gonic lines of end winding mmf, Fig.
3 end paper, the field determined in the neighbor-
view, reference 2 of the discussion.
As mentioned in the assumptions of
this paper and in references 1 and 2 of this
paper the boundary at z=0 is an unbroken
plane, assumed to be of iron with infinite
permeability. Thus gap and slots are
covered. The effect of the air gap then is
considered by assuming the fictitious re-
turns of the coils on a circular filament lying
in the middle of the air gap. On the other
hand, the protruding part of the coils is
connected with the return current part,
along the slots on the end-core plane, by
means of the radial parts which are assumed
to be made of the current bands of the coils
by changing direction from axial to radial.
In this way the radial current sheet is
also assumed to be a continuous current
sheet. This configuration gives satisfac-
tory results for the greater portion of the
tooth area as it is deduced from Figs. 11 and
12 of this paper.
As was stated in the conclusions of the
500-Kv-Line Design
1- Model Studies
W. R. JOHNSON D. D. WILSON
FELLOW IEEE MEMBER IEEE
Summary: The use of model techniques to
assist in the design of a 500-kv transmission
line is shown. These techniques supple-
mented full-scale tests and theoretical cal-
culations. Transient Network Analyzer
(TNA) models were used to establish levels of
switching-surge overvoltages; and nano-
second geometrical models of conductors
and towers, combined with a Monte Carlo
lightning performance computer program,
gave estimates of the transmission-line
lightning performance.
THIS PAPER describes the methods
and results from the use of model
studies with respect to the design of a
500-kv transmission line. Two com-
panion papers'2 present the results of
flashover tests on full-scale towers and
the results of corona loss and radio
noise1 2 studies. The model studies were
for the purpose of investigating the follow-
ing:
1. The probable magnitude of switching
surges and the effect of various system pa-
rameters upon these voltages.
2. The effect of overhead ground wires and
varying levels of tower-footing resistance
upon lightning outages.
The design of 500-kv transmission lines
can be approached and assisted by a
572 Johnson, Wilson, Anderson-500-Kv-Line Design-I
ponent of armature leakage reactance with
hood of the air gap does not correspond to
reality for the following reasons: The air gap
is represented by a return current assumed
to flow in a filament; this makes the cal-
culated maximum flux density tend to in-
finity as we approach the radius p.
A better result can be obtained in this
area if the return filament is replaced by a
washer covering all the width of the air
gap and carrying a distributed peripheral
current. The conductors can also be re-
placed by a staircase instead of the cylinder.
The actual conditions in this area considering
also the complicated geometry (stepped
laminations and slotted teeth) renders the
analytical treatment of the field difficult.
I also wish to thank Dr. Smith for his
valuable discussion. The analysis in this
paper has as its main purpose the calculation
and controlling of associated losses and re-
actances as well as the calculation of forces
on the end winding conductors. I have
used these results to calculate the end com-
J. G. ANDERSON
SENIOR MEMBER IEEE
number of different techniques. High-
voltage test lines built and operated
under a wide range of conditions provide
information of corona loss, radio inter-
ference, and some of the physical prob-
lems of extra-high-voltage (EHV) con-
struction. Full-scale structures sub-
jected to test voltages are used to deter-
mine insulation and air-gap clearances
required to withstand impulse, switching-
surge, and 60-cycle voltages.1
Although these direct empirical meth-
ods give results which are directly appli-
cable to the 500-kv-line design, it is still
necessary, for example, to determine
what magnitude of switching-surge volt-
ages the line is to be designed co with-
stand. Since there are very few data on
actual switching surges at this 60-cycle
voltage level, and since it is not feasible
to cover the range of conditions by full-
scale testing methods now available, the
method of electrical analog testing is
particularly valuable. Likewise, in
studying the effect of ground wires and
footing resistances upon lightning flash-
overs, the use of electrical models com-
bined with mathematical analysis offers
a powerful tool to assist in design of the
line.
the same assumptions given in this paper
and I am planning to present this work in a
separate paper.
A comparison between the results of
reference 4 and this paper is inappropriate
because entirely different machine construc-
tion types were studied. The end core
plane, which in reference 4 is assumed to be a
perfect conductor, is assumed in this paper
to be a magnetic mirror. Due to this con-
dition the return current and radial current
sheet must be considered.
Furthermore, the surface of the retaining
ring considered to be magnetic, is taken as
the internal cylindrical boundary in refer-
ence 4. In this paper, the retaining ring is
nonmagnetic and the rotor shaft is taken as
the internal cylindrical boundary. As a
consequence of this last condition the effect
of the rotor field must also be considered in
the rigorous determination of the end zone
magnetic field and the end component of the
armature leakage reactance.
Over-all Design Philosophy
In January 1962, the Pacific Gas and
Electric Company aild the Pacific Power
and Light Company announced plans
for the construction of a third intertie
between their electric systems. The
existing interconnections operate at 60
kv and 125 kv, respectively. The new
line is being designed and constructed
for conversion to 500 kv (nominal) or
550 kv (maximum), but will be operated
initially at 230 kv. The 230/500-kv
interconnection will be approximately
100 miles long, extending from Round
Mountain, in northern California, to a
contlection with the Pacific Power and
Light system near Klamath Falls, Greg.,
as shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1 (A).
While the Round Mountain-Klamath
Falls litne will serve as an interconnection
between 230-kv systems, it is expected
that it will ultimately connect to a 500-ky
network required for bulk power trans-
mission between major generating sources
and load areas in California. For this
reason it was necessary to consider the
effect of additiolnal 500-kv-line sections
uponl switching-surge magnitudes on the
Round Mountain-Klamath Falls line.
Because of the importance of 500-kv
Paper 63-73, recommended by the AIEE Trans-
mission and Distribution Committee and approved
by the AIEE Technical Operations Department for
presentation at the IEEE Winter General Meeting,
New York, N. Y., January 27-February 1, 1963.
Manuscript submitted October 24, 1962; made
available for printing November 20, 1962.
W. R. JOHNSON is with the Pacific Gas and Electric
Company, San Francisco, Calif.;, D. D. WILSON
is with the General Electric Company, Schenectady,
N. Y.; and J. G. ANDERSON is with the General
Electric Company, Pittsfield, Mass.
AUGUST 1963
lines from a system standpoint, a high
level of reliability is desirable. There-
fore, special attention has been given to
the design with respect to outages re-
sulting from switching surges and light-
ning.
The investigation of switching surges
was planned to include the effects of
variations in major system parameters
such as low- and high-side switching, litle
length, shunt reactors, series capacitors,
and adjacent sections of 500-kv lines.
