1

MEASURING DEVICES

 The function of a measuring device is to sense (or) detect a parameter that occur in an
ndustrial process (or) in scientific research such as pressure, temperature, flow, motion,
resistance, voltage, current and power.

 The measuring device must be capable of faithfully and accurately detecting any changes
that occur in the measured parameter.

Strain Gauge

A strain gauge may be defined as an instrument or device that is employed to measure the linear
deformation over a given gauge length, occurring in a material of a structure during the loading of
a structure.
 2

Gauge Length

The gauge size for a mechanical strain gauge is characterized by the distance between the two
knife edges in contact with the specimen and by the width of the movable knife edge

Sensitivity

It is the smallest value of strain which can be read on the scale associated with the strain gauge

Range

The range represents the maximum strain which can be recorded without resetting or replacing
the strain gauge

Accuracy or repeatability

Sensitivity is differ from accuracy. Usually the very sensitive instruments are quite prone to
errors unless they are employed with the utmost care. The important problem of repeatability of
an instrument is the existence of friction at the pivot point
 3

Compound Lever Magnification

Huggenberger tensometer
Porter-Lipp Strain Gauge
 4

Huggenberger tensometer

The instrument consists of a frame C which supports a lever system, including the fixed-contact
point A and rhomb B which serves dually as part of the lever system and as a contact point.

Rhomb B is integral with the arm H. Its rotation, resulting from the motion ∆L, magnifies the
motion and transmits it, through link D in a knife edges M and N to the pointer E. The readings
taken from the scale F are converted to actual strain values by application of the magnification
factor(=l1 l2/a1a2)
 5

Magnification by Rack and Pinion

Ames and Federal Dial gauge Indicator

The Rack and Pinion principle along with various types of gear trains is employed in this gauges
In general a dial indicator consists of an encased
gear train actuated by a rack cut in the spindle, which
follows the motion to be measured.
The gear train terminates with a light weight pointer
which travel on a graduated scale
The Dial Gauge indicators are frequently attached
permanently in the structure to indicate the
deflections under working load

Combined Lever, Rack and Pinion Magnification

Whittemore Strain Gauge

6
 7

This instrument consist of two frames A

bound together by two elastic hinges B for
parallel friction less motion. One conical
contact point C is attached to each frame
member

For strain measurements, the contact points

are inserted into drilled holes defining a
predetermined gauge length. Motion between
the two frames are measured directly with a
dial indicator.

Optical Strain Gauges

Optical strain gauges can be classified in two groups

 Instruments using optical lever principle

 Instruments using mechanical lever principle
 8

Instruments using optical lever principle

In instruments using optical lever, the lever consist of a short mechanical arm holding a mirror
which reflects a beam of light.

Instruments using mechanical lever principle

In this instruments , the magnification is obtained by solid levers. At the end of the arms,
reference marks are provided. The relative movements of these points can then be measured by
optical means

Optical Strain Gauges

Marten’s Mirror Extensometer

Tuckerman Optical Strain Gauge

Marten’s Mirror Extensometer

 9

Tuckerman Optical Strain Gauge

Pneumatic Strain Gauge

 10

The principle of operation of a pneumatic gauge depends upon the relative discharge of air
between a fixed and a variable orifice.

Air under constant pressure flows through two orifice placed in series.

The pressure between these two orifices is a function of the ratio of their orifice

• The fixed orifice is called the nozzle and the variable orifice is called exhaust orifice
• When the specimen is loaded, the distance between the two gauge points changes
• This elongation is transmitted through the lever system to the pneumatic gauge,
• Due to this the gap between the orifice and the top plate changes
• This changes the area of the variable orifice which is directly proportional to strain
Acoustical Strain Gauge

The acoustical strain gauge consists of a steel wire tensioned between two supports at a
predetermined distance apart

Variation of the distance alters the natural frequency of vibration of the wire
 11

This change in frequency may be related with the change in strains causing it.

 An electro magnet adjacent to the wire may be used to set the wire in vibration

 This wire movement will generate an oscillating electrical signal

 The signal may be compared with that of an adjustable standard wire

 The adjustment necessary to match the two signal frequencies is provided by a tensioning
screw on the standard wire.

 A visual display or CRO makes the adjustment easier.

 The vibration frequencies of two wires are matched accurately using a head phone.

Electrical Strain Gauges

 Inductance or Magnetic Strain Gauges

 Capacitance Strain Gauge

 Electrical resistance strain gauges.

Inductance or Magnetic Strain Gauges

 Variable-air gap gauges

 Movable-core solenoid gauges

 Eddy current gauges

 Magnetostriction gauges

Variable-air gap gauges

The reluctance of the magnetic field is varied by changing the air gap

Movable-core solenoid gauges

The reluctance of the magnetic circuit is varied by changing the position of the iron core in
the coil
 12

Eddy current gauges

The losses in the magnetic circuit are varied by changing the thickness or the position of the
high-loss element inserted in the magnetic field.

Magnetostriction gauges

The reluctance of the magnetic circuit is varied by changing the stress in the magnetic core
of the coil.

Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)

13
 14

 LVDT is one of the device that can be used to converting a mechanical displacement into
an electrical signal

 LVDT consists of a hollow concentric non magnetic form on which are mounted three
windings, one primary and two secondary windings

 The position of core placed within the coil form determines the voltage that is developed
between primary and secondary winding.

When an AC voltage is impressed across the primary winding and the output of the two
secondary winding connected in opposition, the net voltage is the difference of these voltages
and is a direct measure of the displacement of the core.

 As the core is moved from the balance position, the voltage induced in that secondary coil
towards which the core is moved, increases, whereas in the other secondary coil decreases.
 The motion of the core in the opposite direction produces a similar voltage but of opposite
phase.
 The differential transformer is mechanically simple.
 It is insensitive to temperature changes and cannot be overloaded mechanically
 It is reusable and is of reasonable cost.
 15

Capacitance Strain Gauge

 Capacitance gauges are small in size and they have excellent high-frequency response and
high temperature resistance, as well as good resolution and ability to measure both static
and dynamic qualities.

 These gauges are sensitive to temperature and vibrations.

 The capacitance of a condenser may be changed either by changing the spacing between
the condenser plates or the condenser plate area may be changed.

 The variation in the capacitance because of a change in the plate spacing is linear over a
small change, while the change in capacitance resulting from a change in area is linear for
larger changes.
 16

 Two types of circuits are used to measure the change in capacitance of a gauge.

 In the first method, the capacitance bridge is supplied with an AC voltage and the output is
measured by either a voltmeter or CRO

 In the second method, the capacitance gauge may be placed in a circuit, oscillating at
resonance. As the capcitance of the condenser changes as aresult of strain, the frequency of
oscillation of the circuit changes. This variation in frequency is indicated on the CRO

Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge

In the electrical resistance strain gauges the strain is measured as a function of the resistance
change produced by the displacement in the gauging circuit.

Unbonded non metallic Gauges

 17

 The unbonded non-metallic gauge is a mechanically actuated gauge that contains a

resistance element so arranged that when one part of the gauge is displaced with respect to
another there is developed a change in pressure on the measuring element of the gauge.
 This change in pressure changes the resistance of the element which may be recorded by
electrical means
 This gauge is composed of a series of carbon plates arranged in stack.
 The stack is so adjusted that a displacement of one part of the gauge relative to another
changes the pressure on the carbon plates.
 When the strain is applied to the structure to which the gauge is attached, the change in
length is communicated to the carbon plate stack.
 This change in length creates a change in pressure in the stack, and the resistance of the
stack changes.
 When there is an increase in pressure, the area of contact between the plates are enlarged
and new areas come in to contact, thus decreasing the resistance of the elements.
 If the pressure is released, the areas of contact are reduced, which in turn will increases the
resistance of the element.
Unbonded metallic gauges
 18

 The principle of the unbonded metallic gauges is based on the change in electrical
resistance of a metallic wire due to the change in tension of the wire.

 This type of gauge is constructed by winding wire in three coils, the first providing a coil
unaffected by the gauge motion , and the other two having tension s altered by gauge
motions.

 The whole thing is mounted on a sleeve that allows only longitudinal movement.

 The coils are placed under initial tension

 As the compressive strain is applied, the prestrain would simply be relieved and the
unbonded element would remain taut.

 In order to measure compressive strain, the initial assembly must include a built in tensile
prestrain in the coils greater than the maximum compressive strain to be measured.

Bonded Non-Metallic Gauges

 In this gauges a carbon coating is applied directly to the surface of the structure in which
the strains are measured .

 For metallic structures the surface is first coated with a non conducting material.

 If the underlying surface of such a coating is stretched, the carbon particles would move
apart, and the under coating is compressed , the particles would move closer together and
the resistance will change.

 This resistance changes can be interpreted in terms of strains.

Bonded Metallic Gauges

 The bonded metallic type of strain gauge consists of a length of a strain sensitive conductor
mounted on a small piece of paper
 19

 In use this gauge is cemented to the surface to the surface of the structure that has to be
tested. These gauges may be of coil type or foil type.
 In case of wire type strain gauges , the filament consists of a long wire in the form of a grid
fixed in place with a suitable cement.
 In the warp around type of strain gauges the strain sensitive wire is wound arouns a
cylindrical core in the form of a close wound helix.
 This core is then flattened and cemented between the layers of paper for the purpose of
protection and insulation.
20
21
 22

Weldable Strain Gauges

 The weldable strain gauge consist of a strain sensitive elements like Nickel Chrome, placed
with in a small diameter stainless steel tube.
 The strain element is insulated from the steel tube with highly compacted ceramic
insulations like high purity magnesium oxide.
 The weldable strain gauges are equipped with a thin flange, spotwelded to the strain tube.
 This flange is subsequently spotwelded to the structure to be tested
Piezo-resistive strain gauges

 Crystals of silicon, germanium and quartz show a change in resistance when deformed by
applying pressure. This effect is used to measure the strain.

