Complex Numbers

Complex Numbers
Division of Mathematical Sciences

School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences
Nanyang Technological University
(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 1 / 74

Outline
1 Complex Numbers
2 Argand Diagram, Polar Representation & Euler Form
3 Operations on Complex Numbers
4 Solving Quadratic Equation
5 De Moivre’s Theorem
6 Application: Finding nth roots of z = r (cos θ + i sin θ)

Outline
1 Complex Numbers

The Symbol i
Does the quadratic equation x 2 + 1 = 0 have a real root? That
is, are there real numbers x at which x 2 = −1?
To deal with the above quadratic equation, a new symbol ‘i’ is

introduced, where we declare
i 2 = −1.
Thus, x 2 + 1 = 0 has two distinct roots namely i and −i.

Complex Number z = x + yi
(i) A complex number z is a mathematical object of the form

x + yi, where x and y are real numbers. We have z = x + yi.
(ii) The real numbers x and y are called the real part and
imaginary part of the complex number z respectively. We
denote the real and imaginary parts of a complex number z
by Re(z) and Im(z) respectively.
(iii) We represent the set of all complex numbers by C.

Examples of complex numbers
7 √
3 + 5i, − i, − 3 + i, π + 9i,
2
Re(3 + 5i) = 3 and Im(3 + 5i) = 5.

Equality of Complex Numbers
Definition (Equality of complex numbers)

Two complex numbers z = x + yi and z 0 = x 0 + y 0 i, where
x, x 0 , y and y 0 are real numbers, are said to be equal if
x = x 0 and y = y 0 .
That is, Re(z) = Re(z 0 ) and Im(z) = Im(z 0 ).

Equality of Complex Numbers
Example
Suppose that x and y are real numbers such that the two
complex numbers (2x − 3) + 5i and (x + 7) − (y + 1)i are equal.
Find the values of x and y .
[SOLUTION]
Comparing both real and imaginary parts of the complex
numbers respectively, we obtain
(2x − 3) = x + 7, and 5 = −(y + 1),
which gives x = 10 and y = −6.

Remark
(i) We may identify every real number x ∈ R as a complex

number x = x + 0i. In view of this we may think of the set of
real number as a subset of the set of complex numbers, i.e.,
R ⊆ C.
(ii) We say that a complex number z = x + iy is purely

imaginary if the real part of z, namely x, is zero.

i n , where n ∈ Z
From i 2 = −1, we have
i 3 = (i 2 )(i) = −i, i 4 = (i 2 )(i 2 ) = (−1)(−1) = 1,
i 5 = (i 4 )(i) = i, i 6 = (i 5 )(i) = i 2 = −1, . . .

Let k ∈ Z. Then we have
i 4k = (i 4 )k = 1, i 4k +1 = i, i 4k +2 = −1, i 4k +3 = −i.

i n , where n ∈ Z
The value of i n is obtained by expressing n = 4k + m, where
m = 0, 1, 2, 3.
For example, since 19 = 4(4) + 3 , we have i 19 = i 3 = −i.
For a negative integer n, for example, −19 = −5(4) + 1 so that
i −19 = i 1 = i.

Outline
1 Complex Numbers

Argand Diagram: Complex plane
The representation of the complex number z = x + iy is said to
be in rectangular form. By identifying each complex number
z = x + yi by the point with coordinate (x, y ), we actually
represent the complex number z by a unique point on the
xy -plane.

Argand Diagram

Modulus |z|
The modulus |z| of the complex number z = x + yi is
p
|z| = x 2 + y 2.
It is the distance of the point (x, y ) from (0, 0). Note that |z| ≥ 0.
(It cannot be a negative number.)

Examples
(a) |4| = 4, | − 2| = 2. For real numbers a,

(
a if a ≥ 0,
|a| =
−a if a < 0.
(b) |7i| = 7, | − 5i| = 5. For purely imaginary numbers bi,

(
b if b ≥ 0,
|bi| =
−b if b < 0.
p √
(c) | − 4 + 3i| = (−4)2 + 32 = 25 = 5.
p √ √
(d) |7 − 11i| = (7)2 + (−11)2 + = 49 + 121 = 170.

