TWI Hitan: Training Certification Scheme

TWI - HITAN
Training & Certification

Scheme
Ultrasonic Inspection
Level 1,II
Course Literature
Hitan Co.Ltd.
Ground Floor - No. 15 - 2ndSt. - Pakistan St. - Dr. Beheshti St. - Tehran - IRAN
Phone : +98-21-8745034,5 Fax : +98-21-8747685
Email : hitan@,hitanco.corn http://www.hitanco.corn
COMPREHENSIVE PRACTICAL ULTRASONIC
WELD EXAMINATION
NDT 4
The Training Services Group

The Welding Institute
Abington, Cambridge
0 1991
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
INTRODUCTION 4
PRINCIPLES OF ULTRASONIC
TEST1NG 12
GENERATING ULTRASOUND 36
COMPRESSION PROBES 58
THE FLAW DETECTOR 70
THE SOUND BEAM 88
TOTAL AlTENUATlON LOSS 96
DEFECT SIZING AND PLATE

INSPECTION WITH COMPRESSION
PROBES 104
0.0 ULTRASONIC 9.0 ANGLE PROBES 114

TESTING
10.0 ANGLE PROBE CHECKS AND
CALIBRATION 126
CONSTRUCTING AN ANGLE BEAM

PLOT 136
SENSITIVITY SE'ITING 146
LOCATING AND SIZING FLAWS IN

B U l T WELDS 166
IDENTIFYING FLAWS IN WELDS 172
B U T WELD EXAMINATION 186
IdAINTENANCE CHECKS 208
COMPLEX WELDED JOINTS 220

1.1 THE SI UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.2 DEFINITION OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE

TESTING
1.3 HISTORY OF ULTRASONIC TESTING

SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESnNG
1.0 lNTRODUCTlON
The text for this course is laid out in a manner which it is hoped will make r:
easier to follow than conventional course texts.
In general, right hand pages are used for text and left hand pages for flow
charts, diagrams and tables. Looking across the page to the right of a
particular diagram you should find the relevant text.
Enough space is left on the pages to encourage you to add notes from the
lectures.
It is hoped that the flow charts will prove useful to follow the progress of the
course lectures.
Because flow charts are used there is no index. Each flow chart splits a
subject title into several sub-headings, given with a decimal notation for the
paragraph number. Therefore the number 2.2.31 means paragraph numbe:
31, under sub-heading number 2 of subject title 2.
As far as is practical the terms used in these notes are those defined in
BS3683 Part 4, 1985 revision.
.*
SI UNITS OF HEASUREXENT
Base q u a n t i t i e s
Length metre 1
Mass kilogram kg
Time second sec
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Luminous i n t e n s i t y candela cd
Amount of s u b s t a n c e mole mo 1
Derived u n i t s
Frequency hertz Hz = 1 sec-l

Force nevton W = lkg.m/sec?
P r e s s u r e and s t r e s s pascal 1Pa = l N / m l
Work and energy joule 1 J = 1N/m
Power watt 1W = lJ/stc
Quantity of e l e c t r i c i t y coulomb LC = lA/sec
e.m.f. and p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e volt 1v = 1W/A
E l e c t r i c capacitance farad I F = 1A. seep
Electric resistance ohm ra = 1V/A
E l e c t r i c conductance siemens 1s = in-i
Hagnetic f l u x veber 1Wb = lV/oec
Hagnetic f l u x d e n s i t y t e s 1. 1T = 1Wb/m2
I nduc tanc l henry lH = l V . s t c / ~
h i n o u s flux lumen l l m = lcd/sec
Illumination lux l l x = 1lm/m2
Other accepted u n i t s
Volume li t r e
a s s tonne
Energy electron
volt approx. 1.60219 x 10-' ' J
Prefixes
tera
gigs
mega
kilo
hecto
deca
dec i
cent1
milli
micro
nano
pic0
f emto
atto
1.I The Units of Measurement

Before we start you may w e to study the units of measurement on the
facing page. The United Kingdom adheres to a treaty signed at the General
Conference on Weights and Measures, which has established a Systemes
lnternationales of units. Eventually these units will replace a
! existing
Imperial and cgs units.
Certainly not all of these units are of relevance to this course, but the table
will be useful reference.
Scientific notation is used, which is a useful shorthand for wrCjng numbers

with a great many zeros.
For example:
7.0 x lo3 = 7000
1
but mas-'= m x -
S
If in doubt write the numbers out in full.
1.2. Definition of Non-Destructive Testing

Non-destructive testing is the ability to examine a material usually for
discontinuities, without degrading it.
The five principal methods, excluding visual inspection, are:
Penetrant testing
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Eddy current testing
Radiography
Ultrasonic testing
In all the NDT metnods interpretation of results is critical. M ~ c hdepends on

the skill and experience of the technician, although properly formulated test
techniques and procedures will improve accuracy and consis:ency.
SCHOOL'OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
1.3 History of Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

In Medieval times craftsmen casting bells for churches were aware that a
properly cast bell "rang true" when struck and that a bell with flaws would
give out "a false note". This principle was used by wheel-tappers inspecting
rolling stock on the railways. They struck wheels with a hammer and
listened to the note given out. A loose tyre sounded wrong.
The origin of modern ultrasonic testing is the discovery of the Curie brothers
in 1880 that quartz crystals cut in a certain way produce an electric potential
when subjected to pressure - the piezo-electric effect, from the Greek
piedzein, to press or strike.
In 1881, Lippman theorized that the effect might work in reverse, and that
quartz crystals might change shape if an electric current was applied to
them. He found this was so and experimented further. Crystals of quartz
vibrate when alternating currents are applied to them. Crystal microphones
in a modern stereo rely on this principle.
When the "Titanic" sank in 1912, the Admiralty tried to find a way of locating
icebergs by sending out sound waves and listening for an echo. They
experimented further with sound to detect submarines during the First World
War. Between the wars, marine echo sounding was developed and in the
Second world War ASDlC (Anti Submarine Detection Investigation
Committee) was extensively used in the Battle of the Atlantic against the U
boats.
In 1929 a Russian physicist Sokolov experimented with techniques of

passing vibrations through metals to find flaws; this work was taken up by
the Germans.
In the 1930's the cathode ray tube was developed and miniaturised in the
Second World War to fit small airborne radar sets into aircraft. It made the
ultrasonic testing set as we know it possible.
The first flaw detector was made by D 0 Sproule in 1942 while he was
working for the Scottish firm Kelvin & Hughes. Similar work was done by
Firestone in the USA and by German physicists. Sproule went on to
develop the shear wave probe.
At first, ultrasonic testing was restricted to testing aircraft, but in the 1950's
UT was extensively used in the building of power stations in Britain for
examining thick steel components safely and cheaply.
UT was found to have several advantages over radiography in heavy
industrial applications:
It did not have the health hazard associated with radiography, and a
UT technician could work next to welders and other employees
without endangering them or holding up work.
It was efficient in detecting toe cracks in boilers - a major cause of
explosions and lack of fusion in boiler tubes.
UT found planar defects like laminations which were
sometimes missed by radiography.
A UT check on a thick component took no more time than a similar
check on a thin component as opposed to long exposure times in
radiography.
With the construction of nuclear power stations, ultrasonic testing was

developed further and was applied to constructions and maintenance
work in the oil industry as well as in the inspection of the huge
commercial air fleets built up since the end of the Second World War.
Over the years, UT sets have been miniaturised with the availability of
transistors and display features improved. The process has also been
automated and computerised with varying degrees of success.
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TES77NG
2.1 SOUND
2.2 MODES OF SOUND

ENERGY
2.3 FREQUENCY
i
2.4 WAVELENGTH
2.0 PRINCIPLES OF
ULTRASONIC TESTING
2.5 ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE
2.6 ULTRASOUND USED FOR

TESTING
2.7 DIFFRACTION
Sound
Sound is made when something vibrates. You can twang a ruler on a
table or flick a stretched elastic band to verify this. The stretched
surface of the rubber band or the ruler vibrates and sats up a series of
vibrations, sound waves, in the air. As the surface of the band or ruler
pushes into the air, the air molecules are forced together and a region
of high pressure forms: compression. As the surface moves back, the
air molecules move apart, forming a low pressure area, or rarefaction.
As the surface vibrates, alternate compressions are rarefactions are set
up in the air and travel out from the surface to form a sound wave.
The air molecules don't move with the wave - they vibrate to and fro in
time with the vibrating surface.
The sound wave so produced travels through the air at a speed of 332
metres per second, at o'C. We hear the sound when it hits a
membrane in our ear and cause it to vibrate.
Sound will travel through any medium that has molecules to move, bl;:
it travels faster in more elastic materials because the vibrations are
passed on more quickly. Sound travels faster in water or metal than i?
does in air as liquids and solids are more elastic than air.
2.2.1 COMPRESSIONAL OR
LONGITUDINAL WAVE
2.2.2 SHEAR OR
TRANSVERSE WAVE
L . 2.2 MODES OF
SOUNDENERGY
2.2.3 SURFACE OR
RAYLEIGH WAVE
2.2.4 LAMB WAVES

2.2 Modes of Sound Energy

Sound energy can be generated and transmitted in a number of forms or
modes. Not all of these sound waves are useful to ultrasonic testers.
MATERIAL V COMP V SHEAR

MIS
Air
Water
Steel
Aluminium
Perspex
Copper
Brass
Table 2.2a Typical sound velocities
testing range
Table 2.2.b The sound spectrum

SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTlNG
Compressional wave
We cannot hear all sound. What we can hear is sound in a
COMPRESSIONAL mode, where molecules vibrate backwards and
forwards in the same direction as the energy of propagation - rather like
~illiardballs in a line. A COMPRESSIONAL wave of sound is also called
a LONGITUDINAL wave: waves of this type consist of alternate
compressional and dilation in the direction of propagation. As each
particle moves it pushes or pulls the adjacent particle through elastic
interconnection. Gases, liquids and solids have elasticity, so
compressional waves can travel in all of them.
Sound travels through air in the COMPRESSIONAL mode at 332 metres

per second. It travels through water at 1480 metres per second, through
Derspex at 2730 metres per second, through steel at 5920 metres per
second and through aluminium at 6320 metres per second.
Note that sound can only travel through air and water in the
COMPRESSIONAL mode. Sound can travel through perspex, steel and
duminium in modes other than the compressional modes.
Shear Wave
Sound can travel in solids in a SHEAR mode as well as in a
compressional mode. In the SHEAR mode, molecules vibrate up and
cown, across the direction of propagation, not to and fro, and foi this
-eason the SHEAR mode is also called the TRANSVERSE mode, as
zarticle vibration is transverse to the direction of sound energy.
In the SHEAR or TRANSVERSE mode, molecules of a solid move rather

like beach balls floating on the surface of the sea - they move up and
down as a wave passes.
Tnis type of sound travel can only happen when the molecules through
which it propagates are joined together - in a solid. A solid has rigidity as
well as elasticity. Air and water, like other gases and liquids, do not have
rigidity. SHEAR or TRANSVERSE waves cannot travel in gases of liquids
for this reason.
f i e speed of sound in the SHEAR or TRANSVERSE mode is less than it

IS in the compression or longitudinal mode. The SHEAR speed of sound
in steel is 3250 metres per second and in aluminium 3130 metres per
second.
Obviously there is no SHEAR or TRANSVERSE speed for air or water

SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTNE TESnNG
Compressional
Direction of propagation Particle vibration

4=
___)
Shear
Direction of propagation
Particle
w vibration
Surface
0 3000m/sec
Direction of propagaticn Particle

vibration
Fig.2.2.113Modes of propagation
2.2.3 Rayleigh or Surface Waves

A third type of sound wave can travel along the surface of a solid: this is a
RAYLEIGH or SURFACE wave.
In the RAYLEIGH or SURFACE mode molecules vibrate in an elliptical

motion, though only to a depth of one wavelength in the carrier material.
SURFACE waves are about 8% slower than shear waves. In steel,

SURFACE waves travel at about 3000 metres per second.
2.2.4 Lamb Waves

There are other modes of sound travel, in particular LAMB or PLATE
waves.
LAMB or PLATE waves propagate in thin plate materials when the plate
thickness is about the same as the wavelength.
LAMB or PLATE waves travel at velocities which vary with the plate
thickness and the wavelength.
Particle motion is elliptical, as with surface waves.

SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST'ING
Frequency
As sound is a series of vibrations, one way of measuring it is to count the
number of vibrations per second - the frequency. Frequency is measured
in Hertz. One vibration in one second is one Hertz. Two vibrations in one
second is two Hertz. Ten vibrations in one second is 10 Hertz and 1000
vibrations in one second is 1000 Hertz or one Kilohertz (kHz). One million
vibrations in a second is one Megahertz (MHz). The higher the frequency
the higher the note sounds - the higher the pitch. If you twang the ruler
or the rubber band hard, the noise is louder, it has greater amplitude, but
the note remains the same. If, however, you shorten the ruler or tighten
the rubber band, they vibrate more quickly and the note given out is
higher. The frequency is greater. To raise the pitch of their instrument,
guitar players move their fingers down the frets, thus shortening the string
and making it vibrate more quickly.
We can only hear sounds between certain frequencies - more than 20

Hertz and less than 20,000 Hertz. If you were able to move your arm up
and down 20 times a second, it would sound like a very low hum. You
cannot, so you cannot hear the vibrations in the air caused by your moving
arm. A dog whistle vibrating at 25,000 Hertz cannot be heard by humans,
but it can be heard by the sensitive ears of a dog.
It rarely occurs to us that there is a whole world of sound that we cannot

hear. Some other animals can hear sounds at higher frequencies - bats
can hear sound at 100,000 Hertz - and some animals, like snakes, have
worse hearing than we have.
Sounds with frequencies above the upper range of human hearing is

called ultrasound. Sound below about 16 Hertz is called infrasound.
Therefore the definition of ultrasound is sound with a frequency greater
than 20 kilohertz.
However, there is an advantage for the lower frequencies. The lower the
frequency, the more penetrating a sound wave is - that is why foghorns
give out very low notes and why the low throbbing notes from your
neighbour's stereo set come through the wall rather than the high notes.
SCHOOL OF APPUED NON-DESTRUCTIVE T'ESnNG
1 Wavelength,:
F
I =1h I
i
f = no of wavelengths I
-1
time
f = frequency = Kt
I $ t = time
A= lanbda wavelength
Fig .2.4 Relationship of wavelength and frequency

SCHOOL OF APPLlED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
2.4 Wavelength
A wave in the sea is a vibration of energy. As the wave passes a 3xed
point it produces a constant rise and fall of energy.
A complete vibration is a change in energy from maximum to minimum

and back to maximum. The distance over which one complete vibration of
energy occurs is called a wavelength.
A wavelength is the distance between the highest points of energy. It

varies with the speed of sound and with the frequency. Wavelength is
represented by the Greek letter L - lambda h
We can work out wavelength if we know the speed and frequency of a

sound wave. Wavelength is the velocity in metres per second divided by
the frequency
WAVELENGTH = VFLOCITY
FREQUENCY
If we want to know the wavelength of a 200 Hertz frequency sound wave

travelling through air we can apply this formula, as we know that the
speed of sound in air is 332 metres per second:
-
- 1.66 metres
If we want to know the wavelength of a 2 Megahertz compression wave

travelling through steel, we can again use the formula, as we know the
compressional speed of sound in steel, 5,920 metres per second:
-
- 0.00296 metres or 2.96 millimetres
If we want to know the wavelength of a shear wave of 2 Megahertz in

steel we can use the formula again, but this time we use the shear speed
of sound in steel which is 3,250 metres per second.
-
- 0.001625 metres or 1.625 millime::es
It can be seen that waveiengi-.lof the shear wave is less ihan tha; of the
compression wave.
So the wavelength of ultrasonic waves is important because the shorter

the wavelength, the smaller the flaws that can be discovered. Defects of a
diameter of less than half a wavelength may not show on the CRT. On
the other hand, the shorter the wavelength the less the ultrasound will
penetrate the test material. Beam shape is also affected by wavelength.
These factors will be discussed later.
2.5 Acoustic Impedance