The results of these tests have provided a
guide in the selection of a switching-surge
level of 2.5 times the maximum 60-cycle
voltage as the criterion for insulator string
and air-gap withstand voltage levels as
described in a companion paper.1
Although the Pacific Gas and Electric
Company has not generally used overhead
ground wires on its 230-kv transmission
lines, it was decided to give careful con-
sideration to their application on the
500-kv line This line will traverse an
area estimated to have an isokeraunic
level of about 15, compared with a level of
0-10 for most of the system. The in-
complete information available indicated
that a substantial improvement in line
performance can be achieved by the use
of overhead ground wires, provided that
tower-footing resistances can be reduced
to reasonable levels. The line is ac-
cordingly being constructed with over-
head ground wires, and tower-footing
resistance will be investigated as the line
is built.
Switching-Surge Studies
Investigation of the switching-surge
transients on the Pacific Gas and Electric
proposed 500-kv line was essentially
divided into two phases:
Phase 1: The initial Klamath Falls-
Round Mountaini line utilizing 230-kv low-
side switching. (A line length of 110 miles
was used for this investigation; the route
now proposed for construction is approxi-
mately 100 miles.)
Phase 2: An assumed extension of the
500-kv line in both directions with line seg-
ments of various lengths as shown in Fig.
1(B). This phase assumed 500-kv switch-
ing on all line sections. Since the study was
primarily concerned with the performance of
the initial 110-mile section, phase 2 results
are restricted to transient voltages produced
on this section as a consequence of abnormal
conditions or to switching, either on this
initial section or on adjoining sections of the
500-kv system.
Fig. 1 depicts the configuration of each
phase of the system investigated on the
TNA. The appropriate 3-phase short-
circuit duties of the 230-kv components
were assumed as follows:
AUGUST 1 963 Johnson, Wilson, A nderson-500-Kv-Line Design-I
KLAMATH FALLS
230/500 KV
300 200 300
MVA MVA MVA
(B)
Fig. 1. Initial and ultimate 500-kv system (numerical quantities are approximate and dotted
components are tentative)
A-Initial Klamath Falls-Round Mountain section
B-Planned Final system
Klamath Falls, 2.OX106 kva (kilovolt-am-
peres)
Round Mountain, 5.7X 106 kva
Station X, 15 X 106 kva
Station Y, 3 X 106 kva
TNA REPRESENTATION
The system being studied was repre-
sented on the TNA as a 3-phase model
system, equivalent to the actual system,
but operating at a reduced voltage.3
The base model frequency is 60 cps
(cycles per second), although slight fre-
quency-base changes may be utilized to
correct model parameters to those of the
actual system.
The model transmission lines are repre-
sented by L sections with the parameters
as noted in Fig. 2. Each of these sec-
tions represents a nominal length of 10
miles, and the correct number is con-
nected in tandem to represent the desired
line length.
Transformers are represented by model
transformers which duplicate the actual
Fig. 2. Typical nominal 10-
mile model line section used
in the TNA study (subscripts
0 and I denote zero and
positive-sequence quantities,
respectively)
ROUND MOUNTAIN
500/230 KV
400 400 500 500
MVA MVA MVA MVA
device. Positive-, negative-, and zero-
sequence leakages are matched to the
actual transformer as well as the satura-
tion characteristics, both positive- and
zero-sequence. Experience has indicated
that the entire saturation characteristic
of a transformer is extremely important
in transient studies, particularly where
high dynamic overvoltages may be
encountered; thus, it is very important
that the transformers are correctly repre-
sented.
Shunt reactors are represented by
linear reactance, with the correct phase
coupling (if such is present in the actual
reactor), as in the case of a 3-phase unit.
Source reactalnces (or equivalent system
reactances) were represented by linear
inductance. In this study the equivalent
X0/Xi ratios were 1.3 and a neutral
reactance was utilized to give this ratio.
Circuit breakers (or other switching
devices) were represented by a synchron-
ously driven switch, each pole (phase)
capable of accurately opening or closing
( CI CO
TIT A~~~~~~
-
RI LI
-L CO
1/3 (Ro- R1) 1/3 (L-LI)
573:

at any point on the driving-voltage sine
wave. Energization angles were re-
stricted to 180 degrees (1/2 cycle) between
the first and last phase to close, which is
consistent with modern power circuit
breakers. Upon opening, the circuit
breakers were assumed to open on con-
secutive current zeros and to be restrike-
free. The driving-source voltage for the
model system was a sine-wave generator,
large enough to appear as an infinite bus
to the model system.
Results
The base voltage throughout the study
was predicated on a Thevenin's Equiva-
lent approach. The system behind a
given point was represented by an im-
pedance in conjunction with a constant
fundamental-frequency voltage source
(ETHEV). With this equivalent, a given
steady-state case could represent various
system-operating conditions such as ener-
gization, de-energization, or load drop-
ping.
For example, assume that the voltage
at the Round Mountain 230-kv bus
rises to 1.2 per unit upon loss of load at
Klamath Falls, as shown by fundamental-
frequency network analyzer studies. Un-
der these conditions, the line will supply
approximately 260 mvar (megavars).
For a system having a short-circuit ca-
pacity of 5,700 mva (megavolt-amperes),
the source voltage, interpreted in terms of
a Thevenin's Equivalent ETHEV cor-
responding to these conditions, would be
574 Johnson, Wilson, A nderson-500-Kv-Line Design-I
Fig. 3. Oscillograms of
mI~' energization transient voltages
t g3 30 at Klamath Falls 500-kv bus
Scdl e:
Vertical: 1 div.=0.47 per-
unit crest volt
Horizontal: 1 div.=5 msec
(milliseconds)
1.15. A source voltage of this magnitude
applied at the infinite bus in Fig. 2 (B)
would duplicate the fundamental-fre-
quency conditions demonstrated by the
a-c board study, but would also include
the correct harmonic distortion produced
by overexcited transformers. One ap-
proach to ascertaining the voltage ETBEV
to be held behind the equivalent reactance
was to perform an a-c network analyzer
study and arrive at the exact values for
various conditions. It was decided,
however, to vary ETHEV over a wide
range, thereby encompassing all possible
conditions.
The voltages in the results are expressed
in per unit of the line to neutral crest
voltage applied at the infinlite bus. A
wide range of per-unit voltages was
applied; thus not only the normal op-
erating region of voltages was considered,
but the limiting conditions were defined,
where the interaction of system ca-
pacitance and the nonlinear magnetizing
impedance of coninected transformers
mnay give rise to abnormal conditions
such as ferro-nonlinear oscillations or to
severe distortion due to harmonics of
frequencies higher than 60 cps.
In energization cases, the three poles of
the circuit breaker were adjusted to pro-
duce the maximum transient within the
limitation of 1/2 cycle between the first
and last poles to close.