Argument & Principal Argument
For z = x + yi, the angle where the line segment joining points
(0, 0) and (x, y ) made with the positive x-axis is known an
argument of z.
The counter-clockwise direction is considered ‘positive’

direction, whereas the clockwise is considered ‘negative’
direction. Therefore, an argument is an angle θ such that
x = |z| cos θ,
y = |z| sin θ.
We write arg(z) for all the arguments of z.

Argument & Principal Argument
Note If arg(z) = θ rad, then
arg(z) = θ + 2k π rad , for every integer k .
In particular, when the angle θ is chosen such that −π < θ ≤ π,

we say this is the principal argument of z. It is denoted by
Arg(z).
Steps to determine argument of z
Step 1 Mark the complex number on an Argand Diagram to see
which quadrant it lies.
Step 2 Determine the basic angle α, where α is the acute angle

the line segment joining O and z made with the x-axis.
y
If x 6= 0, then we have α = arctan .

x
Step 3 Use the Argand diagram to write down the arguments
and principal argument of z.

Find the argument of 3 − 3i
Step 1: Note that the complex number 3 − 3i lies on the fourth
quadrant.
−3
Step 2: α = arctan
= arctan(1) = π . (Basic angle.)
3 4
π π
Step 3: We have Arg(3 − 3i) = − and arg(3 − 3i) = − + 2k π
4 4
where k are integers.
Question What is Arg(3 + 3i)? Arg(−3 − 3i)? Arg(−3 + 3i)?

Examples
(a) Arg(4) = 0,
arg(4) = 2k π, k ∈ Z.
(b) Arg(−2) = π,
arg(−2) = π + 2k π, k ∈ Z.
π
(c) Arg(7i) = ,
2
π
arg(7i) = + 2k π, k ∈ Z.
2
−π
(d) Arg(−5i) = ,
2
−π
arg(−5i) = + 2k π, k ∈ Z.
2

Polar Representation & Euler Form
For a complex number z, where r = |z| and arg(z) = θ.
(i) The polar form (also known as trigonometric form ) of z is
z = r (cos θ + i sin θ).
As a shorthand, some authors also use the notation cisθ for

(cos θ + i sin θ), and write z = r cisθ.
(ii) The exponential form (Euler form) of z is
reiθ , where θ is expressed in radians.
Exponential form of a complex number is commonly used in

electronics, engineering and physics. It is also convenient in
discussing multiplication, division of complex numbers.
Examples.
(a) We have |4| = 4 and Arg(4) = 0. So

4 = 4 (cos 0 + i sin 0) = 4 (cos 2k π + i sin 2k π)
= 4e2k πi , k ∈ Z.
π
(b) We have |7i| = 7 and Arg(7i) = . So
2
π π
7i = 7 cos + i sin
2π 2 π
= 7 cos + 2k π + i sin + 2k π
2 2
(2k +1/2)πi
= 7e , k ∈ Z.
(c) Write down the polar and Euler forms of the complex
numbers −2 and −5i, respectively.
Example. Find the exponential form of
z = 3 − 3i.
[SOLUTION] The modulus of z is
q √
r = |z| = 32 + (−3)2 = 3 2.
We have found in an earlier example that Arg(z) = − π4 .

Thus the exponential form of z = 3 − 3i is
√ −π
z = 3 2e 4 i .
Note The polar form of z = 3 − 3i is

√ −π −π

3 − 3i = 3 2 cos( ) + i sin( ) .
4 4
−5π i
Example. Express z = 5e 3 in rectangular
form.
[SOLUTION] Note that arg(z) = −5π 3
+ 2k π. (So the principal
π
argument is Arg(z) = 3 .) Therefore, we have
 
√
−5π
i
 −5π −5π  5 5 3
z = 5e 3 = 5 cos +i sin = + i.
 
| {z 3 } | {z3 } 2 2
√
1/2 3/2

Outline
1 Complex Numbers

Conjugate of a Complex Number
Definition
The complex conjugate z of a complex number z = x + yi is the
complex number x − yi, i.e. Re(z) = Re(z) and Im(z) = −Im(z).
Notation for the complex conjugate of z: z or z ∗ .

Argand Diagram representing z and z:

Example: Write down the conjugate of each
of the following complex numbers:
z z
3 + 5i
10
3.5 − i
√
− 3+i
π + 9i
√
− 7i

Conjugate in polar form
The conjugate of the complex number z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) is
z = r (cos(θ) − i sin(θ)) which is not in polar form.
From the Argand diagram, we note that arg(z) = −arg(z), and
hence,
z = r (cos(−θ) + i sin(−θ)) .
In exponential form, we have the conjugate of z = reiθ is
z = re−iθ .

