sedimentary rocks consisting
chiefly of the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate, CaCO3), with or without
magnesium carbonate. Limestones are the most important and widely
distributed of the carbonate rocks. Dolomite is a common rock forming
mineral with the formula CaMg (CO3)2. A sedimentary rock will named
dolomite if that rock is composed of more than 90% mineral dolomite and
less than 10% mineral calcite.

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Shale's
Shale is a type of detrital sedimentary rock formed by the consolidation of
fine-grained material including clay, mud, and silt and have a layered or
stratified structure parallel to bedding. Shale's are typically porous and
contain hydrocarbons but generally exhibit no permeability. Therefore,
they typically do not form reservoirs but do make excellent cap rocks. If a
shale is fractured, it would have the potential to be a reservoir.
Evaporites
Evaporites do not form reservoirs like limestone and sandstone, but are
very important to petroleum exploration because they make excellent cap
rocks and generate traps. The term “evaporite” is used for all deposits,
such as salt deposits, that are composed of minerals that precipitated
from saline solutions concentrated by evaporation. On evaporation, the
general sequence of precipitation is calcite, gypsum or anhydrite, halite,
and finally bittern salts.
Evaporites make excellent cap rocks because they are impermeable and,
unlike lithified shale's, they deform plastically, not by fracturing.
The formation of salt structures can produce several different types of

traps. The folding creates one type and faulting associated with the lateral
and upward movement of salt through overlying sediments. Salt
overhangs create another type of trapping mechanism.
Table 1.5 shows the approximate distribution of sedimentary rocks in the

earth’s crust. Shale's make up over 50% of total sedimentary rock volume
in the earth’s crust.
Table 1.5 Distributions of Sedimentary Rocks
Type % Earth's Crust % Sedimentary Rock

Shale 4.2 53
Sandstone 1.7 22
Limestone and 2.0 25
Dolomite
Total 7.9 100

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Source Rock and Hydrocarbon Generation

In petroleum geology, source rock refers to rocks from which
hydrocarbons have generated or are capable of being generated.
Source Rock
Sedimentary rock containing organic material, which under heat, time,

and pressure was transformed to liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons. Source
rock is usually shale or limestone.
Some explorationist use a stricter definition -- that is requiring sufficient

hydrocarbon generation and migration from the rock unit to form
commercial accumulation(s) of oil and/or gas for it to be considered a
source rock.
Possible source rock: Any unit of rock, which by its general lithology
and depositional environment may generate hydrocarbons.
Potential source rock: Contains adequate quantities of organic matter to

generate oil or gas but has not yet done because of insufficient thermal
maturation.
Effective source rock: Is generating or has generated and expelled

petroleum. An effective source rock may further classified into:
Active source rock: Presently generating and expelling petroleum.
Quiescent potential source rock: Previously active yet has stopped

generating and expelling petroleum because of thermal cooling due to
uplift or erosion but may become active again if reburied.
Spent source rock: Has completed the process of oil or gas

generation and expulsion. It is apparent from the above definitions that
a source rock to be effective has to attain a certain level of maturation so
that hydrocarbons generated. However, before a source rock could be
effective, it has first to be a good potential source rock – that is, it has to
be sufficiently organically rich.

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The Reservoir
A reservoir is a formation of one or more rock formations that contains
liquid and/or gaseous hydrocarbons. It is mostly of sedimentary rock
origin, with few exceptions. Reservoir rocks are porous and
permeable; and bounded by impermeable barriers, which trap
hydrocarbons. Vertical arrangement of fluids in a reservoir is
governed by gravitational forces i.e. Gas-Oil-Water
Physical Characteristics of a Reservoir
Physical characteristics of a reservoir include original deposition and

subsequent changes, the type of reservoir, sandstone or carbonate, which
was discussed previously, depth, area, thickness, porosity, permeability,
and capillary pressure.
Depth
The physical characteristics of a reservoir greatly affected by the depth at

which they occur.
Shallow reservoir
Created by the folding of relatively thick, moderately compacted reservoir

rock with accumulation under an anticline or some trap. The hydrocarbons
would generally be better separated as a result of lower internal reservoir
pressures, less gas in solution and oil of increased viscosity, resulting from
lower temperatures.
Deep reservoir
Typically created by severe faulting. The hydrocarbons would be less

separated with more gas in solution and oil of reduced viscosity because of
higher temperatures. There is often a reduction in porosity and
permeability due to increased compaction.
Area and Thickness
The total area of a reservoir and its thickness are of considerable

importance in determining if a reservoir is a commercial one or not. The

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greater the area and thickness of the reservoir, the greater the potential
for large accumulations of oil and gas. However, there are reservoirs that
produce substantial amounts of hydrocarbons that are not of considerable
size.
Porosity
Porosity is the ratio of the pore volume to the bulk volume of the
reservoir rock on percentage basis. That is
Percentage porosity = (porevolume /bulk volume) ×100
Maturation and expulsion

When temperatures of the organic‐rich sedimentary rocks exceed 120 oC
(250 oF), the organic remains within the rocks begin to be "cooked" and oil
and natural gas are formed from the organic remains and expelled from
the source rock. It takes millions of years for these source rocks to be
buried deeply enough to attain these maturation temperatures and
additional millions of years to cook (or generate) sufficient volumes of oil
and natural gas to form commercial accumulations as the oil and gas are
expelled from the source rock into adjacent reservoir rocks.
If the organic materials within the source rock are mostly wood
fragments, then the primary hydrocarbons generated upon maturation
are natural gas. If the organic materials are mostly algae or the soft parts