When a sound pulse arrives at an interface between the different materials
at right angles some sound is reflected back into the material from whence
it came. The rest of the sound, however, is transmitted into the second
material. This is due to the difference in acoustic impedance of the two
materials and is known as acoustic impedance mismatch or sometimes
interface behaviour.
We can calculate how much sound is transmitted and how much sound is
reflected back by knowing the acoustic impedance of both materials.
Acoustic impedance is represented by the letter Z and is the velocity of

sound in the material mul2plied by the material's density:
where p (the Greek letter rho) is density and V is sound velocity,

compressional or shear zs the case may be.
Once you know the acoustic impedances of two materials, you can use a
formula to work out how much sound will be reflected back. The formula
is:
(2 x 106 = Percentage of sound reflected back
where Z, is the acoustic impedance of the first material and Z, is the

acoustic impedance of the second material.
An example. To calculate the amount of energy reflected back at a steel-

water interface, we must Fnd out the acoustic impedances of steel and
water. They are:
Steel (Z,) = 46.7 x 10' kg

m2xs
Water (Z,) = 1.48 x 1o6 kg

m2xs
so, applying the formula:
88% of the sound energy is reflected back at the interface. This of course
means that 12% of the energy is transmitted at the interface. Using the
same formula, the figures for other media can be worked out. At a
steelloil interface, 91% of sound energy is reflected back; at a
glycerine/steel interface 90% of energy is reflected back.
These substances, water, oil and glycerine, are used as couplants in

ultrasonics. Through them sound energy is transmitted from the probe into
the test materials. So in fact, only about 10% of the energy generated by
the probe crystal actually gets through the couplant into the test material.
When examining a piece of steel with a compression probe, we pass at

most about 10% of sound energy from the crystal into the steel and even
if all that energy is reflected back from the backwall or a large flaw in the
steel, only 10% of the returning energy will pass back through the
interface into the probe. Consequently, at the most only 1% of energy
generated by a probe crystal will come back into a probe, a very small
amount indeed.
A rule of thumb with UT is that whatever happens to sound going in one

direction, happens also in the reverse direction.
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE 7ES77NG
2.6 Ultrasound Used for Testing

The main use of ultrasonics in the human and the animal world is for
detecting objects and for measuring distance.
A pulse of ultrasound - a squeak from a bat or a pulse from an ultrasonic

source - hits an object and is reflected back to its source like an echo.
From the time it takes to travel to the object and back, the distance of the
object from the sound source can be calculated. That is how bats fly in
the dark and how dolphins navigate through water. It is also how warships
detected and attacked submarines in the Second World War. Wearing a
blindfold, you can determine if you are in a very large hall or an ordinary
room by clapping your hands sharply; a large hall wili give back a distinct
echo, but an ordinary room will not. A bat's echo location is more precise:
the bat gives out and can sense short wavelengths of ultrasound and
these give a sharper echo than we can detect.
In ultrasonic testing a sound pulse is sent into a solid object and an echo
returns from any flaws in that object or from the other side of the object.
An echo is returned from a solid-air interface or any solid-non-solid
interface in the object being examined.
We can send ultrasonic pulses into material by making a piezo electric

crystal vibrate in a probe. The pulses can travel in a compression, shear
or transverse mode. This is the basis of ultrasonic testing. But a method
must be found of presenting information from the returning echoes for
interpretation. It is for this purpose that the UT set, or flaw detector as it is
frequently called, contains a cathode ray tube.
In the majority of UT sets the information is presented on the screen in a

display called the "A Scan".
In an A Scan - the bottom of the CRT screen is a timebase made to

represent a distance - say 100mm. An echo from the backwall comes up
on the screen as a signal, the amplitude of which represents the amount
of sound returning to the probe. By seeing how far the signal comes
along the screen we can measure the thickness of the material we are
examining.
If that material contains a flaw, sound energy is reflected back from the
flaw and appears on the screen as a signal in front of the backwall echo:
the sound reflected from the flaw has not had so far to travel as the sound
reflected from the backwall. See Fig 2.6.a.
Anything that send back sound energy to a probe to cause a signal on the
screen is called a "reflector".
By measuring the distance from the edge of the CRT screen to the signal,
we can calculate how far down in the material the reflector lies.
There are other ways of presenting information on 1% CRT screen: the

B,C,D,P end T scans, but these will be discussed later.
SCHOOL OF APPUED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Laminar
defect
Energy reflected Energy reflects:

back t o probe away from prcze
defect
Energy reflected Energy reflected

a w a y f r o m probe back t o probe
Fig.2.6.b. Effect of Raw orientation on reflection of sound beam

The orientation of a flaw is very important in ultrasonic testing. If the

sound pulse hits the flaw at an angle other than 90 much of the energy will
be reflected away and not return to the probe with the result that the flaw
will not show up on the screen. For this reason UT operators plan in
advance how to put sound pulses into test specimens at angles that will hit
likely flaws broadside on, as illustrated in Fig.2.6.b.
Probe
I ,Q
Test
material
Fig.2.7 Diffraction
2.7 Diffraction
When a sound beam passes through an aperture or past a sharp edge the
energy will bend around and behind the edge or edges. This is tre
phenomena known as diffraction and is responsible for some ene:gy not
being able to return to the transmission point.
The phenomena has been used in a defect sizing method once known as
'Crack Tip Diffraction', but now more commonly referred to as Time of
Flight'.
3.1 PlEZO ELECTRIC CRYSTALS
3.2 PROBE DESIGN
3.0 GENERATING
ULTRASOUND
3.3 PULSE LENGTH AND DAMPING
3.4 RESOLUTION
3.5 DEAD ZONE

SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTWE TESnNG
Off- TI 4
Fig.3.0. Piezo electric effect

3.0 GENERATING ULTRASOUND

Sound is created when something vibrates. It is a stress wave of
mechanical energy.
The piezo electric effect changes mechanical energy into electrical energy.
It is reversible, so electrical energy - a voltage - can be changed into
mechanical energy or sound, which is the reverse piezo electric effect.
The first people to observe the piezo electric effect were the Curie
brothers who observed it in quartz crystals.
3.1.1. QUARTZ
3.1 -2. LITHIUM SULPHATE
3.1. PlEZO ELECTRIC 3.1.3. BARIUM TITANATE

CRYSTALS
3.1.4. LEAD METANOElATE
3.1.5. LEAD ZIRCONATE

TITANATE
3.1 Piezo Electric Crystals
As we have said Jaques and Pierre Curie used quartz for their first
experiments. Nowadays polarized ceramics are used instead of quartz
crystals.
It was later discovered that by varying the thickness of crystals and by

subjecting them to a voltage they could be made to vibrate at different
frequencies. Frequency depends on the thickness of the piezo-electric
crystal, according to a formula:
t = Y or CRYSTAL THICKNESS = VELOCITY OF SOUND IN CRYSTAL

2f 2 X FREQUENCY
'Xi cut quartz crysta!

fig.3.1 .l.
3.1.l. Quartz
Quartz or silicon oxide (Si 0,) is found in granite as a natural crystal.
Compressional or shear waves can be produced according to the way
quartz crystals are cut. An "Xucut crystal is cut in a direction that directly
crosses the axis joining two angles of the crystal. A "Y" cut crystal is cut
in a direction parallel to the axis joining two angles of the crystal.
An "Xucut crystal produces a compressional wave

A "Y" cut crystal produces a shear wave
Quartz is not much used now. Several types of crystal are produced,
each with advantages and disadvantages, listed below.
Quartz has some qualities as a producer of ultrasound. It is:

a. resistant to wear
b. insoluble in water
c. resistant to ageing
d. easy to cut to give the required frequencies
but quartz also has disadvantages:
a. It needs a lot of electrical energy to produce a small amount of

ultrasound, which means it is inefficient
b. Quartz crystals are susceptible to mode change
c. A high voltage is needed to give low frequency sound
For these reasons quartz has been largely superseded by other piezo
electric materials.
3.1.2. Lithium sulphate (Li SO,) crystals grow as a solution of lithium stilphate is
evaporated. Their advantages are:
a. Lithium sulphate is the'most efficient receiver of ultrasound
b. It has very low electrical impedance
c. Lithium sulphate operates well at low voltages
d. It does not age
e. It has very good resolution
f. Lithium sulphate crystals are easily damped to give short pulse
lengths
The disadvantages are:

a. Lithium sulphate crystals dissolve in water
b. They break easily
c. They decompose at temperatures above 130'C
all of which makes them unsuitable for industrial use, though lithium
sulphate crystals are used for medical ultrasonics for the examhation of
pregnant women and patients suffering from tumours.
After research, polarized crystals were found to be most suitable for

industrial use. Polarised crystals are made by heating up powcers to a
high temperatures, pressing them mto shape and allowing them to cool in
very strong electrical fields. This affects the atomic structure of the crystal
lattice.
Barium titanate (Ba Ti OJ crystals are made by baking barium titanate at

1,250'C and cooling it in a 2 kilovolt per millimetre electrical field. Its
qualities are that it,
a. is an efficient generator of sound
b. only needs a low voltage
c. has good sensitivity
But it has disadvantages:

a. Its Curie point, at which the crystal depolarizes is about only 120~C,
so heating ruins it
b. It deteriorates over a period of time
Lead metaniobate (Pb Nb 0,) crystals are made in a similar way to barium
titanate. Its qualities are that it:
a. has heavy internal damping
b. gives out very narrow pulses of ultrasound, which gives good
resolution
but is has the disadvantage of being much less sensitive than lead
zirconate titanate or PZT.
Lead zirconate titanate (Pb Zr 0,. Pb Ti 0,) is the best all-round crystal
for industrial testing for its qualities. It :
a. has a high Curie point, up to 350°c
b. has good resolution
c. does not dissolve in water
d. is tough and resistant to ageing
e. iseasilydamped.
So lead zirconate titanate (PZT) is used in most probes.
Recently experiments have been made using polyvinylchloride probes to

give high frequencies up to 15 Megahertz for specialised tasks. These
crystals give a high resolution and are very sensitive.
3.2.1. COMPRESSIONAL
SINGLE CRYSTAL PROBES
3.2. PROBE DESIGN 3.2.2. ANGLE PROBES
3.2.3. TWIN CRYSTAL PROBES

3.2 Probe Design

In the USA a probe is usually called search unit and was at one time
called a transducer. However, we generally now understand a transducer
to be the crystal.
There are a number of probe designs and configurations. We shall deal

with those most commonly used in weld, aerospace and general ultrasonic
testing.
Electrical connections
,Damping
h'iembrane
Transducer
/
Test material
Fig.3.2.1. Compressional wave probe
Transducer
S
Test material
i
C - Compressional w a v e
I - incidenr angle
R - R e f r a c e d angle
S - Shear w a v e
Fig.3.2.2. Angle probe

Compressional Wave Probes

Compressional probes generate compressional or longitudinal waves in
test materials and are sometimes called normal o degree probes.
A typical compressional probe comprises a crystal in a metal or plastic

housing, with wires from a connection bonded to it, which carry the
electrical pulse from the flaw detector and cause the crystal to vibrate.
Behind the crystal is mounted damping material to restrict the vibration,
see paragraph 3.4, and in front is a plastic disc to prevent crystal wear.
See Fig. 3.2.1.
Angle Probes
Angle probes utilise compressional probes mounted on a wedge of
perspex. The wedge of such a probe is cut to a particular angle to enable
the beam to refract into the test material at a chosen angle.
Angle probes usually transmit a shear or sometimes a surface wave into

test materials and are used largely in weld testing, casting and forging
inspection and in aerospace applications.
The use of angle probes will be covered in more detail in Section 9.

SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTNE TES7lNG
Receiver Transmitter
crystal crystal
Focusing
Insulator plastic lens
Fig.3.2.3.Twin crystal compressional probe

3.2.3. Twin Crystal Probes

A single crystal probe transmits and receives ultrasound with one crystal:
the crystal transmits the pulse and vibrates when the pulse returns from a
backwall echo or a flow.
However, when a single crystal probe is used, a signal appears on the

screen at the beginning of the time base. It is caused by vibrations
immediately adjacent to the crystal and is called by several names: initial
pulse, transmission signal, crystal strike or main bang.
The signal on the screen caused by the initial pulse may mask signals
from flaws close to the top of the parent material. For this reason the area
on the CRT screen in which flaws may be masked is called the DEAD
ZONE.
A twin or double crystal probe is designed to minimise the problem of

dead zone.
A twin crystal probe has two crystals mounted on perspex shoes angled
inwards slightly to focus at a set distance in the test material. Were the
crystals not angled, the pulse would be reflected straight back into the
transmitting crystal.
The perspex shoes hold the crystals away from the test surface and so
that the initial pulse does not appear on the CRT screen. The dead zone
is greatly reduced to the region adjoining the test surface, where the
transmission and reception beams do not overlap.
There are other advantages:

a. The double crystal probe can be focused from 3 - 25mm
b. It can measure thin plate
c. It can detect near-surface flaws
d. It has good near-surface resolution
But a double-crystal probe has disadvantages:

a. Good contact is difficult with curved surfaces
b. It is difficult to size small defects accurately as the width of a
double-crystal probe is usually greater than that of a single-crystal
probe
c. The amplitude of a signal decreases the further a reflector is
situated from the focal distance - a response curve can be made
out.
Therefore single and twin crystal probes are complementary.
I '.
I::
SCHOOL OF APPLlED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TES77NG
1 cycle
-- -------
--
Amplitude reduced
to 1/10 of maximum
Fig.3.3.a. Pulse length

3.3 Pulse Length and Damping

A pulse of ultrasound from a piezo electric crystal has a length or width of
several vibrations or wavelengths. When you strike a bell it continues to
ring for several seconds as the metal continues to vibrate. The vibrations
get steadily weaker and the sound dies away. If you put your hand on the
bell you stop the vibrations and the sound dies away more quickly - you
dampen the sound.
A piezo electric crystal continues to vibrate after it is hit by an electrical

charge. This affects sensitivity, as the longer the pulse length, the worse
the resolution. In most probes a slug of tungsten loaded araldite is placed
behind the crystal to cut down the ringing time and to shorten the pulse
length. Pulse length, pulse duration and pulse width are the same thing,
but we must not confuse either with wavelength.
Pulse length (or width) is also sometimes called "wave train length". It is
defined in a number of ways and even British Standards disagree. We
choose the one in BS4331.Pt.2. which defines it as the first and last
instant at which the value of the pulse reaches 10% of its peak amplitude.
See Fig.3.3.a.
A long pulse may be 15 wavelengths (cycles, vibrations) while a short

pulse may be as low as two cycles. The average pulse length is about
five wavelengths. See Fig.3.3.b.
The longer the pulse length, the more penetrating the ultrasound, as it
contains more energy, but the worse the sensitivity and resolution; hence
the need to compromise.
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTNE TESllNG
Long pulse p r d e - 15 Cyc!es
- -
Medurn pu!sz prcbe - 5 Cycies
;'C4,: Amphtude
-
t
\r Short pulse ,?rcCe - ' to 2 Cjcles
Fig.3.3.b. Effect of damping on pulse length

Typical resu :s of measuring probe resolution with linear display
a) Resolved 5 ) N o t resolved
Fig.3.4. Resolution of echoes

SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTWE TESTING
3.4 Resolution
Resolution is the ability of an epipment/combination probe to distinguish
between two echoes from ref1ec:crs that are close together. To have good
resolution a probe must present ?NO signals on a CRT screen from two
separate reflectors: if it has poor resolution the echoes from the two
reflectors appear as one signal on the screen.
In the early days of ultrasonic testing we used the 1OOmm, 91mm and
85mm steps, at the radiused end of the block to test resolving power.
However, today this is regarded as much too crude a test and BS4331
pt.3 recommends that we should be able to recognise two discrete echoes
less than two wavelengths apar;. By discrete echoes they mean split by
more than 6dB, see Fig.3.4. or to more than half the total height of the
signals.
However, in section 16.0 we stra!l describe how to carry out a resolution

check.
3.5 Dead Zone

Dead zone is defined by 8S3683 Pt.4 1985, as the region in a material
adjoining the surface of entry from which no direct echoes from
discontinuities can be detected.
For a single crystal probe the lergth of the initial pulse is the dead zone,
for any signal from a reflector e: a shorter distance than this will be
concealed in the ir%tialpulse.
We deliberately delay off the ir:,: al pulse beyond the left of the timebase,
by mounting the transducers of z twin crystal probe onto plastic wedges.
This and the focusing of the crystals reduces the dead zone considerably
and it is only where the transrxsion and receptive beams do not overlap
that we cannot assess flaws.
4.1 CALIBRATION
4.2 THROUGH TRANSMISSION
4.0 COMPRESSION 4.3 THICKNESS CHECKS