Properties of Conjugation
Proposition
Let z = x + yi, where x and y are real numbers.
(a) (z) = z.
(b) z is real if and only if z = z.
z is purely imaginary if and only if z = −z.
(c) |z| = |z| and arg(z) = − arg(z).

Addition & Subtraction
Given two complex numbers z1 = x1 + y1 i and z2 = x2 + y2 i, we
define
z1 ± z2 = (x1 ± x2 ) + (y1 ± y2 )i.
The real part is obtained by adding or subtracting real parts.
Similarly for the imaginary part.
Example
(a) (3 + 5i) + (3.5 − i) = 6.5 + 4i
√ √
(b) (− 3 + i) − (π + 9i) = (− 3 − π) + (−8)i

On Argand diagram
On an Argand diagram, the addition of complex numbers z1 and
z2 corresponds to the ‘addition’ of vectors represented by
directed line segments joining (0, 0) to points correspond to z1
and z2 .
Similarly, the complex number z1 − z2 corresponds to

‘subtracting’ the vector represented by the directed line segment
joining (0, 0) to that point corresponds to z2 from that to z1 .

Algebraic Properties
Proposition
(i) z + 0 = z = 0 + z, where 0 = 0 + 0i.
(ii) For every z = x + iy, the complex number −z = −x + (−y )i
satisfies z + (−z) = 0 = (−z) + z.
(iii) z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 (Commutative Law for Addition).
(iv) (z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 ) (Associative Law for Addition).
(v) z1 ± z2 = z1 ± z2 .

Multiplication
To multiply two complex numbers z1 = x1 + y1 i and z2 = x2 + y2 i,
we can perform the multiplication treating i as a symbol. But we
replace i 2 by (−1) when we simplify it :
z1 · z2 = (x1 + y1 i)(x2 + y2 i)
= x1 x2 + x1 y2 i + (y1 i)x2 + (y1 i)(y2 i)
= (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + (x1 y2 + x2 y1 )i
Example
(3 + 5i) · (2 − i) = 3(2) + (5i)(2) + (3)(−i) + (5i)(−i)
= 6 + 10i − 3i − (5i 2 ) = 11 + 7i.

Algebraic Properties
Proposition
(i) z · 1 = z = 1 · z.
(ii) z1 · z2 = z2 · z1 . (Commutative Law for product)
(iii) (z1 · z2 ) · z3 = z1 · (z2 · z3 ). (Associative Law for product)
(iv) z1 · z2 = z1 · z2 .
(v) z · z = |z|2 . In particular, if z 6= 0, then z · z > 0.
(vi) z1 · (z2 + z3 ) = z1 · z2 + z1 · z3 . (Distributive Property)

Product in Polar Form
QUESTION: Is there a geometrical relationship between z1 , z2
and their product?
To find it out, we express the two complex numbers in polar

form:
z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ),
z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ).

Product in Polar Form
z1 · z2 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) · r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )

= r1 r2 [(cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + (cos θ1 sin θ2 + sin θ1 cos θ2 )i]
= r1 r2 (cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )) .
What is |z1 · z2 |?
What is arg(z1 · z2 )?

Proposition (IMPORTANT)
Proposition
1 Modulus of product is the product of moduli:
|z1 · z2 | = r1 r2 = |z1 | |z2 |
2 Argument of the product is the sum of arguments:
arg(z1 · z2 ) = θ1 + θ2 = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).
This implies the complex number z1 · z2 lies on the line

obtained by rotating the line segment representing z1 by the
angle arg(z2 ).

Argand Diagram
Represent the product of z1 and z2 on an Argand diagram:

Remark
For a complex number z, the complex number z · (cos θ + i sin θ)
is represented on the Argand diagram by by rotating z through θ.

