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IOP PUBLISHING SMART MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 015020 (14pp) doi:10.1088/0964-1726/19/1/015020

Use of a Ni60Ti shape memory alloy for

active jet engine chevron application: I.
Thermomechanical characterization
D J Hartl1 , D C Lagoudas1 , F T Calkins2 and J H Mabe2
1
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843,
USA
2
The Boeing Company, Seattle, WA 98124, USA

E-mail: lagoudas@aero.tamu.edu

Received 6 July 2009, in final form 7 October 2009

Published 14 December 2009
Online at stacks.iop.org/SMS/19/015020

Abstract
A shape memory alloy (SMA) with a composition of Ni60 Ti40 (wt%) was chosen for the
fabrication of active beam elements intended for use as cyclic actuators and incorporated into a
morphing aerospace structure. The active structure is a variable-geometry chevron (VGC)
designed to reduce jet engine noise in the take-off flight regime while maintaining efficiency in
the cruise regime. This two-part work addresses the training, characterization and derived
material properties of the new nickel-rich composition, the assessment of the actuation
properties of the active beam actuator and the accurate analysis of the VGC and its
subcomponents using a model calibrated from the material characterization.
The characterization performed in part I of this work was intended to provide quantitative
information used to predict the response of SMA beam actuators of the same composition and
with the same heat treatment history. Material in the form of plates was received and ASTM
standard tensile testing coupons were fabricated and tested. To fully characterize the material
response as an actuator, various thermomechanical experiments were performed. Properties
such as actuation strain and transformation temperatures as a function of applied stress were of
primary interest. Results from differential scanning calorimetry, monotonic tensile loading and
constant stress thermal loading for the as-received, untrained material are first presented. These
show lower transformation temperatures, higher elastic stiffnesses (60–90 GPa) and lower
recoverable transformation strains (≈1.5%) when compared to equiatomic NiTi (Nitinol).
Stabilization (training) cycles were applied to the tensile specimens and characterization tests
were repeated for the stable (trained) material. The effects of specimen training included the
saturation of cyclically generated irrecoverable plastic strains and a broadening of the thermal
transformation hysteresis. A set of final derived material properties for this stable material is
provided. Finally, the actuation response of a structural beam component composed of the same
material given the same thermomechanical processing conditions was assessed by applying a
constant bias load and a variable bias load as thermal actuation cycles were imposed.
(Some figures in this article are in colour only in the electronic version)

1. Introduction can recover seemingly permanent strains via a stress-induced

Shape memory alloys continue to increase in attractiveness
as possible design solutions for engineers facing new
technical challenges. These alloys represent one type
of several promising materials known as ‘active’ or
‘multifunctional’ materials [1]. Shape memory alloys (SMAs)
or temperature-induced diffusionless phase transformation
between two solid phases. These phases are martensite, the
low temperature phase, and austenite, the high temperature
phase [2, 3]. The inelastic recoverable strain is often
referred to as the transformation strain and, for actuator
applications, is nearly equivalent to the actuator strain.

0964-1726/10/015020+14$30.00 1 © 2010 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK

Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 015020
This transformation from austenite to martensite and back
is the mechanism underlying most useful SMA behaviors.
However, the martensitic phase, which consists of many
crystallographic variants, can itself be reoriented under the
application of sufficient stress into different configurations of
these variants. The most important of these reconfigurations is
the reorientation from so-called self-accommodated martensite
(wherein the variants exist in a twinned configuration)
to detwinned martensite, during which the macroscopic
geometric configuration can change significantly. This
reorientation is important because it generates the macroscopic
strains which are recovered during transformation (i.e. by
heating) into the austenitic phase. This is the basis for the
well-known shape memory effect. Furthermore, if subjected
to sufficient stress, detwinned martensite can also be formed
directly from austenite. The significant strains observed are
recovered when the transformation reverses and the material
returns to austenite. Because of this deformation recovery
behavior, SMAs are used as solid-state actuators. They
also act as structural elements which can both accommodate
mechanical loads as well as provide additional actuation forces
when sufficiently heated.
The variable-geometry chevron (VGC) discussed in this
work is an active aerospace structure that is actuated by
the phase transformation phenomena previously described.
The three-dimensional (3D) response of this structure has
been analyzed using an SMA constitutive model implemented
in a finite element analysis (FEA) framework [4, 5] and
this is the subject of part II [6]. The constitutive model
requires a particular set of material properties corresponding
to the specific SMA being used, and these properties are best
determined from the results of experimental characterization
of the material [7]. Elastic properties unique to each
phase, properties which describe transformation criteria (i.e. a
parameterized description of the phase diagram [3]) and
properties which describe the generation of recoverable
transformation strain must all be determined. The focus of part
I is the determination of these properties for a specified non-
equiatomic composition of NiTi alloy (Ni60 Ti40 wt%). The
usefulness and accuracy of these parameters in calibrating the
model will be demonstrated in part II of this work.
1.1. SMA applications and analysis
The unique properties of SMAs, particularly their potential
for implementation as material actuators, have led to their
proposed use in a number of aerospace applications [8]. One of
the earliest was as couplings for hydraulic lines in F-14 fighter
jets in the 1970s [9]. In the 1990s, researchers were interested
in applying the unique properties of SMAs to active structures.
The DARPA ‘Smart Wing’ project [10, 11] examined the use
of shape memory alloys and other active materials to warp and
deform aircraft wings from within. Likewise, the SAMPSON
project probed the feasibility of tailoring jet engine intake and
exhaust geometries using SMA elements in various forms [12].
Similar work was performed by various other groups, including
the wing-warping work of Strelec et al [13]. Regarding
helicopter applications, SMAs have provided engineering
solutions for actuators placed within confined geometric spaces
2
D J Hartl et al
and subjected to high dynamic loads [14, 15]. Spacecraft
applications have also been developed or considered [16];
these developments include release mechanisms [17], active
hinges for solar panel deployment [18] and inflatable space
structures [19].
Currently, research is being performed on a completely
new set of aerospace actuation applications. One example is
the Boeing VGC [20]. The reduction of airport operational
noise generated during aircraft take-off has become a major
research goal [21]. Serrated aerodynamic devices known
as chevrons, installed along the trailing edge of jet engine
primary and secondary exhaust nozzles, have been shown to
greatly reduce community noise associated with jet engines
by enforcing advantageous mixing of the hot engine core
exhaust stream with the cooler fan stream [22, 23]. Active
chevrons present an additional technical advantage: they can
be designed to provide maximum deflection during take-off
and landing. This decreases noise while also minimizing
deflection into the flow during the remainder of the flight,
increasing cruise efficiency. A GE90-115B engine commercial
thrust reverser sleeve modified to incorporate the VGCs was
designed, fabricated and flight-tested by Boeing Commercial
Airplanes and Boeing Phantom Works [20, 24]. This
represents a system that includes active SMA beams encased in
a composite structure with a complex 3D configuration. Other
configurations of active chevrons are also being considered.
NASA researchers have addressed the problem of active noise
reduction by fabricating composite chevrons which include
SMA tensile strips located at an offset from the chevron
centroid. Such strips, when thermally transformed, induce
bending of the total structure [25].
Motivated by the success of the VGC and other smart
structure programs, new applications have also been proposed.
These include a new SMA-driven variable-area nozzle to
optimize jet engine performance and various SMA torque-
tube applications for rotor twisting and control surface
operation [26]. The methods and data presented in this work,
while developed in the context of the VGC development, will
be useful in the design of future aerospace applications for two
reasons: (i) many such applications require material actuators
that are formed into monolithic 3D configurations (i.e. beams,
tubes, etc), as discussed herein, and (ii) certain aerospace
applications may require the use of alloy compositions rarely
discussed in the literature; here we focus on Ni60Ti40 (wt%).
The design and analysis of active applications for aerospace
use has not traditionally incorporated tools such as 3D FEA.
Expanded interest in SMA applications of all types has led
to a greater need for more powerful design and analysis
tools. This in turn has led to an interest in more accurate 3D
constitutive models and these models must be motivated and
calibrated using carefully obtained material characterization
data. A systematic set of experiments is described here;
the resulting data can be reduced to a relatively small set of
material parameters sufficient to capture the relevant material
behavior [7]. This highlights the second contribution of this
work: the characterization of a new composition of NiTi SMA
alloy. The material composition is discussed in only a limited
number of references [27–31]. Most of the material behavior
for this alloy is being presented for the first time.
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 015020
Figure 1. Structural configuration of the Boeing VGC.
1.2. The variable-geometry chevron
The context of the current work is the Boeing solution to the
active chevron design problem. A single chevron consists of
multiple components, the first of which is an elastic composite
laminate substrate which has a complex curved shape in the
stress-free (reference) configuration. Three SMA tapered
beams, precurved in the stress-free state, are mounted onto
this substrate. These beams are fabricated from a nickel-rich
NiTi alloy with a composition not commonly used in aerospace
applications. The actuation characteristics of this particular
alloy composition are the focus of part I. After installation,
the active beams are covered by a thin aerodynamic composite
panel; the combination of a substrate, three beams and the
aerodynamic panel comprises one chevron. A number of
chevrons can then be installed along the aft edge of a jet engine
fan cowl, depending on the size of the engine. For the flight
test phase of this design project, 14 chevrons were installed
on a GE90-115B engine as used on the Boeing 777-300ER
aircraft [20, 32]. The total chevron assembly is summarized
in figure 1.
The purpose of the SMA beam as used in the chevron
is to provide bending forces to the elastic laminate substrate
via the shape memory effect. The precurved beam is fastened
at its center to the substrate, while the two beam ends are
supported by this substrate. The fastening draws the center
of the beam down and, when the beam is in martensite,
removes the curvature of the set shape. When the beam
is sufficiently heated so as to transform into austenite, the
precurved shape is recovered and this induces bending on
the composite substrate, deflecting its aft tip down into the
fan flow. Recall that the end result of this deflection is a
mixture of jet engine fan flow with core flow and a reduction
in jet engine noise. In designing and testing this device over
a three-and-a-half year period, Boeing engineers utilized the
legacy method of extensive and repeated ‘design–build–test’
cycles, where the only analytical tool used was an elastic FEA
analysis employed solely to determine the bending response
3
D J Hartl et al
X3
SMA X 14
of the elastic laminate substrate. The active behavior of the
SMA beams was determined only through the accumulation of
temperature–force–deflection data collected from experiments
performed directly on the beams [24]. Similar beam tests are
performed in this work; however, their purpose is the validation
of material models.
The goal of this work is the experimental determination
of material properties useful in the analysis of engineering
applications requiring 3D SMA components composed of
nickel-rich SMA. The experimental response of the SMA beam
(force versus deflection) is also addressed as an example of
the actuation capabilities of such a component. Part II [6]
addresses the accurate 3D modeling of the actuator behavior
exhibited by this component; the accuracy observed in those
results is clearly dependent on the accuracy of these derived
properties. This work (part I) is organized as follows: section 2
outlines the experimental characterization performed on the
material specimens, including a discussion of the specific alloy
composition. Section 3 briefly reviews characterization of one
of the active beams composed of the SMA material. Section 4
concludes part I. Discussion then continues in part II [6],
where the constitutive model used to analyze the SMA and
VGC structure is discussed in detail and analysis results are
presented.
2. Experimental material characterization
In the context of the VGC, a given beam component
provides an actuation force that acts over some deflection
when the phase transformation into austenite is induced
by the imposition of thermal inputs (temperature changes).
Understanding this same actuation behavior at the constitutive
level is necessary to predict the response of any actuator,
beam or otherwise, composed of the same nickel-rich SMA
composition. The characterization effort described in this work
(part I) provides this accurate quantitative understanding of
the Ni60Ti material by defining a particular set of material
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 015020
properties. The martensitic phase transformation underlies the
usefulness of any shape memory alloy. The temperatures at
which these transformations occur are important in predicting
SMA response, and these temperatures will be investigated
here. When transformation is not occurring, the SMA beams
act as static structural members of the VGC assembly; thus,
the elastic properties of Ni60Ti are also clearly important. To
characterize the ability of the material to provide motion during
transformation, it is also important to assess the transformation
strain generated when thermally induced transformation cycles
are applied.
Aerospace applications, such as the active chevrons,
require active material actuators with a stable (repeatable)
response. During the design process for the VGC [24], the
active beams installed on VGC prototypes were first stabilized
(trained) by actuating these beams repeatedly against some
variable bias load. The beam actuation response evolved and