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of land plants, then both oil and natural gas are formed. Gas can be
generated in two ways in the natural systems; it can be generated directly
from woody organic matter in the source rocks or it can be derived by
thermal breakdown of previously generated oils at high temperatures.
Petroleum Migration and Accumulation
The accumulation of petroleum occur in only those areas, where

geological conditions have provided the unique combination of both
hydrocarbon prone source rocks and hydrocarbon traps.
Hydrocarbons are less dense than water. Once released from the source
rock, they thus tend to migrate upwards in the direction of the minimum
pressure, until either they escape at the ground surface, or an impervious
barrier, called a trap.
In a trap, the oil and gas accumulate by displacing pore water from the
porous rock. The top may be imperfectly sealed, which means that gas
and possibly some oil may "leak" to yet higher lying traps or up to the
ground surface. The part of the trap that contains hydrocarbons is called a
petroleum reservoir.
Water generally underlines the hydrocarbons in a trap. The water bearing

part of the trap is called an aquifer, and is hydraulically connected with
the reservoir. This means that any pressure change in the aquifer will also
affect the reservoir, and the depletion of the reservoir will make the
aquifer expand into this space.
Both oil and gas are generated together, in varying proportions, from a
source rock, which results in a primary gas cap above the oil in the
reservoir. Likewise, a secondary gas cap may develop when the reservoir
pressure has decreased and the lightest hydrocarbon begin to bubble out
from the oil. Some "leaky" or limited-capacity traps may segregate oil and
gas that have been generated together, such that these accumulate in
separate reservoirs.
Migration is the process of the oil and gas moving away from the source
rock. This is a slow process. Migration is caused by burial, compaction,
and increase in volume and separation of the source rock constituents.

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There must be space ‘porosity’ within the rocks to allow for movement. In
addition, there is should be Permeability’ within the rocks.
There are two types of migration:
• Primary migration: is the process of movement from source rock. As

sediments build up to greater thickness in sedimentary basins, Fluids are
squeezed out by the weight of the overlying sediments. Fluids tend to
move toward the lowest potential energy. Initially this is upwards, but as
compaction progresses; there is lateral as well as vertical movement.
Finally, the mechanism that oil migrates is uncertain
• Secondary migration: is movement to or within the reservoir

entrapment.
Once the water, oil and gas migrate into the trap, it separates according to
density. Gas being the lightest, goes to the top of the trap to form the free
gas cap. Oil goes to the middle and water that is always present, on the
bottom
 Migration from the source rock into the carrier bed called primary
migration.
 Primary migration driven by pressure build-up caused by
hydrocarbon generation.
 Migration from the source kitchen area to the reservoir trap called
secondary migration.
 Secondary migration is a gravity-driven processes controlled by
pore-entry networks.
 As oil and gas migrate through the reservoir rock and carrier beds,
they may encounter a high point, barrier, or seal where the fluids stop
and accumulate.
 Seals can be any rock with a low permeability to hydrocarbons.
Seals can also be the result of a barrier to flow such as a fault. Some
rocks commonly found acting, as seals are shale's and salts.
 If there, no seal, or cap rock present, hydrocarbons will continue
migrate to the surface and never become trapped.

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In summary, several factors are required for the formation of a

petroleum reservoir:
1. There must be a source rock, preferably rich in primary organic matter

(carbon- rich marine or lacustrine shale). This source rock must be deeply
buried to reach efficient temperatures to cause the organic matter to
mature and turn into petroleum.
2. There has to be a migration pathway that enables the shale-released

petroleum to migrate in a preferential direction.
3. There must be a reservoir rock that is sufficiently porous and permeable

to accumulate the petroleum in large quantities.
4. There must be a trap that is sealed sufficiently to withhold the

petroleum. Otherwise, the majority of petroleum will bypass the porous
rock and be dispersed or escape to the ground surface.
5. An impermeable seal or cap rock is critical in preventing the petroleum

from leaking out from the reservoir or escaping to the surface.
If any of these key factors is missing or inadequate, a petroleum reservoir

field cannot be formed. A large isolated reservoir or group of closely
adjacent reservoirs is referred to as an oil field.
Origin of petroleum forms

• Petroleum is derived from the remains of living things, which contains a
material called kerogen.
• Before dead organic matter becomes petroleum with time, the kerogen
matures into an assortment of hydrocarbon molecules of all sizes and
weights.
• The lightest (small) hydrocarbon molecules waft away as natural gas,
and the heavier ones make up an oily liquid.
• Petroleum source rocks are of terrestrial and marine origin.
• Terrestrial source rocks are deposited in lakes, delta and river basins
having woody plant matter, algae etc.
• Marine source rocks contain dead planktons, algae, organic remains etc.
• In both the settings, the mixture is buried under conditions of no oxygen.
• Under the anaerobic conditions, the kerogen transformed into a
flammable substance called bitumen by the action of heat and anaerobic
microbes in the sediment and natural catalysts.

