Original Articles

A Review on Biodegradable Plastics

T. M. Aminabhavi,R. H. Balundgi &P. E. Cassidy

Pages 235-262 | Published online: 23 Oct 2006

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https://doi.org/10.1080/03602559008049843

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Abstract
The interaction between synthetic polymers and the natural environment in terms
of the effects of oxygen, radiant energy, and living organisms has been extensively
studied over the past two decades [1]. However, the recent trends in the preservation of
the environment have created much public interest. This is due to the heavy usage of
plastics as packaging materials in consumer industry. Materials used as packaging films
and the like are not expected to have a long service life. Among several such materials,
polyolefins have received special criticism because of their longevity and stability under
soil burial conditions. The most likely degradative processes acting on buried polyolefins
are simple oxidation and microbial attack, in addition to photodegmdation under the
influence of UV sunlight. The disposal of plastics as refuse or litter is thus a volume
problem rather than a weight problem. The relative proportion of plastics in refuse
increases every day on account of their low degradability. The widespread concern of
the public regarding waste plastic products prompted us to undertake an overview of the
biodegradation of plastic products.
Biodegradable plastics

https://www.explainthatstuff.com/bioplastics.html

If you're in the habit of reading what supermarkets print on their plastic bags,
you may have noticed a lot of environmentally friendly statements appearing
over the last few years. Some stores now use what are described
as photodegradable, oxydegradable (also called oxodegradable or PAC,
Pro-oxidant Additive Containing, plastic), or just biodegradable bags (in
practice, whatever they're called, it often means the same thing). As the name
suggests, these biodegradable plastics contain additives that cause them to
decay more rapidly in the presence of light and oxygen (moisture and heat
help too). Unlike bioplastics, biodegradable plastics are made of normal
(petrochemical) plastics and don't always break down into harmless
substances: sometimes they leave behind a toxic residue and that makes
them generally (but not always) unsuitable for composting.

Photo: A typical message on a biodegradable bag. This one, made from Eco Film™, is compostable too.

Biodegradable bags sound great, but they're not without their problems. In
2014, for example, some members of the European Parliament tried hard to
bring about a complete ban on oxydegradable plastics in the EU, with growing
doubts over their environmental benefits. Although that proposal was blocked,
it lead to more detailed studies of oxydegradable plastics, apparently
confirming that they can't be effectively composted or anaerobically digested
and don't usually break down in landfills. In the oceans, the water is usually
too cold to break down biodegradable plastics, so they either float forever on
the surface (just like conventional plastics) or, if they do break down, produce
tiny plastic fragments that are harmful to marine life.
Biocomposites reinforced with natural fibers: 2000–
2010
Author links open overlay panelOmarFarukadAndrzej K.BledzkiacHans-PeterFinkbMohiniSaind
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2012.04.003 Get rights and content

Abstract
Due to environment and sustainability issues, this century has witnessed remarkable
achievements in green technology in the field of materials science through the development of
biocomposites. The development of high-performance materials made from natural resources is
increasing worldwide. The greatest challenge in working with natural fiber reinforced plastic
composites is their large variation in properties and characteristics. A biocomposite's properties
are influenced by a number of variables, including the fiber type, environmental conditions
(where the plant fibers are sourced), processing methods, and any modification of the fiber. It is
also known that recently there has been a surge of interest in the industrial applications of
composites containing biofibers reinforced with biopolymers. Biopolymers have seen a
tremendous increase in use as a matrix for biofiber reinforced composites. A comprehensive
review of literature (from 2000 to 2010) on the mostly readily utilized natural fibers and
biopolymers is presented in this paper. The overall characteristics of reinforcing fibers used in
biocomposites, including source, type, structure, composition, as well as mechanical properties,
will be reviewed. Moreover, the modification methods; physical (corona and plasma treatment)
and chemical (silane, alkaline, acetylation, maleated coupling, and enzyme treatment) will be
discussed. The most popular matrices in biofiber reinforced composites based on petrochemical
and renewable resources will also be addressed. The wide variety of biocomposite processing
techniques as well as the factors (moisture content, fiber type and content, coupling agents and
their influence on composites properties) affecting these processes will be discussed. Prior to
the processing of biocomposites, semi-finished product manufacturing is also vital, which will be
illustrated. Processing technologies for biofiber reinforced composites will be discussed based
on thermoplastic matrices (compression molding, extrusion, injection molding, LFT-D-method,
and thermoforming), and thermosets (resin transfer molding, sheet molding compound). Other
implemented processes, i.e., thermoset compression molding and pultrusion and their influence
on mechanical performance (tensile, flexural and impact properties) will also be evaluated.
Finally, the review will conclude with recent developments and future trends of biocomposites as
well as key issues that need to be addressed and resolved.
Mechanical Property of Surface Modified Natural Fiber
Reinforced PLA Biocomposites☆
Author links open overlay panelWassamonSujaritjunaPutinunUawongsuwanbWerapornPivsa-
ArtaHiroyukiHamadab
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2013.06.798Get rights and content