then stabilized because of this training; the elastic response
was left largely unchanged. It is likewise important that
the tensile material specimens also be cyclically stabilized;
thus, a material training regimen was applied. While the
properties of the as-received material were initially of interest,
the influence of training and the resulting stabilized properties
were especially important, as it is these properties that most
closely correspond to the response of the trained beams. With
regard to SMA constitutive models, few formulations exist that
can accurately account for the evolution of material response
over repeated transformation cycles [33]; those that do rely on
empiricism. Most models, including the one described in part
II, require stabilized properties if they are to be used in the
analysis of stabilized structures.
After considering the types of properties to be investigated
and the thermomechanical history of the material (i.e.
stabilized), other decisions regarding the experimental
procedures had to be made. Some of these were directly
motivated by considering the attributes of the beam actuators
used in the VGC application. For example, the beams
obviously carry structural bending loads, but at a local material
point these loads correspond primarily to uniaxial stresses.
Consequently, uniaxial testing was chosen for experimental
characterization. The beam contains both regions experiencing
tensile stresses and others experiencing compression, so the
option of uniaxial loading direction had to be considered. The
elastic response is largely independent of whether tension or
compression is applied. However, variations in the actuation
properties with loading direction have been shown [34]. For
the current case, it was assumed that the variation would be
small, and so the more conventional tensile testing was used.
The planform size and shape of these tensile specimens was
chosen from ASTM standard options for flat specimens [35].
The thickness of the specimens was chosen based on the
average thickness of the tapered beams. Specifically, a
thickness of 0.07 in (1.8 mm) was chosen for experimentation,
as it represented the average half-thickness of the tapered
SMA beam installed on the chevron. In other words, the
tensile response of this specimen represents, in an average
sense, the tensile response of the lower half of the SMA
beam actuator. Finally, the topic of statistical (stochastic)
4
D J Hartl et al
variation was considered. It is expected that the experimental
response would vary slightly from specimen to specimen. This
is important in calibrating a model intended to capture the
response of the bulk material, and ideally many specimens
would be tested and the results averaged. In the current case,
however, the results from only one specimen were used for
final model calibration, and it is shown in part II [6] that this
leads to accurate model predictions.
The overall characterization process discussed in this
section is summarized below, where the material behavior of
interest is followed parenthetically by the experimental method
used to explore it. Each of these methods is described in much
greater detail in the following sections.
(1) As-received material
(a) Zero-stress transformation temperatures (DSC).
(b) Elastic properties and failure behavior (nominally
isothermal tensile loading).
(c) Dependence of transformation temperatures on stress
level or SMA phase diagram (constant stress thermal
cycling at various stress levels).
(d) Dependence of transformation strain generation on
stress level (constant stress thermal cycling at various
stress levels).
(e) Effects of actuation cycles on response stabilization
(repeated constant stress thermal cycling at single
stress level).
(2) Stabilized material from (1)(e)
(a) Dependence of transformation temperatures on stress
level (constant stress thermal cycling at various stress
levels).
(b) Dependence of transformation strain generation on
stress level (constant stress thermal cycling at various
stress levels).
2.1. The nickel-rich material
Although the most popular and prolific shape memory alloy
is near-equiatomic NiTi (or Nitinol) with a composition of
Ni55 Ti45 wt% (Ni50 Ti50 at.%), the chevrons are actuated by
active SMA components with a composition of Ni60 Ti40 wt%
(Ni55 Ti45 at.%), which is hereafter referred to as ‘Ni60Ti’.
The VGC program represented the first aerospace application
design effort to utilize NiTi alloys of such high nickel
content [20]. Recent work has established nickel-rich NiTi as
a viable (and even appropriate) shape memory alloy material
for aerospace applications. These alloys have only been
available commercially for the last ten years; however, research
into the role of increased nickel in NiTi alloys has been
under investigation for decades [27–29]. A comprehensive
metallurgical overview is available for NiTi alloys of many
compositions that also provides a detailed discussion of nickel-
rich NiTi alloys in particular, covering the background and
current understanding of the development and effects of the
secondary phases that form in these alloys [36]. Other works
applicable to the use of this alloy as an actuator provide results
on the transition temperature, strain capability and effect of
thermal aging on nickel-rich NiTi alloys [30, 31].
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 015020
The Boeing Phantom Works Flight Sciences organization
has done extensive testing on NiTi properties for actuator
development [24, 37]. Among all NiTi alloys, nickel-rich
compositions were shown to provide several advantages in
aerospace application design. Their transition temperatures
can be accurately predetermined by the selection of the correct
material heat treatments. These alloys do not require cold-
working to induce the internal stress fields normally required
in a material exhibiting the shape memory effect. Avoidance
of this cold-working step allows for the direct hot forming
of complex shapes. Finally, this material shows excellent
repeatability of the response (thermomechanical stability) after
a relatively small number of training cycles, especially when
compared to the equiatomic NiTi composition. Therefore,
nickel-rich NiTi properties are repeatable and predictable, and
useful actuators can be designed with this material. It should
be mentioned that, while the thermomechanical response of the
Ni60Ti alloy is more repeatable than that of the equiatomic
NiTi, the transformation strain levels observed in the nickel-
rich material (∼2%, discussed below) are not as high as those
observed in the equiatomic composition (5–8%) [2, 31].
All actuators considered in this study were fabricated from
a single billet of Ni60Ti which had been hot-rolled into a
plate with a nominal thickness of 0.25 in (6.35 mm). The
specimens used for tensile characterization were formed via
a series of water jet and wire electrical discharge machining
(EDM) steps. First, plates measuring 10.5 in (266.7 mm) long
and 1.5 in (38.1 mm) wide with various constant thicknesses
(0.6, 0.8, 1.8 and 4.3 mm) were water-jet-cut from within
the original 6.35 mm plate. ASTM standard subsized tensile
coupons [35] were then EDM-cut from these smaller plates
for thermomechanical testing. Such specimens provide test
sections (gauge sections) 0.25 in (6.4 mm) wide and 1.0 in
(25.4 mm) long. Six coupons of each of the four thicknesses
were fabricated overall, though only the 1.8 mm specimens
were subjected to mechanical testing (to date). As will be
discussed in section 3, the actuator beams for the VGC were
also cut from the same original 6.35 mm thick plate. Also, both
the tensile specimens and the beams were cut with their long
dimensions aligned with the rolling direction. The material
textural effects of this rolling process were then equivalently
considered in the beams and in the tensile specimens.
Two separate heat treatments were used to set the
austenitic shape and tune the transition temperatures of the
beam actuators during VGC prototype fabrication. These
same heat treatments were also used in the preparation of the
tensile specimens. The heat treatment process was intended
to induce the final material properties suitable for flight
testing of the VGC. For example, preliminary testing showed
that the irrecoverable deformation in nickel-rich alloys was
significantly increased when they were aged for extended
periods of 24 h or more [30, 31, 29, 38]. The final two-step heat
treatment proceeded as follows: (1) homogenization at 850 ◦ C
for 2 h and furnace cooling to room temperature, followed by
(2) aging at 450 ◦ C for 30 min and water quenching.
5
D J Hartl et al
2.2. Material characterization experimental set-up
All characterization activities discussed in part I of this work
were performed at the Material and Structures Laboratory
in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at Texas A&M
University. Thermomechanical loading was performed on an
MTS 880 loading frame, which includes a 100 kip (445 kN)
load cell. Extensometry data was obtained from an Epsilon
brand 1.0 in (25.4 mm) gauge length extensometer. The
MTS control suite was used to control the testing frame and
also to provide data acquisition capability. Omega resistive
heating strips were used for heating of the specimens, with
mounting locations differing for precise characterization or
training, both of which were performed and are described
herein3 . Active cooling was provided by a custom-designed
liquid nitrogen dispersal system, with different versions used
for precise characterization or training. Thermal control and
thermal data acquisition were accomplished via a custom
National Instruments (NI) LabView program coupled with an
NI SCB-68 data acquisition board.
The goals and requirements of SMA characterization
and SMA training differ significantly, so different set-ups
were used to perform each of the two tasks. Specifically,
thermomechanical characterization of an SMA requires
accurate knowledge of the stress, strain and temperature
states at a given point in a material at all times [7]. The
characterization testing is usually quasistatic; thus thermal
and mechanical loading rates are low. Training of an as-
received conventional SMA material, on the other hand,
requires numerous repeated thermomechanical loading cycles
leading to full transformations [39]. To complete training in
a reasonable amount of time, it is necessary to increase the
thermal and/or mechanical loading rates. Exact knowledge
of the state of the material at all times is unnecessary, and
only an estimate of the final heated and cooled material states
suffices to ensure that forward and reverse transformation have
completed. The test set-ups for characterization and training
are shown in figure 2.
In the case of characterization, the environmental chamber
surrounding the SMA sample (figure 2(a)) was configured
for slow thermal cycling. Heat strips mounted on the wall
of the chamber were used to slowly and evenly heat the
entire environment surrounding the sample. During cooling,
liquid nitrogen was forced through tubing mounted within
the chamber along its upper edge. Liquid/gaseous nitrogen
was thereby introduced into the chamber environment from
the top and drifted downwards. This led to slow, uniform
cooling of the entire chamber. The characteristic time
needed to both heat and cool through full transformation
was approximately 30 min. The mounting location of the
heating strips and cooling tubing away from the gauge length
of the specimen allowed sufficient room for mounting the
extensometer and thermocouples in this region. The test set-
up for characterization is shown in figure 2(b).
3 Joule (or resistive) heating is often used to drive the thermally induced
phase transformation in SMA actuators [12, 13, 17]. In the current study,
however, large specimen cross sections (6.4 mm × 1.8 mm) and short
gauge lengths (25.4 mm) would have required an excessive amount of
amperage to sufficiently heat the specimen. Therefore, environmental thermal
manipulations were imposed.
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 015020 D J Hartl et al