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• Most of the bitumen eventually cooked into tarry asphalt releasing

hydrocarbon molecules (as well as water and carbon dioxide) out of the
source rock as it heats.
• Heavy oils form first, then light oils. As temperatures rise to and above
100° C, source rocks produce more gas.
• Being lighter than rocks, petroleum tends to rise upward through
fractures and the pores of coarse sandstone beds.
• A small fraction of that leakage, perhaps 2% is preserved in large pools
having an impermeable cap / seal over it.
Figure 2.4 Diagram to illustrate the main geological conditions and geochemical
processes required for the formation of petroleum accumulations in sedimentary
basins: 1) petroleum generation in source rocks; 2) primary migration of
petroleum; 3) secondary migration of petroleum; 4) accumulation of petroleum in
a reservoir trap; 5) seepage of petroleum at the Earth’s surface because of a
fractured cap rock.
Distribution of oil and gas fields based on geologic age
It is important to know the geologic age of reservoir rocks because

rocks of different ages frequently have different petroleum
characteristics and productivity. It is also important to note that the
age of the rock does not necessarily coincide with the time of oil
accumulation. You can only know that it accumulated sometime
after the formations deposition.

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Table 1 Illustrates the distribution of discovered Oil and gas fields based on
geologic age
Geologic Age % of Fields
Neogene 18
Palaeogene 21
Cretaceous 27
Jurassic 21
Permo-Triassic 6
Carboniferous 5
Devonian 1
Cambrian-Silurian 1
Total 100
Hydrocarbon Traps
Hydrocarbon traps are any combination of physical factors that promote
the accumulation and retention of petroleum in one location. Traps can be
structural, stratigraphic, or a combination of the two.
Structural traps are those caused by tectonic, diapiric, gravitational and

compactional processes. These form at some time after deposition of the
reservoir as a result of Earth movements.
In broad terms, one may distinguish between structural traps (related to

tectonic structures) and stratigraphic traps (related to the sealing effect of
unconformities and rock-type, or lithofacies, changes).
Domes and Anticlines

Domes and anticlines are structures formed by the tectonic uplift and/or
folding of sedimentary rocks. When viewed from above, a dome is circular
in shape as in Fig. 2.5, whereas an anticline is an elongate fold as in Fig. 2.6.

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Figure 2.5: Oil and gas accumulation in a dome structure.
Figure 2.6: Oil and gas accumulation in an anticline structure.
Salt Domes
This type of geological structure is caused by the upward intrusion of

a diapiric body of salt, volcanic rock, or serpentine. In pushing up or
piercing through the overlaying sedimentary rocks, the diapirs may
cause the formation of numerous traps on its flanks, in which
petroleum may accumulate, as seen in Fig. 2.7. Some salt domes may
be highly elongated, rather than cylindrical, and are called salt. Salt
itself is a perfect sealing rock.

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Figure 2.7: Hydrocarbon accumulation associated with a salt dome.
Fault Structures
Many petroleum traps are related to faults, which commonly displace

permeable rocks against the impervious one. The fault plane, where lined
with a shear-produced gouge or heavily cemented by the percolating
groundwater fragments of rock, acts on impermeable barrier that further
increases the trapping effect on the migration of oil and gas. See Fig. 2.8.
Figure 2.8: Hydrocarbon accumulation related to a fault.

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Structures Unconformity
This type of structure is a sealing unconformity, with the permeable

rocks tilted, erosionally truncated and covered by younger
impermeable deposits. A reservoir may be formed where the
petroleum is trapped in the updip part of the bluntly truncated and
sealed, porous rock unit, as seen in Fig. 2.9.
Figure 2.9: Oil and gas trapped below an unconformity.
Lenticular Traps
Oil and gas may accumulate in traps formed by the bodies of porous
lithofacies (rock types) embedded in impermeable lithofacies, or by the
pinch-outs of porous lithofacies within impermeable ones, as seen in Fig.
2.10.
Figure 2.10: Petroleum trap formed by lithofacies change (Sandstone Pinch-

out).

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Figure 2.11 Structural trap formed by high-angle reverse (contractional)

Fault in cross-section (left) and plan or map view (right)
Figure 2.12 Structural trap formed by normal (extensional) fault in cross-section

(left) and plan or map view (right)

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Figure 2.13 Structural rollover traps formed by extensional fault movement

(examples from the Niger delta area). Sometimes this movement occurred
during deposition leading to thicker sections on the hanging wall.
Figure 2.14 Structural traps associated with salt diapirs. Salt is mobile in the
subsurface and tends to rise to the surface, aided by its low density. Rising salt
takes on a distinctive "diapiric" shape. Salt domes are very common is some
areas of the world (e.g., Gulf Coast)

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On of the present-day Earth’s surface, over half of the continental areas

and adjacent marine shelves have sediment covers either absent or too
thin to make prospects for petroleum accumulation. Even in an area
where the buried organic matter can mature, not all of it results in
petroleum accumulations. The following statistical data may serve as a
realistic illustration:
• Only 1% by vol. of a source rock is organic matter,
• < 30% by vol. of organic matter matured to petroleum,
• > 70% by vol. of organic matter remains as residue and
• 99% by vol. of petroleum, dispersed or lost at the ground surface in the
process of migration, and only 1% by vol. is trapped.
These data lead to the following estimate: only 0.003 vol. % of the world’s
source rocks actually turn into petroleum that can be trapped and thus
generate our petroleum resources.
Figure 2.15 Stratigraphic traps associated with an unconformity (top) and a

lateral Facies change (middle). Where the Facies changes are transitional “waste
zones” can develop (lower).