PROBES
4.4 LAMINATION CHECKS
4.5 PROBE SELECTION

4.1 Calibration
Calibration is setting at a timebase on a cathode ray tube screen to
represent a chosen distance.
We can calibrate with two blocks, an A2 (sometimes called a V1 or IIW)

block, which is large and heavy, and an A4 (sometimes d l e d a V2 or
"kidney"), which is small and can be carried in a pocket. We can also use
a step wedge to calibrate compression probes for small timebase
distances.
British Standard BS 2704 gives full details of calibration blocks used in

ultrasonic testing.
Calibrate for 100mm

Place a V1 block on its side and put a 0 degree (Normal) compression
probe on it.
Adjust the RANGE and DELAY controls on the set until you have four
echoes on the screen.
Adjust the two controls further until the first echo is 25% screen width, the
second echo 5056 screen width, the third echo at 75%, the fourth echo at
full screen width. The first echo now represents 25mm, the second 50mm,
the third 75mm and the full screen width 100mm.
Check your calibration by putting the V1 block on its edge and taking a
reading from one edge to the other; if you have calibrated correctly you
will get a signal at full screen width, 100m.
Put the probe on the plastic insert in the V1 block and you will get an echo
signal midway across the screen at 50mm - sound travels more slowly in
perspex than it does in steel, so the 23mm of perspex gives a signal at the
same distance across the timebase as 50mm of steel.
Calibrate for 50m

Place a 0 degree probe on the side of the V1 block as before and obtain
two echoes.
Adjust the RANGE and DELAY controls until the first echo is at 50%
screen width and the second signal is at full screen width.
Place the probe on the perspex insert in the V1 block and you should get
a signal at full screen width.
Slot a:
zero :o~nt
Fig.4.1.a. The A.2.' 1.i.W. or V.1. block
T-
See note 1
L
Note 1. l2.5rnrn or 20rnrn

2. 1.5 or 5rnm
Fig.4.1.b. The A.4. or V.2. block

Calibrate for 200millimetres

Place the probe on the side of a V1 block and adjust the RANGE and
DELAY cmtrols until you have eight echoes on the screen.
Adjust bc:n controls until the fourth echo is midway across the screen and
the last echo is at full screen width.
Put the peObeon the edge of the V1 block and you should see on echo
midway xross the screen and another signal at full scrsan width.
Note splrcious indications behind the backwall echo resulting from mode
change.
Calibrate for 10 millimetres

Place a win crystal 0 degree probe on the reverse side of a step wedge
and obtan two echoes from the 5mm step.
Adjust tke RANGE and DELAY controls until one signal is midway across
the screen at 50% screen width and the other is at full screen width.
Check yoJr setting by checking the signals on the screen against other
th:cknesszs on the step wedge.
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTWE TESTlNG
0
7
'a,
.03
r.
CD
Ln
cy
, m
0
SC8OOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
4.2 Through Transmission

Through transmission was used in the early days of ultrasonic testing and
is till used in plate and bar production.
A probe one side of a component transmits an ultrasonic pulse to a

receptor probe on the other side. The absence of a pulse coming to the
receiver indicates a defect.
The advantages of through transmission are:
a Less attenuation of sound energy

b No probe ringing
c No dead zone on the screen
d The orientation of a defect does not matter as it does on the pulse
echo display.
The disadvantages are:
a The defect cannot be located

b The defect cannot be identified
c The component surfaces must be parallel
d Vertical defects do not show
e The process must be automated
f There must be access to both sides of the component.
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON- DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
4.3 Thickness Checks

Thickness checks are pafl of corrosion and erosion monitoring and control
programmes in refineries, Dower stations, chemical plants, shipyards,
pipelines and other projects. Thickness checks are usually made at fixed
points on bends in pipes, at oil\water interfaces, near welds or at other
spots where corrosion or erosion is likely.
Small ultrasonic sets designed specifically for thickness checks are

available. These sets give digital read outs and contain their own
calibration blocks. To caiibrate them, place the probe on the calibration
block with some couplant, note the thickness of the calibration block and
turn the milled wheel on the side of the meter until the numbers read out
the thickness of the block, usually ten millimetres.
To conduct a thickness check, find out the approximate or specified

thickness of the component being examined and then calibrate a UT set to
the appropriate range. If the specified thickness is four millimetres, use a
step wedge to calibrate your set to a 10 millimetre timebase; if the
specified thickness is 25mm, calibrate your set for 50mm. With the correct
setting, readings accurate to one tenth of a millimetre are possible on most
sets.
If you are looking for pitting or corrosion on the inside of a pipe or vessel,
it is better to use a UT set than digital thickness meter. The extent of
pitting is more apparent on a screen.
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NUN-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
4.4 Lamination Checks

British Standard BS5996 gives full details on how to conduct lamination
checks and what standards to apply.
Plate and pipe mills make frequent use of ultrasonic lamination checks,
and quality control usually demands a lamination check on plate coming
into a fabrication shop. It is normal to check parent metal for laminations
in the area where a weld will be made before welding to at least 100mm
from the edge preparation, and it is essential to check for lamination when
making a fillet, 'T' or node weld on areas likely to be affected by welding.
Small laminations can cause lamellar tearing, a type of crack and a
potentially dangerous defect.
To make a lamination check on 10+ millimetre plate

Calibrate the screen to 50 or 100 millimetres and/or obtain two backwall
echoes from a clean area of the plate.
Adjust the AMPLITUDE or dB control until the signal from the first backwall
echo (1st BWE) is at full screen height (FSH). Adjust the 2nd BWE to
FSH on weld parent metal.
Apply couplant, usually water or paste, and examine the plate on a grid
system as instructed or as detailed in BS5996. (When checking a weld
preparation examine to 100mm from the edge).
Size defects by the 6dB drop method and report their location, depth and
area. (The 6dB drop method is described in BS5996 and later in these
notes).
To Make a lamination check on thin plate (10mrn and less)

Place an '0' degree compression probe 'on the test piece and adjust
RANGE control until you obtain multiple backwall echoes on the screen.
Move the probe over the plate; where the echo pattern changes drastically
a lamination or inclusion is likely.
4.5 Probe Selection

When choosing a probe you must take these factors into consideration:
a Joint thickness and diameter

b Joint geometry
c Surface condition
d Metallurgical structure of the material under test e.g. grain size
e Type, position and orientation of any likely defects.
Probe frequency affects performance as follows:
a Higher frequencies give better resolution

b Higher frequencies give better sensitivity
c Lower frequencies have better penetration and less attenuation
d Lower frequencies are more tolerant of rough surfaces
e Lower frequency probes have a wider beam spread and hence a
reflected beam from a discontinuity is wider and hence more
detectable with unfavourably orientated defects
f Higher frequency probes have a smaller beam spread and are thus
more accurate in defect sizing.
Transducer size affects performance as follows:
a Large crystals give out greater energy and so have a longer range
b Small transducers have a smaller near zone
c Large diameter transducers give poor contact on curved surfaces
Single crystal probes are suitable for use on materials over 15mm to
30mm thick, according to dead zone length and should be used in
preference to double crystal probes on anything over 30mm thick.
Double crystal probes are used for scanning thin materials and when
looking for defects close to the test surface. They can be shaped to fit
curved surfaces if necessary.
5.1 PRINCIPLES
5.2 CATHODE RAY TUBE
5.3 PULSE GENERATION
5.4 RANGE CONTROL
5.0 THE FLAW DETECTOR
5.5 DELAY CONTROL
5.6 CALIBRATED GAIN/

ATTENUATOR CONTROL
5.7 REJECTISUPPRESSION
5.8 THE DECIBEL
5.9 PRESENTATION
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUC77VE TESTING
Transmission pulse
Back wall echo

Defect echo
Transmitter
Luminescent screen
Generatar
( Timer)
r
Time
Base
Fig.5.1 Diagramatic illustration of flaw detector

SCHOOL OF APPLIED NUN-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
THE ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTOR

5.1 Principles
The ultrasonic flaw detector, the UT se:, sends a voltage down a co-axial
cable, sometimes called "the lead" to a srobe. The piezo electric crystal in
the probe is hit by the voltage and vibrates. The vibration creates an
ultrasonic pulse which enters the test material. The pulse travels through
the material until it strikes a reflector ar;d is reflected back to the probe. It
re-enters the probe, hits the crystal and vibrates it, causing it to generate
a voltage. The voltage causes a currec: which travels bdck to the flaw
detector along the cable. The set displays the time the pulse has taken
through the test material and back and the strength of the pulse as a
signal on the CRT screen.
This is basically how a UT set works. It transmits energy into material via
a probe and measures the time in microseconds that the sound pulse
takes to return to the probe.
The controls on the UT set are almost entirely concerned with presenting a
display on the CRT screen for the operator to interpret.
screen
Fig.5.2. Cathode ray tube

5.2 Cathode Ray Tube

The cathode ray tube is a device for measuring very small periods of time.
The CRT displays electrical pulses on a screen in 2 :;near timeldistance
relationship. That is, the longer the distance on the screen timebase, the
longer the time that has been measured.
This is how the CRT works:

A filament is heated in a vacuum tube. The heat czzses the particles of
the filament to vibrate and electrons start boiling out of the surface a
process known as thermionic emission.
A positive potential electric charge is in position further down the vacuum

tube and the negatively charged electrons from the filament are attracted
towards it.
The electrons pass through a negatively charged focusing ring which

pushes them towards the centre of the tube, forcing them into a fine
stream. This stream of electrons hits a phosphor covered screen at the
end of the tube. The electron bombardment forces ihe phosphor to give
out light and a green dot appears on the screen.
The X and Y plates above, below and beside the electron stream carry
potentials that move the electron stream from side to side and up and
down, moving the green dot on the screen.
The X plates control horizontal movement and the Y plates control vertical
movement. By altering the potential of the X and Y plates, the dot can be
moved on the screen.
5.3 Pulse Generation

The PULSE GENERATOR in a UT set is a timer which gives out a
number of electrical pulses every secoce. This is called the PULSE
REPETITION RATE or PULSE REPETITIONS FREQUENCY (PRF) and
must not be confused with probe freque~cy.
The PRF on most sets is about 1000 p ~ : s e per

s second, though this can
be varied on most sets from 50 pulses per second for thick specimens to
1250 pulses per second for thin specimens.
The pulse generator sends the pulse to the TlME BASE GENERATOR on
the CRT and to the PULSE TRANSMITTER.
The timebase generator sends the green dot moving across the CRT
screen by putting a charge into the X plates in the tube.
Simultaneously the pulse transmitter sends an electric voltage down the

co-axial cable to the piezo electric crysial in the probe. The crystal
vibrates, transmitting the pulse of sound into the test material.
At the end of each pulse the green dot on the CRT screen flies back to
the lefthand side of the screen to await the next pulse.
If the test material is thick the dot must ;ravel across the screen fairly
slowly, as the pulse repetition rate is lowered. Only one pulse must be in
the test material at any one time or confusing echoes will result. For this
reason the PRF is lowered when thick specimens are examined.
5.4 Range Control

The RANGE control varies the speed of the green dot across the screen.
It is divided into COARSE RANGE which allows large changes in range,
say 10mm to 100mm to 500mm, and the FINE RANGE which allows small
adjustments in distances between these. For thick specimens the dot
travels slowly and for thin specimens its speed is increased. Adjusting the
speed of the dot in relation to the time taken for the sound pulse to enter
the test specimen and to be reflected back to the probe is called "setting a
time base".
If the speed of the dot across the screen is not even, as a result of
equipment failure, we say the timebase is not linear. Flaw detectors
should be checked frequently to assess TlME BASE LINEARITY.
5.5 Delay
The DELAY control makes the timebase generator wait for a while before
sending the green dot moving across the screen.
Twin crystal and angle probes have perspex blocks or wedges between
the crystal and the test material. This need not be shown on the CRT
screen, so we adjust the delay to move it sideways off the display, so the
passage of the ultrasound through the perspex in the probe does not
appear on the screen.
You can also use the DELAY control to wait until the sound has travelled
part of the way through the test piece itself before representation on the
screen. For example, if you only want to look at the bottom 25mm of a
20mm specimen, you can adjust the delay so that the green dot begins to
travel across the screen at 175mm. On thickness checks this can make
for greater accuracy in readings for thick specimens.
5.6 Calibrated GainlAttenuator Control

If the sound pulse sent into the test material is reflected back at the proper
angle, it returns to the probe and hits the receiver crystal. The crystal
sends a current back to the UT set. Of necessity this current is very
small.
The current returning to the set goes to an AMPLIFIER which increases it

and filters out irrelevant signals. The returning current is alternating (AC)
and this must be rectified before going to the CRT, so it is rectified in the
RECTIFIER.
The rectified current now goes to the ATTENUATOR, a variable resistance

which controls the current passed on to the CRT. The greater the
resistance, the smaller the current. This attenuator is controlled by the
CALIBRATED GAIN/ATTENUATOR CONTROL on the set.
From the attenuator, the current goes to the Y plates in the CRT. When
the current hits the Y plates, they pull the electron stream upwards m d the
green dot jumps from the bottom of the screen to make a signal. The
height of the signal is increased or decreased by turning ttle gain up or
down.
This control is a method of controlling the amplitude of a signal. It is also

a means of comparing the height of one signal with the height of another.
So the UT set can tell us two things:
a The position of a reflector below the probe

b The comparative amount of energy reflected from that reflector
and we can find the latter by comparing a signal from the reflector in the
test piece with a signal from an artificial reflector in a reference block.
5.7 RejectEuppression Control

When measuring high attenuating material there is often a corresponding
high level of 'grass (USA-'hash') on the timebase. It is possible to reduce
this to an acceptable level by means of the REJECT/SUPPRESSION
control and providing the calibration is verified, accurate thickness
measurements may be made.
However, reject often makes the vertical axis non linear so must NOT be
used if readings related to the decibel are made.
5.8 The Decibel

Gain is measured in DECIBEL (dB) - tenths of a unit called a bel. When
we compare the height of two signals on the CRT screen, we are in fact
comparing the electric voltage that is being sent to the Y plates, and
electric voltage is proportional to the square of the current. To compare
two signals we must use a formula that takes account of this fact:
Difference in decibels = 20 x log,,

(Signal Height 0)
(Signal Height 2)
For example, if we want to compare a signal of 40mm with one of 20mm

on the CRT screen:
2Oxlogl0 - = Difference in decibels (dB) between two signals

(20)
20 x log,, 2 Find the log,, of 2 in tables or a calculator
20 x 0.301 = 6.02 dB
So the answer is 6 decibels
Test this on the CRT screen. Obtain a signal from a backwall echo on a
test block and increase or decrease the gain until the signal touches the
top of the screen. Take out 6 dBs with the gain control and the signal
should drop to 50% full screen height. If it does not, the vertical linearity
of the UT set is out, the signal height is not changing in accordance with
energy from the probe.
Using the formula, we can discover that:
a 12 dB difference means that one signal is 4 times bigger than

another
b 10 dB difference means that one signal is 3 times bigger than
another
c 20 dB difference means that one signal is 10 times bigger than
another
Remember that dBs are only a means of comparing signals. All UT sets
are different, so a defect may be at FSH with a gain control reading of,
say 36dB on one set and be at FSH on another set with a gain control
reading of only 28 dB on another set. The GAIN control allows us to set
sensitivities and forms the basis of ultrasonic sizing techniques.
5.8.1 B SCAN
5.8.2 C SCAN
5.8 PRESENTATION 5.8.3 D SCAN
5.8.4 P SCAN
5.8.5 T SCAN
5.9 Presentation
The flaw detector or UT set sends ultrasound energy into test materials
and some of this returns to the set to be presented as information on a
CRT screen.
So far we have only considered one kind of presentation, A Scan, in the

pulse echo and through transmission forms.
There are other ways of presenting the information.