Figure 2. Testing set-up for the tensile characterization of SMA specimens: (a) environmental chamber mounted on MTS frame, exterior
view; (b) characterization setup, interior view; (c) training set-up, interior view.

A different thermomechanical testing configuration was

used for training. After mounting thermocouples on the
gauge length of the specimen, heating strips were directly
wrapped around the specimen. This greatly decreased the time
necessary to heat the gauge length through full transformation.
For cooling, an auxiliary liquid nitrogen tubing system was
configured, which directly encircled the test section of the
specimen. This ‘halo’ configuration allowed liquid and
gaseous nitrogen to flow much closer to the specimen. Using
this set-up, the total time to complete a thermal cycle (both
heating and cooling) decreased to approximately two minutes. Figure 3. DSC results for the focus thickness (1.8 mm).
This set-up is shown in figure 2(c).
To begin characterization, the transformation temperatures
of the material at zero stress were assessed. A Struers transformation is ineffectual compared to the net austenite–
Secotom 10 low-force saw was used to remove small portions martensite transformation. It can be seen from the figure
(∼20 mg) from the water-jet-cut plates (from which the tensile that the austenitic finish temperature at zero stress (denoted
specimens were EDM-cut). Differential scanning calorimetry Af in the figure) is clearly less than 60 ◦ C while the stress-
(DSC) testing was then performed [40]. The DSC results free martensitic finish temperature (denoted Mf ) may be
from the 1.8 mm plate are shown in figure 3. This result as low as −10 ◦ C. Further details on the transformation
provides an initial approximation of the material stress-free temperatures for this material as used in this study are
transformation temperatures and thus guides the planning of found elsewhere [41, 24]. The DSC results imply that
the remaining thermomechanical characterization tasks. Later mechanical tests for the determination of martensitic properties
assessment of actuation behavior (section 2.3) provided new should be performed at temperatures below −10 ◦ C, while
transformation temperatures that were more applicable when transformation into full austenite would require heating to
modeling thermomechanical response. These temperatures beyond 60 ◦ C in a stress-free state.
superseded the approximations provided by the DSC.
Note the ‘double peak’ in the latent heat flow response 2.3. Thermomechanical characterization of the as-received
during heating. Such a feature is characteristic of Ni- material and stabilization
rich materials where the first peak during heating indicates
a transformation from martensite to the R-phase while the The untrained (or ‘as-received’) specimens were first subjected
second represents transformation from the R-phase into to thermomechanical characterization. This provided
austenite [2]. In terms of the actuation behavior of this preliminary information about the Ni60Ti and, from a practical
material in particular, it will be shown that this R-phase standpoint, confirmed correct operation and determined the