Division
To divide a complex number z1 = x1 + y1 i by a non-zero
complex number z2 = x2 + y2 i (i.e., z2 6= 0), note that
z2 z2 = |z2 |2 , is a positive real number.
Thus we multiply both numerator and denominator by the
conjugate z2 = x2 − y2 i as follows:
z1 z1 z2 z1 · z2 z1 · z2
= · = =
z2 z2 z2 z2 · z2 |z2 |2

3 + 5i
Example. Express in a + bi.
2−i
The conjugate of the denominator 2 − i is 2 + i. We have
3 + 5i (3 + 5i) · (2 + i)
=
2−i (2 − i) · (2 + i)
(6 − 5) + (10 + 3)i 1 13
= = + i.
5 5 5

Division in Polar Form
Using polar form z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and
z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ), where r2 6= 0, we have
z1 r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )
=
z2 r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
r1
= ((cos θ1 cos θ2 + sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + i(sin θ1 cos θ2 − cos θ1 sin θ2 ))
r2
r1
= (cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 )) .
r2

Division
Thus, we have

z1 |z1 | z1
=
z2 |z2 | and arg( ) = arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 )
z2
Remark Using the exponential form, for z1 = r1 eiθ1 and

z2 = r2 eiθ2 we have
z1 z2 = (r1 r2 )ei(θ1 +θ2 ) , and
z1 r1 i(θ1 −θ2 )
= e where z2 6= 0.
z2 r2
Both coincide with the law of exponents we are familiar with in
real numbers.
Examples
1 e0i
(a) i −1 = = π/2i = e(0−π/2)i = e−π/2i = −i
i e
Alternatively, note that i −1 = i −4+3 = i 3 = −i.
p
(b) For z = cos θ + i sin θ, note that |z| = cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1.
Thus, we have zz = 1 and
1 1 z z
= · = = z = cos θ − i sin θ.
z z z z ·z
In exponential form, z = eiθ and
1 e0i
= iθ = e−iθ = z.
z e

Outline
1 Complex Numbers

Solving Quadratic Equation
Consider a quadratic equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0,
where a, b and c are real numbers, and a 6= 0.

Taking out the common factor a, we have

2 b c
a x + x+ = 0,
a a
which is equivalent to
b c
x2 + x + = 0.
a a

b c
x2 +x + = 0.
a a
By completing square, we have
2 2
b c b
x+ + − = 0.
2a a 2a
Thus gives
2 2
b b c
x+ = −
2a 2a a
b2 − 4ac
= .
4a2

2
b2 − 4ac

b
x+ =
2a 4a2
If b2 − 4ac ≥ 0, then we have
r √
b b2 − 4ac ± b2 − 4ac
x+ =± = .
2a 4a2 2a
Thus we obtain
√ √
−b b2 − 4ac −b ± b2 − 4ac
x= ± = .
2a 2a 2a

Let D = b2 − 4ac, which is known as the discriminant.
Now, the roots of the quadratic equation depends on D:
(i) If D = 0, the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has
repeated real roots given by
−b
x= .
2a
(ii) If D > 0, the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has two
distinct real roots given by
√ √
−b ± b2 − 4ac −b ± D
x= = .
2a 2a

Solving Quadratic Equations
(iii) If D < 0, the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has two

distinct complex roots given by
p √
−b ± i −(b2 − 4ac) −b ± i −D
x= = .
2a 2a
Note that the two complex roots are conjugate of each
other.

Example: Solve the quadratic equation
2x 2 − 3x + 5 = 0.
[SOLUTION] For the given quadratic equation 2x 2 − 3x + 5 = 0,
its discriminant D is D = (−3)2 − 4(2)(5) = −31 < 0.
√ √
3 + 31i 3 − 31i
The two distinct roots are and which form a
4 4
conjugate pair.

Outline
1 Complex Numbers

Example
Example
Let z = r (cos θ + i sin θ). Find expressions for z 2 and z 3 in the
same form.

De Moivre’s Theorem
Theorem (De Moivre’s Theorem)

For every integer n,
(r (cos θ + i sin θ))n = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ) .
NOTE De Moivre’s Theorem in Euler form is

n
reiθ = r n ei(nθ) .

Examples.
(a) (2(cos θ + i sin θ))9 = 29 (cos(9θ) + i sin(9θ))

(b)

π π −4 −4π −4π
cos + i sin = cos + i sin
4 4 4 4
= cos(−π) + i sin(−π)
= −1
π π −2
(c) Express the complex numbers 4 cos + i sin and
4 4
π π 9
cos + i sin in the form a + bi.
3 3

Example. Express each of the following
complex numbers in the form (cos θ + i sin θ)n .
(a) cos 7θ + i sin 7θ.
(b) cos 5θ − i sin 5θ.