Plan view
x y projection
(c-SCAN)
y z projection x z projection
(6-SCAN) (0-SCAN)
Ref lector
(defect)
Fig.5.8. 11213 B,C & D scan displays

5.8.1 The 'B' Scan

This gives a cross-section on the screen of the component being
examined. Tne €3 scan is used in hospitals and on aircraft components. It
is often used with specimens immersed in water and with an automated
scanning device; the IMMERSION TECHNIQUE. A compression wave is
sent through water at a predetermined angle and on striking the surface of
the immersed components enters it as a compression wave or as a shear
wave, according to the angle of incidence.
5.8.2 The 'C' Scan

The C scan gives a plan view of a defect. It is often used as an
automated process to map out laminations in plate. It gives the area of a
defect, so it is good for plotting the extent of laminations in sheets.
5.8.3 The 'D' Scan

The D scan gives a side view of the defect seen from a viewpoint normal
to the B scan. It is usually automated, and shows the length, depth and
through thickness of a defect. The D scan should not be confused with
the "Delta Technique".
SCHOOL OF APPLlED NOH-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Fig.5.8.4. P scan display
Fig.5.8.5. T scan display

5.8.4 The 'P' Scan

The P scan presents information on a visual display unit incorporating B, C
and D scans. The information is processed in a computer and is still
brgely experimental, too delicate for site work and expensive.
5.8.5 The 'T' Scan

The T scan has been developed recently to examine corrosion, especially
gitting, in ships' hulls. It provides an image of a corroded surface that can
be compared directly with what is observed visually.
6.1 THE NEAR ZONE
6.0 THE SOUND BEAM
6.2 THE FAR ZONE

6.0 THE SOUND BEAM

The spread of sound waves from a vibrating piezo electric crystal is rather
like the beam of a torch, an elongated cone. Just as the intensity of light
from a torch diminishes with distance, so sound pulses get weaker the
further they travel from the crystal.
The similarity is not complete, however, for the beam has two separate
parts or zones, which is not the case in a beam of light. These zones are
the NEAR ZONE and the FAR ZONE. The NEAR ZONE is always next to
the crystal and is sometimes called the FRESNEL ZONE. The FAR ZONE
is always beyond the near zone and is sometimes called the
FRAUNHOFER ZONE.
The DEAD ZONE is not part of the sound beam but as we have said, is
the region near the surface in the material where flaws cannot be
detected.
Fig.6.l .a. The sound beam
Fig.6.1.b. The near zone

6.1 The Near Zone(Or Near Field)
A piezo electric crystal is made up of millions of molecules. Each of these
vibrates when the crystal is hit by an electric charge and they all send out
shock waves. The shock waves jostle each other. See Fig.6.l .a.
After a time the shock waves, or pulses, even out to form a continuous
front.
The area between the crystal and the point where the wave front evens
out is what we call the NEAR or FRESNEL ZONE.
Inside the Near Zone signals from a reflector bear no accurate relation to
the size of the reflector, as the sound vibrations are going in all directions.
This affects the accuracy of flaw sizing of small reflectors inside the Near
Zone.
The Near Zone of a crystal varies with the material being tested, but it can
be worked out by a formula:
D2
- or
CRYSTAL DIAMUER~ -
-
41 4 x WAVELENGTH OF SOUND MATERIAL
NEAR ZONE IN TEST MATERIAL
or put another way
D~ x f Or CRYSTAL DIAMETER2 x FREQUENCY

4v 4 x VELOCIN OF SOUND MATERIAL
= NEAR ZONE
For example, the Near Zone of a 5megahertz compression probe with a

10mm diameter crystal will be, in steel:
'OZrnrn 5s000'000 Hz = NEAR ZONE IN MILLIMETRES

4 x 5,920,000mm/sec
to give 21 .I millimetres.
It is easier to convert the speed of sound into millimetres in such

calculatior~s,so you know where to put the decimal point.
The Near Zone of a 2.5 Megahertz probe with a 20mm diameter crystal
will be:
In fact we can deduce from the formula that:
a The greater the probe diameter the greater the Near Zone.
b The higher the frequency the greater the Near Zone.

i
far zone
'1
K = Intensity consrant
X = Wavelength
D = Crysral diameter
Half divergere angle = sine -62 -- K-
xX
D
Vatires of K refer to the redrcrion in

8 fl sound pressure relative to the maximum
Sins- = -
2 D at the axis of the beam.
Where K = constant factor 50% (6db) K10.56

i = wave lenglh W% (20db) K = 1.08
= the diameter of the crystal Extreme edge
of beam K = 1.22
BEAM DIVERGENCE
Fig.6.2. The far zone

6.2 The Far Zone

In the FAR ZONE the sound pulses spread out as they move away from
the crystal. The higher the frequency of the crystal, the less they spread
out.
The ANGLE OF BEAM SPREAD can be found by using this formula:
Sine l/2 angle of Beam Spread = Kx v

KA or -
-
D Dxf
where K = constant for the edge of the beam spread

D = diameter of crystal
v = velocity of sound in material
f = crystal frequency
If we take the edge of the beam to be where sound energy is 1/10

(-20dB) of the energy at the beam centre, K is 1.08.
If we take the extreme edge of the sound beam to work out beam spread
angles, then K is 1.22.
EXAMPLE: a 10mm 5MHz probe will have a beam spread in steel

calculated as follows:
Sine /'Z L Beam Spread = 1 .O8 or 1.22 x (5920) + 10

(5000)
1/2 L Beam Spread = 7.35" or 8.3"
So the angle of beam spread is 14.7" if you take the edge of the beam to
be where energy is 10% of the main energy or 16.6" taking the extreme
edge of the beam.
From the formula we can deduce that
HIGHER THE FREQUENCY = LESS BEAM SPREAD

LARGER THE CRYSTAL - LESS BEAM SPREAD
That is or,e of the reasons why low frequency probes have large diameter
crystals.
7.1 A?TENUATlON DUE TO

BEAM SPREAD
7.2 ATTENUATION DUE TO

MATERIAL
7.0 TOTAL ATENUATION LOSS
7.3 MEASUREMENT OF
MATERIAL
ATTENUATION
7.0 TOTAL AlTENUATION LOSS
33683 defines attenuation as a diminuition in the level of acoustic energy
z it propagates through material,
s-i is made up of two components:
The loss due to the fact that the bean is a divergent cone and
therefore some energy is reflected away.
: Attenuation due to the material. Some energy is absorbed and

some scattered.
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTNE TESTlNG
I
80% FSH
40% FSH
Fig.7.1.a. Law of large reflector
I Reflector
smaller I \ 80% FSH
20% FSH
0 10 20 30 40 50
Fig.7.1.b. Law of small reflector
7.1 Attenuation Due to Beam Spread
LARGE REFLECTORS outside 3 NEAR ZONES obey the INVERSE LAW.
SMALL REFLECTORS outside 3 NEAR ZONES obey the INVERSE
SQUARE LAW.
Echoes from reflectors in the Far Zone cause signals on the CRT screen
which vary in height with the amount of energy being reflected back.
The amount of energy reflected back depends on whether the reflector is

bigger in area than the sound beam at that distance. If the reflector is
bigger in area than the sound beam, the signal on the screen varies
according to the law of Large Reflectors. If the reflector is smaller in area
than the sound beam at that distance, it obeys the Law of Small
Reflectors.
These laws only hold good beyond a distance three times the length of the
Near Zone.
EXAMPLES:
A large reflector at 20mm, if it is beyond 3 near zones, gives a signal at

80% FSH. If the dB setting is not altered, a large reflector in the same
material at 40mm will give a signal 40% FSH. (Inverse Law).
A small reflector at 20mm, if it is beyond 3 near zones, gives a signal at

80% FSH. If the dB setting is not changed a similar reflector in the same
material at 40mm will give a signal 20% FSH. (Inverse Square Law).
Work out a further example:
A large reflector at 30mm and beyond 3NZ, gives a signal of 50% FSH.
What will be the signal size from a large reflector at 40mm?
Signal size = a x 50% = 37% FSH

% FSH 40
If it is a small reflector the answer will be:
Signal Size = -
302 x 50% = 28%
402
This illustrates the importance of knowing the dimensions of a sound

beam.
We can plot the edge of a sound beam for compression and angle probes
using side drilled holes in a reference block.
7.2 Attenutation Due to Material

Material attenuation is caused by ABSORPTION and SCAlTER.
ABSORPTION occurs as the sound pulse hits the molecules of the test
material and makes them vibrate. The energy lost in vibrating the
molecules turns to heat. The rate of absorption varies from one rrzlerial
to another and even from one type of steel to another. It is very hgh in
perspex, nylon and lead and is low in aluminium.
SCATTER occurs as sound energy is reflected from grains in the t ~ t

material. The larger the grains, the more scatter occurs. The ' g r i s ' at
the bottom of the CRT screen is caused by reflections from grain
boundaries in the test material. You see more grass from cast iroc or
brass than from small grained materials like refined steel or annez2d
aluminium.
The longer the wavelength of a sound pulse, the less energy is s ~ z e r e d .

Where the wavelength is smaller than the grain size, a sound puls? is
scattered very quickly. It is for this reason that a low frequency probe,
with its longer wavelength, has greater penetration in a given matval than
a high frequency probe.
Sound energy is lost in other ways:
a Reflection inside the probe

b Scattering from a rough surface
c Non-metallic inclusions or laminations in test material
d Reflection from the surface of the test piece
e Mode change
7.3 Measurement of Material Attenuation

a Place a compression probe on a piece of the test material and turn
the backwall echo to FSH. (If the BWE is within three near zones of
the probe, use the first BWE outside the distance of three near
zones).
b Obtain an echo from twice the distance of the BWE used and
increase the signal height until it is at FSH. Note dB difference.
c Subtract 6 dB, due to beam spread loss, from the difference and
divide the remainder by the distance the sound has travelled
between the two echoes. This is twice the distance shown on the
CRT, as the sound has to travel to the backwall and back to trigger
the probe.
d The answer will give the dBs lost per millimetre in attenuation. This
can give an assessment of plate quality and of heat treatment.
Attenuation checks have to be made when dealing with Distance

Amplitude Correction (DAC) and Distance Gain Size (DGS) systems, but
more of them later.
8.1 6dB DROP SIZING METHOD
8.2 20 dB DROP SIZING

METHOD
8.0 DEFECT SIZING AND PLATE

INSPECTION WITH COMPRESSION
PROBES
8.3 CONSTRUCTION OF BEAM
EDGE PLOT 20dB
8.4 PLATE INSPECTION

SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTNE TESTING
signal
1
Maximum signal response HaH amplitude respo,c:x
Fig.8.1. The 6dB drop sizing method

8.1 The 6dB Drop Sizing Method

This method is used for sizing large reflectors. If the probe is moved until
the signal amplitude from a reflector drops to half its original screen height,
then it can be said that the sound beam is half on and half off the
reflector. So by moving the probe until the signal from the end of a large
reflector halves in height, we can thus estimate that the edge of the
reflector is immediately below the centre of the probe.
This method is called the 6dB drop method because the signal drops by
6dB when the probe is moved to the edge of a large reflector.
Note:
The peak of the reflector is normally taken as being the last peak on the
screen before the probe goes off the end of the reflector, not necessarily
the maximum signal from the reflector.
SCHOOL OF APPUED NON-DESTRUCTNE TESnNG
& =
Defect
Defect
I
a) defect height-probe traversed backwards and forwards

until signal drops to one tenth of maximum amplitude
Length
ItLength of movement A
I
-
b) defect length length of movement minus beam width
(W) at testing range.
. 20dB drop method
Fig.8.2. The 20dB drop sizing method

8.2 The 20 Decibel Drop Sizing Method

We can use a beam plot to find the edge of a defect by using the rdge of
the sound beam. How to construct a beam plot for a compression srobe
is described in Section 9.3.
If we know the width of a beam at a certain distance from the crysA, we

can mark the distance across a defect from where the extreme e d p of
the beam touch each end of the defect and then subtract the bear width
to get the defect size.
-. When the signal from the defect drops by 20 dB from its peak, we ydge
that the edge of the beam is just touching the end of the defect. Vts can
find the width of the sound beam at that range by consulting the b s m plot
that we have made.
Note:
The peak of the defect is normally taken as being the last peak or; t7e
screen before the probe goes off the end of the defect, not necesszily the
maximum signal from a defect.
SCHOOL OF APPUED NON-DEST.RUCTNE TESnNG
-
. - . . ..
centre I I
100% FSH
Mark
centre
of probe - Move probe
sideways
10% FSH
1 Mark
1. centre
of probe
10% FSH
Fig.8.3.a-c Construction of a beam edge plot

8.3 Construction of a Beam Edge Plot - 20dB

Find the hole at a depth of 13mm on an IOW block with a 0"probe.
Maximise the signal.
Move the probe until you get the highest signal you can from the hole,
then turn the signal to FSH using gain. See Fig.8.3a. Mark the position of
the middle of the probe on the side of the block. Move the probe to one
side until the signal drops to 10% FSH (-20dB) and mark the centre of the
probe on the side of the block. See Fig.8.3b.
Move the probe to the other side of the hole until the signal drops to
10%FSH (-20dB) and mark the centre of the probe on the block. See
Fig.8.3~.
Use the distances between the marks on the block to plot the beam on a
piece of graph paper. Measure 13mm depth on the paper then mark the
distances of the probe centre at -20dB from the beam centre at 100%
FSH on either side.
Now find the 25mm hole and maximise the signal, turning it to 100% FSH.
See Fig.8.3d.
Move the probe to either side of the hole marking the centre of lthe probe
on the side of the block where the signal drops by 20dB.
Measure 25mm on the paper and use h e distances on the block to plot
the beam dimensions at 25mm. See Fig.8.3e.
Repeat using the 32mm hole. Join up the points marking the probe centre
at -20dB to obtain a beam plot. See Fig.8.3f.
Note that we have only drawn the beam width in one plane, so the probe
must be marked accordinglfy and used to measure defects in this plane.
We use knowledge of the beam spread to size defects, to find the edges
and hence their width, length and sometimes orientation.
SCHOOL NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESllNG
Fig.8.3.d-f Construction of a beam edge plot

8.4 Plate Inspection

British Standard 5996 describes methods of conducting lamination checks
and designates quality grades. It also details different ways of setting
sensitivity and sizing defects.
A set procedure is usually in operation and the technician should follow

this, applying the agreed specifications.
In the absence of any specification, the following method works reasonably

well:
a Divide the plate to be examined into a grid with horizontal and

vertical scan lines 150mm apart.
b Calibrate the set to a suitable time base, 100mm or 50mm is usually

sufficient. Set the first backwall echo to full screen height on the
test material.
c Apply couplant, on a large plate. Water or wallpaper paste is a

good couplant.
d Move the probe along the edges of the plate and along scan lines.
e Size laminations and inclusions by the 6dB drop method.
f Mark 'dirty' areas and make a report, sketching the extent of

lamination and giving its depth below the plate surface.
Test procedures detailed in BS5996 are:
20 dB drop method
6 dB drop method
Flaw backwall echo method, where the edge of a lamination is taken

as being the point where the flaw echo equals the backwall echo on
the CRT screen.
Multiple echo method using a time base of 500mm and watching the
shape of the backwall echo panern on the screen. This method is
very good for examining thin plate.
Using specially made reference blocks to set sensitivity with flat

bottomed holes or side drilled holes.
The Distance Gain Size method using the DGS chart. A method
used in Germany and rather complicated.
Distance amplitude curves, to be described later.