6
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 015020
Figure 4. Nominally isothermal tensile testing results:
(a) reorientation of martensite and shape memory effect;
(b) monotonic tensile failure of martensite.
operating limits of the set-up (i.e. maximum temperature,
time to heat and cool, etc), and also determined an initial
approximation of testing limits for the Ni60Ti material
(i.e. stress to failure).
The first set of preliminary mechanical tests performed
assessed the elastic properties and failure response of the
material. Testing was performed using the characterization
set-up described above in figure 2(b). Martensitic properties
were examined at this point. The first sample was initially
transformed into a twinned martensite state by cooling it
at zero stress to −40 ◦ C, well below the Mf obtained from
DSC (figure 3). Isothermal mechanical loading was applied
such that the material became partially detwinned, and the
load was removed. The load was then reapplied until the
material was further detwinned, after which all load was
removed. Heating was performed at zero load to transform
the material into austenite, and the amount of transformation
strain recovered was noted. The results of this first test are
shown in figure 4(a). Note that here and throughout this work,
stress and strain denote engineering stress and engineering
strain. The martensitic elastic modulus varies slightly during
loading and unloading with an average value of 64 GPa. The
transformation strain ε t recovered during stress-free heating
to austenite is shown to be 2.3%. Finally, the sample was
cooled back to −40 ◦ C and then loaded through plastic yield
to failure. The test results for this second tensile loading,
shown in figure 4(b), indicate that the ultimate tensile strength
corresponds to the fracture strength with a value of 1050 MPa
at ∼13% applied strain.
7
D J Hartl et al
Figure 5. Approximated transformation regions, as-received
material.
After examining the stress-free transformation behavior
(via DSC) and the elastic response in martensite, the
transformation behavior of the as-received material under load
was assessed. Here, the main goal was the determination of
the stress–temperature regions of transformation and therefore
the determination of an accurate phase diagram. The phase
diagram is most often determined in one of two ways:
(a) Isothermal (or pseudoelastic) experiments are performed,
during which a specimen is loaded from austenite fully
into martensite, and then unloaded back to austenite. After
unloading, a different constant temperature is chosen, the
specimen is equilibrated at that new temperature and the
load/unload cycle is repeated. The critical transformation
stresses at each temperature level are noted. (See, for
example, figure 2 in [42] or figure 17(a) in [43].)
(b) Constant stress (or isobaric) experiments are performed,
during which a specimen under load is cooled from
austenite fully into martensite and then is heated fully into
austenite once again. After heating, a different constant
stress is chosen and applied to the specimen, and the
cool/heat cycle is repeated. The critical transformation
temperatures at each load level are noted. (See, for
example, [44] or figure 8 in [45].)
The focus of this work is the use of the Ni60Ti material as a
thermally driven actuator. Therefore, of these two options, the
thermally induced (isobaric) method was chosen as a means
of determining the phase diagram. Such isobaric testing was
first performed on the as-received specimen (i.e., untrained
specimen). The constant stress levels applied to this one
specimen were 90, 120, 150, 200, 250 and 300 MPa, applied in
the order listed. Such an ascending order is important when
testing as-received (untrained) material because it mitigates
the effects of cyclic stabilization by exposing the specimen
to increasing stress levels, each of which generates new
irrecoverable strains.
Based on these tests, the beginning and end of
transformation at each level were determined (methodology
described in section 2.4); these are shown in stress–
temperature space in figure 5. The scatter in the data
for martensitic finish is partially explained by the difficulty
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 015020
Figure 6. Evolution of transformation strain response over thermally
induced transformation training cycles.
in determining Mf temperatures from the isobaric strain–
temperature curves for the untrained material. It will be seen in
later results that material training greatly clarifies the Mf point
and eliminates this scatter, allowing better phase diagrams to
be derived.
After converting the experimental set-up from the
characterization configuration to the training configuration, a
previously untested specimen was subjected to 100 isobaric
thermal cycles at a non-zero applied stress level. Each
thermal cycle heated the sample sufficiently to complete
full transformation into austenite and then sufficiently cooled
the sample to complete full transformation into martensite.
Training was performed at a constant 300 MPa, a stress
level expected to be beyond any observed in the intended
application(s). It will be shown experimentally that training
at this stress level leads to a stable response at all lower stress
levels. This is because such cycling eventually suppresses the
generation of irrecoverable strain and stabilizes the material
response. An extensometer was not used during training due
to the local installation of heating strips directly around the
specimen. Strain was therefore estimated from the crosshead
displacement reported by the MTS control software. This
strain measure is used for training only and is referred to here as
estimated strain to differentiate it from the more accurate strain
measures obtained from extensometry. A clear illustration of
material stabilization is shown in figure 6, where the maximum
estimated strain (in pure martensite) and minimum estimated
strain (in pure austenite) for each cycle are plotted. The
estimated transformation strain is also shown and is calculated
Figure 7. Strain versus temperature response of trained material under various applied constant stresses: (a) 30, 60, 90 and 120 MPa, and
(b) 150, 200, 250 and 300 MPa.
8
D J Hartl et al
from the difference between the maximum and minimum strain
while accounting for the change in elastic moduli and thermal
expansion. The 1D relation for calculating the maximum
transformation strain H cur generated under a particular applied
stress level σi is given as [7]
 