Although each phase voltage was
recorded throughout the study, only the
highest voltages were reported for eac
value of ETHEv for the dynamic overvolt-
ages. In the cases where switching was
involved, the results were given for
ETHEV equal to 1.00 per unit.
PHASE 1 [SEE FIG. 1 (A)]
Dynamic Overvoltages
Initially, the dynamic overvoltages
present when the line is energized only
through Round Mountain, with the low-
side breaker at Klamath Falls open, were
considered. The effects of shunt-reactor
compensation, series-capacitor compensa-
tion, and no compensation, were investi-
gated; the results are summarized in
Table I. These results indicate the bene-
fit of shunt reactors in reducing the dy-
namic voltages, although without reactors
the voltages are not detrimental to line or
terminal-apparatus insulation for reason-
able values of voltage at the infinite bus
(1.00 to 1.10 per unit).
Next, the dynamic overvoltages present
when the line is energized through Kla-
math Falls only, with the low-side circuit
breaker open at Round Mountain, were
investigated. In this instance, no shunt
reactors or series capacitors were present
on the system. The results (summarized
in Table II) in this case were, in general,
more severe than those noted in Table I.
This was to be expected, since the line
was energized through a much weaker
source.
Energization Transient Voltages
To determine the severity of initial
energization transients, the 500-kv line,
with the terminating Klamath Falls
autotransformer, was first energized from
the Round Mountain 230-kv circuit
breaker. With ETHEV equal to 1.00 per
unit, this switching condition gave rise
to an energization transient of 2.6 per
unit at Klamath Falls if no reactors were
present on the system, and was not in
excess of the anticipated values.4'6 This
transient voltage, however, was more
Table I
Crest Line-to-Neutral Voltage
Klamath Falls
Round Mountain
500 Kv 500 Kv
Source
Voltage 1* 2t 31 1* 2t 31
1.00 .... 1.13..1.11 1.16..1.11
..........
1.05 .... 1.23..1.13 . 1.27..1.13
1.10 .... 1.32..1.18 . 1.32. 1.18
1.15 ... 1.37 ..1.23 . 1.41 . 1.23
1.20 ... 1.49.. 1.30.1.46 ... 1.60 ..1.30..1.60
* No shunt-reactor or series-capacitor compensa-
tion.
t 100-mvar shunt-reactor compensation on the
tertiary of each transformer.
I No shunt compensation-50% series-capacitor
compensation at Round Mountain.
AUGUST 1963
severe than the anticipated line insulation
would withstand; thus 50-mvar shunt
reactors were added at each terminal
transformer. With these reactors con-
nected, the transient was reduced to 2.12
per unit at Klamath Falls.
Fig. 3 illustrates the transient voltage
on the 500-kv bus at Klamath Falls,
where phase C reaches the value of 2.12
per unit. The point of energization was
changed to the 230-kv low-side breaker at
Klamath Falls and, with 50 mvar on the
tertiary of each transformer, the maxi-
mum energization transient was 2.32
per unit, occurring on the 500-kv bus at
Round Mountain. The waveshape was
similar to that of Fig. 3. The foregoing
illustrated that the energization transients
caused by 230-kv low-side switching
could be reduced to acceptable limits.
As the next step, line-to-ground faults
were investigated to ascertain the tran-
sient effect caused by the first circuit
breaker to clear in the process of opening
both terminals of the system. The poles
were opened on consecutive current zeros
so that no current chopping occurred.
It was found that no discernible disturb-
ance occurred when the first circuit
breaker opened. This was not altered
by the sequence of pole openings, i.e.,
faulted phase first, second, or last to
clear. The transition is shown in Fig. 4,
where a fault on the 500-kv bus at Round
Mountain is present. The oscillogram
illustrates the voltages at Klamath Falls
prior to and following the opening of the
Klamath Falls 230-kv low-side breaker.
The steady-state voltages on the un-
faulted phases were calculated by a
linear analysis and substantiated on the
TNA during this portion of the study.6
The voltages on the unfaulted phases were
equal to or less than 1.00 per unit.
PHASE 2
The first phase of the study resulted in
no severe dynamic or transient overvolt-
ages. Since the dynamic overvoltages
would be even less severe (because of the
absence of harmonics) if no terminating
transformer were present, as would be the
case with high-side switching, the study
Table 11
Crest Line-to-Neutral Voltage
Source Round Mountain Kllamath Falls
Voltage 500 Kv 500 Kv
1.00 .11.32 ....... 1..1.30
1.05 . 1.39 .. 1.34
1.10 . 1.41 .. 1.39
1.15 . 1.44 .. 1.41
1.20 . 1.46 .. 1.46
ATUGUST 1963 Johnson, Wilson, Anderson-500-Kv-Line Design-I
Fig. 4. Oscillograms of
voltages at Klamath Falls 500-
kv bus during Fault clearing
Sca e:
Vertical: 1 div.=0.24 per-
unit crest volt
Horizontal: 1 div.=5 msec
concerning the future system was confined
to energization and fault-clearing tran-
sients.
Energization Transient Voltages
The first case investigated was ener-
gization of the Klamath Falls-Round
Mountain line from the Klamath Falls
500-kv circuit breaker. The system
included 500/230-kv autotransformers at
Station V, Station W, and Klamath Falls,
with the appropriate 230-kv-system im-
pedance behind each transformer. All
the 500-kv-line sections were represented
here.
The Klamath Falls-Rotnd Mountain
line was assumed to have no trapped
charge previous to energization. If a
trapped charge were present, it would
represent a reclosing operation, which
will be discussed later. The maximum
energization transient is illustrated in
Fig. 5, where a voltage of 2.36 per unit is
shown to occur on phase B. To as-
certain the effect of series-capacitor
compensation, capacitors were added,
the locations noted in Fig. 1(A), and the
energization repeated. The series ca-
pacitors reduced the transients slightly.
The voltages across the series capacitors
at each bus were recorded, and in no in-
stance were the voltages greater than the
crest voltages likely to occur during nor-
mal line-load conditions. The effect
of shunt reactors would be to reduce the
transient voltages. Since the value of
2.36 per unit was not excessive, it was
not deemed necessary to investigate
thoroughly system performance with
shunt-reactor compensation.
Energization of the Klamath Falls-
Station W line from the 500-kv circuit
breaker at Klamath Falls was investi-
gated to ascertain transient voltages aris-
ing from switching-line sections ad-
jacent to the Klamath Falls-Round
Mountain section. The system was
represented by lines and transformers
from Station W to Station X [Fig. 1(B) ],
and from Station X to Station Z by an
equivalent reactance maintaining the
proper X0/Xl ratio.