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Figure 2.16 traps associated with salt domes
Figure 2.17 Unconformity

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Figure 2.18 Combination trap
Fluid Distribution within a Reservoir
Petroleum reservoirs generally contain a combination of three

fluids:
1). Natural Gas
2). Oil
3). Water
As hydrocarbons and water accumulate in a reservoir, vertical separation

occurs as a result of the difference in the specific gravity of the various
fluids. Typically, the lighter fluids, like gas, rise to the top of the reservoir.
Below the lighter fluids is a gas to oil transition zone. This transition zone
is a relatively thin zone above the oil accumulation. The oil accumulation
may be of primary importance because it contains crude oil and possibly
saturated gas. Below the oil accumulation in most reservoirs is an oil-
water transition zone of varying thickness, which partly filled with water
and oil.
Finally, beneath the oil-water transition zone is that part of the formation
completely saturated with water. It is important to note that not all
reservoirs may contain natural gas, oil, and water. Some formations may
only contain water. However, any formation that contains hydrocarbons
will also contain some amount of water.

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Generally, there are five basic requirements for a commercial petroleum

accumulation:
 Source rocks: are rocks containing organic matter in sufficient
quantity.
 Heat, to generate petroleum from the source rock.
 A porous permeable reservoir, to retain the petroleum within the
reservoir.
 An impermeable cap rock, or seal, to retain the petroleum within the
reservoir.
 A configuration of rock, such as anticline, to trap the petroleum
within the reservoir.
Types of Hydrocarbons
Five Major Types of Hydrocarbons of Interest to Petroleum Exploration
Kerogen/Bitumen
Shale rock volume is composed of 99% clay minerals and 1% organic
material. We have seen that petroleum derived mainly from lipid-rich
organic material buried in sediments. Most of this organic matter is in a
form known as kerogen.
Kerogen is that part of the organic matter in a rock that is insoluble in

common organic solvents. It owes its insolubility to its large molecular
size and heat is required to break it down.
Maturation of kerogen is a function of increased burial and temperature

and accompanied by chemical changes. As kerogen thermally matures
and increases in carbon content, it changes form an immature light
greenish-yellow color to an over mature black, which is representative of
a progressively higher coal rank. Different types of kerogen can
identified, each with different concentrations of the five primary
elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur, and each
with a different potential for generating petroleum.
The organic content of a rock that is extractable with organic solvents that
known as bitumen. It normally forms a small proportion of the total

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organic carbon in a rock. Bitumen forms largely as the result of the

breaking of chemical bonds in kerogen as temperature rises. Petroleum is
the organic substance recovered from wells and found in natural
seepages. Bitumen becomes petroleum at some point during migration.
Important chemical differences often exist between source rock extracts
(bitumen) and crude oils (petroleum).
Kerogen is of no commercial significance except where it is so abundant

(greater than 10%) as to occur in oil shale. It is, however, of great
geological importance because it the substance that generates
hydrocarbon oil and gas. A source rock must contain significant amounts
of kerogen.
Crude oil
Crude oil is a mixture of many hydrocarbons that are liquid at surface
temperatures and pressures, and are soluble in normal petroleum
solvents. It can vary in type and amount of hydrocarbons as well as
which impurities it may contain. Crude oil may be classified chemically
(e.g. paraffinic, naphthenic) or by its density. This expressed as specific
gravity or as API (American Petroleum Institute) gravity according to the
formula:
API = (141.5/Sp. Gr. & 60F) – 131.5
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of

water. The lower the specific gravity, the higher the API gravity, for
example, a fluid with a specific gravity of 1.0 g cm –3 has an API value of
10 degrees. Heavy oils are those with API gravities of less than 20 (sp. gr.
> 0.93). These oils have frequently suffered chemical alteration as the result
of microbial attack (biodegradation) and other effects. Not only are heavy
oils less valuable commercially, but they are considerably more difficult to
extract. API gravities of 20 to 40 degrees (sp. gr. 0.83 to 0.93) indicate
normal oils. Oils of API gravity greater than 40 degrees (sp. gr. < 0.83) are
light.

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Petroleum and natural gas are mixtures of hydrocarbons. On average

they consist of 85% C, 13% H, and 2 % N, S, and O (all weight %). The
main components of natural hydrocarbons belong to three groups:
• Paraffins, or n-alkanes, with the general formula CnH2n+2. For n = 1 to 4

these are gases, from n = 5 to15 liquids, and above this solids (paraffin
waxes). The gases methane, ethane, propane and butane form natural gas.
• Naphthenes, with the general formula CnH2n, form saturated ring

compounds in which n is 5, 6 or 7. Cyclopentane and cyclohexane are
common components of crude oils, often in the methyl- form (together
2% or more of an average crude oil).
• Aromatics, generally minor groups of hydrocarbons that contain at

least one benzene ring (C6H6) in which all carbons share the fourth bond.
They are called undersaturated because they will react to add hydrogen
or other elements to their rings.
Asphalt
Asphalt is a dark colored solid to semi-solid form of petroleum (at surface
temperatures and pressures) that consists of heavy hydrocarbons and
bitumen. It can occur naturally or as a residue in the refining of some
petroleum. It generally contains appreciable amounts of sulphur, oxygen,
and nitrogen and unlike kerogen; asphalt is soluble in normal petroleum
solvents. It is produced by the partial maturation of kerogen or by the
degradation of mature crude oil. Asphalt is particularly suitable for
making high-quality gasoline, roofing, and paving materials.
Natural Gas
There are two basic types of natural gas, biogenic gas and Thermogenic
gas. The difference between the two is contingent upon conditions of
origin. Biogenic gas is a natural gas formed solely as the result of bacterial
activity in the early stages of diagenesis, meaning it forms at low
temperatures, at overburden depths of less than 3000 feet, and under
anaerobic conditions often associated with high rates of marine sediment
accumulation.