 E M − E A 
cur 
H (σi ) = (εM − εA ) + σi + α(TM − TA ) (1)
EM EA 
where εA and εM represent the strain exhibited in pure austenite
and pure martensite, respectively, and TA and TM represent
the testing temperature limits in pure austenite (upper limit)
and pure martensite (lower limit), respectively. The thermal
expansion coefficient is denoted by α while E A and E M denote
the elastic moduli of austenite and martensite, respectively.
The martensitic stiffness E M was found from the monotonic
testing shown in figure 4, while E A was found when the
material was loaded to 300 MPa at T = 90 ◦ C (results
not shown) at initiation of the training cycles. Specifically,
E A = 90 and E M = 63 GPa. Finally, only a small amount
of thermal expansion was observed when the specimen was
in a thermoelastic state; thus the contribution of α has been
neglected.
2.4. Thermomechanical characterization of stabilized
material
After the completion of training, the process of characterizing
the stabilized material began. The elastic properties were not
expected to have changed significantly with training, so the
focus was instead on the actuation properties of the trained
material (i.e. transformation temperatures and transformation
strain generation). This again involved the imposition of a
series of isobaric thermal cycles applied to the newly trained
specimen. The same stress levels applied to the as-received
specimens were used, and two new lower stress levels were
also applied. In summary, the isobaric stress levels were 90,
120, 150, 200, 250 and 300 MPa, followed by additional testing
at 30 and 60 MPa. The strain–temperature results for each of
these tests are shown in figure 7(a) for the lower stress levels
and in figure 7(b) for the higher stress levels. After completion
of these experiments, an additional DSC test was performed on
a small material portion removed from the gauge section of the
dogbone specimen (destroying the specimen). The results of
the DSC test are shown in figure 8.
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 015020
Figure 8. DSC results for the trained material.
Figure 9. Experimental transformation regions, trained material.
To determine when the forward and reverse transforma-
tions began and ended for the stabilized material (i.e. to build
a final phase diagram), the method of tangent lines was used.
This is a common methodology used for determining critical
transformation temperatures from ‘smooth’ experimental data
(see, for example, ASTM Standard F2082 for SMA bend-free
recovery testing [46] and Standard F2004 for SMA DSC test-
ing [40]). In the current context, the method is illustrated in
figure 7(b) for the σ = 300 MPa curve, where it is shown that
the austenitic start temperature for the stabilized material at this
stress ( Aσs ) is 43 ◦ C. The temperatures for the beginning and
end of the phase transformations (forward and reverse) at all
stress test levels are shown in the stress–temperature space in
figure 9. This represents the experimental stabilized phase dia-
gram for this material composition. Note that this same tangent
line method was used to determine the transformation tempera-
tures for the as-received material, as seen in the phase diagram
(figure 5). The maximum transformation strains H cur(σ ) gen-
erated by the trained specimen at each stress level are shown in
figure 10, where they are compared to equivalent results from
preliminary testing of the as-received specimen.
A review of the experimental results presented in this
section allows one to come to quantitative conclusions about:
(i) the effects of training on the material behavior and (ii) the
various material parameters which can be used to describe the
behavior of the stabilized material in the context of a given
constitutive model.
Results from material training (figure 6) provide
information on the stabilization behavior of the Ni60Ti
9
D J Hartl et al
Figure 10. Transformation strain versus applied constant stress,
trained and as-received material.
material. The maximum and minimum effective strains
seem to generally stabilize by the 50th cycle. After this
point, only very slow evolution in all strains is noted. This
stabilization after relatively few cycles was observed during
earlier studies and was one of the reasons that Ni60Ti was
chosen for this application [24, 37]. One can also compare the
thermomechanical response of the as-received material with
that of the trained material. The trained material exhibits lower
transformation strains for all applied stress levels, although
this decrease is small (figure 10). It is postulated that
the accumulation of irrecoverable strain over the course of
training (i.e. especially over the first 50 cycles) suppresses
the martensitic transformation, perhaps by constraining some
martensitic variants such that they cannot be recovered during
transformation back into austenite and leading to smaller
recoverable strains. Another important result of training is
the shifting and broadening of the transformation regions
for the trained material (figure 9), as compared to the as-
received material (figure 5). The broadening can also be
observed in the results of DSC testing (compare figure 3 and
figure 8). This response is common in polycrystalline SMAs
and has been postulated to correspond to the evolution of
transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) [47]. Internal stress
fields induced by plastic slip and grain boundary mismatches
lead to heterogeneity in the local transformation temperatures
and thus a ‘smoothing’ of the macroscopic thermal hysteresis.
The change in material response with training (i.e. change
in transformation strain generated and in the phase diagram)
can have a significant impact on the accuracy of modeling;
it demonstrates the importance of using trained specimens to
calibrate models when the ultimate goal is the analysis of
trained actuators.
While the effects of training themselves are interesting,
the motivation behind this experimental work was the
determination of quantitative material parameters for use
in the modeling described in part II. That modeling is
based on particular phenomenological models found in the
literature [4, 48], and this class of thermodynamic model
requires a given set of material properties. These properties
can be divided into three categories as follows:
(i) The first subset of material parameters is the isotropic
thermoelastic properties of polycrystalline SMA material.
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 015020 D J Hartl et al