With 100 mvar of reactors connected
at the Station W end of the 500-kv line,
the maximum transient was 1.80 per unit
at Klamath Falls. This case actually
illustrates two conditions, normal ener-
gization and high-speed reclosing. With
500-kv reactors permanently connected
at the Station W end of the line, the
trapped charge would be greatly reduced
in the reclosing time. If no reactors were
present at Station W, the possibility exists
of reclosing on trapped charges. Trapped
charges equal to crest line-to-ground volt-
age may remain on the line for a period of
many seconds, which is well within the
reclosing time.4 This case was simulated
and a transient voltage of 2.36 occurred
at the Klamath Falls 500-kv bus. Fig.
6 illustrates the voltages obtained where
the 2.36 per-unit transient occurs on
phase B.
As a note of interest, a transient voltage
of 3.9 per unit was possible at the Sta-
tion W 500-kv bus for this reclosing case
with trapped charge, and could impose
severe duty on terminal equipment at
Station W if line-insulation flashover
occurred.
Fault-Clearing Transient Voltages
Single line-to-ground faults were placed
at various locations on the ultimate
system and cleared with the different
500-kv circuit breakers. All pertinent
combinations of fault location and oper-
576 Johnson, II'ilson, A nderson-500-Kv-Line Design-I
ating circuit breaker were investigated.
The most severe overvoltage was ob-
tained when a single line-to-ground fault
at the Klamath Falls end of the Klamath
Falls-Station W line was cleared with the
breaker on the Station W side of the
Klamath Falls 500-kv bus. A voltage
of 1.56 per unit is shown on phase A of
Fig. 7. This oscillogram depicts the
voltages on the Klamath Falls 500-kv
bus.
Fig. 5. Oscillograms of
energization transient voltages
at Klamath Falls 500-kv bus
&SE A ~~Scale:
Vertical: 1 div.=0.47 per-
unit crest volt
Horizontal: 1 div. =5 msec
Fig. 6. Oscillograms of
transient voltages on the
Klamath Falls 500-kv bus
caused by high-speed re-
closing
Scale:
Vertical: 1 div.=0.47 per-
unit crest volt
Horizontal: 1 div.=5 msec
Lightning-Performance Studies
Because of the over-all high-level reli-
ability requirements of this line, careful
consideration had to be given to its light-
ning performance for various alternative
designs. No lines of similar construc-
tion passed through the same territory;
therefore, outage figures, from which esti-
mates of probable performance could be
made, were not available. As a result,
all performance estimates had to be based
on fundamental considerations of tower
and line geometries, footing resistances,
and estimated distributions of strokes.
At the beginning of this study, the
usual AIEE method of predicting line
lightning performance was deemed un-
acceptable in its present form because of
its demonstrated inability to predict
outage rates EHV lines within an
on
order of magnitude. The method
adopted instead consisted of a 3-step
approach described in a previous paper :7
1. The construction of nanosecond geo-
metrical models' of the towers and con-
ductors, from which the per-uuit 'ightning
voltages generated at tower-insulator strings
and in the spans could be established for a
representative range of defined lightning-
stroke characteristics.
2. The preparation of statistical distribu-
tions of footing resistances and meteoro-
logical conditions that could be expected in
the vicinity of the line.
3. The incorporation of the results of the
above two steps into a Monte Carlo cal-
culating routine7 to simulate 20 years of
lightning experience by means of a digital
computer. The computer generates statis-
tical distributions of lightning strokes with
magnitudes, rise times, and frequencies
equivalent to those found in nature, and ap-
plies the proper number of strokes that would
occur in 20 years to a conceptual line stored
in the computer memory. For each stroke,
since it can refer to the line-response charac-
teristics determined by the nanosecond-
model tests, the computer determines
whether or not a flashover will occur and
tabulates the results. These results are
finally printed out as a sort of experience
table for different insulation levels and line
geometries, so that the probable effects of
various design choices can be weighed.
This method has been used to calculate
the lightning-outage performance of many
transmission lines, with generally agree-
able results between calculated and meas-
ured values.
A photograph of the 50:1 scale-model
tower undergoing a test is shown in Fig.
8. This model was tested with all 3-phase
conductors and two shield wires installed
and properly terminated. Simulated
strokes were applied to the tower, and to
the shield wires at mid- and quarter-
span, and voltages were measured at the
line insulators and between shield wire
AUGUST 1963
and nearby phase conductors. Footing distribution of footing resistances, rather strokes contacting the line would cause
resistance was duplicated by small car- than a single value, and applies a statis- a tripout, and that the resulting outage
bon resistors at the bottom of the tower tical distribution of stroke amplitudes to rate is also high. This high outage rate
legs and the longitudinal guys, with about these resistances. Fig. 11 shows three is caused by the high footing resistances
twice the resistance in the guys as in the footing-resistance distributions that were of distribution A, Fig. 11, although bal-
legs. A few tests were made with the used in this analysis, in order to assess the anced somewhat by the low isokeraunic
guys isolated to simulate anchoring into probable effects of various grounding level of 15. By reducing all resistances
rock. In all, tests were carried out with practices. to distribution B, case II shows about a
six values of footing resistance ranging four-to-one reduction in outage rate over
from zero to 300 ohms. CALCULATED LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE case I. It should be noted that even for
Table III shows calculated outage rates case II, the median resistance is 30 ohms,
MODEL TEST RESULTS for up to 30 insulator units for 110 miles so that the footing resistance can still
Some of the model test results are of this line. Case I of the table points be considered high by usual EHV line
shown in Figs. 9 and 10. Fig. 9 shows out that between 12% and 15% of the standards. If, however, a further im-
the maximum voltages created across
the insulator strings at the tower by a
stroke to the tower. The data are pre- Fig. 7. Oscillo-
sented in terms of maximum voltage per grams of voltages on
ampere of stroke current for current the Klamath Falls
waves having a "quasi-ramp-function" 500-kv bus caused
waveshape, i.e., a reasonably well-simu- by fault clearing
lated straight-rising front and a flat Scale:
top. The computer program applies a Vertical: 1 div.=
"severity factor" correction to account 0.47 per-unit
for the nonstandard voltages developed crest volt
across the insulators. For zero values Horizontdl: 1
of footing resistance, tower behavior is div.=10 msec
quite similar to an inductance that
changes somewhat with time. The effects
of shield-wire coupling are automatically
included. As footing resistance is in-
creased, more current is driven out the
shield wires and less passes down the tower
through the footing resistance. Fig.
10 shows similar voltages generated by
a stroke to midspan. These data do not
include the effect of the corona envelope
on the shield wires. The corona en-
velope will tend to improve performance
by lowering the equivalent surge impe-
dance and improving the coupling, but
by inspection of this initial data, and
knowing the spacings involved, it was
apparent that midspan flashovers would
not be a frequent problem. One also can
note the negligible effect that tower-
footing resistances have on the midspan
voltages up until the time required for a
reflection to arrive from the nearest tower.
