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Fat Replacers
A PUBLICATION OF
THE INSTITUTE OF FOOD TECHNOLOGISTS’
This Scientific Status EXPERT PANEL ON FOOD SAFETY AND NUTRITION
Summary addresses
key characteristics
replacers.
A wareness of adverse affects of excessive
dietary fat intake is virtually universal.
Consequently, health conscious individuals are
and coronary heart disease (AHA, 1996; USDHHS,
1988). The 1995 Dietary Guidelines (USDA and
USDHHS, 1995) recommend limiting total fat in-
take to no more than 30% of daily energy intake,
with saturated fats no more than 10% and mo-
modifying their dietary habits and eating less fat
(Miller and Groziak, 1996). Consumer accep- nounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats account-
ing for at least two-thirds of daily energy intake.
tance of any food product depends upon taste— Consumer surveys indicate that 56% of adult
the most important sensory attribute. Although Americans try to reduce fat intake and many show
interest in trying foods containing fat replacers
consumers want foods with minimal to no fat or
(Bruhn et al., 1992). A survey conducted by the
calories, they also want the foods to taste good. Calorie Control Council (CCC, Atlanta, Ga.) found
Because several foods formulated with fat that 88% of adults reported consuming low-fat, re-
duced-fat or fat-free foods and beverages (CCC,
replacers do not compare favorably with the 1996). Although fat intake is declining, probably
flavor of full-fat counterparts, it is difficult for due to the increased availability of low- and re-
some people to maintain a reduced fat dietary duced-fat products and lean meats, fat consump-
tion is greater than the recommended levels, and
regimen. Food manufacturers continue to the prevalence of the population classified as over-
search for the elusive “ideal fat replacer” that weight is increasing (Frazao, 1996). Foods formu-
tastes and functions like conventional fat lated with fat replacers are an enjoyable alternative
to familiar high-fat foods. By choosing these alter-
without the potential adverse health impact. native foods, health conscious consumers are able
This Scientific Status Summary briefly reviews to maintain basic food selection patterns and more
easily adhere to a low-fat diet (CCC, 1996).
key characteristics and functions of fat replacers
CASIMIR C. AKOH, Fat may be replaced in food products by tradi-
that are commercially available and a few that tional techniques such as substituting water or air
PH.D.
are under development. for fat, using lean meats in frozen entrées, skim
Author Akoh, a Professional Mem-
milk instead of whole milk in frozen desserts, and
ber of IFT, is Associate Professor, baking instead of frying for manufacturing or
Department of Food Science and
Rationale for Fat Replacers
As a food component, fat contributes key sen- preparing snack foods (CCC, 1992). Fat may also
Technology, The University of Geor-
sory and physiological benefits. Fat contributes to be replaced in foods by reformulating the foods
gia, Athens, Ga.
flavor, or the combined perception of mouthfeel, with lipid-, protein-, or carbohydrate-based ingre-
taste, and aroma/odor (Ney, 1988). Fat also con- dients, individually or in combination. Fat replac-
tributes to creaminess, appearance, palatability, ers represent a variety of chemical types with di-
texture, and lubricity of foods and increases the verse functional and sensory properties and physi-
feeling of satiety during meals. Fat can also carry ological effects. Table 1 lists the general functions of
lipophilic flavor compounds, act as a precursor fat replacers in selected applications and food
for flavor development (e.g., by lipolysis or fry- product categories. Continued on next page
ing), and stabilize flavor (Leland, 1997). From a
physiological standpoint, fat is a source of fat-sol-
uble vitamins, essential fatty acids, precursors for
dditional reading: Akoh, 1995a,b; Artz
prostaglandins, and is a carrier for lipophilic
drugs. Fat is the most concentrated source of en-
ergy in the diet, providing 9 kcal/g compared to 4
A and Hansen, 1994; CCC, 1996; Gershoff,
1995; Giese, 1996; Gillat and Lee, 1991;
kcal/g for proteins and carbohydrates. Harrigan and Breene, 1989; Hassel, 1993; Haumann,
High fat intake is associated with increased risk 1986; LaBarge, 1988; Roller and Jones, 1996; Stern
for obesity and some types of cancer, and saturated and Hermann-Zaidins, 1992; Swanson, 1996;
fat intake is associated with high blood cholesterol Vanderveen and Glinsmann, 1992.