• E A , E M —the elastic moduli of austenite and marten- Table 1. Material properties for Ni60Ti, trained material and
site, respectively. The austenitic modulus was deter- comparison with nominal properties for equiatomic NiTi (Ni55Ti).
mined during initial loading at high temperature be- Parameter Ni60Ti Ni55Tia
fore isobaric temperature sweeps were imposed (e.g.
Thermoelastic properties:
figure 7); the martensitic modulus was determined E A (GPa) 90 70
during SME testing (figure 4). E M (GPa) 63 30
• ν —Poisson’s ratio, assumed equal for both phases. νM = νA 0.33a 0.33
A ◦ −1
Taken from the literature [4]. α =α ( C )
M
10 × 10−6 a 10 × 10−6
• α A , α M —the coefficient of thermal expansion of Phase diagram properties:
austenite and martensite, respectively. Taken from (Tangent method):
the literature and assumed to be identical for austenite Ms (◦ C) 20 55
Mf (◦ C) −16 15
and martensite [4]. A s (◦ C) 24 80
(ii) The next subset of properties describes the locations of the A f (◦ C) 48 89
transformation regions in the stress–temperature design C A |σ =300 MPa (MPa/◦ C) 14.9 7–10
space (i.e. provides the phase diagram). C M |σ =300 MPa (MPa/◦ C) 10.6 7–10
• Ms , Mf , As , Af —the zero-stress transformation tem- Transformation strain properties:
H cur (σ ) = 0.0135[1 − e(−720σ/E ) ]
A
peratures found from the intersections of the transfor- 6%
mation surfaces with the stress axis (see figure 9). a
Taken from the literature, approximated as
• C A |σ , C M |σ —stress influence coefficients which equivalent [3].
describe the slope of the transformation surfaces.
Derived here at a stress level of 300 MPa for the constitutive properties in describing material behavior beyond
slopes of the regions of the transformation into simple homogeneous tensile stress states is more rigorously
austenite (C A |σ =300) and into martensite (C M |σ =300), assessed by experimental investigation of an active structural
as plotted on the phase diagram (figure 9). component and its actuation response. Experimental testing of
(iii) Finally, the remaining required property captures the the force and deflection responses of the tapered, precurved
generation and recovery of transformation strain as the Ni60Ti beam is included here. Accurate 3D constitutive
material undergoes martensitic transformation. models (properly implemented) are required to analyze such
• H cur(σ )—the maximum transformation strain as a a 3D structure; that is the topic of part II [6]. The current
function of stress, determined from figure 10. experimentation was performed by imposing thermal cycles
and particular mechanical constraints. The details of the testing
The values for all these properties are given in table 1. As conditions (inputs and constraints) and the experimental results
a point of comparison, the equivalent parameter values for for such loading will be described in this section.
equiatomic NiTi material as found in the literature are also Recall from section 1.2 that the purpose of the SMA beam
provided (values approximate) [3]. Notice that the Ni60Ti as used in the VGC is to provide bending forces to the elastic
material is stiffer in its elastic response; this may be a result laminate substrate via the shape memory effect. Therefore, the
of the creation of stiff Ni-rich precipitates in the material most important behavior of the active SMA beam involves the
during heat treatment and processing [36]. The transformation forces and deflections of the beam center relative to the beam
temperatures are notably lower in this nickel-rich material, and ends, and the characterization of the beam performed at Texas
this is a known result of the addition of nickel to the equiatomic A&M was focused on this behavior. Two particular responses
alloy [2]. The slopes of the transformation surfaces C A and were assessed: (i) the beam response under constant applied
C M are somewhat higher for the Ni-rich material and this may load and (ii) the response under linear variable (spring) load.
preclude the use of this material for pseudoelastic applications, The tapered and precurved Ni60Ti beams were EDM-cut
as very high stresses are needed to complete transformation from the center of the same original 0.25 in (6.35 mm) thick
for temperatures above Af . Finally, the maximum thermally plate discussed in section 2.1 and the final beams are 1.5 in
induced transformation strain which can be obtained from the (38 mm) wide and 10.0 in (254 mm) long. The taper of the
Ni60Ti material under constant applied stress is less than 2%, beams is such that the thickness varies nearly quadratically
lower than the 5–6% observed in equiatomic NiTi SMA [47]. from 0.175 in (4.45 mm) at the root (i.e. the midpoint) to
Again, this may be a result of the many precipitates which 0.065 in (1.651 mm) at each of the tips. The tapered shape
form in the material and act as a hindrance to the formation of provides a more uniform distribution of stress along the length
similarly oriented variants, which is the physical mechanism of the beam when compared to a non-tapered beam; this
underlying the generation of transformation strains. minimizes the size and weight of the actuators while allowing
them to provide sufficient actuation forces in an installation
3. Structural testing of Ni60Ti beam space with limited volume. Two holes were cut and tapped
at the midpoint of each beam actuator during fabrication for
The material characterization described in section 2 was fastening to the substrate.
performed with the intention of determining the constitutive The experimental set-up for the Ni60Ti beam testing is
properties (elastic moduli, transformation temperatures, shown in figure 11. The beam was tested by placing it on
etc) of the Ni60Ti material. The usefulness of these a polished rigid support machined from brass to a thickness