DISTRIBUTIONS OF FOOTING RESISTANCE
In the design of any transmission line
it is of great interest to estimate the prob-
able effects on lightning performance of
various attempts to limit tower-footing
resistances to certain maximum values.
It is obvious also that one can be con-
siderably in error by assuming all towers
to have the same footing resistance, when
in reality it may be the frequency with
which unusually strong strokes contact
towers with unusually high footing
resistances that causes outages. The
Monte Carlo method is extremely useful Fig. 8. Nanosecond geo-
in this respect in that it utilizes a whole metrical model undergoing test
AUGUST I1963 Johnson, Wilson, A nderson-500-Kv-Line Design-I 577
 TOWER FOOTING RESISTANCE-OHMS

Fig. I1. Assumed frequency distributions

MICROSECONDS TO CREST OF MICROSECONDS TO CREST OF of tower-footing resistances
APPLIED CURRENT WAVE APPLIED CURRENT WAVE
A-Highest value distribution for rocky terrain
Fig. 9. Maximum insulator voltages for a B--All resistances improved by better ground-
stroke to tower Fig. 10. Maximum voltages produced by a ing practices
stroke to one shield wire at midspan, neglect- C-Same as distribution B, but maximum
ing corona effects values held to 50 ohms by counterpoise
provement in footing resistance is at-
tempted by reducing all footing resist-
ances of case II that are above 50 ohms Table Ill. Calculated Lightning Outage Rates*
to a value of 50 ohms, case III shows only No. of Shield Footing Per Cent of Outage Rate
a small improvement over case II, Insulator Wires Resistance Line Strokes Tripouts
demonstrating that it would be better Case Units Installed Distribution Causing Tripout Per Year
to decrease all resistances instead of re-
ducing only those over 50 ohms. Cases [25 14.8..
4. 1I
4. 12
IV and V show outage rates with no A 13.8- 3.89
shield wires installed, and demonstrate 29YA 12.6.
3.76
3.54
the very beneficial effects of shielding. t30) I2.3 ......
3.48
After these lightning studies were com- 251 5.4. I .52
pleted, it was deemed necessary to use 35 261 B1 4.8. 1.36
27 .... Y es ... B 4 .3 1.23
insulator units for the line insulation in 281 3.9........... 1.11
l291 3.8 ........ 1.10
order to withstand possible high switching ( 30 J 3.8 -. 1.09P
surges. This can be expected to cause (251 4.6 ............... 1.31
261 4.2
a further and probably significant reduc- III ............... ....... Yes . C .......... 4.1....-.-
1.20
1.15
tion in outage rates over those reported 128'
1291
3.6
3.5
1.02
for 30 units in Table III. 0.99
(30l
..
3.5. 0. 99
IV . 30. No. A. 75.3 . 13.3
Conclusions V. 30. No. B. 56.7 . 10.0

1. For all cases studied, only line energiza-
tion and reclosing caused overvoltages in
excess of twice normal line-to-ground voltage.
Energization produced transients of 2.36
per unit and reclosing an adjacent line section
produced a similar value. The maximum
overvoltage on fault clearing was 1.56 per
,unit.
2. Because of the high median value of
footing resistance involved, lightning trip-
outs of about one per year can be expected if
two shield wires and 30-unit insulator strings
are employed. Without shield wires, outage
rates of 10 to 13 are likely. The use of 35-
unit strings will cause a further decrease in
these values.
References
1. 500-Kv-LINE Design: II-ELECTRICAL
STRENGTH OF TOWERS, W. R. Johnson, E. G.
Lambert J. B. Tice, P. J. Turner. IEEE Trans-
actions on Power Apparatus and Systems, see pp.
581-87 of this issue.
2. 500-Kv-LINE DESIGN: III-CONDUCTORS, R.
57s Johnson, Wilson, A nderson-500-Kv-Line Design-I
* Based on an isokeraunic level of 15, a line length of 110 miles, and a shielding failure rate of 1% wherever
shield wires are employed.
L. Thompson, L. 0. Barthold, J. J. LaForest, C. B.
MODELS, F. A. Fisher, J. G. Anderson, J. H.
Lindh. Ibid., see pp. 587-97 of this issue. Hagenguth. Ibid., pt. III-B, vol. 78, 1959 (Feb.
3. MODEL TECHNIQUES IN THE TRANSIENT NET- 1960 section), pp. 1725-34.
WORK ANALYZER SOLUTIONS OF POWER SYSTEMS 9. THE ROLE OF LIGHTNING STRIKES TO THE
PROBLEMS, L. 0. Barthold, R. F. Silva. Proceedings CONDUCTORS BYPASSING THE GROUND WIRES IN
of the Amer-ican Power Conference, Chicago, Ill., THE PROTECTION OF HIGH-VOLTAGE-CLASS LINES,
vol. 22, 1960, pp. 722-31. M. V. Kostenko, I. F. Polovoy, A. N. Rosenfeld.
4. SWITCHING SURGES: I-PHASE-TO-GROUND
Elektrichestvo, Moscow, USSR, no. 4, 1961, pp.
VOLTAGES, AIEE Committee Report. 20-6.
AIEE
Transactions, pt. III (Power Apparatus and
Systems), vol. 80, June 1961, pp. 240-61.
5. SWITCHING SURGES DUE TO ENERGIZATION OR
RECLOSING, I. B. Johnson, R. F. Silva, D. D.
Wilson. Proceedings of the American Power
Conference, vol. 23, 1961, pp. 729-36.
Discussion
6. TRANSIENTS IN POWER SYSTEMS (book), H. A. C. L. Rudasill (Virginia Electric and Power
Peterson. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, Company, Richmond, Va.), and H. M.
N. Y., 1951. Smith and C. L. Wagner (Westinghouse
7. MONTE CARLO COMPUTER CALCULATION OF Electric Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa.):
TRANSMISSION-LINE LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE, The authors have presented an interesting
J. G. Anderson. AIEE Transactions, pt. III
(Power Apparatus and Systems), vol. 80, Aug. 1961, and timely discussion of the use of the TNA
pp. 414-19. and geometrical models to predict the per-
formance of 500-kv lines. The subject has
8. DETERMINATION OF LIGHTNING RESPONSE OF
TRANSMISSION LINES BY MEANS OF GEOMETRICAL been of special interest to the discussers since
AUGUST 1 963
they made similar studies as part of their
over-all system study for the Virginia Elec-
tric and Power Company (VEPCO) 500-kv
transmission system. In this regard cer-
tain questions on procedure and interpreta-
tion of results have been raised by the paper.