Powers of z when |z| = 1
z = cos(π/6) + i sin(π/6)
|z| = 1

Problem. Compute (1 + i)10
Step 1: Express the given complex number in polar form.
p √
r = |1 + i| = 12 + 12 = 2,
π
Arg(1 + i) = .
4
√ π π
1+i = 2 cos + i sin
4 4

Problem.(Cont’d). Compute (1 + i)10
Step 2: Apply De Moivre’s Theorem.
√ π π 10
(1 + i)10 = ( 2)10 cos + i sin
√ 10 4 π 4
π
= ( 2) cos 10 · + i sin 10 ·
4 4
5π 5π
= 25 cos + i sin
2 2
π π
= 25 cos + i sin
2 2
5 5
= 2 (0 + i) = 2 i.

Outline
1 Complex Numbers

Distinct nth Roots.
Suppose that n is a positive integer.
(a) An nth root of z is a complex number w such that
w n = z.
When n = 2, we call it a square root of z. In view of what

we have discussed, both i and −i are square roots of −1.
When n = 3, it is known as a cube root of z.
(b) An nth roots of 1 is called an nth roots of unity.
Note that 1n = 1 so that 1 is always an nth root of unity.
Questions Are there other nth root of unity? If there are,
how many are there?
Distinct nth Roots of Unity.
Note that 1 = 1 + 0i = cos 0 + i sin 0 = cos 2k π + i sin 2k π,
where k is an integer.
Theorem (nth roots of unity)
The n distinct nth roots of unity are
2k π 2k π
zk = cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n − 1.
n n
NOTES The n integers k can be chosen to be any n consecutive

integers.
By De Moivre’s Theorem, we have
2π 2π
zk = (z1 )k , where z1 = cos + i sin .
n n
All Distinct nth Roots of Unity
k
2π 2π 2k π 2k π
zk = cos + i sin = cos + i sin
n n n n
On the Argand diagram, all nth roots of 1 are represented by
points on the unit circle, starting from z0 = 1, and they are
equally spaced by 2π n
. Moreover, complex nth roots of unity
appear in conjugate pairs.

Argand Diagram of Distinct nth Roots of Unity
12th roots of unity:

Example 1. Find five distinct 5th roots of
unity.
[SOLUTION.] The five distinct 5th roots of unity in Euler form
are:
2k π
i
zk = e 5 , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
which are
2π 4π
i i
z0 = 1, z1 = e 5 , z2 = e 5 ,
6π 8π
i i
z3 = e 5 = z2 , z4 = e 5 = z1 .

Example 1 (cont’d). Roots on Argand
diagram.

Finding nth roots of z.
Suppose that z = r (cos θ + i sin θ), where r > 0 and −π < θ ≤ π.
Note that
z = r (cos(θ + 2k π) + i sin(θ + 2k π)) ,
where k is an integer.

Distinct nth Roots of reiθ .
Theorem (Distinct nth roots)

Consider a complex number z in polar form
z = r (cos θ + i sin θ), where r > 0 and − π < θ ≤ π.
The n distinct nth roots of the complex number

z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) are
√

n θ + 2k π θ + 2k π
zk = r cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n − 1.
n n
√
n
NOTES The number r is the positive nth root of the real
number r .
All distinct n roots lie on a circle.
√

n θ + 2k π θ + 2k π
zk = r cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n − 1.
n n
(a) Note that all the n-root of z has the same modulus, namely
√n
r . This tells us that all distinct n roots lie on a circle with
√
radius n r
(b) The n root with the smallest positive argument is

√

n θ θ
z0 = r cos + i sin
n n
2π
(c) The angle between two successive roots is radians.
n
Example 2. Find all distinct fourth roots of
π π

z = 16 cos 3 + i sin 3 .
[Solution] By the nth root formula, the four distinct fourth roots of
z are given by
√
4 π/3+2k π (1+6k )π
zk = 16e 4 i = 2e 12 i , k =, 0, 1, 2, 3.
Thus, we have
π 7π
z0 = 2e 12 i , z1 = 2e 12 i ,
13π 19π
i i
z2 = 2e 12 , z3 = 2e 12 .