Selection of Gauges
 Gauge Material  Gauge material form
 Carrier Material  Lead out method
 Gauge Factor  Adhesive used
 Gauge Size  Type of strain to be measured
 Gauge resistance  Operating temperature
 Gauge sensitivity  Environmental condition
 23

Basic characteristics of a Ideal Strain Gauge

 The gauge should be of extremely small size

 The gauge should be easy to attach to the member to be tested and easy to
handle.
 The strain sensitivity and accuracy of the gauge should be sufficiently high
 The gauge should be unaffected by temperature, vibration, humidity or other
ambient conditions
 The gauge should be capable of indicating both dynamic and static strains
 It should be possible to read the gauge either on location or remotely
 The gauge should exhibit linear response to the strain
 The gauge and the associated equipments should be available at a reasonable
cost.
 The gauge should be of significant mass to permit the recording of dynamic
strain.
Strain Gauge Circuits

Two electrical circuits

 Wheatstone bridge
 Potentiometer circuit
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
 24

 A DC Wheatstone bridge consisting of four resistance arms with a battery and a

meter is shown in fig

 In this Wheatstone bridge the resistance shown in each of the four arms of the
bridge can represent a strain gauge.

 A voltage V is applied to the bridge and the output of the bridge is measured by a
galvanometer.

 If we denote resistance by R, current by i, and voltage by V, then Ohm's law states

that for each resistor in the circuit,

V=iR

If we consider each resistor separately, each resistor has its own current (i1, i2, i3, and
i4), resistance (R1, R2, R3 , and R4), and voltage (V1, V2, V3, and V4), which are
related to each other through Ohm's law. In practice, the resistors would actually be the
resistance provided by a strain gage

 Resistors R1 and R3 are connected in series through node b. Therefore the same
current flows through R1 and R3.

i(1-3) = i1 = i3

 The value of i(1-3) can be determined from Ohm's law as follows

i(1-3) = V / (R1 + R3)

 Similarly, resistors R2 and R4 are connected in series and the same current i(2-4)
flows through these resistors. The current is given by:

i(2-4) = V / (R2 + R4)

 25

 The change in voltage from nodes a to node b is given by:

Vb - Va = i(1-3) R1

Similarly, the voltage change from node a to node c is given by:

Vc - Va = i(2-4) R2

 The galvanometer G measures the difference

in voltage between nodes b and c.

G = Vc - Vb = (Vc - Va)- (Vb - Va)

 The condition for balance is that the voltage G should be zero, i.e. the numerator
of the above equation should be zero.

R2 R3 = R1 R4 or
 26

 The above equation gives the condition for the Wheatstone bridge to balance

 The ratio of resistance of any two adjacent arms of the bridge must be equal to the
ratio of the resistances of the remaining two arms taken in the same order.

Balanced bridge

Consider an initially balanced bridge, i.e.,

Eq is satisfied

Change R1 and/or R2 by a small increment

Any imbalance that may result from these changes can be removed and the bridge can
be again balanced by changing the ratio R3/R4 in such a way that the Eq is
satisfied

 The ratio of two resistances R3/R4 can be changed accurately, when one or more
of the bridge arms contains a
calibrated potentiometer.

some of the arrangements

commonly used in
commercial strain measuring
instruments.
 27

The Potentiometer Circuit

 For the potentiometer circuit shown in the above figure, the open circuit voltage is
given by
 28

Calibration of potentiometer Circuit

Load Cell
 29

Construction of a load cell

 A strain gauge – elastic member combination arrangement used for the

measurement of load or weight is called load cell. It utilizes an elastic member as
primary transducer and strain gauge as a secondary transducer. A suitable plane
area is placed on the elastic member as a weight stand. Then, strain gauge is
attached to the elastic member.

Construction of a load cell

The figure shown below is the Load cell Construction Diagram. On applying
load, the elastic member will deform or deflect. Since the strain gauge is attached to the
elastic member, strain gauge may elongate or compress due to tension. This varies its
length and in turn its resistance varies. By measuring the variation in the resistance of the
strain gauge, the applied load can be calculated.
 30

The figure shows the construction of the tensile compressive cell which is a cylinder.
This arrangement uses four strain gauges, each mounted at 90 to each other. On applying
load, due to tension, two of the strain gauges experience elongation or tensile stress while
the other two are subjected to compression
 31

Types of Load Cell

The Load Cell Types are classified based on three criteria. They are

 Working principle of a load cell

 Construction of Load Cell
 Electrical Properties of the load cell
Based on the Working Principle of the Load Cell

 Compression Principle  Hollow

 Tensile based Working  Shear Based
 Universal
Based on the Construction of the Load Cell

 S type Construction load cell

 Load Button types

 Single ended shear beam

 Double ended shear beam Load cell

 Single column and Multi Column load cell

 Pancake Load cell

 Diaphragm/membrane

 Torsion Ring Load cell

Based on the Electrical Properties of the Load cell

 Analog and Digital property based load cell

 Resistance and Capacitance Based

 Piezoelectric and Wireless Based Load cell

 32

Proving Ring
 33

Hydraulic Jack

Working of Hydraulic Jack