the glycerol backbone. Because short chain ing and frying. EPGs can be tailored to kcal/g. Formulation with hydrated gel
fatty acids have a lower caloric value than produce specific functional properties forms, however, enables calorie reduc-
long chain fatty acids and because stearic (Harrigan and Breene, 1993) and are ex- tion; for example, a 25% gel provides 1
acid is incompletely absorbed, the caloric pected to be low in caloric value due to kcal/g. Simplesse provides fat-like
value of Salatrim is only 55% or 5/9 the their lipase resistance. EPGs are not yet creaminess in high-moisture applica-
value of conventional fats (Smith et al., commercially available. tions, but like other proteins it tends to
1994). Developed by Nabisco Foods Group Trialkoxytricarballylate (TATCA), tri- mask flavor. Simplesse retains the biolog-
(Parsippany, N.J.), Salatrim is licensed to alkoxycitrate (TAC), and trialkoxyglyceryl ical value of the protein used and, hence,
Cultor Food Science, which established the ether (TGE) are polycarboxylic acids any antigenic/allergenic properties of the
brand name Benefat™ for manufacture with two to four carboxylic acid groups protein (Gershoff, 1995).
and marketing. FDA accepted for filing in esterified with saturated or unsaturated • Carbohydrate-based Fat Mimetics.
1994 a GRAS affirmation petition submit- alcohols having straight or branched Carbohydrates have been used in some
ted by Nabisco Foods Group. chains of 8–30 carbon atoms (Hamm, foods for several years to partially or to-
Salatrim compositions with differing 1985). Because the ester units of the sub- tally replace fat. Digestible carbohydrates
amounts of SCFA and LCFA provide se- stances are reversed from the corre- such as modified starches and dextrins
lect functional and physical properties, sponding ester present in triglycerides, provide 4 kcal/g, while nondigestible
e.g., a range of melting points, hardness, these compounds are not susceptible to complex carbohydrates provide few calo-
and appearance. Salatrim was designed complete hydrolysis by lipases (Hau- ries. Many carbohydrates serve as thicken-
for a variety of applications, including mann, 1986). The synthesis and func- ers or gelling agents in foods. Gums,
chocolate-flavored coatings, deposited tional properties of the polycarboxylic starches, pectin, cellulose, and other car-
chips, caramels and toffees, fillings and acid esters and ethers are described by bohydrate ingredients provide some of
inclusions for confectionery and baked Hamm (1984). A U.S. patent (Hamm, the functions of fat in foods by binding
goods, peanut spreads, savory dressings, 1985) for the polycarboxylic acid esters water. They also provide texture, mouth-
dips and sauces, and dairy products such and ethers was assigned to CPC Interna- feel, and opacity (Giese, 1996). Corn syr-
as sour cream, frozen dairy desserts, and tional. TATCA, TAC, and TGE are not yet ups, syrup solids, and high-fructose corn
cheese (Kosmark, 1996). Salatrim, howev- commercially available. syrups are used as fat replacers in many
er, is not suitable for frying. The first Sala- • Protein-based Fat Mimetics. Several fat-free and reduced-fat cookies to con-
trim product, Benefat 1, was developed fat replacers are derived from a variety of trol water activity (aw). Polyols such as
primarily to replace cocoa butter in con- protein sources, including egg, milk, sorbitol and maltitol as well as fructooli-
fectionery applications. whey, soy, gelatin, and wheat gluten. Some gosaccharides may also be used to control
Dialkyl dihexadecylmalonate (DDM) of these protein-based fat mimetics are aw. Fat-free salad dressings contain xan-
is a fatty alcohol dicarboxylic acid ester microparticulated (sheared under heat) to than gum and carrageenan as stabilizers.
of malonic acid and alkylmalonic acid, form microscopic coagulated round de- Carbohydrate-based fat mimetics are not
synthesized by reacting a malonyl diha- formable particles that mimic the mouth- suitable for frying but can be used as fat
lide with a fatty alcohol. Alkyl halide, in a feel and texture of fat. Some fat mimetics barriers for frying and for baking.