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Thermogenic gas is a natural gas resulting from the thermal alteration of

kerogen due to an increase in overburden pressure and temperature.
The major hydrocarbon gases are methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane
(C3H8), and butane (C4H10). The terms sweet and sour gas used in the
field to designate gases that are low or high, respectively, in hydrogen
sulfide.
Natural gas, as it comes from the well, also classified as dry gas or wet
gas, according to the amount of natural gas liquid vapors it contains. A
dry gas contains less than 0.1-gallon natural gas liquid vapors per 1,000
cubic feet, and a wet gas 0.3 or more liquid vapors per 1,000 cubic feet.
Natural gas usually consists mostly of methane (CH4) but may contain
variable amounts of higher-order paraffins (ethane, propane and butane).
“Dry gas” is predominantly methane and ethane, while “wet gas”
contains more than 50% propane and butane. Gas may originate as a
byproduct during the generation of oil, from coal, or as bacterial gas
(swamp gas).
Additional components in gas are CO2, which may be used to make dry
ice, and H2S, which has to be removed because of its toxicity (0.1% is fatal
to humans within 30 minutes). At the refinery, H2S is converted into
sulfur as follows:
This process is called demercaptanization
Gas is transported in pipelines, but sometimes also in liquid form on

tankers. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is primarily methane, while
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is largely propane and butane. The latter
can be liquefied under pressure at room temperature and is cheaper to
produce and transport than LNG, which has to be kept at low
temperatures.

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Ethylene, propylene, and butylene are gaseous olefins that are originally
not present in petroleum but are formed in the refining process through
cracking of petroleum.
They are used for making plastics, rubbers, cellophane, solvents,

adhesives and explosives.
Condensates
Condensates are hydrocarbons transitional between gas and crude oil
(gaseous in the subsurface but condensing to liquid at surface
temperatures and pressures). Chemically, condensates consist largely of
paraffin's, such as pentane, octane, and hexane.
Temperature Gradient
Temperature is generally a function of depth because of the earth’s
natural geothermal gradient. Normal heat flow within the earth’s crust
produces a gradient of approximately 1.5°F for each 100 feet of depth
below the surface. The temperatures required to produce crude oil occur
between 5,000 and 20,000 feet of depth. Temperatures below 20,000 feet
are generally too high and only generate gas. Temperatures above 5,000
feet are not usually sufficient to transform the material into crude oil.
There are, of course, exceptions to the rules. Geologic conditions such as
volcanism and tectonics (folding and faulting) can change or effect the
temperature gradient.
Pressure Gradient
Most pressure that effects rocks is due to the weight of overlying rocks
and called overburden pressure. Overburden pressure is a function of
depth and increases one pound per square inch for each foot of depth. At
3000 feet, for example, the overburden pressure would be 3,000 pounds
per square inch. Hydrocarbons evolve from an immature stage to oil
generation, oil cracking (wet gas stage), and finally to dry gas generation
because of overburden pressure and the associated increase in
temperature.

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Exploration Survey
Exploration for oil and gas has long been considered an art as well as a
science. It encompasses a number of older methods in addition to new
techniques. The explorationist must combine scientific analysis and an
imagination to solve the problem of finding and recovering
hydrocarbons.
The objective of any exploration venture is to find new volumes of

hydrocarbons at a low cost and in a short period. If a company spends
more money, finding oil than it would have had to spend buying the
equivalent amount "in the market place" there is little incentive to
continue exploration.
Conversely, a company which manages to find new reserves at low cost

has a significant competitive edge since it can afford more exploration,
find and develop reservoirs more profitably, and can target and develop
smaller prospects.
In the first stage of the search for hydrocarbon-bearing rock formations,

geological maps reviewed in desk studies to identify major sedimentary
basins. Aerial photography may then use to identify promising landscape
formations such as faults or anticlines. Information that is more detailed
assembled using a field geological assessment followed by one of three
main survey methods:
Contour maps are one of the most effective means of displaying

information about the geologic structure (i.e., the degree of buckling and
faulting of the layers) of an area. A contour is a line on which every point
is at the same level above or below a chosen reference surface. In most
maps, the reference surface is sea level. If a contour line represents an
elevation on the surface of the ground, it is a topographic contour. A map
showing topographic contours for an area would called a topographic map.
If such a contour represented an elevation of a rock stratum (layer), then

it called a structure contour. A map showing structure contours for a
certain rock layer throughout an area would called a structure contour map

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such maps used to illustrate the size, shape and location of geologic
structures.
Figure 2.19 Subsurface Structure Contour Map
Subsurface Mapping
Geologic maps are a representation of the distribution of rocks and other

geologic materials of different lithologies and ages over the Earth’s
surface or below it. The geologist measures and describes the rock
sections and plots the different formations on a map, which shows their
distribution. Just as a surface relief map shows the presence of mountains
and valleys, subsurface mapping is a valuable tool for locating
underground features that may form traps or outline the boundaries of a
possible reservoir. Once a reservoir has been discovered, it is also the job
of the geologist to present enough evidence to support the development
and production of that reservoir. Subsurface mapping used to work out
the geology of petroleum deposits. Some of the commonly prepared
subsurface geological maps used for exploration and production include;
(1) geophysical surveys, (2) structural maps, (3) Isopach maps, and (4)
lithofacies map

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Geophysical Methods
Geophysics is the study of the earth by quantitative physical methods.