Under a Creative Commons license

Abstract
Natural fibers have recently become attractive to researchers, engineers and scientists
as an alternative reinforcement for fiber reinforced polymer composites. This paper is
focused on the tensile properties of natural fiber reinforced polylactic acid composites.
The untreated and flexible epoxy treated bamboo fiber, vetiver grass fiber and coconut
fiber were used as reinforcement for PLA biocomposites. The stiffness of untreated
biocomposites increased significantly with increasing of fiber content. However, the
tensile strength decreased with increasing of fiber content. The flexible epoxy surface
treatment reduced the stiffness of all composites while it considerably increased tensile
strength when compared against the untreated composites. In addition, it can be seen
that the effects of flexible epoxy treated on the tensile strength improvement were
dependent upon the type of natural fiber. The tensile strength of bamboo fiber and
coconut fiber reinforced PLA composites were significantly improved by the flexible
epoxy surface treatment. Unlike the other combinations, vetiver grass fiber reinforced
PLA composite showed less improvement in tensile strength when comparing with other
natural fibers. Bamboo fiber proved to be the most effective reinforcement compared to
other reinforcements.
Improvement of the Mechanical
Properties of Biodegradable
Polymers Using a Microcellular
Foaming Process and Natural By-
Products
Byungjoo Jeon,Jin Woo Han,Kyung Soo Lee &Sung Woon Cha

Pages 401-406 | Published online: 27 Feb 2012

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https://doi.org/10.1080/03602559.2011.639835

Abstract
Biodegradable plastics based on biomass are currently the subject of active research.
However, they have shortcomings that include weak mechanical properties and high
prices. Therefore we added wood powder and rice bran, which are generated as by-
products from natural raw materials. In addition, a microcellular foaming process was
applied to form pores inside the plastics. Various coupling agents were assessed and
compared, and appropriate coupling agents were selected for each polymer. In addition,
we studied the effect of porosity and natural by-product content on the mechanical
properties of the biodegradable plastics. We also confirmed that environmentally
friendly plastics could be made lighter and their mechanical strength could be improved
through the addition of by-products from natural raw materials.
Mechanical properties of bioplastics cassava starch film with Zinc Oxide
nanofiller as reinforcement Harunsyah*, M Yunus and Reza Fauzan
http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/210/1/012015/pdf

Department of Chemical Engineering, Lhokseumawe State Polytechnic, Buketrata, Lhokseumawe 24300,

Indonesia.

Email: *harunsyah@pnl.ac.id, mysri_son@yahoo.com, reza.fauzan@gmail.com Abstract:

This study focuses on investigating the influence of zinc oxide nanofiller on the mechanical properties of
bioplastic cassava starch films. Bioplastic cassava starch film-based zinc oxide reinforced composite
biopolymeric films were prepared by casting technique. The content of zinc oxide in the bioplastic films
was varied from 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8% and 1.0% (w/w) by weight of starch. Surface morphologies of
the composites bioplastic films were examined by scanning electron microscope (SEM).The result
showed that the Tensile strength (TS) was improved significantly with the additional of zinc oxide but the
elongation at break (EB %) of the composites was decreased. The maximum tensile strength obtained
was 22.30 kgf / mm on the additional of zinc oxide by 0.6% and plastilizer by 25%. Based on data of FTIR,
the produced film plastic did not change the group function and it can be concluded that theinteraction
in film plastic produced was only a physical interaction. Biodegradable plastic film based on cassava
starch-zinc oxide and plasticizer glycerol showed that interesting mechanical properties being
transparent, clear, homogeneous, flexible, and easily handled.
SOME EXAMPLES OF BIO-BASED AND BIODEGRADABLE
PLASTICS
Among plastics, both bio-based and biodegradable, there are two main families.
The first consists of polymers extracted directly from plant biomass (starch, cellulose, etc). The starch
extracted from potatoes, corn or wheat can be converted into a thermoplastic material, using conventional
plastic processing methods. Similarly, cellulose — the most abundant molecule on earth – can be used to
manufacture transparent and flexible films that are barriers to moisture and oxygen.

The second family includes polyesters obtained mainly by biological fermentation (PHA) or by biomass
polymerization (PLA). A wide range of PHAs is foreseeable, including both rigid thermoplastic and more
elastic materials that would cover a huge number of potential applications. PLA is chemically obtained by
fermentation of sugars extracted from various plants like maize and beets. Having mechanical properties
similar to conventional plastics such as polypropylene or polyethylene terephthalate (PET), PLA is also
“biocompatible”, thus expanding its application to biomedical and pharmaceutical fields, and also to the
production of fibers for making clothes, fishing nets, etc.

