Minerals and

Rocks
Earth Science
Minerals
Matter: Formation of Minerals
• Elements
• The basic building blocks of minerals
• Atoms
• Smallest particles of matter
• Have all the characteristics of an element
• The nucleus is the central part of an atom and
contains
• Protons – positively charge
• Neutrons – neutrally charged
• Have shells or Energy Level which
• Surrounds the nucleus
• Contains electron - negatively charged
• Atomic Number – number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom
Matter: Formation of Minerals

• Isotopes
• A variation of an element that has the
same number of protons but have
different numbers of neutrons
• It has different mass number; neutron
+ protons
• Unstable; usually radioactive and
emits energy and particles
Matter: Formation of Minerals
• Atomic Bonding
• Chemical bond forms with one atom to another when its outermost energy level
does not contain the maximum number of electrons.
• Compound – consists of two or more elements that are chemically combined in
specific proportions.
• Ion – an atom the gains or loses electrons
• Cations – loses electron
• Anions – gains electron
• Types of Chemical Bonding
• Ionic Bond – forms between positive and negative ions
• Covalent bonds – forms when atoms share electrons
• Metallic bond – forms when metal ions share electrons
Definition of a Mineral
• Do you consider water a mineral?
• Answer: No. It is not solid and crystalline.

• How about snowflake, or tube ice? Are these minerals?

• Answer: Tube ice is not a mineral, because it is not naturally occurring. But a
snowflake possesses all the properties under the definition of a mineral.
Definition of a Mineral
• Minerals — are the basic building blocks of rocks

• Characteristics of a Mineral
• Naturally occurring
• Solid substance
• Orderly crystalline structure
• Definite chemical composition
• Generally considered inorganic
Physical and Chemical Properties of Minerals
Physical Properties of a Mineral
Mineral Name HALITE (TABLE SALT)

Chemical Composition NaCl

Luster non-metallic – vitreous; transparent to translucent

Hardness soft (2-2.5)

Color white

Streak white

Crystal Form / Habit cubic

Cleavage perfect cubic

Specific Gravity light (2.2)

Other Properties salty taste; very soluble; produces reddish spark in flame
Physical Properties of a Mineral
• Color
• Small amounts of different
elements can give the same
mineral but different colors.
• Streak
• the color of a mineral in its
powdered form
• Luster
• used to describe how light is
reflected from the surface of a
mineral

https://marksteinmetz.photoshelter.com/image/I0000gS8Q6uXxNxY
Physical Properties of a Mineral
• Crystal From or Habit
• The external shape of a crystal or
groups of crystals is displayed /
observed as these crystals grow in open
spaces.
• The form reflects the supposedly
internal structure (of atoms and ions) of
the crystal (mineral).
• Hardness
• A measure of the resistance of a mineral
to being scratched
• Moh’s Scale – consists of 10 minerals
arranged from 10 (hardest) to 1 (softest)
Physical Properties of a Mineral
• Pros and Cons of Moh’s Scale
Physical Properties of a Mineral
• Cleavage • Fracture
• The tendency of a mineral to • Uneven breakage of a mineral
cleave, or break, along flat, even
surface
Physical Properties of a Mineral
Physical Properties of a Mineral
Physical Properties of a Mineral
• Specific Gravity
• is the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the
weight of an equal volume of water.
• Other Properties
• There are certain unique properties of
minerals that actually help in their
identification (e.g. magnetism, odor, taste,
tenacity, reaction to acid, etc.).
• Magnetite is strongly magnetic
• sulfur has distinctive smell
• halite is salty
• calcite fizzes with acid as with dolomite but
in powdered form (effervesce).
Activity #3
Mineral Identification (15 mins)
• Each group should have the following
• Laboratory (Activity) manual provided
• Mineral identification chart
• Mineral data sheet
• A copy of mineral partial specifications and images will be provided
for each group.
• Using the diagram for mineral identification, determine the specific
name of the minerals given.
• With the partial specification given, complete the necessary properties
of the minerals. Use red ink for the given properties, and blue ink for
the properties added.
Mineral Groups: Chemical Properties of a
Mineral
Mineral Groups: Silicates
• Silicates
• Minerals composed of
mostly silicon (Si) and
oxygen (O) combined
with one or more metals
and other elements.
• Makes up over 90% of the
Earth’s Crust
• Silicon-oxygen
tetrahedron is the basic
building block of all the
silicate minerals

http://homepage.usask.ca/~mjr347/prog/geoe118/geoe118.007.html
Mineral Groups: Silicates

• Silicate Subgroups – Silicate minerals

categorized by tetrahedron bonding.