9.1 CONSTRUCTION OF ANGLE

PROBES
9.0 ANGLE PROBES 9.2 SNELL'S LAW
9.3 CRITICAL ANGLE

CALCULATIONS
Probe
Reflector
Fig.9.O.a. Beam orientation
Fig.9.0.b. Angle beam orientation

9.0 ANGLE PROBES

We have briefly mentioned angle probe in Section 3.2.2. Angle probes are
used to detect reflectors at orientations which are unsuitable for normal
beam compression probes.
Sound obeys the law of reflection in that it reflects at the same angle as
the angle of incidence. Therefore a reflector angled at 45" to the scanning
surface will not reflect sound back to a normal beam probe. See Fig
9.0.a.
To detect this reflector, a probe which produces sound at 45" must be

used. See Fig 9.0.b.
SCHOOL OF APPUED NON-DESTRUCTNE 7ESTING
Transducer
i S
Test m a t e r ~ a l
C - Compressional w a v e
I - Incident a n g i e
R - Refracted a n g l e
S - Shear w a v e
Fig.9.1. Angle probe

9.1 Construction of Angle Probes

An angle probe is a piezo electric crystal mounted on a perspex wedge at
an angle calculated to generate a shear (transverse) wave in the : s t
material.
The wedge is made of perspex because:
a The compressional speed of sound in perspex (2730 mlsec, is lower

than the shear velocity of sound in steel (3250mlsec) so re4acted
angles are greater than incident angles.
b Perspex is very absorptive and attenuates unwanted echoes from

the compressional wave as it hits the perspex test material interface.
The piezo electric crystal generates a compressional wave which t

transmits into the perspex wedge. When the compressional wave hits the
bottom surface of the wedge most of the energy is reflected away from the
interface and back into the perspex. It is damp by tungsten powca in
epoxy resin placed on the perspex wedge as damping.
If there is no couplant on the bottom surface of the perspex wedp, all the
energy is reflected back into the probe. If there is couplant and i' the
probe is placed on test material, sound energy passes into the test
material and generates a shear wave.
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTWE 7ES77NG
Compressional
Polystyrene
Shear Compressional
Fig.9.2.a. Refraction of compressional waves at polystyrene/steel interface
..-
.,
I..
I '.
9.2 Snell's Law

A shear wave travels at an angle different from the angle of the original compression
wave as it is REFRACTED at the interface.
The angle of refraction varies with the shear speed of sound in the test material and the
compression speed of sound in the perspex and with the angle the compression wave
makes with the interface. The formula describing this is covered by SNELL'S LAW,
which says that the ratio between sound speed in two materials is the same as the ratio
between the sines of the incident and refracted angles.
-- All angles are measured from a line vertical to the interface called the NORMAL
Written out, Snell's Law says:
-
RIAL 1 -
SPEED OF SOUND IN MATERIAL 2 SINE ANGLE OF REFRACTION
So if we want to make a probe transmitting a shear wave at a certain angle, we have to

transpose this formula:
SlNE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE =
i SPEFD OF SOUND IN MATFRIAI 1 X SlNE ANGl E OF RFFRACTION

i
SPEED IN MATERIAL 2
v, x sine R
Sine I =
"2
where I = incident angle

R = refracted angle .
v = velocity
For example, if we want a probe giving a 45" shear wave in steel we must calculated
the angle at which we must cut the perspex wedge - the incident angle. The
compression speed of sound in perspex is 2730 metres per second, the shear speed of
sound in steel is 3250 metres per second and the refracted angle we need is 45".
sine I =
sine R x Velocity 1
Velocity 2
sine I =
sine 45" x 2730
3250
sine I =
0.7071 x 2730
3250
sine l = 0.594
Look this up in your tables or on your calculator and you will find the angle is 36.44"
However, with incident angles less than 27", both compression and shear waves are
generated in the steel. This makes interpretation very confusing. To get a shear wave
on its own, the angle of incidence must be more than 27.4", called the FIRST CRITICAL
ANGLE. This gives a shear wave of 33" (the lowest standard angle probe
manufactured is 35".
If the incident angle is above 57.14". the shear wave is replaced by a surface wave.
This angle is called the SECOND CRITICAL ANGLE.
The largest probe angle you can get from manufacturers without a special order is 80'.
So shear waves on their own in steel are only possible with incident angles between
27.4" and 57.14", using a perspex wedge.
Of course, this is worked out by the probe.manufacturers, but it must be borne in mind
that a probe which gives a refracted angle of 45" in steel will give a different refracted
angle in other materials.
EXAMPLE
Calculate the refracted shear wave angle in steel for an incident
compression wave of 35" in Perspex (2.730 rnlsec) velocity
steel shear = 3.250 mlsec
Velocity, Angle 8 ,
m/sec X lo3 degrees
--- 80
1
--- 60
- 45
- 40
- 35 - Angle in Perspex
2
Perspex
compression
3
Steel shear
* Critical angle
Join velocity and angle known. Point (x) at which this line crosses
reference line gives new datum point.
Join known velocity and point (x) and project to find new angle.
Answer to example " 43".
Fig.9.3 Nomogram for the calculation of Snell's Law

Critical Angle Calculation

Snells Law can be used for working out critical angles in non-ferrous metals. Indeed, if
we are immersion scanning the incident material is water, so a whole new set of angles
need to be worked out.
The FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE is the incident angle at which the compression wave
in the test material is generated at 90". So using Snell's Law:
sine I = Sine of 90" x COMPRFSSION SPFFD OF SOUND IN PFRSPFX (or water)

COMPRESSION SPEED OF SOUND IN MATERIAL
Use the speed of sound in the material. The speed of sound in perspex is 2730mlsec.
The speed of sound for water is 1480m/sec. The sine of 90 is 1. Work out the answer
with a calculator and sine tables.
The SECOND CRITICAL ANGLE is the incident angle at which a shear wave is
generated in the material at 90". Use Snell's Law again:
sine I = sine 90 x COMPRFSSION SPFFD OF SOUND IN PFRSPEX (or water)

SHEAR SPEED OF SOUND IN MATERIAL
Remember, critical angles are always incident angles.
Example: What is the first critical angle when testing aluminium in water?
Sine I = Sine 90" x V.water

Vc. aluminium
Therefore 1st critical angle = 13.54"

10.1 FINDING THE INDEX

POINT
10.0 ANGLE PROBE CHECKS

AND CALIBRATION 10.2 CHECKING THE PROBE
ANGLE
10.3 CALIBRATION FOR RANGE

WlTH THE V1 BLOCK

WlTH THE V2 BLOCK
10.0 ANGLE PROBES, INITIAL CHECKS AND CALIBRATION

Before we can even start to use an angle probe we need to find out something about it.
For instance:
a Where is the sound coming out of the perspex shoe?
b Is it the angle that it is supposed to be?
c Has the angle changed since it was last used?
So we must check the probe before we can calibrate the tirnebase to enable its use.
There are a number of performance checks which should also be carried out at
specified intervals and these will be described in Section 16.0.
Fig.lO.1. Finding the probe index
Fig.10.2. Checking the probe angle

10.1 Finding the Probe lndex

The point at which the centre of the beam leaves the probe and enters the test material
is called the Probe lndex or EMISSION POINT. It should be marked on each side of
the probe and checked regularly. As the probe surface wears down, the probe index
can change. Stand off measurements are taken from the probe index and it is used to
check the probe angle, another check that the UT technician must perform regularly, so
it is the master reference point or datum.
To find the probe index place the probe on a V1 block and obtain an echo from the
100mm radius and establish at more than 50% FSH using the gain mntrol. Maximise
the echo by moving the probe backwards and forwards. Mark a line on each side of the
probe directly above the slots which indicate the centre of the 100mm radius. This is
the probe index, where the axis of the beam leaves the perspex shoe.
10.2 Checking the Probe Angle

For a 45" or 60" probe place it on the V1 block approximately adjacent to where the
appropriate angla is inscribed, and directed at the plastic insert. Obtain a signal on the
screen from the plastic insert and maximise it. Find the position whe-e the probe index
coincides with the angle indicated on the side of the V1 block and this will tell you the
probe angle.
This procedure can be repeated for a 70" probe but reflecting the energy from the
plastic insert radius is unreliable. Therefore we suggest you use the 1.5mm hole as a
target instead.
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTltdG
10.3 Calibration for Range with the V1 Block

By range in angle probe testing we mean the distance a reflector is from the probe
index.
It is possible on some flaw detectors to calibrate the timebase to 100mm range, from
the V1 block. However, this involves delaying the signal by 100mm and not all
equipments can do this on the appropriate scale expansion setting, so we will confine
ourselves to calibrating for 200mm full screen width.
-
Place the probe on the V1 block and obtain boundary echo from the 100mm radius.
See Fig.lO.1. Establish this signal to more than 50% FSH using the gain control.
Further maximise the echo by moving the probe backwards and forwards. Hold the
probe stationary.
Wind in or out on the scale expansionlrange control to establish a second boundary

echo at 200mm range.
Place the signal from 100mm at 5 (half scale) on the timebase and the one from
200mm at 10 (full scale), using the delay and range controls. The timebase is
calibrated for 200mm. Longer ranges can be catered for in multiples of 1OOmm.
However, the V1 block is bulky, not convenient for site work and it is not always
possible to calibrate for 100mm, so we tend to use the V2 block.
10.3.1 CALIBRATION FOR

100MM

200MM

WITH THE V2 BLOCK

250MM
10.3 Calibration for Range with the V2 Block

The V2 block is the most convenient calibration block to use with angle probes. It
has two arcs, at 25mm and at 50mm.
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTWE TES77NG
Fig.lO.3.1. Calibration for 100mm
Fig.10.3.2. Calibration for 200mm
Fig.10.3.3. Calibration for 250mm

Calibration for 100mm

Place the probe on the block and point it at the 25mm arc. Adjust the DELAY and
RANGE controls until you have two signals on the screen, the first will represent 25mm
and the second will represent 100mm. Maximise the signals by sliding the probe
forward and backward. Adjust RANGE and DEWY until the first echo comes a quarter
of the way across the screen at 2.5 and the second echo comes at the extreme edge of
the screen on the righthand side at 10.
The timebase now represents 100mm. Check it by turning the probe round and
pointing it at the 50mm arc. If you have calibrated correctly, the signal when maximised
will come up exactly in the middle of the screen at 5.

Point the probe at the 50mm arc on the V2 block and obtain three echoes on the
screen. These represent 50mm, 125mm and 200mm. Maximise these signals by
sliding the probe forwad and backward. Adjust the RANGE and DELAY until the first
signal comes a quarter of the way across the screen at 2.5 and the third echo comes at
the extreme edge of the screen at 10.

Point the probe at the 25mm radius arc on a V2 block and adjust the set until you get
four echoes. These represent 25mm, 100mm, 175mm and 250mm. Maximise these
signals by sliding the probe forward and backward. Adjust RANGE and DELAY until the
first echo comes one tenth of the way across the screen at 1 and the fourth echo
comes at the extreme edge of screen at 10. Check on a V1 block. On the 100mm arc
you should get one echo 4/10 across the screen and the other 8/10 across the screen.
1 1 .I PROVING THE BEAM PLOT
11.0 CONSTRUCTING AN ANGLE

BEAM PLOT
11.2 MODIFIED NEAR ZONE
11.3 HORIZONTAL BEAM PLOT

SCHOOL OF APPUED NON-DESTRUCTWE TESTlNG
FSH
I
Fig.11 .O.a. Centre position
'/,, FSH
4
1
Fig.11 .O.b. Forward position
I/,, FSH
Fig.11 .O.c. Rear position
'/' Part of beam plotter
Fig.11.O.d. Marking at appropriate depth

11.0 CONSTRUCTING AN ANGLE BEAM PLOT

An IOW reference block is convenient for constructing a beam plot. It has a number of
1.5mm side drilled holes at different depths and is used mainly for setting sensitivity.
Use a 20dB beam edge for 45" and 60" probes, but use a 10dB for 70" probes. With
the 70" probe a 20dB beam spread is so wide and difficult to consWct as to be almost
useless.
1
- We will start with a 60" probe.
Find the hole which is 13mm below the top surface with the probe and maximise the
signal to FSH. Mark where the index point comes on the block with a pencil or crayon.
See Fig. 11.d.a. Move the probe forward until the signal drops to one tenth screen
height (20dB drop). Make a second mark on the block where the index point on the
probe stands on the block. See Fig.11.O.b.
Move the probe backwards until the signal maximises and then drops d0.m to 1/10
screen height. Mark where the index point now stands. See Fig.ll.0.c. Draw a
vertical line on the block from the hole to the upper edge. Measure the distances of the
three index point marks from the top of the line and note them doisn. See Fig.11.O.d.
Now find an echo from the 19mm deep hole and repeat the process, noting the
distances.
Now repeat the process using the 25mm hole.
Take the slide out of a beam plotting chart and draw three faint lires across it at depths
of 13mm, 19mm and 25mm.
Transfer the distances of the index points from the vertical lines to the rekvant pencil
lines on the chart.
Joint the marks up. The centre line represents the main energy of the beam and the
other two marks represent the leading and the trailing edges ofthe beam.
With a 45" probe, use the 19mm, 25rnm and 32mm depth holes as the 13mm hole may
be in the probe's near zone.
Use a 10dB drop with a 70" probe, instead of dropping the signal :o 1/10 FSH for the
leading and trailing edges, use the 3/10 line on the screen.
SCHOOL OF APPUED NON-DESTRUC77VE TESTING
-\\
Stand off 1
I
I
Range \- \ .
00
Fig.11.l.c.
Fig.11.l.a-c Proving the beam plot

11 .I Proving the Beam Plot

Use the six side drilled holes in the IOW block.
Use the corner of the block as reference point from which to measure stand-offs.
On the cover of the beam plotting chart, use the corner of the block to represent the
centre line.
Calibrate the probe to 100mm (200 for a 70" probe).
Obtain a signal from the top hole of the six, maximise it, then push the probe towards
the block corner until the signal drops ?o 1/10 FSH (3110 for a 70" probe). (See fig.
11.la. Mark where the index point occurs on the block and measure the stand-off.
Note the range of the reflector on the screen.
Use the stand-off and the range to plot the defect along the trailing edge of your beam
spread. Mark it on the slide cover.
Now obtain a signal from the bottom hole of the six, maximise it and turn it up to FSH
on your screen. Pull the probe back until the signal drops to 1/10 FSH (3110 for a 70"
probe). (See fig.11 .l
b). Plot the bottom of the defect on your slide cover using the
leading edge of your beam plot.
Lay the transpatent slide over the 10W block and the top and bottom of the drilled holes
should coincide with the marks on the slide. If they do not your beam plot is off or you
are going wrong somewhere. See fig. 11.l c.
In effect you have just sized a defect by the 20dB drop method (10 dB drop for the 70"
probe).
The method described is the one expected from PCN candidates, as only IOW blocks
are provided. However, in SANDT we teach students how to construct a beam plot
using a special block, as illustrated in Fig.11.l .d.
This block is much more convenient, especially for novices, as all the holes are reached
from the same face. The probe only has to move forward and back and a fixed probe
guide stops the probe swivelling. Worst of all the IOW block is a large lump of metal to
carry about.
SCHOOL OF APPUED NON-DESTRUCTNE E S D N G
Fig.11 .l .d. Special SANDT b e a m plot construction block

11.2 Modified Near Zone Angle Probes

We must now consider the part of the beam which is in the nezr zone on an angle
\- shear wave probe because with a beam edge method of flaw sizing, we cannot assess
small defects in the near zone.
However, the beam starts to travel in the plastic wedge and is then refracted and
carries on in the material we are testing. We are only concerned with the part of the
beam near zone registering later than zero on the time base, e.g. in the test material.
.- This we call the modified near zone.
Here is an example:
A 5 mHz shear probe has a 10mm diameter crystal. The beam travels in perspex for
10mm. What is the modified near zone?
i.
NZ, if totally developed in steel = D2 x f

4 x v
We must now subtract the perspex wedge part of the beam which is 10mm, mult~plied
by the ratio of the perspex and steel velocities which is 10 x 2730 = 8.4mm
3250
Therefore modified near zone = 38.46 - 8.4 = 30mm.
L a-
P NW block
- --- Max.
Straightedge
\,-
' - - - 10 X FSH
\
Fig. 1l.3a
Probe positions
1 2 -
J
14131211109 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91011121314
F i g . l l . 3 ~Horrzontal beam plot

11.3 Horizontal Beam Plot

A number of methods can be used to find the -20dB edge of a beam in the horizontal
plane. Some use the ends of the side drilled holes in the IOW block to determine the
edge. However, we in SANDT prefer to use the 1 S m m through drilled hole in the IIW
calibration block.
Method:
a. Place the probe to pick up the 1.5mm hole at skip and rnaximise the signal
from the intersection of the hole and the opposite face, see Fig.ll.3.a. Mark on
the straight edge adjacent to the near centre of the probe, to indicate the beam
centre.
b. Position a straight-edge either in front of or behind the probe to hoid the probe in
the fixed transverse position. Scan the probe laterally - sideways - until the hole
signal drops by 20dB. Mark on the straight edge adjacent to the rear centre
position of the probe. Tnis registers half a beam at the % skip range.
c. Scan the probe laterally the other way, through the maximum signal position, until
the hole signal again drops by 20dB. Mark on the straight edge as before.
d. You now have three mxks on the straight edge to indicate the bezrn width at that
range. Transfer these to the beam plotting chart as appropriate ard as shown in
Fig.ll.3.c.
e. Repeat steps a to d but at full skip and 1 l/2 skip for a 45" probe b ~ only
: at full
skip for a 60". Note tha: mode conversion reduces the llh skip sisnal on a 60"
probe to too low a level :o be reliable.
f. Join up the 3 points on either side of the centre-line to complete the beam. Only
take the lines back to the near zone because the edge is not relia!ie before that.
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTiNG
12.1 USING THE I.O.W. BLOCK
12.2 DISTANCE AMPLITUDE