Example 3. Find all distinct 5th roots of
√
3 + i.
[SOLUTION] Step 1: Express the given complex number in
polar form or exponential form.
√ √ √
3 π
Note that r = 3 + 1 = 2, and 3 + i = 2( 2
+ i 21 ) = 2ei 6 .
Step 2: Apply formula for distinct nth roots.
1 π/6+2k π 1 (1+12k )π
i i
25 e 5 = 25 e 30 , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4;

√
Example 3. (Cont’d) 5th roots of 3 + i.
√
All distinct 5th of 3 + i are
1 π
z0 = 2 5 e 30 i ,
1 13π
i
z1 = 2 5 e 30 ,
1 25π
i
z2 = 2 5 e 30 ,
1 37π 1 −23π
i i
z3 = 2 5 e 30 = 25 e 30 ,
1 49π 1 −11π
i i
z4 = 2 5 e 30 = 25 e 30 .

Example 4. Find all square roots of −3 + 4i.
[SOLUTION] Note that
−3 + 4i = 5 (cos(π − α) + i sin(π − α)) = 5ei(π−α) ,
where 0 < α < π2 and α = arctan( 34 ).

Thus, the 2 distinct square roots of −3 + 4i are
51/2 ei(π−α+2k π)/2 , k = 0, 1,
which are
√ i π−α √ π−α+2π √ 3π−α
z0 = 5e 2 and z1 = 5ei 2 = 5ei 2 .

Complex Numbers

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Complex Numbers

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Complex Numbers

Division of Mathematical Sciences

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 1 / 74

2 Argand Diagram, Polar Representation & Euler Form

3 Operations on Complex Numbers

4 Solving Quadratic Equation

6 Application: Finding nth roots of z = r (cos θ + i sin θ)

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 2 / 74

2 Argand Diagram, Polar Representation & Euler Form

3 Operations on Complex Numbers

4 Solving Quadratic Equation

6 Application: Finding nth roots of z = r (cos θ + i sin θ)

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 3 / 74

To deal with the above quadratic equation, a new symbol ‘i’ is

Thus, x 2 + 1 = 0 has two distinct roots namely i and −i.

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 4 / 74

(i) A complex number z is a mathematical object of the form

(iii) We represent the set of all complex numbers by C.

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 5 / 74

Re(3 + 5i) = 3 and Im(3 + 5i) = 5.

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 6 / 74

Definition (Equality of complex numbers)

That is, Re(z) = Re(z 0 ) and Im(z) = Im(z 0 ).

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 7 / 74

(2x − 3) = x + 7, and 5 = −(y + 1),

which gives x = 10 and y = −6.

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 8 / 74

(i) We may identify every real number x ∈ R as a complex

(ii) We say that a complex number z = x + iy is purely

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 9 / 74

i 3 = (i 2 )(i) = −i, i 4 = (i 2 )(i 2 ) = (−1)(−1) = 1,

i 5 = (i 4 )(i) = i, i 6 = (i 5 )(i) = i 2 = −1, . . .

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 10 / 74

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 11 / 74

2 Argand Diagram, Polar Representation & Euler Form

3 Operations on Complex Numbers

4 Solving Quadratic Equation

6 Application: Finding nth roots of z = r (cos θ + i sin θ)

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 12 / 74

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 13 / 74

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 14 / 74

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 15 / 74

(a) |4| = 4, | − 2| = 2. For real numbers a,

(b) |7i| = 7, | − 5i| = 5. For purely imaginary numbers bi,

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 16 / 74

The counter-clockwise direction is considered ‘positive’

We write arg(z) for all the arguments of z.

In particular, when the angle θ is chosen such that −π < θ ≤ π,

Step 2 Determine the basic angle α, where α is the acute angle

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 19 / 74

Question What is Arg(3 + 3i)? Arg(−3 − 3i)? Arg(−3 + 3i)?

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 20 / 74

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 21 / 74

z = r (cos θ + i sin θ).

As a shorthand, some authors also use the notation cisθ for

reiθ , where θ is expressed in radians.

Exponential form of a complex number is commonly used in

(a) We have |4| = 4 and Arg(4) = 0. So

We have found in an earlier example that Arg(z) = − π4 .

Note The polar form of z = 3 − 3i is

(MAS/SPMS/NTU) Complex Numbers 25 / 74

2 Argand Diagram, Polar Representation & Euler Form

3 Operations on Complex Numbers

4 Solving Quadratic Equation