It has been stated that the purpose of the
model studies was to determine the probable
magnitude of switching surges on the system.
How can probabilities be assigned from
these studies? Are not the maximum mag-
nitudes, within the limits of the initial as-
sumptions, the values that are determined?
The only means of obtaining probability data
is by making actual system measurements
and determining the probability of various
pole-closing sequences and the overvoltages
that they generate. In the ANACOM
study for the VEPCO project, for example,
all the variable parameters, such as breaker
pole-closing sequence, were adjusted to give
the maximum system overvoltages. The
results, however, were modified, based on
experience factors obtained from field tests,
such as are described in references 1-3.
The authors state that the leakage and
magnetizing reactances of the system trans-
formers are duplicated by the model trans-
formers. How do the leakage resistances
and the hysteresis losses compare? In the
VEPCO study and other studies run on the
transient analyzer (ANACOM) used by the
discussers, the model transformer losses were
too high to be representative of the system.
A special equivalent, using a saturable reac-
tor and feedback amplifier, was used to
match more closely the actual transformer
characteristic.
In using the Thevenin's Equivalent ap-
proach to the system behind the switching
point, the authors seem to neglect any re-
flections from that part of the system during
the transient conditions caused by the
switching disturbance. Depending upon
their time of arrival, such reflections may
reduce or increase the maximum voltages.
The authors do not mention representing
any system loads in their studies. Omis-
sion of these loads and the system damping
that results can give unrealistic dynamic
overvoltages. The paper shows that the
maximum overvoltages occur on line ener-
gization and reclosing. Shunt reactors were
used to limit these overvoltages to 2.36 per
unit. Did the authors consider the use of
circuit-closing resistors in the circuit breakers
as a means of reducing these overvoltages?
In the VEPCO study, use of these resistors
limited the switching-surge overvoltages for
500-kv switching to less than 2.0 per unit.
Table III of the paper indicates very little
improvement in lightning performance from
using more than 28 insulators, especially for
the lower footing resistances of cases II and
III. Would the authors comment on the
reason for this behavior? Also, in view of
this, how can the authors reconcile their
statement that with the 35 insulators re-
quired by switching surges, a "probably
significant reduction in outage rates over
those reported for 30 units in Table III"
would result.
REFERENCES
1. FIELD MEASUREMENT OF SWITcHING SURGES
ON UNTERMINATED 345-KV TRANSMISSION LINES,
A. J. McElroy, W. S. Price, H. M. Smith, D. F.
Shankle. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus
and Systems, see pp. 465-87 of this issue.
2. FIELD MEASUREMENT OF 345-KV LIGHTNING
ARRESTER SWITCHING SURGE PERFORMANCE, W.
AUGUST 1 963 Johnson, Wilson, Anderson-500-Kv-Line Design-I
S. Price, A. J. McElroy, H. M. Smith, D. F. Shankle.
Ibid., see pp. 487-500 of this issue.
3. FIELD MEASUREMENT OF SWITCHING SURGES
AS MODIFIED BY UNLOADED 345-KV TRANS-
FORMERS, A. J. McElroy, W. S. Price, H. M.
Smith, D. F. Shankle. Ibid., see pp. 500-20 of this
issue.
J. M. Clayton and F. S. Young (Westing-
house Electric Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa.):
The authors have presented a very interest-
ing discussion of the lightning and switching-
surge studies made on this 500-kv transmis-
sion line. Our particular interest is in the
lightning protection problem, and we have
several questions to ask.
1. Distributions of footing resistances
shown in Fig. 11 of the paper provide a very
realistic way of calculating the performance
of the entire line. We wonder, however, if
the authors have not placed too stringent a
limitation on the line by assuming a distri-
bution such as A having an average footing
resistance of approximately 75 ohms. Rea-
lizing that this line traverses mountainous
terrain where one would expect high footing
resistance, we wonder if the authors have any
correlation between measured ground re-
sistances and the resistance that the light-
ning surge current would see. This would
provide a clue as to which distribution most
accurately reflects the performance of the
line.
2. The authors mention the use of counter-
poise as a method of reducing tower-footing
resistance. Were actual counterpoise con-
figurations studied during the model tests
or was an upper limit of footing resistance
assumed for the digital computer portion
of the study?
3. The authors have used a 1 % shielding
failure rate for this line. Although this
agrees with Burgsdorf's data for a 33-degree
shielding angle, we wonder if it is not too
high. Several things must be considered
when calculating the number of shielding-
failure outages a line will experience. The
sag of the ground wire and phase conductor
tend to improve the shielding angle while
lowering the height along the span. As the
number of insulators is increased, the number
of shielding failures is also reduced. Calcu-
lations we have made for this line indicate
that, when considering the tower alone, a
shielding failure outage rate of 0.1 to 0.15
flashover per 100 miles each year can be ex-
pected. When considering the line as a
whole, the rate drops to a negligible amount.
Could the authors elaborate on this prob-
lem?
4. A fourth problemn arises when we con-
sider the number of strokes to the line.
Since data on strokes per square mile are
quite limited, we have based our calcula-
tions on data reflecting the number of
strokes to transmission lines. Using these
data, we would expect about 50 strokes per
100 miles each year in an area where the
isokeraunic level is 15. The authors have
evidently used a value of 28.5 strokes to this
110-mile line. We wonder if the authors,
based on their experience with this calculat-
ing method, believe that the strokes per
square mile provides an accurate measure of
line performance. If this line had been built
in an area having an isokeraunic level of 30,
would a value of 57 strokes have been as-
sumed instead of the commonly used value
of 100 strokes per 100 miles each year?
Table IV
Authors' Outages
Number of Minus Shielding Clayton-Young
Insulators Failures Calculation
25 .1.124 .............. 1.20
26 ....... 1.08 .............. 1.13
27 ......... 0.95 ............. 1.08
28.. 0.83 ............. 1.05
29 ..... 0.82 .1.02
30 ............. 0.81. 1.00
5. There is a conspicuous absence of insu-
lator data and, consequently, it is difficult to
assess the apparent leveling-off effect in
outages as the number of insulators in-
creases. Even when shielding failures are
subtracted, there is no significant improve-
ment in performance shown when insulators
are added above 27. Could the authors dis-
cuss this problem? Is the leveling off due to
"window effect" of the tower or can it be
accounted for by other phenomena?
6. What span lengths were assumed in this
study? Also, it is not obvious what A and
B refer to in Fig. 10. Could this be ex-
plained?
We have nmade a comparative calculatiosn
using footing-resistance distribution B and
the authors' value of 28.5 strokes. No
shielding failures were assunied. The insu-
lator data available to us are assumed to be
representative but are not duplicates of the
values used by the authors. Table IV shows
our results.