CORRECTION CURVES
12.3 FLAT BOlTOMED HOLES
12.0 SENSITIVITY SETTING 12.4 USING NOISE
12.5 TRANSFER CORRECTION
12.6 THE DISTANCE GAIN

SIZE METHOD
12.0 SENSITMTY SETTING

Setting a sensitivity level is essential to provide reproducable results from the same
inspection carried out by different operators using different probe set combinations and
maybe working in different locations. They must all see the same flaw giving the same
signal height and therefore have the same data on which to base their acceptlreject
decisions.
There are several systems for setting sensitivity. We have already met one of them,
first backwall echo (BWE) to full screen height for lamination checks. However, when
checking plate adjacent to a weld, the second BWE should be to full screen height.
When setting sensitivity we must be sure that a signal from a defect will be visible on
the CRT screen and that we will be able to distinguish the defect signal from
background 'noise' or 'grass'. All UT sets differ slightly, so we cannot say, "Set the
sensitivity to x dB", as different probes and equipments will give entirely different signals
from the same reflector. It is to attain some uniformity that the different methods have
evolved.
Different methods are used in different places. In SANDT the IOW block is used and it
is the recommended method for PCN examinations. On North Sea contracts the
Distance Amplitude Correction Curve (DAC) method or "ASME curves' is used. The
DAC method is recommended in BS3923, and in Germany the Distance Gain Size
(DGS) system is usually applied, especially when evaluating small reflectors.
The purpose of sensitivity setting is to find a gain level sufficient to find a flaw and
depends on the:
a Probe used, in particular its frequency
b Flaw detector
c Properties of the test material
d Ratio of 'noise' to backwall echo or flaw echo

The lnstitute of Welding (IOW) Block

We met the lnstitute of Welding block when studying beam profiles. The block contains
1.5mm side drilled holes at different depths and allows the holes to be detected from
different angles with angle probes.
To use it is simple and straightforward:
Find a hole on the block that approximately coincides with the thickness of the material
you are testing. Double the thickness if you are examining at f ~ lskip,
l i.e. bouncing
your sound beam off the backwall.
Obtain a signal from the hole and turn the GAIN control until the signal is at FSH.
Work out transfer correction, see section 12.5.
You have now set sensitivity and can be assured that flaws having the equivalent
reflectivity of 1.5mm side drilled holes will appear on the screen.
This method has several advantages:
a It is simple to use
b It provides a uniform system of reference
c A fairly large and visible echo is assured from small flaws
d Side drilled hole reflectos are independent of angle
But some disadvantages:
a The block is heavy and expensive
b It only refers to 1.5mm side drilled holes
c It is not a reliable method for sizing defects

SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUC77VE TESTlNG
E.arnu~taon sut1.o
Fig.12.2.a. Recommended DAC block for ASME
T = th~cknessof parent mater~al adjacent to weld bemg tested
*a ,
M~ncmumof four O 3mm side-driiied through holes
, ,
Fig.12.2.b. Recommended DAC block for B!33923

12.2 Distance Amplitude Correction Curves (DAC)

BS3923 and all US specifications recommend this method. A special reference block of
the same material as the test object is usually necessary, though the curves can be
I constructed from an IOW block.
!
The block recommended by BS3923 and an ASME block are shown in Fig.12.2.a and
12.2. b, respectively.
To construct DAC curves:
Obtain extra graticules for the flaw detector. Clear radiographic film is a good
substitute, as you must construct curves for each of your probes and for each
calibration distance i.e. 100mm, 200mm or more.
Obtain a maximised signal from the nearest hole in the reference block which is outside
the probe's near zone and adjust the gain until the signal is at 80% FSH. Mark where
the top of the signal comes on the graticule or clear film.
Obtain a signal from the next hole down but do not alter the gain. Maximise the signal
and mark its top on the graticule.
Obtain another signal and mark its top on the graticule.
Obtain another signal from the third hole down, maximise it and mark its top on the
graticule.
Obtain signals from all the relevant holes in the block, reflecting the sound energy from
the backwall if necessary but without altering the gain.
Joint up the marks on the graticule to form a curve and write the probe number and dB
setting on the graticule.
Construct a second curve on the graticule which is 6dB less than the previous gain
setting if required. US specifications like ASME V require this to be done.
Construct curves on separate graticules for each of your probes.
Work out a transfer correction, see section 12.5, when you conduct an examination.
Increase or reduce the gain setting used during curve construction as appropriate.
Examine the test material as instructed in the specifications.
Compare the signals from discontinuities to the curves on your screen. Any signal
above the curve shows a reflector larger than the reference hole.
Accept or reject discontinuities as instructed in the specification you are working to.
Advantages:
a A quick way of accepting or rejecting discontinuities without too much time
consumed in sizing reflectors.
b Some idea can be gained of the discontinuities size in relation to reference holes.
c Uniformity, provided by all technicians constructing their curves from the same
test block.
Disadvantages:
a Curves must be constructed for each probe in conjunction with each set.
b Transfer correction must be worked out, see section 12.5.

SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUWE TESTlNG
DIMENSION A
in inches
-
1
16
i
i
?
3
t1
7
5
1
It
1i
f
3:
DIMENSION B 3:
in inches 4:
1 4:
M
1 5:
M
L 5!
M
Hitt block dimensions
DIMENSION A
in m m
3 6
10 20
30 40
50 70
100 150
DIMENSION B
in mm
UK Defence Quality Assurance Board (DQAB)

block diagrams
Fig.12.3. (Hitt blocks). Flat bottom holes

12.3 Flat Bottomed Holes (FBH)

Blocks are drilled with flat bottomed holes to precise diameters and set distances from
the top of the biock. These diameters and distances are stamped on the side of the
block.
When setting sensitivities the specification or technique will specify the block to be used
and the amplitude of signal to be obtained from the FBH.
Blocks are cut for use with 0' probes or angle probes in different materials.
This method is mostly used in aerospace.
Advantages:
a Easy to use
b Uniformity assured when different technicians use the same blocks
c Blocks can be made from different materials
Disadvantages:
a Fairly rigid system for specific applications
b Large number of blocks needed for different settings
c Transfer correction usualiy needed, see section 12.5
d Blocks for angle probes are rarely cut exactly normal to the beam.
You may hear these blocks called H l l T or ALCOA blocks, after the originators.
12.4 Using Noise

Work out the maximum range at which you will be examining test material. Place the
probe on the material with couplant applied. Turn up the gain until you have 2mm
grass on the screen at the maximum range. You will now have the assurance of
knowing that any discontinuity larger than the grain size will show up on the screen.
Advmtages:
a Quick and easy
b No reference block is needed
c Any defect larger than the material grains will show up
d No transfer correction needed
Disadvantages:
a No accurate sizing of the defect
b Discontinuities near the surface of the test material may be hidden in the 'grass'
12.5.1 COMPRESSION PROBE METHOD
12.5 TRANSFER
CORRECTION
12.5.2 ANGLE PROBE METHOD

SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTfNG
Transfer Correction
Reference blocks usually have smooth machined surfaces while test objects
frequently have rougher and more uneven surfaces. Also the attenuation of
sound in the reference block might be different to that in the test material.
Usually attenuation in the reference block is less than the test material but not
always. This means that allowance must be made for the differences in sound
energy transfer between probe and test material and probe and reference block.
More energy can be passed into a reference block than into a rougher surfaced
component. Hence the artificial defects in reference block may give higher
amplitude signals (anything up to 6dB or even more) than signals from similarly
sized discontinuities in the test materials.
Allowances have to be made for this and corrections made for different surfaces.
This allowance is named transfer correction, or sometimes transfer loss.
There are several methods of determining transfer correction, some requiring the
constuction of separate DAC curves and some requiring calculation according to
formulae.
We explain two simple methods:

SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUC7TVE TES77NG
(ar Gain setting A , (or B , )
(b) Gain setting A 2 (or B2 )
(c) Gain setting A3 (or B3
Fig.12.5.2.a. Probe positions for plotting transfer correction curves
Curve f o r r n a t e r ~ c ~
h v e for DAC block
I
I
R
Beam path range (mm)
NOTE, Correction for attenuation and transfer loss at range R equals (G2- G 1) decibels
Fig.12.5.2.b Determining transfer correction

12.5.1 Compression probe method

Place the probe on the reference block and turn the backwall echo up to FSH. Note the
gain settings. Now place the probe on the test material and at a similar range bring the
BWE to FSH. Again note the gain setting. The difference between them is the transfer
correction.
12.5.2 Angle probe method

As you cannot get a backwall echo with angle probes from a plate or pipewall, you have
to use two probes with the same angle.
Place the two probes opposite each other on the reference block with one probe
transmitting and the other receiving, so that the sound energy is bounced off the
backwall and caught by the receiving probe (Pitch and Catch). See Figs.12.5.2.a and
12.5.2.b.
Maximise the signal and adjust the gain until it is at FSH.
Place the two probes on a piece of test material of the same thickness as the reference
block and repeat the process.
Note the difference between the two gain settings. This is the transfer correction
needed.
Other methods of transfer correction are described in BS3923 and in literature

concerning the DGS system.
-4
P
5
2
0.5 0.7 0.9

___+
D - Rstancc hear fields)
Fig.12.6. DGS diagram for compression probes

12.6 The Distance Gain Size (DGS) Method

The DGS system relies on the laws of large and small reflectors in the Far Zone and
wzs developed to relate the amplitude of a signal to various sizes of "perfect disc
reflectors", flat bottomed holes, so it does not actually size flaws but relates them to an
equivalent reflector. The relative heights of signals from different sizes of flat bottomed
holes at different distances were plotted as curves. The diagram in Fig.12.6 is designed
for compression probes.
Reflector sizes are expressed in terms of the probe diameter and distances from the
probe are expressed as multiples of the near zone.
Now if you have a signal from a flaw at a certain depth, you can compare the signal
size to what the signal of a backwall echo should be at that depth and estimate the size
of flat bottomed hole that would give such a signal at that depth. The defect can then
be sized according to a flat bottomed hole equivalent.
The attenuation factor for the test material must be taken into consideration when using
the DGS system.
EXAMPLE: You are using a 5MHz 10mm diameter compression probe on 100mm thick
steel plate and you find a defect at 60mm depth which gives a signal at FSH with a
30dB gain setting. What is its flat bottomed hole equivalent? First, work out the probe
near zone. It is 21 mm, so the defect is at a distance of 3 near zones.
Now get a backwall echo and find what the dB reading is. Say it is 20dB when the
BWE is at FSH. lOOmm is 5 Near Zones. What will it be at 60mm, 3 near zones?
Refer to the DGS curves. If the BWE is a FSH with 20dB at 100mm, by the law of
large reflectors and according to the BWE line on the DGS curves a BWE at 60mm
should reach FSH at 16dB, 4dB less than at 100mm.
The signal height from the flaw is 30dB, 14dB more than the BWE. Look down the
scale 14dB at 3 near zones from the BWE and you find that the nearest line is 0.5 of
the probe diameter. The probe diameter is 10mm so the nearest equivalent flat
bottomed hole to the flaw had a diameter of 5mm.
By similar working, a sensitivity setting can be worked out for a flat bottomed hole of a
certain diameter at a given range to a given screen height and the flaw detector gain
set accordingly.
The DGS system has these advantages:
a You can choose a gain level for sizing
b It tells you the smallest defect you can find at a given range
c It provides the basis for an acceptlreject system
d It gives a rough equivalent to the size of a flaw
e There is uniformity between results from different technicians

But it has some disadvantages:
a Operators must keep referring to a chart and making calculations
b Attenuation must be taken into account
c No account is taken of flaw orientation
d It is most effective on small defects
e It is an equivalencing not a sizing system
f Flaw surfaces and shapes are not ideal reflectors, therefore signal amplitudes are
not the same as a comparative FBH.
For angle probes, plastic slides have been manufactured by Krautkramer to fit over the
CRT screen. The set is calibrated and gain setting is made by bringing the back wall
echo or the echo from the 1.5mm hole on the V2 block up to marks on the slide. Flat
bottomed hole equivalents for flaws can then be read straight off the slide.
The DGS system is widely used in Germany.

13.1 LOCATING FLAWS
13.0 LOCATING AND SIZING

FLAWS IN B U R WELDS
13.2 SIZING FLAWS

13.1 Locating Flaws

You can calculate the location of a flaw by using trigonometric formulas. You need to
know the angle of the probe and the standoff measured from the centre of a weld.
It is quicker and easier, however, to use a flaw location slide and a beam plot or even a
piece of clear plastic film with the probe angle drawn on it. Use the slide as follows:
Draw a cross section of the weld on the transparent outer envelope of the slide. Draw
a mirror image of the weld cross section immediately under it if the sound energy is
going to bounce off the backwall, i.e. using full skip. Use the printed datum line on the
plastic envelope as the centre of the weld and measure all standoffs from it.
Maximise the echo from a defect and mark where the index point falls on the parent
metal. Measure its distance from the centre of the weld.
Note the range of the defect on the CRT.
Move the datum line on the plastic envelope to the standoff distance. Look along the
centre of the beam plot until you come to the range shown on the screen. Make a
mark on the envelope this represents the centre of the defect it shows the defect's
position in the weld body.
13.2 Sizing Flaws

To size the through thickness dimension of the weld, maximise the signal from the
defect and adjust the gain until the signal is at FSH.
Push the probe forward until the signal drops by 20dB (10dB for a 70" probe). Note the
standoff and range.
Plot the edge of the defect on the chart using the trailing edge of the beam plot.
Now pull the probe back until the signal from the defect maximises and falls off again by
20dB (10dB for a 70" probe).
Note the standoff and range, then plot the other edge of the defect along the leading
edge of the beam plot. The measured distance between the two plotted points is the
width of the flaw.
To find the length of the defect, use the 6dB drop as follows:
Move the probe sideways along the defect until the signal peaks for the last time.
Sometimes we may move right off the reflector and then back on, to verify this last
significant echo. Maximise the signal from the last peak, then move the probe sideways
until the signal drops 6dB to 50% FSH. Mark where the centre of the probe coincides
with the parent metal. This shows one end of the defect.
Move the probe to the other end of the defect and maximise the signal from the last
peak. Adjust the gain until the peak signal is at FSH. Move the probe sideways until
the signal drops to 50% FSH. This marks the other end of the defect and all you have
to do is measure the distance between the two marks to find the length of the defect.
14.1 ROOT FLAWS
14.00 IDENTIFYING FLAWS

IN WELDS
14.2 FACE AND BODY FLAWS

SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUmE TESTlNG
14.0 IDENTIFYING FLAWS IN B U T WELDS

It is m! always easy to identify a defect, but by noting its position in the weld and by
rnoLi-; the probe around the defect and watching the changing signal on the screen
you CZI come to a reasonably accurate conclusion. Knowledge of the welding process
is essential, as is knowledge of the weld preparation, weld dimensions, size of the gap
and o:er factors. Slag is unlikely in a TIG weld and lack of sidewall fusion is not likely
in the ~ i d d l eof the weld metal. Cracks are more likely in thick welds than in thin
welds. Fusion defects are more likely in automatic weld processes than in manual
processes.
To zit the identification of defects there are four basic probe movements:
a rotational (or swivel in BS3923)
b orbital
d ?aversing (or depth in BS3923)
In adcltion the shape, amplitude and time-spread of a reflector as represented on the

screen, can give clues as to the identity of a flaw. We talk of a SPECULAR reflector,
that is with a mirror like face, where all the sound is reflected back to the source of
energ. Providing that is, that the probe and flaw are correctly orientated. A sidewall
fusion Raw is nearest to this ideal.
Ho%eU;zr,at the other extreme, porosity can be considered as a large number of small
spheVsealreflectors which cause the energy to reflect everywhere. Rather like the light
reflecog from a disco ball hanging from the ceiling. Porosity is a DIFFUSE reflector.
By combining these movements and watching the movement of the signal on the screen
you ~ 2 draw
7 conclusions. Characteristics of different defects are shown in the
accomanying diagrams, with explanations adjacent.
14.1.1 EXCESS PEN ETRATiON
14.1.2 ROOT CONCAVITY
14.1 ROOT FLAWS 14.1.3 ROOT CRACK
14.1.4 LACK OF PENETRATION
14.1.5 LINEAR MISALIGNMENT