Geophysical techniques such as seismic surveys, gravity surveys, and
magnetic surveys provide a way of measuring the physical properties of
a subsurface formation. These measurements translated into geologic
data such as structure, stratigraphy, depth, and position. The practical
value in geophysical surveys is in their ability to measure the physical
properties of rocks that related to potential traps in reservoir rocks as well
as documenting regional structural trends and overall basin geometry.
Igneous and/or metamorphic basement rocks normally underlie a

sedimentary basin. These basement rocks have two important properties
that distinguish them from sedimentary rocks in the eyes of a
geophysicist. (1) They are more magnetic than sedimentary rocks; and (2)
They are denser than sedimentary rocks. These two differences provide
the basis for two very useful geophysical techniques; magnetic surveying
and gravity surveying.
Figure 2.20
Magnetic Surveys
Magnetic surveys are methods that provide the quickest and least
expensive way to study gross subsurface geology over a broad area. A
magnetometer used to measure local variations in the strength of the

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earth’s magnetic field and, indirectly, the thickness of sedimentary rock

layers where oil and gas found. Igneous and metamorphic rocks usually
contain some amount of magnetically susceptible iron-bearing minerals
and frequently found as basement rock that lies beneath sedimentary
rock layers.
Basement rock seldom contains hydrocarbons, but it sometimes intrudes

into the overlying sedimentary rock, creating structures such as folds and
arches or anticlines that could serve as hydrocarbon traps. Geophysicists
can get a good picture of the configuration of the geological formations
by studying the anomalies, or irregularities, in the structures.
The earth’s magnetic field, although more complex, can be thought of as a

bar magnet, around which the lines of magnetic force form smooth,
evenly spaced curves. If a small piece of iron or titanium placed within
the bar, magnet’s field it become weakly magnetized, creating an
anomaly or distortion of the field.
The degree to which igneous rocks concentrate this field is not only
dependent upon the amount of iron or titanium present but also upon the
depth of the rock. An igneous rock formation 1,000 feet below the surface
will affect a magnetometer more strongly than a similar mass 10,000 feet
down. Thus, a relatively low magnetic field strength would indicate an
area with the thickest sequence of nonmagnetic sedimentary rock.
Once the magnetic readings have plotted on a map, points of equal field
strength connected by contour lines, thus creating a map that is the rough
equivalent to a topographic map of the basement rock.
This simplified schematic shows how gravity and magnetic measurements

taken at the surface can pinpoint the location of a subsurface anticline.
In the case of a fault, a sharp change in magnetic values will occur since
basement rocks will be higher on one side than the other will.

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Figure 2.21 Gravity and Magnetic Profiles
Gravity Surveys
The gravity survey method makes use of the earth’s gravitational field to
determine the presence of gravity anomalies (abnormally high or low
gravity values) which can related to the presence of dense igneous or
metamorphic rock or light sedimentary rock in the subsurface. Dense
igneous or metamorphic basement rocks close to the surface will read
much higher on a gravimeter because the gravitational force they exert is
more powerful than the lighter sedimentary rocks. The difference in mass
for equal volumes of rock is due to variations in specific gravity.
Data collected from gravity surveys can be used to construct contour

maps showing large-scale structures and, like magnetic survey contour
maps, smaller details will not be revealed.
Seismic Survey
The geophysical method that provides the most detailed picture of

subsurface geology is the seismic survey. This involves the natural or
artificial generation and propagation of seismic (elastic) waves down into
Earth until they encounter a discontinuity and reflected back to the
surface.

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Electronic detectors called geophones then pick up the reflected acoustic

waves. The signal from the detector is then amplified, filtered to remove
excess “noise”, digitized, and then transmitted to a nearby truck to be
recorded on magnetic tape or disk.
In the early days of offshore exploration, explosive charges suspended

from floats were used to generate the necessary sound waves. This
method is now banned in many parts of the world because of
environmental considerations.
One of the most common ways to generate acoustic waves today is an air
gun. Air guns contain chambers of compressed gas. When the gas
released under water, it makes a loud “pop” and the seismic waves travel
through the rock layers until they reflected back to the surface where they
are picked up by hydrophones, the marine version of geophones, which
trail behind the boat.
The data recorded on magnetic tape or disk can be displayed in a number

of forms for interpretation and research purposes; including visual
display forms (photographic and dry-paper), a display of the amplitude
of arriving seismic waves versus their arrival time, and a common type of
display called variable-density.
The variable-density display is generated by a technique in which light

intensity is varied to enhance the different wave amplitudes. For
example, low amplitude waves are unshaded and higher amplitude
waves are shaded black, thus strong reflections will show up as a black
line on the display.
Seismic waves travel at known but varying velocities depending upon the
kinds of rocks through which they pass and their depth below Earth’s
surface. The speed of sound waves through the earth’s crust varies
directly with density and inversely with porosity.
Through soil, the pulses travel as slowly as 1,000 feet per second, which is
comparable to the speed of sound through air at sea level. On the other
hand, some metamorphic rocks transmit seismic waves at 20,000 feet
(approximately 6 km) per second, or slightly less than 4 miles per second.