The biomass of plants and animals is an almost infinite reservoir which can be used for the production of
many products, and in particular bioplastics. The management of end-of-life bio-based products is also a
crucial issue in limiting waste accumulation. Bioplastics are generally considered as an eco-friendly
alternative to petrochemical plastics because of their production from renewable resources and their
biodegradability. However, to better understand the environmental impact of this type of material it will be
necessary to analyze the complete life cycle by rigorous and unbiased means. This will allow us to
precisely quantify the environmental impacts generated by these products and processes throughout their
life cycle.

https://oceans.taraexpeditions.org/en/m/environment/mankind-the-ocean-pollution/bioplastics-an-
alternative-for-the-future/
Fiber-Matrix Adhesion and Its Effect on Composite Mechanical
Properties: II. Longitudinal (0°) and Transverse (90°) Tensile and Flexure
Behavior of Graphite/Epoxy Composites
Madhu S. Madhukar, Lawrence T. Drzal

First Published August 1, 1991 Research Article

https://doi.org/10.1177/002199839102500802

Article information

Abstract

An optimum level of interfacial bond strength between reinforcing fiber and a polymeric
matrix in which it is placed is essential for acceptable composite mechanical properties
and performance. The interfacial bond strength can be optimized only when the
relationship between the level of fiber-matrix adhesion and the mechanical and fracture
behavior of composites is clearly understood. This study establishes the relationship
between the fiber-matrix interfacial shear strength and 0° and 90° tensile and flexure
properties of graphite/epoxy composites. A well defined and characterized graphite
fiber/epoxy system was chosen in which the level of adhesion between fiber and matrix
was changed by using the same graphite fibers through the use of surface treatment
and finish. The level of adhesion between the fiber and matrix associated with these
changes resulted in an increase of fiber-matrix interfacial shear strength (ISS) by over a
factor of two while the fiber and matrix properties remained unchanged. The
experimental results demonstrated that the fiber surface modification did not have much
effect on the tensile and flexural moduli and on the fiber dominated properties. However,
the strengths and maximum strains that are governed by the matrix and interface
properties were highly sensitive to the fiber surface modification. In addition, the major
failure modes were also found to be affected by the fiber-matrix interfacial shear
strength.

Influence of Fiber-Matrix Adhesion on Mechanical Properties of

Graphite/Epoxy Composites: I. Tensile, Flexure, and Fatigue Properties
Shiqiang Deng, Lin Ye

First Published July 1, 1999 Research Article

https://doi.org/10.1177/073168449901801105

Article information

Abstract

Tension, flexure and fatigue tests were carried out using the graphite/epoxy composites
with two different fiber surface conditions to identify the effects of fiber-matrix adhesion
on the mechanical properties of composites in conjunction with the variation of fiber
volume fraction. Only a slight increase in longitudinal tensile and flexural strengths as
well as strains-to-failure is obtained with the substantially increased interfacial shear
strength, while the longitudinal tensile and flexural moduli are nearly the same.
However, a significant increase in transverse tensile and flexural strengths or strains-to-
failure is accompanied with the improvement of fiber-matrix adhesion, though the
transverse tensile and flexural moduli are basically independent of the variation of fiber-
matrix adhesion. Under tension-tension fatigue loading, the composites with a strong
fiber-matrix adhesion have a clearly longer fatigue life at high applied fatigue stresses,
while at low applied fatigue stresses the effect of fiber-matrix adhesion on the fatigue life
of a composite becomes less pronounced. It was found that the mechanical properties
of a composite with a high fiber volume fraction are more sensitive to the change of
fiber-matrix adhesion than those with a low fiber volume fraction.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9781782423737/biocomposites#book-description
 https://books.google.com.my/books?
id=3V7CDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA97&lpg=PA97&dq=what+factors+affect+and+increase+the+mechanical+prop
erties+or+other+properties+of+starch+biocomposite+or+starch+blended+biocomposite&source=bl&ots
=-XNBY1PTp7&sig=FycHJZ7jneoWW8CU1RxCmLJ-
iIg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi_iqew1efeAhXKto8KHb9eA6AQ6AEwB3oECAQQAQ#v=onepage&q&f=fa
lse
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319757311_Biodegradable_Plastic
http://www.bpf.co.uk/article/researchers-in-malaysia-claim-biodegradable-plastic-packaging-from-fruit-
skins-373.as
https://www.chemicals-technology.com/projects/sirim-
bioplastics-pilot-plant/

SIRIM Bioplastics Pilot Plant

Policies for Bioplastics in
the Context of a Bioeconomy

Government Regs and Consumer Awareness Drive Bioplastic

Packaging Market
https://www.environmentalleader.com/2018/08/government-regs-and-consumer-awareness-drive-
bioplastic-packaging-market/