14.1 Root Flaws

The signal from a root flaw will appear on the timebase while you are scanning laterally
along a straight edge, at a fixed position from the root. Once the signal is maximised
by getting the best reflection from the flaw it can be assumed that the centre of the
beam is hitting the bottom of the flaw. Fine adjustment of the straight edge will perhaps
be necessary.
Fig.14.1.1. Excess penetration
Fig.14.1.2. Root concavity
Crack I
Fig.14.1.3. Root crack

13.1.1 Excess Penetration

Echo amplitude between 10 and 90%, dependent on depth and probe angle.
Multirange Signal
Echo falls rapidly when traversed with 70" probe, also range increases.
Probe Movement
Echo falls rapidly when angle probe traversed forward.
Measurement
Not possible to measure depth with angle probe. Length difficult but usually by 6dB.
14.1.2 Root Concavity

Echo sharp and large, with reduced range. Often mode conversion with 60" probe.
Probe Movement
Traverse backwards echo falls more rapidly than lack of penetration.
Measurement
Use centre of beam and 20dB drop (trailing edge) for height. Not always possible to
measure height.
14.1.3 Root Crack

Usually high amplitude response with 'fir tree' appearance.
Probe Movement
Orbit, echo held over large angle.
Lateral, echo held with multirange signals and variations on time base.
Measurement
6dB for length.
Traverse forward with 20dB for height.
Fig.14.1.4. Lack of penetration
Fig.14.1.5. Misalignment
14.1.4 Lack oi Penetration

Similar :o corner rettector with large, narrow echo from both sides.
Probe ?.fovement
Confirr with 70" probe, when traversed.
Large rovement for 20dB drop.
Orbit, echo falls rapidly.
Measurement
Lateral use 6dB or 20dB drop.
Traverse use 20dB or 10dB for 70" probe.
14.1.5 Misalig~ment
Large shgle echo from one side. No echo from opposite side.
Probe r.!ovement
Traversz back echo falls rapidly.
Measurement
Lateral for 6dB drop.
14.2.1 LACK OF FUSION
14.2.2 CRACK
FACE AND BODY 14.2.3 GAS PORE

FLAWS
14.2.4 POROSITY
14.2.5 LINEAR INCLUSION

14.2 Face and Body Flaws

A degree of extra flexibility can be applied when flaws are located at the face or in the
body of a weld. The diagrams illustrate the characteristic shape of the screen
presentation but are ideal rather an actual. Nonetheless we hope you follow our
reasoning and logic.
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTNE TES7lNG
Fig.14.2.1. CRT representation of lack of fusion
Fig.14.2.2. CRT representation of a crack

Lack of Fusion
Echo large, single, narrow at time base when side wall. Poor echo from opposite side.
Confirm by skip scan.
Probe Movement
Rotate or orbit, echo falls rapidly. bteral or traverse echo height held.
Measurement
For depth use 20dB. For length use 6dB or 20dB.
Crack
Multiple peak reflector usually high amplitude, but dependent on type of crack and size,
echo with 'fir tree' appearance.
Probe Movement
Orbit - echo held over large angle compared with fusion defects.
Lateral - signal held with varying height.
Measurement
For length use 6dB or 20db
For depth use 20dB.
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTNE TESTlNG
Fig.14.2.3. CRT Representation of a gas pore
Fig.14.2.4. CRT Representation of porosity

14.2.3 Gas Pare

S p h e r ~even
l reflector single peak echo, narrow profile, similar to drilled hole or radius
of caiiz-ation block intensity approximately 50% CRT.
Probe Yovement
Rotate. lateral and traverse echo falls rapidly. Orbit echo height remains.
me as^-ement
Impracxal to measure height and length. Report as isolated reflector. Equate
reflect..ity against disc area or DGS.
14.2.4 Pores?,'
Multipk peak echo. Low intensity 20% CRT broad at time base due to numerous
ranges.
Probe ?,lovement
Orbit - echoes held with amplitude variations.
Meask-ement
Indicax area by pin-pointing last maximum signal from traverse and lateral scans.
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTNE TESTING
Fig.14.2.5. CRT Representation of linear inclusion (slag)

14.2.5 Linear Inclusion (slag)

Echo may be wide at timebase and will be multi faceted, due to more than a single
range. Height will vary between 20% and 90%.
Probe Movement
Orbit, echo held with various maxima and minima. Similar with traverse.
Rotational, echo will drop quickly.
Lateral, will produce large variations in height.
Perhaps with total loss of signal for short distances less than beam width.
15.1 BS3923
15.2 TEST PROCEDURE
15.3 COMPRESSION SCAN
15.4 ROOT SCAN
15.5 WELD SCAN
15.0 B U l 7 WELD
r-'
EXAM l NATION
15.6 TRANSVERSE SCAN
15.7 DOUBLE V WELDS
15.8 PIPES
15.9 REPORTING
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTNE TES77NG
Table 2. Minimum scanning sensitivity levels
E x a m i n a t i o n Level 1 2 3
Normal beam
scans I DAC+14dB DAC+8dB I DAC+8dB
Scans for Method and

longitudinal DAC + 14 dB DAC + 14 dB DAC + 8 dB level by
imperfections agreement
Scans for
transverse DAC + 20 dB DAC + 14 dB DAC + 8 dB'
imperfections
I I I
* W h e n requested b y the purchaser (see 3.3(e)).
NOTE 1. Where excesswe grass IS experienced at t h e m l n l m u m s e n s m v t t y settlngs q u o t e d , a l o w e r
frequency p r o b e IS recommended. Where excessive glass 1s st111experienced w ~ t a h lowet flequency
probe. ~t ts ~ e c o m m e n d e dt h a t testlng should o n l y c o n t i n u e b y agreement b e t w e e n t h e
c o n t r a c t t n g partles.
NOTE 2. + means m o r e sensltlve.
Fig.lS.1. Sensitivity levels in BS3923

SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCT/VE TESTiNG
15.0 BS3923
British Standard 3923 describes the procedure for examining welds and details beam
paths to be used for welds of different configurations e.g. plates, pipes nozzles and
nodes. To standardize methods of examination BS3923 recommends the use of
distance amplitude curves and different sensitivity settings to match the criticality of
different examinations. Sensitivity is set higher for examining, say, a high pressure
steam pipe in a chemical works than it is for a comparatively low pressure line in a
refinery. A chart detailing sensitivity for the different examination levels is given in
Fig.15.1.
Different procedures are followed on different projects. Usually the test procedure is
formulated before the job starts so the technicians know exactly what is expected of
them.
For butt welds, the accepted procedure is as follows:
a A COMPRESSION SCAN to check the parent metal on either side of the weld for
laminations and to check through thickness dimensions.
b A ROOT SCAN to check the root for longitudinal defects such as lack of
penetration, lack of root fusion, cracking or mismatch.
c A WELD BODY SCAN with shear probes to check the sides of the weld and the
weld body for longitudinal defects like lack of fusion, cracks, slag and porosity.
d A TRANSVERSE WELD SCAN to check the weld for transverse and chevron
cracking.
e SIZING defects
f REPORTING
The above details are usually covered in a TEST PROCEDURE.

15.2 Test Procedure

Before testing starts, the UT operator should be given a procedure with the following
details:
The examination level: Whether the examination is critical, in house, for a client and
other relevant details to enable him to carry out his examination in accordance with the
client's instructions.
The material: Hard steel, forged steel, cast steel, alloy or other metal.
The manufacturing stage at which the examination is to be carried out. Before or after
heat treatment, 48 hours after welding, before or after machining and other
circumstances.
The joint preparation and dimensions: The included angle in the weld is essential
knowledge, the dimensions of the root gap and face through thickness, and width if
applicable.
The welding procedure: This will enable the operator to expect defects common to the
prescribed welding procedure e.g. lack of sidewall fusion in automatic MIG welding, slag
in manual metal arc welds.
The surface condition: Should be better than 6.3 micrometers roughness average or as
agreed by client and customer.
The couplant type: Grease is sometimes forbidden as it can affect paint bonding.
The type of flaw detector.
The details of scans and probes to be used: These are detailed in BS3923.
The sensitivity settings: n e s e vary considerably, methods can use the IOW block,
DAC techniques, the DGS system or special reference blocks.
The design and type of test block or reference block if any.
The datum points: Dimensions and positions of defects must ba measured from these.
The reporting requirements: Often a set report form is used on projects and the
operator is expected to fill it out to a set formula.
The acceptance standard: Large companies have their own standards, some common
standards can be applied to set jobs, eg ASME IX. Some techniques are supplied by
manufacturers, particularly in the aerospace industry. Basically the operator must know
what discontinuity or flaw is acceptable and what is to be rejected.
The operator qualification: An operator working on plate should be qualified to PCN 3.1
level or equivalent. Someone examining offshore structures should hold a PCN 3.9
qualification or equivalent. Other qualifications may be required.
SCHOOL OF APPL/ED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
All these questions should be considered before the job starts and the operators should
be made aware of them. On well run projects a UT procedure is agreed between the
client, customer and inspection company before work starts.
It is essential that the component examined by the operator is correctly identified. The
operator should be shown the component he is to examine and the exact weld
identification written down for him. This avoids misunderstanding, ambiguity and time
wasting. If the weld has been radiographed, checked by MPI or PFD, have a look at
the radiographs or the test result.
SCHOOL OF APPUED NON-DESTRUCTNE TESnNG
- .
Fig.15.3.a. Locating the centreline of the weld
Full skip
Probe
movement
v
A A A A A A
Probe
movement
Full skip
I
r' i
Fig.15.3.b. Scan area for compressional probe

15.3 Compression Scan

Make a visual examination of the weld. Note if there is any spatter, rust or inaccessible
areas. Look for surface defects, lack of fill, undercut, gross misalignment, cracks or
surface porosity.
Find the centre of the weld. It is from the centre of the weld that you must measure
stand offs. If the root is detectable, find the root from both sides with a 60" probe.
Mark where the index point falls on both sides of the weld when the root signal is
maximised and the weld centre is midway between the two marks. See Fig.15.3.a.
Note the thickness of the parent metal on either side of the weld. Be sure there is no
counterboring.
Examine the parent metal on either side of the weld with a 0" compression probe with
sensitivity set a 2nd BWE to FSH or the sensitivity given in the procedure. Look for
changes in thickness and for lamination. You should cover the parent metal either side
of the weld to full skip distance for the highest angle probe, that is for a 60" or a 70"
probe. See Fig.15.3.b.
Mark any discontinuities found in the parent metal.
Draw a cross-section of the weld on the slide of your beam plotting chart one you are
sure of the weld dimensions.
If the cap of the weld has been dressed ground flush with the parent metal, examine the
body of the weld with the 0" probe. If a backing bar has been used, check bonding at
the root if possible.
Check the root on a double sided weld if the cap has been ground flush. Lack of
penetration at the root will sometimes show with a 0" probe.
If.you are examining a single V weld with a dressed cap, a 0" probe scan of the weld
can reveal lack of inter run fusion and large pockets of slag.
SCHOOL OF APPUED NON-DESTRUWE TESTlNG
Index
4 Stand off
Fig.15.4.a. Establishing root scan position
Stand off
/
Straight edge
Fig.15.4.b. Lateral line scan of root

15.4 Root Scan

Use a 70" probe for the root scan if possible. Work out the half skip distance for a 70"
degree probe to put the beam centre exactly through the centre of the root.
Measure out the half skip distance on the parent metal either side of the weld
measuring from the centre line of the weld. Draw lines either side of the weld at this
distance. Note the range of the root centre along the main beam. See Fig.15.4.a.
Set the GAIN from an IOW block so a hole at the depth of the root will give an echo to
FSH. (Or set the GAIN according to the set procedure).
Place the probe index point on the line and put a magnetic ruler or strip behind it as a
guide. See Fig.15.4.b.
Move the probe laterally along the weld. Signals from a good root should be small
while defects will give a large signal. Signals from a fully penetrated root will usually
appear just beyond the range of the root centre.
Mark any defects on the parent metal or on the magnetic guide behind your probe.
Find the height of the defect using a 20dB drop on the trailing edge of your beam.
Record the defect on a sketch and note standoff distance and range.
SCHOOL OF APPUED NON-DESTRUCTNE TESTING
Mark \
'I,skip
/ Mark full skip (
t 'I,weld width
Fig.15.5.a. Location of '1, and full skip distances
4 Stand off 4
-
I 1 ' 1
1
Range
Fig.15.5.b. Maximising signal reflectivity
L
Fig.15.5.c. Locating flaw position on beam plotter
15.5 Weld Scan

Many standards and procedures demand that the first weld scan is done with a probe
beam which meets the joint face as near to 90" as possible. Almost traditionally this
i means a 60" probe, although of late angles have become steeper and thus a 70" probe
i finds more favour.
If a 60' probe is first used follow up with a 70" probe if the plate thickness is less than
25mm and a 45" probe if it is thicker than 20mm. There is a bit of an overlap between.
Use your beam plot and flaw location slide to work out the half skip distance to the root
centre and full skip distance plus half the weld width to the top of the weld. Mark these
stand off distances on the parent metal on either side of the weld. Note the range of
the root can cap. See Fig.15.5.a.
Set GAIN so a hole at maximum range will be at FSH using an IOW block or use the
sensitivity setting given in the procedure.
Move the 60" probe backwards and forwards along the weld on either side so that the
beam covers the sidewalls and centre body of the weld. Defects should maximise
between the root and cap signals. If any signal occurs near the cap, use a couplant
covered finger to damp any signal that may be coming from the cap, thus identifying its
position.
Use the beam plot and flaw location slide to locate any defect on the walls or in the
weld body maximising the signal and plotting along the main beam. See Figs.15.5.b.
and c.
Size the through thickness of the defect using the 20dB drop method and the leading
and trdling edges of the beam. Find the length of the defect using the 6dB or 20dB
drop method.
Note t5e defect on a sketch and note the stand off and range of the centre of the
defect.
Make a second scan of the weld body with a 45" probe, for materials more than 20mm
thick, or a 70" probe if less than 25mm thick.
Check the area just under the cap with a 45" probe if you are examining thicker
material. You may find porosity that the 60" probe has not revealed. Check any defect
already noted and see if it is longer than shown with the 60" probe.
On thinner materials, a 70" probe will confirm defects already noted and may help you
distingzish between signals from a defect and signals from, say, the weld cap or mode
change.
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUC77VE TESDNG
Fig.15.6.a. Probe movement for transverse scan. (Weld cap on)
Fig.15.6.b. Probe movement for transverse scan. (Weld cap removed)

15.6 Transverse Scan

Place a 60" or 70' probe beside the weld cap angled slightly inwards and the probe
along the weld to find transverse cracking. Turn the probe mund and check in the
opposite direction. See Fig.15.6.a.
Examine the we16 along the other side in both directions.
If the weld has been dressed, push the probe along the centre line of the weld in both
directions, then pcsh it along both edges of the weld in both directions. See Fig.15.6.b.
Fig.15.7.a. Root position for a double V weld
Fig.15.7.b. Probe scanning positions for a double V weld
'/, width
Fig.15.7.c. Probe scanning positions for a thin double V weld

15.7 Double V Welds

If a weld had been welded from both sides, it can be examined from both sides. The
method for examining a double V weld is not much different from that used for a single
V weld.
Examine the root with a 70" probe straight into the root at 114 skip. Run the probe
laterally along the weld with sensitivity set from a hole in the IOW block at a suitable
range; this should show any lack of penetration at the root. See Fig.15.7.a.
Make body scans with 60" and 45" probes from both sides of the weld if the plate is
thick (over 25mm) using % skip to lh skip stand off. See Fig.15.7.b.
On thinner plate, use a 60" and 70" probe from one side of the weld only between 114
skip and full skip and 1/2 weld thickness stand off positions. Take great care in locating
the defects and reporting, as you will have to use a mirror image on your plotting chart
and this can lead to confusion. You may find a defect and place it on the wrong side of
the weld. See Fig.15.7.c.
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTNE 7ES77NG
Sin 0 --
ID
OD
0-
ID
Angle Sin-' -
OD
Fig.15.8. Finding the probe angle to reach bores

15.8 Pipes
Circumferential pipe welds can be examined as butt welds in plates are examined, that
is:
a A compression scan either side of the weld to full skip plus half weld width
distance.
b A root scan at a fixed beam path distance using a flexible strip at the back of the
probe to ensure that the centre of intensity of the beam goes into the centre of
the root.
c Scans of the weld walls and body with angle probes. Here the flexible strip can
be used to mark the extent of tracking distance so you do not have to take your
eyes off the screen and you will not be so confused by echoes from the cap,
particularly on thin walled pipes.
d Transverse scan. Here difficulty may arise, as you must be sure that the beam
reaches the bore of the pipe.
The flexible guide is convenient for marking defects. All defects must be measured
from a datum point. The "button" at the top of the weld is a convenient datum point.
When examining a longitudinal weld on a pipe or when doing a transverse check on a

circumferential weld you must choose a probe angle that will reach the bore of the pipe.
To do this use this formula and see Fig.15.8.
lNSIDED'AMtTERoFPIPE =SINEOFMAXIMUM PROBEANGLE

OU7SIDE DIAMETER OF PIPE
So a 12" pipe with a 1" wall will need what probe angle?
- = 0.8333 which is the sine of 56" 26.