• Olivine group
• Pyroxene group
• Amphibole group
• Mica group
• Feldspar and Quartz group
Mineral Groups: Silicates
• Olivine Group
• Has the simplest structure of
silicate subclasses
• Consisting of a single
tetrahedron with four free
oxygen atoms.
• Can bond strongly with
cations (e.g. magnesium and
iron).
• Tend to form small, rounded
crystals with no cleavage.
• Silicon-oxygen ratio: 1:4
Mineral Groups: Silicates
• Pyroxene Group
• Minerals formed by
single chains of
tetrahedral when each
tetrahedron shares one
oxygen atom with an
adjacent tetrahedron
• Silicate-oxygen ratio –
1:3
• Combines readily with
positive charged ions or
shares oxygen atoms with
other silica tetrahedral.
Mineral Groups: Silicates
• Amphibole Group
• Connection of silicates in a
continuous double chains of
tetrahedra.
• Silicate-oxygen ratio: 4:11
• Cation can be trapped in open
spaces between tetrahedra
(e.g. iron, magnesium and
aluminum)
Mineral Groups: Silicates
• Micas
• Sheet tetrahedra
• Composed of interconnected
rings in which each tetrahedron
shares 3 of its oxygen atom
with 3 other tetrahedra (2
dimensional)
• Have 1 perfect cleavage (weak
bonding by Van der Waals
bonds)
• Silicate-oxygen ratio: 2:5
• Cations: potassium, calcium,
iron, magnesium, or smaller
metal ions such as aluminum
Mineral Groups: Silicate
• Feldspars and Quartz
• Framework tetrahedra
• Silicates share each of their four
oxygen atoms with a different,
adjacent, tetrahedra (3 dimensional)
• Silicon-oxygen ratio – 1:2
• Feldspar – occupied spaces by
cations (e.g. potassium, sodium, and
calcium).
• Quartz – made entirely of linked
tetrahedra; it has no bonded cations.
Mineral Groups: Silicates
Mineral Groups: Silicates
• Ferromagnesian Silicates
• Contains large amounts of magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe) between silicate
tetrahedra.
• Mafic, typically darker (black and green) and denser
• Primary composition of Earth’s mantle; abundant in ocean crust.
• Olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, and biotite mica are examples.
• Non-ferremoagnesian Silicates
• Felsic, lighter in color
• High content of potassium (K), sodium (Na), and calcium (Ca).
• Found closer to the Earth’s surface; mostly in continental crust
• Feldspars, quartz, and muscovite micas are examples.
Mineral Groups: Non-Silicates
• Non-silicates
• Makes up a much smaller portion of nearly 4,000 minerals found in Earth’s
crust.
• Typically classified by the anion or complex anion shared by members of the
group
• Types of Non-silicates
• Carbonates
• Oxides
• Sulfates
• Sulfides
• Halides
• Native elements
Mineral Groups: Non-Silicates
• Carbonates
• CO3 + other element, usually
calcium or magnesium
• Properties typically are
transparent, lightly colored
with a white streak, average to
above average density, soft
with good to perfect cleavage,
soluble to at least some degree
in acidic solutions
• Usually formed due to various
biological activities and
deposition and precipitation
from hot water in springs in
caves.
http://www.mineralogy4kids.org/mineral-group/carbonates
Mineral Groups: Non-Silicates
• Oxides
• Oxygen (O) + another
element (always metal),
such as aluminum or
iron.
• Typically, they are
dark-colored, fairly
heavy, and hard.

http://www.mineralogy4kids.org/mineral-group/oxides
Mineral Groups: Non-Silicates
• Sulfides
• Sulfur (S) + a metal, such as
iron, lead, and zinc
• Typically have metallic luster,
opaque, soft to average in
hardness, high densities, and
black or dark colored streaks.
• Ionic bonds permit metals to be
easily separated and refined
• Sulfates
• Sulfur (S) and 4 oxygens (O4)
• Typically light –colored, several
directions of excellent cleavage.
http://www.mineralogy4kids.org/mineral-group/sulfides; http://www.mineralogy4kids.org/mineral-group/sulfates-and-chromates
Mineral Groups: Non-Silicates
• Halide
• A halogen element (Cl, Br, F) +
another element(s)
• Properties are typically soft, can
be transparent, generally not very
dense, most form cubic crystals
and have good cleavage;
generally ligt-colored with a
white streak.
• Many are highly soluble in water.

http://www.mineralogy4kids.org/mineral-group/halides
Mineral Groups: Non-Silicates
• Native Element
• Contains atom of single element
• Includes several metals, semi-
metals (rare), and some non-
metals
• Typically metallic native
element are very heavy, soft,
and have metallic luster, and no
cleavage. Non-metallic are very
diverse in properties.