H. R. Stewart (New England Electric Sys-
tem, Boston, Mass.): The authors do not
mention whether they investigated the
effect of counterpoise in their lightning per-
formance studies. Experience on the New
England Electric System, where counter-
poises were installed 10 to 15 years ago on
practically all its lines which were built 15
or more years previously without counter-
poises, indicates that a counterpoise will
provide at least the tripout-outage-rate
improvement between case II and case I or
between case III and case I in Table III of
the paper. Thus if the tested tower-footing
resistances of the line turn out to be distribu.-
tion A of Fig. 11, and if it is desired to secure
a lightning performance corresponding to dis-
tribution B or distribution C, it might be sug-
gested that this could be secured by installing
a continuous counterpoise, rather than by
attempting to reduce individual tower-foot-
ing resistances. It is appreciated that in
the mountainous terrain cited, the installa-
tion of a continuous counterpoise may not
be inexpensive, but neither is the reduction
of tower-footing resistances in such terrain.
W. Piper and R. E. Moran (Stone and
Webster Engineering Corporation, Boston,
Mass.): The paper represents a summary of
a great number of investigations, calcula-
tions, estimates, and studies involved in
preparation of some of the design parameters
for a 500-kv transmission line. The authors
are to be commended for a concise presenta-
tion of their effort.
It is interesting to note that, with a single
possible exception, the calculations and
tests have resulted in indications that the
579
switching surge for this proposed 500-kv
system should not exceed a value of 2.6 per
unit, without the addition of any special de-
vices for limiting this maximum. In the
consideration of devices and arrangements
for limiting the crest of the switching surge,
it is apparent from the data included in
Table I of the paper that the installation of
series capacitors on this system would not be
effective. The installation of shunt reac-
tors, on the other hand, would obviously re-
sult in a reduction of the maximum value of
this surge. Is it intended that some shunt
reactors will be included in the initial or
subsequent construction of this 500-kv sys-
tem and, if so, to what extent will the instal-
lation of these reactors be carried out? The
shunt reactors, as indicated, would represent
a considerable investment. Have the au-
thors investigated the possibility of other
means for limiting the transient voltage to
acceptable vaiues, i.e., surge-suppressing re-
sistors installed in the circuit breakers?
These lightning performance calculations
provide an example of the statistical ap-
proach to estimating the lightning perform-
ance of a transmission line, including com-
parative results for suspension-insulator
strings for several different numbers of
units. The model tower shown in Fig. 8
appears to be designed for free-swinging in-
sulator strings for all three phases. It will
be interesting to note any deviation from
these data for a V-string arrangement for
the center phase and V-strings for all three
phases. Is the statistical sampling of tower-
footing resistance accomplished in an evenly
graded manner, or at random; i.e., is the
footing resistance of adjacent towers approx-
imately the sanie, or would the computer be
likely to select a tower with very high footing
resistance to be located such that adjacent
towers on both sides would have very low
footing resistance? Would this situation,
which may be encountered in the field, alter
the results of the calculations on any way?
Would the authors care to comment on the
relative performance of a line with evenly
graded footing resistance as compared with a
line where most of the footing resistances
have been reduced to some predetermined
level, but where a limited number of struc-
tures mnay have footing resistance greatly in
excess of this predetermined level?
W. R. Johnson, D. D. Wilson, and J. G.
Anderson: The authors greatly appreciate
the contributions of the various discussers,
and are gratified to see the general interest
in the EHV transmission problems discussed
in this and the two companion papers.
Messrs. Rudasill, Smith, and Wagner
have raised the question of assigning switch-
ing-surge probabilities in these studies.
The switching-surge magnitudes reported
here were the maximum values for the par-
ticular switching conditions in each in-
stance. Although switching-surge proba-
ability studies, in which the characteristics of
air-blast circuit breakers were accurately
represented, have been done on the TNA,
maximum surges were of principal concern
in this case. Since surge levels vary widely
between systems, it was not felt sufficiently
accurate to apply the results of field tests on
one system to the design of another. In the
past, excellent agreement has been shown
between field tests on actual systems and
TNA tests representing the same conditions.
580 Johnson, Wilson, Ander-sn-500-Kv-Line Design-I
The leakage resistances of the model trans-
formers were matched very closely to the
power transformers. Past studies have
shown the hysteresis loss in a model study is
much less important than rigorous magnetic
modeling of the transformer saturation
characteristics.
The difference between a Thevenin's
Equivalent representation and distributed
representation, when low-side switching was
studied on this system, was negligible be-
cause of the isolating influence of the trans-
former. Where 500-kv switching was stud-
ied, the appropriate distributed system was
utilized, as noted in the paper.
Since representation of full load on the
system will tend to reduce switching surges,
no-load and light-load conditions were
studied on the TNA as limiting conditions.
Shunt-reactor compensation on the 500-kv
system was not intended primarily as a
method of reducing the switching transient,
but was applied to minimize sustained
overvoltage conditions. It is interesting,
however, that a substantial reduction in
switching-surge transient voltages results
from shunt-reactor compensation.
The initial section of 500-kv line was
scheduled for completion in 1963, with the
2.5 switching-surge level considered desir-
able, based on the characteristics of avail-
able equipment. The design of subsequent
line additions for the projected 500-kv sys-
tem will incorporate any improvements in
equipment then available.
The small improvement in calculated
lightning performance for variations in the
number of insulator units from 25 to 30
units is also shown in the calculations of
Messrs. Clayton and Young who, in fact,
show even less variation than the authors.
This small performance variation is all one
could reasonably expect, considering that
insulator lengths only changed 20%, that
shielding failures included in the calculations
are practically independent of small length
changes; and that in this range, the only
strokes causing flashover are very-high-
amplitude strokes that have a relatively flat
statistical distribution.
The authors agree with Mr. Stewart that a
distributed counterpoise can sometimes
offer a dramatic improvemnent in perform-
ance, provided midspan spacings are ade-
quate. The New England Electric System
experience with counterpoise gives strong
evidence of this effectiveness. In fact, one
of the purposes in showing the effects of dis-
tributions B and C was to emnphasize that
one may gain very little in some cases by re-
ducing only the resistance of the highest
footing-resistance towers. This should also
answer the last question of Messrs. Piper and
Moran.
The outage rates were calculated for foot-
ing-resistance distributions A, B, and C of
Fig. 11 without regard to the means by
which these resistance distributions might be
obtained physically. Actual counterpoise
does not produce a time-invariant ground re-
sistance. The effects of extensive use of
counterpoise can be evaluated by a modifica-
tion of transfer impedance curves in the
Monte Carlo routine. One does not nor-
mally make this modification unless exten-
sive counterpoise usage is contemplated;
otherwise it is approximated by a resistance,
as was done in distribution C of Fig. 11.