12
A 60' probe will not reach the bore of this pipe, so a 45" probe is advised.
15.9 Reporting
Every UT report must contain the following information:
a Job identification
b Material
c Identification of the test procedure
d Stage of examination at which the test was made
e Operator's name and qualifications
f Date of test
g Cross section of weld as inspected showing dimensions and indicating weld

preparation and set up
h Type and number of flaw detector
i Make, type, frequency and angle of probes used
j Calibration and reference blocks used
k Sensitivity levels and reporting level if applicable
I Transfer correction and any attenuation correction
m Sketch of scanning pattern used and indicating any areas that were inaccessible
n Report on parent metal describing any laminations, surface flaws or areas of high
attenuation
o Test results showing flaws in relation to datum poink,in plan
p Sketch of location of flaws in the weld cross section with depth and through
thickness
q Reference to a standard or code
r Opeiator's signature
Every UT report should include a statement of whether or not flaws are acceptable to
specifications applicable to the component or should accompany a similar statement
from a responsible inspector or supervisor.
Report forms are often provided for an operator to fill out. Any report form should be so
designed as to provide space for the information above.
16.1 TIME BASE LINEARITY
16.2 LINEARITY OF EQUIPMENT GAIN
16.3 SENSITIVITY AND SIGNAL TO NOISE

RATIO
16.0 MAINTENANCE CHECKS
16.4 SQUINT
16.5 PULSE DURATION
16.6 RESOLVING POWER

16.0 MAINTENANCE CHECKS

It is the duty of the ultrasonic operator to check the performance of his equipment
regul&y. Details are given in British Standard BS4331 Part 1. This specifies the
following checks:
Linearity of the flaw detector's time base - weekly
Calibration of the time base - whenever a probe is changed
Linearity of equipment gain - weekly
hdex points on all angle probes - at least daily
Angles of all probes - at least daily
Sensitivity and signal to noise ratio - daily
Beam alignment (squint) - weekly or when damage is suspected
Beam width in vertical plane - daily
Pulse duration - daily
This s-adard details methods of monitoring probes in Part 3 and BS2704 gives
dimensions and manufacturing standards for calibration blocks.
These standards only apply to pulse-echo techniques and not to other ultrasonic
methocs.
In the aerospace industry different standards may apply and different calibration blocks
may be used.
C a l i b r ~ o nof time base, checking index points, angles and beam plotting have already
been czscribed, so'we will show you how to carry out the remaining checks and
resolvicg power, as promised in section 3.4.
16.1 Time Base Linearity

Place a compression probe on the side of a V1 block and adjust RANGE and DELAY
until you have ten backwall echoes.
Adjust RANGE and DELAY until the first and last echoes coincide with scale marks.
Bring successive backwall echoes up to 80% FSH and check that the leading edge of
each signal lines up with the appropriate graticule line. Deviation should not be more
than 2%.
This check is to be made weekly
16.2 Linearity of Equipment Gain

Obtain a signal from the 1.5mm hole in a V1 or V2 and set it to 80% FSH. Increase
the signal height using the attenuatorlgain control by 2dB and check that the signal
increases to 100% FSH. Reduce the signal height using the attenuatorlgain control by
2dB and check the signal goes back to 80% FSH. Reduce signal height as before by
6dB and check the signal falls to 40% FSH. Reduce signal height as before by a
further 12 dB and check the signal falls to 10% FSH. Finally reduce the signal height a
further 6dB and check the signal falls to 5% FSH.
SCHOOL OF APPUED NON-DESTRUCTNE TESTING
Vl block
Angle of
squint
I I -1
Ruler
/
This angle should
be 90" if the
probe is aligned
properly
Fig.l6.4.a.&b.Squint or beam alignment

16.3 Sensitivity and Signal to Noise Ratio

Obtain a signal from the 1.5mm hole in the V1 or V2 blocks and set it to 20% FSH.
Note the dB setting.
Increase signal height on the attenuatorlgain control until the grass at the same range
reaches 20% FSH and note the difference between the two dB readings.
The first reading gives an idea of the sensitivity of the probe and flaw detector.
The difference between the two readings gives the signal to noise ratio.
This check should be done daily.
16.4 Squint
Direct the probe at the radius of a V1 block and maximise the signal. If the edge of the
probe is not parallel to the edge of the block, the sound beam is not properly aligned
and the probe has "squint".
To measure the beam alignment (squint angle) proceed as follows:
Place the probe to be checked on the side of a V1 block and obtain a signal from the
edge of the block at half skip.
Maximise the signal by swivelling the probe.
Lay a ruler along the side of the probe and draw a line along the ruler to meet the edge
of the block. Measure the angle it makes with a protractor. The line should meet the
edge of the block at 90". If it does not, the beam is not aligned, the probe has "squint".
See Fig.16.4
This check should be done weekly or when the probe is considered suspect due to
wear or damage.
SCHOOL OF APPUED NON-DESTRUCTWE TESnNG
STEEL mm
Freq Compressional Shear
Table 16.6.a. Resolution values (21)
STEEL mm
Freq Compressional Shear
Table 16.6.b. Resolution values (2.5h)

16.5 Pulse Duration

Calibrate the timebase and obtain an echo of the 1.5mm hole in a V1 or V2 block.
Adjust the GAIN until the signal from the hole is 100% FSH.
Measure the width of the signal in miltimetres at 10% FSH.
This check should be done daily in conjunction with the probe index check.
16.6 Resolving Power (Resolution)

As we said in Section 3.4, resolution is the ability of a probelset combination to
distinguish between two echoes which are close together in terms of distance. The best
we must achieve are distances less than 2 wavelengths apart or more reasonably 2.5)~.
What this means is illustrated in Tables 16.6.a and b.
Also the screen trace must show the 2 signals distinctly split to more than half their
height i.e.> 6dB. See Fig.16.6.a.
To measure the resolving power of the probe matched to a particular set, first work out
which are the appropriate steps on the A.7 resolution block. See Fig.16.6.b. Place the
probe in the centre of radii but on the flat face of the block. Obtain echoes from the
steps of interest and see if the signal on the screen separates into two peaks at half
height (6dB). If they do not, find what steps do resolve.
The check described is good for both compressional and shear probes, but if a critical
check is to be done we suggest that the A.6 block is used. See Fig.16.6.c.
SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUC77VE TESTING
Fig.16.6.a. Screen trace showing full and partial resolution
Probe
-
I
Fig.16.6.b. Block for resolving power (A.7.)
17.1 WELD PROFILES
17.2 T BUTT WELDS
L
17.0 COMPLEX WELDED JOINTS
17.3 NOZZLES
1.7;4 NODES
17.1 Weld Profiles

When inspecting T butts, nozzles and nodes you must make careful drawings of weld
cross-sections. This can be done using a profile gauge (sometimes called a mimic) or
a flexible strip.
To use a profile gauge, push the gauge onto the profile you wish to reproduce and
make sure all the wires touch the profile surface.
Lift the gauge from the profile and trace the profile onto a piece of paper. Check the
thickness of the parent metal and make an exact cross sectional drawing of the weld
you wish to examine. On a variable geometry weld several drawings are necessary.
A flexible strip of lead or a plastic strip with internal wires is an effective alternative to a
profile gauge.
Use a SANDT Beam Path Location Rule to plan scans. See fig.17.1. If you have not
got one, get a piece of clear plastic film and trace probe beam angles onto it. Trace the
beam paths from the illustration if you wish.
Accurate cross sectional drawings are essential when examining complex welds.
Compression scan of parent material,
for laminations, and areas of
high attenuation.
Other defects in plate 81weld.
a. Lamellar tear.
b. Weld defects, slag, gas pores.
c. Toe cracks.
d. Land - extension cracks.
e. Lack of fusion.
2. Shear scan
To confirm some o f the above
defects, and find planar defects
not orientated for the compression
probe scan.
Fig.17.2. Examination of 'T' butt weld by ultrasonics

17.2 T Butt Welds

.
.-. When examining butt welds, access to one surface only is required for a full coverage
of the weld even with double V welds. With T welds and with nodes and nozzles
access to more than one side is necessary for full coverage and when this is impossible
you should state the fact on your report form.
T butt ,welds are either full penetration welds or partially penetrated welds with a "land of
no we:d' or unfused portion. If the weld is partially penetrated, you must make sure the
land of no weld is no larger than design permits and that cracks are not found at the
edge of the land, as is sometimes the case.
Make 2 careful cross sectional drawing of the weld before attempting to check it. This
will enale you to plan your examination of the weld with different angle probes and to
know here signals from caps, lands and backwalls should appear on the screen so
you czn distinguish these from discontinuities. Beam paths drawn on a piece of clear
film are useful.
Scan b e parent material for laminations with a compression probe with a sensitivity set
at 2nd BWE to FSH. If there is a land of no weld, plot this using the 6dB drop method
and m u k it on the plate.
Scan b e weld area from the flange side with a compression probe set from a 1.5mm
hole in the IOW block at plate thickness to FSH or the sensitivity gain in the procedure ,
this should show any lamellar tearing in the plate and any fusion defects where the weld
meets f i e plate. Scan from the flange as shown with a 60" or 45" probe to find toe
cracks, land extension cracks and porosity in the weld.
Scan h r n both sides of the web to find fusion defects in the web to weld metal fusion
face w2-1appropriate angle probes.
Set -on branches
Set-in branches
Through nozzle Through nozzle

or branch with partial or branch with full
penetration weld penetration weld
Fig.17.3a-c. Nozzle welds

Nozzles
Nozzle welds are simi:ar to T butt welds, but instead of joining two plates, a "branch" is
joined to a "shell", one pipe is joined to another. Again, like T butt welds, nozzles can
be fully penetrated or prtially penetrated.
There are three basic types of nozzle weld, "set in", "set on" and "set throughu. The
technique used for examining these welds ultrasonically follows roughly the same
procedure as the examination of a T butt weld. A lamination check, a compression
check from the inside of the shell, an angle probe check from inside the shell and finally
an angle check from both sides of the branch. On many occasions one or two of these
surfaces may be inaccessible, in which case your examination will not have complete
coverage. If this is so you must state it in your final report.
A problem with many nozzles is their changing geometry. The cross section of the weld
changes its shape as you move round. Make careful cross sectional drawings on the
weld at different points of its circumference using a profile gauge, a "mimic gauge", or a
lead strip which you can bend to reproduce the contours of the weld and then transfer it
to paper. You can now use a beam path on a clear film to plan scans and locate flaws.
Scan the parent material for laminations on the shell and the branch with 1st BWE to
FSH or sensitivity given in procedure and map out the land of no weld, if any.
Change the sensitivity using the IOW block with the 1.5mm hole at shell thickness to
FSH or sensitivity given in procedure then scan the fusion faces from the shell side,
looking for lamellar tearing, fusion defects and defects in the weld body. Scan the weld
from the shell side with angle probes looking for toe cracking, land extension cracks and
defects in the weld body.
Scan from both sides of the branch with angle probes to find fusion defects on the
branch weld fusion face and defects in the weld body.
Measure stand off posdons from the weld toe on the shell or the branch and use a
beam path to locate defects. See figs.17.3.a-c.
SCHOOL OF APPUED NON-DESTRUC77VE TESTING
17.4 Nodes
Nodes are encountered in structural tubework, for example jacket construction for oil
platforms. Instead of a shell and a branch, we have a "cord", or "main leg" and a
"brace". Access with nodes is usually restricted to full coverage is rarely possible.
Make careful cross sectional drawings of the node at least six point around the weld
using a profile gauge or a flexible strip.
Plan scans using your drawings and a beam chart on a piece of clear film.
Scan the weld from inside the cord if possible and mark the extent of the weld using the
6dB drop method. Use a compression probe with 1st BWE to FSH. Look for
laminations in the parent material. Make a compression check of the cord to weld
fusion face with the 1.5mm hole of the IOW block at FSH at cord thickness. Look for
lack of fusion, lamellar tearing and defects in the weld body.
Scan the root of the weld from the brace side with a 60" or 70" probe at half skip. A
good root will not give an echo. Look for lack of penetration. Scan the volume of the
weld from inside the cord if possible with 45" and 60" probes at half skip or from
outside the cord with 45" and 60" probes at full skip. Look for toe cracking and defects
in the weld body.
Scan the weld body and brace to weld fusion faces with 60" and 70" probes from the
brace. Some areas may be inaccessible, in which case state this in your report.
Plot flaws on your drawings using your beam plot, sizing them as accurately as
possible.

TWI Hitan: Training Certification Scheme

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

TWI Hitan: Training Certification Scheme

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

TWI - HITAN

Training & Certification

The Training Services Group

THE FLAW DETECTOR 70

THE SOUND BEAM 88

TOTAL AlTENUATlON LOSS 96

DEFECT SIZING AND PLATE

0.0 ULTRASONIC 9.0 ANGLE PROBES 114

CONSTRUCTING AN ANGLE BEAM

SENSITIVITY SE'ITING 146

LOCATING AND SIZING FLAWS IN

IDENTIFYING FLAWS IN WELDS 172

B U T WELD EXAMINATION 186

IdAINTENANCE CHECKS 208

COMPLEX WELDED JOINTS 220

1.1 THE SI UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.2 DEFINITION OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE

1.3 HISTORY OF ULTRASONIC TESTING

Frequency hertz Hz = 1 sec-l

1.I The Units of Measurement

Scientific notation is used, which is a useful shorthand for wrCjng numbers

If in doubt write the numbers out in full.

1.2. Definition of Non-Destructive Testing

The five principal methods, excluding visual inspection, are:

Magnetic Particle Inspection

Eddy current testing

In all the NDT metnods interpretation of results is critical. M ~ c hdepends on

1.3 History of Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

In 1929 a Russian physicist Sokolov experimented with techniques of

With the construction of nuclear power stations, ultrasonic testing was

2.2 MODES OF SOUND

2.5 ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE

2.6 ULTRASOUND USED FOR

2.2.4 LAMB WAVES

2.2 Modes of Sound Energy

MATERIAL V COMP V SHEAR

Table 2.2a Typical sound velocities

Table 2.2.b The sound spectrum

Sound travels through air in the COMPRESSIONAL mode at 332 metres

In the SHEAR or TRANSVERSE mode, molecules of a solid move rather

f i e speed of sound in the SHEAR or TRANSVERSE mode is less than it

Obviously there is no SHEAR or TRANSVERSE speed for air or water

Direction of propagation Particle vibration

Direction of propagaticn Particle

2.2.3 Rayleigh or Surface Waves

In the RAYLEIGH or SURFACE mode molecules vibrate in an elliptical

SURFACE waves are about 8% slower than shear waves. In steel,

2.2.4 Lamb Waves

Particle motion is elliptical, as with surface waves.

We can only hear sounds between certain frequencies - more than 20

It rarely occurs to us that there is a whole world of sound that we cannot

Sounds with frequencies above the upper range of human hearing is

Fig .2.4 Relationship of wavelength and frequency

A complete vibration is a change in energy from maximum to minimum

A wavelength is the distance between the highest points of energy. It

We can work out wavelength if we know the speed and frequency of a

If we want to know the wavelength of a 200 Hertz frequency sound wave

If we want to know the wavelength of a 2 Megahertz compression wave

If we want to know the wavelength of a shear wave of 2 Megahertz in

So the wavelength of ultrasonic waves is important because the shorter

2.5 Acoustic Impedance

Acoustic impedance is represented by the letter Z and is the velocity of

where p (the Greek letter rho) is density and V is sound velocity,