10
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 015020
Figure 11. Experimental set-up for the testing of the Ni60Ti beam. (a) Ni60Ti beam, brass support bar and alignment insert. (b) Installation
of beam testing set-up on MTS frame.
much greater than that of the beam (figure 11(a)). This
supported the ends of the beam, and lubrication at these
ends with silicone grease (rated for use down to −40 ◦ C)
reduced frictional effects. This rigid brass support was itself
supported by the two uprights of a standard three-point bending
apparatus. Force was applied downward at the center of the
beam by the bending tip of the three-point bending set-up
(figure 11(b)). To ensure even loading at the beam center, an
alignment insert was fabricated which fit into the fastener holes
of the beam and also closely fit the bending tip. This insert
transferred the downward load evenly along the width of the
beam and exactly at its center (figure 11(a)).
The testing setup (SMA beam, rigid brass support, insert
and three-point fixture) was placed on another MTS 810
hydraulic frame inside the same environmental chamber used
in the material characterization of section 2. A 150 lb
(667 N) transducer technique load cell was installed below
the three-point set-up (and outside the thermal effects of the
chamber, see figure 11(b)). With regards to thermal conditions,
note that the volume of the tensile specimen test sections
(293 mm3 ) discussed in section 2.1 was negligible compared to
the volume of the environmental chamber (22.0 × 106 mm3 );
thus, the temperature was assumed homogeneous throughout
the tensile test section provided that the temperature rates
were sufficiently slow. A single SMA beam, however,
spanned the entire width of the thermal chamber and achieving
homogeneity in temperature was more challenging. For this
reason, an internal fan was added to provide forced convection
and increase thermal homogeneity inside the chamber. The
temperature of the SMA beam was measured by thermocouples
installed at three locations (one at each end and an additional
thermocouple at the beam center, see figure 11(b)). The
thermocouples were placed in direct contact with the beam
component and a small amount of heat sink compound
(thermal grease) was used at the interface to facilitate heat
transfer. The thermocouples were then isolated from the
surrounding environment using a small amount of locally
installed insulation. The average temperatures reported in
this section represent the average of these three measurements.
11
D J Hartl et al
Figure 12. Arc height versus temperature for active Ni60Ti beam,
20 lb (90 N) constant load.
Some variation in the readings was observed between the
center thermocouple and the beam end thermocouples, but the
standard variation in the three measurements was only 1–4 ◦ C
at temperatures above 0 ◦ C and reached a maximum of 7 ◦ C at
T ≈ −30 ◦ C.
The constant load bias testing was performed first. Using
the environmental chamber, the average temperature of the
beam was brought to an initial level of 75 ◦ C. Based on uniaxial
isobaric testing results (figure 7), this temperature is clearly
above Af . A 20 lb (90 N) load was applied to the center of the
beam and held constant. The average temperature was cycled
down to −30 ◦ C and then back to 75 ◦ C. The beam center
deflection caused by this thermomechanical loading path is
represented in figure 12, which shows the change in beam
arc height with temperature. The bottom arc height is the
measurement of the distance from the rigid brass support to
the bottom of the beam fastener holes and is calculated using
crosshead displacement and knowledge of the initial bottom
arc height. Note that the constant bending load response of
figure 12 is similar to the constant tensile load response of
figure 7 in that each shows hysteretic temperature–deformation
response to a load that is constant in time. However, because
the stress level varies spatially through the thickness of the
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 015020
Figure 13. SMA beam testing spring array. (a) Eight-spring array as
installed in testing set-up. (b) Force–displacement response of
eight-spring array.
beam, figure 12 more accurately represents a ‘combination’
of uniaxial isobaric strain–temperature responses, both tensile
and compressive.
Preliminary analysis considering the Ni60Ti beam under
a static mechanical load of 90 N indicated that the maximum
stress at any location within the beam is ∼40 MPa. Such a low
stress level is inconsistent with the higher stress levels applied
during isobaric material testing (figure 7); loading conditions
sufficient to induce higher stresses were desired. Larger static
loads, however, would cause the beam to contact the rigid brass
support. To apply higher loads (leading to higher stresses)
without exposing the beam to unreasonable deflections (i.e. if
the brass support were removed), variable bias force loading
was used.
When variable force testing was performed, an array of
eight compressive springs arranged in parallel was installed
inline between the bending tip and the MTS frame. The eight-
spring array itself was well lubricated with silicone grease, was
configured such that the individual springs could not interfere
with each other, and provided a linear and repeatable force–
deflection response with a spring rate of k = 63.4 N mm−1 .
This force–deflection relationship approximated the elastic
response of the VGC laminate substrate, per elastic testing
performed at Boeing. The configuration of the spring array
and its inline installation in the MTS frame adapter is shown
in figure 13(a). Note that the spring array includes four
smaller springs, each of which is installed concentrically
within a larger spring, yielding a total of eight parallel springs
occupying a relatively small volume. The force–deflection
response of the array is shown in figure 13(b).
For the variable bias load testing, the beam was again
brought to an initial temperature of 75 ◦ C. The bending tip
(with inline spring array installed) applied a force of 325 N to
the austenitic beam. The crossheads of the MTS frame were
then locked (fixed) such that all subsequent changes in force
12
D J Hartl et al
Figure 14. Arc height and applied center force versus temperature
for active Ni60 beam, variable biasing load with k = 63.4 N mm−1 .
applied to the beam center would be solely proportional to the
motion at the center via the linear spring rate of 63.4 N mm−1
(figure 13). The beam was then cooled to below −30 ◦ C and
heated back to 75 ◦ C. The beam center deflection–temperature
and force–temperature responses to this thermomechanical
loading are represented in figure 14. Note that preliminary
analysis of the Ni60Ti beam under 300 N applied force
indicated a maximum stress of ∼150 MPa at the beam surface,
consistent with the stress levels applied during uniaxial testing
described in previous sections (figure 7).
The results for the beam response given particular
thermomechanical inputs help demonstrate the usefulness of
this active component as an actuator. One key observation
is that the response is almost completely repeatable (i.e. the
hysteresis loop is almost fully closed after only one cycle).
For an aerospace application, this repeatability is important.
Secondly, even though the material provides significantly less
transformation strain than is observed in the more commonly
used equiatomic NiTi, it is clear that the deformations of the
beam are substantial and therefore useful. The beam actuator,
when thermally actuated, provided a motion of over 8 mm
when a 90 N constant load was applied. Even larger deflections
could be expected given even larger static loads (cf figure 10).
Finally, it is clear from the variable force experiment that this
beam, with an average thickness of only 3.4 mm, can provide a
significant amount of actuation force (over 300 N or ≈ 70 lbf
in the test performed). A force of 300 N is sufficient for the
application at hand; no attempt was made to expose the beam
to higher applied load levels.
4. Summary and conclusions
This first part of a two-part work has introduced the concept
of the Boeing variable-geometry chevron and has addressed
the thermomechanical characterization of the specific nickel-
rich Ni60Ti alloy incorporated in this application. Such
actuation results for this material are not found elsewhere in
the literature. It has been observed that the response of this
material can be stabilized after only 50 thermomechanical
cycles, making it more suitable than equiatomic NiTi for
aerospace applications, which require such repeatability of
response. Its composition also leads to stiffer response when
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 015020
compared to equiatomic NiTi. Once stable, it can provide
a transformation strain of up to 1.6% over a wide range of
applied stresses. While this is lower than that observed in
equiatomic NiTi, sufficient strain exists for useful actuation
under load. Given these behaviors, a quantitative set of
material properties were derived and summarized, and these
properties can be interpreted for a range of thermomechanical
constitutive models applied to the analysis of components
having training histories and loading configurations similar to
the material tested.
The work concludes with a description of Ni60Ti beam
actuator tests that demonstrate the ability of the material in a
3D monolithic form to provide substantial motion under both
constant and variable loads. Motions of 4–8 mm are provided
under loads ranging from 90 to 300 N, given prescribed
temperature changes. The response is shown to be repeatable.
Part II of this work utilizes these actuation results to show that,
given accurate material models, material properties derived
from 1D characterization can be used to predict the response
of 3D active structural components. This is demonstrated
by first introducing the constitutive model, interpreting the
material properties and discussing the full 3D analysis of
SMA components, including the consideration of the beam
experiments described in section 3 of part I. The final and
most important result of part II is the accurate prediction of
the complete multi-component response of the VGC given the
material properties obtained in part I.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support
of the NDSEG grant administered through ASEE for the
fellowship which funded DH over the course of this work,
as well as the NSF-IGERT fellowship which currently funds
his research efforts. DL acknowledges the TiiMS Institute,
funded by NASA Cooperative Agreement no. NCC-1-02038.
The continuing support of NASA-Glenn and The Boeing
Company is greatly appreciated. Finally, our thanks to Brent
Volk who assisted in the process of material characterization
and also to the staff of the Material Structures Laboratory
in the Aerospace Engineering Department of Texas A&M
University, specifically Rodney Inmon, for his constant help
in all experimental efforts.
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