The discussion of Messrs. Clayton and
Young raises many points of interest. Dis-
tribution A was chosen by Pacific Gas and
Electric Company engineers based on their
prior experience with lines in similar moun-
tainous terrain. The validity of any
lightning outage calculation is strongly af-
fected by this selection, and it is often per-
tinent to study several distributions to de-
termine the sensitivity of the outage rate
upon this choice.
In the model tests, counterpoise was not
actually used. At the time the tests were
made it was not (and still is not) intended
that counterpoise would be extensively re-
quired; hence its effects on the resistance dis-
tributions were onlv approximate.
Regarding shielding failures, sag in con-
ductors obviously improves the shielding
angle and reduces line height, but this
parameter was automatically taken into
account by previous investigators when they
published shielding-failure data on actual
lines. Their tabulated shielding-failure rates
used the height of the towers and shielding
angle at the towers as their basic parameters
to define the line geometry, but midspan
effects are inescapably included in the data.
The validity of shielding failure assump-
tions or calculations is, in the authors' opin-
ion, the most indeterminate part of any
present lightning outage calculation. This
is a subject on which more field investiga-
tion is required, and we strongly urge that
such investigation be made. At the present
time, one has the choice of using either theo-
retical calculations or actual field experience.
The calculations in this paper have utilized
the latter, since they must finally serve as the
basis of acceptance of any theoretical ap-
proach.
The number of strokes per square mile was
tak-en as 0.23 times the isokeraunic level.
This is lower than the values sometimes sug-
gested by others. It was arrived at from
our own field observations and those ob-
tained from several other investigators. In
the program, this is an inserted parameter to
be changed as required by geographic condi-
tions and storm paths. This stroke inci-
dence is used in association with the Hagen-
guth formula for strokes intercepted by
lines. If the line had been in an isokeraunic
level of 30, a value of 57 strokes would have
been used, all other things being equal. It
should be emphasized that the number of
strokes to the line has little effect when con-
sidered alone. It is how this value is used in
conjutnctionl with all the other parameters of
the program, such as current-amplitude and
waveshape distributions, that establishes the
filnal result One could very easily use dif-
ferent values for many of the parameters and
arrive at a very similar answer-as indeed
was done by Messrs Clayton and Young.
The "absent" insulator data mentioned
by the above discussers are shown for V-
strings in a companion paper (reference 1 of
the paper). It did not seem reasonable to
present the same data in both papers.
These data are critical-impulse flashover
values and were used as the starting point
for a postulated volt-time curve having the
same type of turn-up as those published
for 18-unit insulator strings. For these
long strings, this was the best approach
available, since no laboratory data on volt-
time curves of very long strings have been
published.
The span lengths used were 1,000 feet.
The letter A in Fig. 10 shows the voltages
AUGUST 1 963
between shield wire and the nearest phase
conductor at the stricken point. Letter B
designates the curves for the voltages pro-
duced across the outside insulator strings at
the tower for this same midspan stroke.
For the lightning-outage calculations, the
footing resistances for the stricken tower or
span are chosen at random (just as a stroke
would do) from an arranged population of
footing resistances. This population is
"biased" toward certain resistance values as
demonstrated by the curves of Fig. 11.
Towers on each side of the stroke are as
sumed to have identical footing resistances,
in order to simplify calculation. This would
seem to be a valid assumption, and will not
greatly influence the results in practially
any case.

500-Kv-Line Design investigation are significantly different

II-Electrical Strength of Towers
W. R. JOHNSON E. G. LAMBERT J. B. TICE
FELLOW IEEE SENIOR MEMBER IEEE SENIOR MEMBER IEEE
F. J. TURNER
SENIOR MEMBER IEEE
Summary; The results of full-scale trans- companion papers.2 3 Accordingly, ex-
mission-tower switching-surge, impulse, and tensive laboratory investigations were
60-cycle tests, wet and dry, indicate pro-
nounced departure from previously pub- begun in September 1961 on a full-scale
lished data where the effect of the proximity mock-up of a transmission tower to estab-
of the tower was not included. The data lish the number of insulators and clear-
include single-insulator strings, V-strings, ances necessary to meet the design re-
and lhorizontal and vertical tower gaps
including guy-wire gaps. These data are quirements in the most economical
an extension of previous stu(lies on Project manner. Investigations were made to
EHV insulation structures' and were under- determine the effect of the geometry of
taken to provide design criteria for a 100- the tower on the electrical strength of
mile linik of 500-kv line running at an
various gap and insulator configurations.
average elevation of 5,000 feet between The effect of switching-surge waveshape
Klamath Falls, Oreg., anid Round Moun-
tain, Calif. and the relationships of switching-surge
to impulse and 60-cycle strengths were
evaluated along with the atmospheric
A SIGNIFICANT extrapolation of correction factor for humidity. The
Aprevious experience and data would dry to wet strength ratio was determined
be required to reach the 1,120-kv switch- for various waveshapes, both with and
ing-surge withstand level chosen on the without contamination of the insulators.
basis of the model tests reported in The data obtained during this extensive
from previously published results, and
this difference is attributed largely to the
effect of tower geometry. It would seem
desirable, therefore, for engineers planning
extra-high voltage (EHV) systems to in-
vestigate the insulation strength of the
particular tower geometries which they
plan to use.
The Test Tower
The miock-up of the tower on which the
first series of tests was performed, shown
in Fig. l, consisted of a truss made of steel
channels supported 60 feet above the
ground by two wood poles. Light metal
angles were used to frame the truss and to
construct legs simulating the actual pro-
posed guyed-tower design. The two
simulated line conductors were made of
Paper 63-74, recommended by the AIEE Trans-
mission and Distribution Committee and approved
by the AIEE Technical Operations Department for
presentation at the IEEE Winter General Meeting,
New York, N. Y., January 27-February 1, 1963.
Manuscript submitted October 26, 1962; made
available for printing December 5, 1962.
W. R. JOHNSON and E. G. LAMBERT are with the
Pacific Gas and Electric Company, San Francisco,
Calif.; J. B. TIcB is with the General Electric
Company, San Francisco, Calif.; and F. J. TURNER
is with the General Electric Company, Pittsfield,
Mass.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the help of
the High Voltage Laboratory personnel in obtaining
the data presented here, and the many helpful
suggestions and criticisms by A. F. Rohlfs, J. G.
Anderson, and Project EHV personnel.

Fig. 2. General view of tower indoors being

Fig. 1. General view of tower showing supported by the crane in the High Voltage
measurement of rain on V-string Laboratory Fig. 3. General view of final tower outdoors
AUGUST 1963 Johnson, Lambert, Tice, Turner-500-Kv-Line Design-II 581