basic solvent, may be used to increase the are processed to modify other aspects of Gums are high molecular weight nega-
molecular weight of DDM (Artz and ingredient functionality, such as water tively-charged carbohydrates used as thick-
Hansen, 1994). Frito-Lay, Inc. (Dallas, binding and emulsification properties. Al- eners to increase viscosity at concentra-
Texas) patented DDM for use in replac- though the substances are generally not tions of 0.1–0.5%, and as stabilizers and
ing oil in food formulations or in frying sufficiently heat stable to withstand fry- gelling agents. Gums that are used in fat re-
(Fulcher, 1986). DDM is noncaloric be- ing, they are suitable for use as ingredients placing systems with other gums, fat re-
cause it is not digested or absorbed. It is in foods that may undergo cooking, re- placers, or bulking agents include guar,
not yet commercially available. torting, and ultra high temperature pro- xanthan, locust bean gum, carrageenan,
Esterified propoxylated glycerols cessing. Protein-based fat mimetics are gum arabic, and pectins. Gums are used in
(EPGs) comprise a family of derivatives generally used in dairy products, salad salad dressings, icings and glazes, desserts
of propylene oxide, synthesized by react- dressings, frozen desserts, and margarines. and ice cream, ground beef, baked goods,
ing glycerol with propylene oxide to One of these mimetics, Simplesse®, is dairy products, and soups and sauces.
form a polyether polyol that is subse- manufactured from whey protein con- Starches of varying sources, types, and
quently esterified with fatty acids. EPGs centrate by a patented microparticula- functional properties are used in fat replac-
differ from conventional triglycerides in tion process. Developed by the Nu- ing systems to provide sensory properties of
the positioning of an oxypropylene traSweet Kelco Co. (a unit of Monsanto oil, e.g., slippery mouthfeel. Starch sources
group between the glycerol backbone Co., San Diego, Calif.), Simplesse was af- include common corn and high amylose
and the fatty acids. Patented by ARCO firmed as GRAS (21 CFR 184.1498) in corn, waxy maize, wheat, potato, tapioca,
Chemical (Wilmington, Del.) in the 1990 for use in frozen dessert products rice, and waxy rice. Although native starch
Pathogen
United States (WhiteTemperature
and Pollard, 1989)Time toand
toxininFood
1994 for use in yogurt, cheese can sometimes be used to replace fat, starch
°C °F formation (h)
and in Europe (Cooper, 1990), EPGs are spreads, frozen desserts, cream cheese, modified (21 CFR 172.892) by acid or enzy-
being developed by ARCO Chemical Co. and sour cream. Simplesse is suitable for matic hydrolysis, oxidation, dextrinization,
and CPC International/Best Foods (En- use in additional products that do not crosslinking, or mono-substitution is more
glewood Cliffs, N.J.) as a replacement for require frying, such as baked goods, dips, commonly used to achieve desired func-
fats and oils in a variety of products in- frostings, salad dressing, mayonnaise, tional and sensory properties. Available in
cluding frozen desserts, salad dressings, margarine, sauces, and soups. The calor- pregelatinized or instant forms, starches
baked goods, and spreads and for cook- ic value of Simplesse, on a dry basis, is 4 generally perform well in high moisture
crose polyester on African green monkeys (41177). hypercholesterolemia. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 37: 347-354. of compounds containing from one to eight ester
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Human Services, Fed. Reg. 61(20): 3118-3173.
Life Sciences Institute is greatly appreciated. ●
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Gillat, P.N. and Lee, S.M. 1991. Changes in dietary energy with This and other Scientific Status Summaries are published by the Institute of Food Technologists’
novel proteins and fats. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 50: 391-397.
Expert Panel on Food Safety and Nutrition in Food Technology. Scientific Status Summaries, which
Glueck, C.J., Mattson, F.H. and Jandacek, R.J. 1979.
The lowering of plasma cholesterol by sucrose polyes- are not necessarily written by the Expert Panel, are rigorously peer-reviewed by the Expert Panel
ter in subjects consuming diets with 800, 300, or less as well as by individuals outside the panel who have specific expertise in the subject. IFT’s Expert
than 50 mg of cholesterol per day. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. Panel on Food Safety and Nutrition, which studies significant food-related issues and oversees
32: 1636-1644. timely production of Scientific Status Summaries, comprises academicians representing exper-
Glueck, C.J., Jandacek, R.J., Hogg, E., Allen, C., Baehler, L.,
and Tewksbury, M. 1983. Sucrose polyester: Substitution for tise in one or more areas of food science/technology and nutrition.
dietary fats in hypocaloric diets in the treatment of familial The Scientific Status Summaries may be reprinted or photocopied without permission, provided
that suitable credit is given.
VOL. 52, NO. 3 • MARCH 1998 FOODTECHNOLOGY 53