http://www.mineralogy4kids.org/mineral-group/native-elements
Seatwork #3
Classification of Minerals by Chemical
Properties
• Determine the classification of the following chemical
compounds/minerals based on its composition.
1. CaSO4•H2O
2. Diamond
3. CaF2
4. BaSO4
5. Fe2O3
6. NaCl
7. Fe3O4
8. FeS2
9. PbS
10. CaMg(CO3)2
Rocks
Definition of Rocks
• Rocks are aggregates of minerals that have different melting points
based on their composition and water content.
• Melting of rocks typically occurs in stages.
• Some are formed through accumulation of rock or mineral fragments
on surface, precipitation, etc.
• Some changes due to variations of temperature, pressure, and fluid
activity.
Igneous Rocks - Formation
• Igneous Rocks are formed
by melting, cooling, and
crystallization of other
rocks.
• igneous rocks form as
magma cools and
crystallizes.
• Igneous rocks form as a
result of volcanic activity,
hot spots, and melting that
occurs in the mantle.
2 Types of Igneous Rock
Extrusive igneous rocks form when
magma reaches the Earth's surface a
volcano and cools quickly. Most
extrusive (volcanic) rocks have small
crystals. Examples include basalt,
rhyolite, andesite, and obsidian.

Intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rocks

form when magma cools slowly below
the Earth's surface. Most intrusive
rocks have large, well-formed crystals.
Examples include granite, gabbro,
diorite and dunite.
EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS
INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS
TEXTURE
• Crystal size is used to classify igneous
rocks.
• Crystals form as the rock cools, and the
crystal size can tell us a lot about its
cooling history:
• The larger the crystals, the slower it
cooled.
TEXTURE
• Glassy igneous rocks have
no crystal structure, and
probably formed by very
rapid cooling (such as on the
surface of a lava, or when a
lava enters the water.)

Aphanitic rocks have no

visible crystals, and probably
formed by fast cooling above
ground.
TEXTURE
• Phaneritic rocks have visible
crystals, and probably formed by
slow cooling below ground.

• Porphyritic rocks have both

visible and nonvisible crystals,
and probably formed by two
different cooling events.
TEXTURE
Dark igneous rocks are formed from basaltic
or mafic magma. (Mafic because it contains a
lot of magnesium and iron).
• The magma that forms these rocks is usually
very hot (around 1000°C) (about the same
viscosity as ketchup.)

Light colored igneous rocks are formed from

silicic (high silica content) or felsic magmas.
• The magmas that form these rocks is usually
more cool, (lower than 850°C), and more
viscous (about the viscosity of peanut butter.)
TEXTURE
Vesicular

voids created by rapid

cooling which causes air
bubbles to be trapped inside.
IGNEOUS ROCK COMPOSITION

Igneous rocks are also classified according to silica content and

relative amounts of K, Na, Fe, Mg and Ca. They can be classified
as felsic, intermediate, mafic and ultramafic, practically based on
presence of light and dark colored minerals.
IGNEOUS ROCK COMPOSITION
Course-grained(intrusive) Fine-grained(extrusive)

Granitic (felsic) - a coarse-grained

igneous rock composed chiefly of
orthoclase and albite feldspars and quartz

Basaltic (Mafic) Rocks that contain

substantial dark silicate minerals and
calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar.
IGNEOUS ROCK COMPOSITION
Course-grained(intrusive) Fine-grained(extrusive)

Andesitic (Intermediate) Rocks,- are

rocks with a composition between
granitic and basaltic rocks

Ultramafic Rocks- igneous rocks

composed almost entirely of dark
silicate minerals

Peridotites Komatiites
IGNEOUS ROCKS COMPOSITION
felsic: granitic: >65% silica,
generally light-colored

intermediate: andesitic: 55-65%

silica, generally medium
colored (medium gray)

- mafic: basaltic: 45-55%

silica, usually dark colored

- ultramafic: <45% silica,

generally very dark colored

Table from Tarbuck, Lutgens, and Tasa. Earth An Introduction to Physical Geology 11thed, 2014, p 122
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Sedimentary rocks are formed by
weathering, erosion, deposition,
compaction, and cementation of
other rocks.
• Sedimentary rocks form in areas where
water, wind, or gravity deposit
sediments.
• Sediments can be in the form of grains,
matrix, and cement.
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks
CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Sedimentary rocks are Clastic if they
are made of pieces of other rocks that
have been weathered and eroded.
• Clastic rocks are grouped based on the
size of grain that they are made from.
• Clastic rocks with volcanic origin (e.g.
pyroclastics) and may have undergone
some stages in the sedimentary
processes could be classified as
sedimentary rock (e.g. volcanoclastic
rocks).
DIFFERENT CLASTIC ROCKS
RUDACEOUS ROCKS
Rudaceous Rocks:
Sediment Group: Gravel -is made up of a
variety of rock fragments that vary in size
Sediment Name: Pebbles, Cobbles,
Boulder, Granules
Conglomerate
Rudaceous Rocks: (rudites) >50% clasts
diameter >2mm made up of primarily
rock fragments