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Some typical average velocities are shale = 3.6 km/s; sandstone = 4.2
km/s; limestone = 5.0 km/s.
If the subsurface lithology relatively well known from drilling

information, it is possible to calculate the amount of time it takes a wave
to travel down through the earth to a discontinuity and back to the
surface. This information used to compute the depth of the discontinuity
or unconformity. However, the only way of accurately determining depth
is by correlating seismic sections to wireline logs.
Reflections; are generated at unconformities because unconformities

separate rocks having different structural attitudes or physical properties,
particularly different lithologies. These principles form the basis for
application of seismic methods to geologic study.
Figure 2.22 Seismic Exploration
Figure 2.23 Seismic surveys

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The seismic survey involves sending strong pressure (sound) waves

through the earth and receiving the reflected waves off the various surfaces
of the subsurface rock layers. The sound waves generated by either using
huge land vibrators or using explosives. The very large amount of data
collected, which include the waves’ travel times and characteristics,
analyzed to provide definitions of the subsurface geological structures and
to determine the locations of traps that are suitable for petroleum
accumulation.
Structural Contour Maps
Contour maps show a series of lines drawn at regular intervals. The

points on each line represent equal values, such as depth or thickness.
One type of contour map is the structural map, which depicts the depth
of a specific formation from the surface. The principle is the same as that
used in a topographic map, but instead shows the highs and lows of the
buried layers.
Contour maps for exploration may depict geologic structure as well as

thickness of formations. They can show the angle of a fault and where it
intersects with formations and other faults, as well as where formations
taper off or stop abruptly. The subsurface structural contour map is
almost or fully dependent on well data for basic control
Isopach Maps
Isopach maps are similar in appearance to contour maps but show

variations in the thickness of the bed. These maps may be either surface
or subsurface depending on data used during construction. Isopach maps
are frequently color coded to assist visualization and are very useful in
following pinchouts or the courses of ancient streambeds.
Porosity or permeability variations; may also be followed by such means.

Geologists use Isopach maps to aid in exploration work, to calculate how
much petroleum remains in a formation, and to plan ways to recover it.

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Figure 2.24 Structural map and longitudinal profile section showing top of
salt, which is datum for structure Contours
Figure 2.25 Isopach map of channel sandstone

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Surface Geology
There are several areas to look for oil. The first is the obvious, on the
surface of the ground. Oil and gas seeps are where the petroleum has
migrated from its’ source through either porous beds, faults or springs
and appears at the surface. Locating seeps at the surface was the primary
method of exploration in the late 1800’s and before.
Seeps are abundant and well documented worldwide. Oil or gas on the
surface, however, does not give an indication of what lies in the
subsurface. Geologic mapping, geophysics, geochemistry and aerial
photography are all crucial aspects in the exploration for oil and gas.
Figure 2.27 Seeps are located either up dip (A) or along fractures (B)
Exploratory drilling
The data collected from the geologic and geophysical surveys used to
formulate probable definitions and realizations of the geologic structure
that may contain oil and/or gas. However we still have to determine
whether petroleum exists in these geologic traps and if it does exist,
would it be available in such a quantity that makes the development of
the oil/gas field economical? The only way to provide a definite answers
is to drill and test exploratory well(s).

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The exploratory well, known as the wildcat well, drilled in a location

determined by the geologists and geophysicists. The well drilled with
insufficient data available about the nature of the various rock layers that
will drilled or the fluids and pressures that may exist in the various
formations. Therefore, the well completion and the drilling program
usually overdesigned to assure safety of the operation. This first well,
therefore, does not represent the optimum design and would probably
cost much more than the rest of the wells that will drilled in the field.
As this exploratory well drilled, samples of the rock cuttings collected

and examined for their composition and fluid content. The data are used
to identify the type of formation versus depth and to check on the
presence of hydrocarbon materials within the rock. Cores of the
formations also obtained, preserved, and sent to specialized laboratories
for analysis. Whenever a petroleum-bearing formation is drilled, the well
is tested while placed on controlled production.
After the well drilled, and sometimes at various intervals during drilling,
various logs are taken. Several logging tools or techniques, (electric logs,
radioactivity logs, and acoustic logs) are used to gather information about
the drilled formations. These tools are lowered into the well on a wireline
(electric cable) and, as they are lowered, the measured signals are
transmitted to the surface and recorded on computers. The signals
collected are interpreted and produced in the form of rock and fluid
properties versus depth.
The exploratory well will provide important data on rock and fluid
properties, type and saturation of fluids, initial reservoir pressure,
reservoir productivity, and so forth. These are essential and important
data and information, which are needed for the development of the field.
In most situations, however, the data provided by the exploratory well
will not be sufficient.
Additional wells may need to drill to provide a better definition of the

size and characteristics of the new reservoir. Of course, not every
exploratory well will result in a discovery. Exploratory wells may result
in hitting dry holes or they may prove the reservoir to be an
uneconomical development.

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Once drilling commences, drilling fluid or mud is continuously circulated

down the drill pipe and back to the surface equipment. Its purpose is to
balance underground hydrostatic pressure, cool the bit and flush out rock
cuttings.
The time taken to drill a borehole depends on the depth of the

hydrocarbon bearing formation and the geological conditions, but it is
commonly of the order of one or two months. Where hydrocarbon
formations is found, initial well tests—possibly lasting another month—
are conducted to establish flow rates and formation pressure. These tests
may generate oil, gas and formation water—each of which needs to be
disposed of.
If the exploratory drilling has discovered commercial quantities of

hydrocarbons, a wellhead valve assembly may be installed. If the well
does not contain commercial quantities of hydrocarbon, the site is
decommissioned to a safe and stable condition and restored to its original
state or an agreed after use.
Appraisal
When exploratory drilling is successful, more wells are drilled to

determine the size and the extent of the field. Wells drilled to quantify the
hydrocarbon reserves found are called ‘out step’ or ‘appraisal’ wells. The
appraisal stage aims to evaluate the size and nature of the reservoir, to
determine the number of confirming or appraisal wells required, and
whether any further seismic work is necessary.
The technical procedures in appraisal drilling are the same as those

employed for exploration wells, and the description provided above
applies equally to appraisal operations. A number of wells may be drilled
from a single site, which increases the time during which the site is
occupied. Deviated or directional drilling at an angle from a site adjacent
to the original discovery borehole may be used to appraise other parts of
the reservoir; in order to reduce the land used.