Breccia
ARANACEOUS ROCKS
ARANACEOUS ROCKS:
Sediment Group: Sand -a loose granular
substance, typically pale yellowish
brown, resulting from the erosion of
siliceous and other rocks and forming a
major constituent of beaches, riverbeds,
the seabed, and deserts.
Sediment Name: Very Course, Course,
Medium, Fine, Very fine Sand
Arenaceous Rocks: (arenites) >50%
sediments diameter between
0.063-2mm can contain high quartz %
ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS
ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS
Sediment Name: Silt, Clay
Argillaceous Rocks: (argillites) >50%
sediments diameter <0.063mm and
made up mainly of clay minerals and
quartz grains to a much lesser extent Siltstone

Mudstone
NON-CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
-Evaporation and precipitation from solution or lithification of organic
matter
NON-CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
EVAPORITES:
rocks formed from the
evaporation of water leaving the
dissolved minerals to crystallize Dolomite
Halites Gypsum
Precipitates: rocks formed
when minerals from a mineral
supersaturated waters start to
crystallize at the bottom of the
solution
Bioclastic: rock formed from Limestone Coquina Coal
compacted organic matter BIOCLASTIC
Examples of Sedmentary Rocks
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• Metamorphic rocks are formed
by heat and pressure changing
one type of rock into another
type of rock.
• Metamorphic rocks form near
lava intrusions, at plate
subduction zones, and in deep
mountain roots.
FOLIATED ROCKS
• Foliated rocks form when
differential pressure causes
minerals to form in layers.
• These rocks will have stripes or
planes that they will break easily
along.
• These “stripes” don’t usually line
up with the original bedding
planes in sedimentary rocks.
NON- FOLIATED ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks formed in
areas where the pressure from
all sides was equal, so there is
no “linear” quality to the
rocks.
CONTACT METAMORPHISM
Contact metamorphism is the name
given to the changes that take place
when magma is injected into the
surrounding solid rock.
Around the igneous rock that
forms from the cooling magma is a
metamorphosed zone called a contact
metamorphism aureole.
REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
• Rocks that metamorphose
because of increasing heat
and pressure found at plate
subduction zones and in
deep mountain roots form
large areas of metamorphic
rock through regional
metamorphosis
FORMATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• Structures and formations seen in
metamorphic rocks include:
• Folding
• Plastic deformation
• Stretching
• Alternating dark and light layers (gneissic
foliation)
SOME EXAMPLES OF METAMORPHIC
ROCKS

Schist

Gneiss

Marble
METAMORPHIC ROCKS-CHARTED
Rock Cycle
ROCK CYCLE
Seatwork #4
Concept Map: Rock Cycle
• Fill the diagram below using the flashed words.
pressure biological matter lava cools quickly
clastic maybe vesicular compacted sediments
extrusive classified by size contains air bubbles
rocks large crystals form small or no crystals
forms
heat evaporites magma cools slowly
contact metamorphic classified on how
they are formed
intrusive building blocks of precipitates
mineral non-clastic sedimentary
igneous regional generally forms
forms from cooling rocks change due to from the
and solidification of temperature and/or compaction and
lava or magma pressure change cementation of
sediments
Short Quiz #4
Short Quiz #4
1. Texture of igneous rocks are determine by __________.
2. If the composition of rocks are more of silica, an igneous rock is
classified as what?
3. The presence of lava in water can form what type of texture?
4. The texture of igneous rocks are basically coarse-grained and fine-
grained which is classified as ________ and ________, respectively.
5. An igneous rock is classified as ultramafic if its composition of
silica are in what percentage?
6. Conglomerates are what type of sedimentary rocks?
7. Pebbles are example of rounded or angular detrital called ________
Short Quiz #4
8. A loose granular substance, typically pale
yellowish brown, resulting from the erosion of
siliceous and other rocks and forming a major
constituent of beaches, riverbeds, the seabed,
and deserts
9. Metamorphic rocks are formed by what factors?
10. Metaconglomerate exhibits what kind of
metamorphic structure?
11. What type of metamorphic rocks are usually
formed during contact metamorphism?
12. to 13. What type of rock is usually
metamorphosed by contact metamorphism?
14. to 15. Identify the processes involved in forming
granite into gneiss then into conglomerate.
References
• https://www.space.com/17777-what-is-earth-made-of.html
• https://gln.dcccd.edu/Geology_Demo/content/Lesson1/lesson01_secti
on03.htm
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9lyCYXXIHT0
• https://gln.dcccd.edu/Geology_Demo/content/LAB03/LAB_Man_03.p
df
• https://gln.dcccd.edu/Geology_Demo/content/LAB03/LAB_Man_03.p
df
• http://www.learner.org/interactives/rockcycle/rockdiagram/