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Development of Oil and Gas Fields
The very large volume of information and data collected from the various
geologic and geophysical surveys and the exploratory wells used to
construct various types of map. Contour maps are lines drawn at regular
intervals of depth to show the geologic structure relative to reference
points called the correlation markers.
Isopach maps illustrate the variations in thickness between the

correlation markers. Other important maps such as porosity maps,
permeability maps, and maps showing variations in rock characteristics
and structural arrangements also produced. With all data and formation
maps available, conceptual models describing the details of the structure
and the location of the oil and gas within the structure are prepared.
The data available at this stage will be sufficient to estimate the

petroleum reserves, decide, and plan for the development of the field for
commercial operation.
The development of petroleum fields involves the collective and

integrated efforts and experience of many disciplines. Geologists and
geophysicists are needed, as described earlier, to define, describe, and
characterize the reservoir.
Reservoir engineers set the strategy for producing the petroleum reserves
and managing the reservoir for the life of the field. Production and
completion engineers design the well completions and production
facilities to handle the varying production methods and conditions, and
drilling engineers design the well-drilling programs based on well-
completion design.
In the past, each group used to work separately and deliver its product to
the next group. That is, when geologists and geophysicists finish their
work, they deliver the product to the reservoir-engineering group. Then,
reservoir engineering would deliver the results of their work to
production engineering, and so on. In almost all cases, it was necessary
for each group to go back to the previous group for discussion,
clarification, or requesting additional work.

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Department of Petroleum Engineering Introduction To Petroleum Engineering I

Petroleum geology is the utilization of geology in the exploration and

Petroleum geology is also the study of origin, occurrence, movement,

Geology is of major importance to the petroleum industry for the

Dr. A.A. Kadi 30 Basic Petroleum Geology and Exploration surveying

Basic Concepts of Geology

The Earth is a complex, ever-changing, body. Earthquakes and volcanoes

The crust is continuously changing and moving because of two major

Dr. A.A. Kadi 31 Basic Petroleum Geology and Exploration surveying

Dr. A.A. Kadi 32 Basic Petroleum Geology and Exploration surveying

There are two types of weathering:

Chemical: occurs when minerals in a rock are chemically altered or

Weathering and erosion are closely interrelated geological processes. As

Geology of Petroleum Systems

These petroleum traps formed only when geologic movements result in

Dr. A.A. Kadi 33 Basic Petroleum Geology and Exploration surveying

A Petroleum System is a dynamic hydrocarbon system that functions in a

Petroleum geology is principally concerned with the evaluation of seven

Figure 2.2 a. Petroleum System Processes

Dr. A.A. Kadi 34 Basic Petroleum Geology and Exploration surveying

Figure 2.2 b. Elements of a Petroleum System.

All petroleum systems contain: 1. at least one formation of organic-rich

Igneous rocks: formed from the crystallization of molten rock (magma or

Dr. A.A. Kadi 35 Basic Petroleum Geology and Exploration surveying

Metamorphic rocks: formed from pre-existing rocks by mineralogical,

Sedimentary rocks: formed as sediments, either from eroded fragments

All petroleum source rocks are sedimentary. Furthermore, most of the

Dr. A.A. Kadi 36 Basic Petroleum Geology and Exploration surveying

The Rock Cycle

Figure 2.3 The rock cycle

Basic Classification and Types of Sedimentary Rocks

1. Clastics Sedimentary Rocks-formed as a result of the weathering or

Dr. A.A. Kadi 37 Basic Petroleum Geology and Exploration surveying

divided into coarse-grained: conglomerates, medium-grained:

2. Chemical or Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks-formed as a result of

Carbonates, broken into two categories, limestones and dolomites.

Dr. A.A. Kadi 38 Basic Petroleum Geology and Exploration surveying

The formation of salt structures can produce several different types of

Table 1.5 shows the approximate distribution of sedimentary rocks in the

Table 1.5 Distributions of Sedimentary Rocks

Type % Earth's Crust % Sedimentary Rock

Dr. A.A. Kadi 39 Basic Petroleum Geology and Exploration surveying

Source Rock and Hydrocarbon Generation

Sedimentary rock containing organic material, which under heat, time,

Some explorationist use a stricter definition -- that is requiring sufficient

Potential source rock: Contains adequate quantities of organic matter to

Effective source rock: Is generating or has generated and expelled

Active source rock: Presently generating and expelling petroleum.

Quiescent potential source rock: Previously active yet has stopped

Spent source rock: Has completed the process of oil or gas

Dr. A.A. Kadi 40 Basic Petroleum Geology and Exploration surveying

Physical Characteristics of a Reservoir

Physical characteristics of a reservoir include original deposition and

The physical characteristics of a reservoir greatly affected by the depth at

Created by the folding of relatively thick, moderately compacted reservoir

Typically created by severe faulting. The hydrocarbons would be less

Area and Thickness

The total area of a reservoir and its thickness are of considerable

Dr. A.A. Kadi 41 Basic Petroleum Geology and Exploration surveying

Percentage porosity = (porevolume /bulk volume) ×100

Maturation and expulsion

Dr. A.A. Kadi 42 Basic Petroleum Geology and Exploration surveying

Petroleum Migration and Accumulation