COMPUTER LECTURE NOTES

WHAT IS COMPUTER
Computer is an electronic data processing machine which takes input process on it and gives
output.

The purpose of computer is to process data into information and to achieve maximum
accuracy in least time.
OR
Computer is used to solve the different type of problems according to the set of
Instruction which is given by the user. It solved the problem simple one by one steps and give
output.
A computer may be define as a machine that receives data as input, processes that data
according to a prescribed sequence of instructions and produces desired output.
OR
“An electronic device that processes data, converting it into information that is useful to
people.” (Peter Norton)
OR
Computer is used to solve the different type of problems according to the set of
Instruction which is given by the user. It solved the problem simple one by one steps and give
output.

INPUT & OUTPUT

Input:
Data that is sent to a computer for processing is considered input. Input or user input is most
often sent to the computer using an input device .
Output:
Any information that has been processed by and sent out from a computer or similar device is
considered output.

Data processing:
The process of converting data into meaningful information is called data processing.
Different operations are performed on data to convert data into information.

INPUT DEVICES & OUTPUT DEVICES:

Input Devices:
The devices, tools and components that are used to enter the data into the computer are called
input devices.e.g. Mouse, keyboard, scanner etc.
A device which accepts instructions and data from the user and communicates these to the
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computer. The input unit has direct access to the central processing unit.
Examples of Input Devices: 1. Keyboard 2.Mouse 3.Scanner 4. Joystick

Output Devices:
The devices through which the processed information comes to the outside world is called
output devices.e.g. Monitor, printer, plotters etc.
The Job of an output unit is just reverse of that of an input unit. It supplies information and
result of computation to the outside world.
Examples of output Devices: i. Monitor ii. Printer iii. Plotter

HARDCOPY AND SOFTCOPY:

A soft copy (sometimes spelled "softcopy") is an electronic copy of some type of data, such as a
file viewed on a computer's display or transmitted as an e-mail attachment. Such material, when
printed, is referred to as a hard copy .
Softcopy:
 it is an output copy of document stored in memory and can be seen on screen.
 It can modified easily.
 It need an electronic media for display.
 It is intangible.
 It is a digital version.
 It can be transmitted electrically.
Hardcopy:
 It is printed on paper.
 It can't be modified easily.
 It doesn't need an electronic media for display.
 It is tangible.
 It is physical version.
 It can transmitted physically.
GUI (Graphical user Interface & CLI (Command Line Interface) :
GUI:
A GUI (Graphic User Interface) is a graphical representation in which the users can interact
with software or devices through graphical icons.
CLI:
A CLI (Command Line Interface) is a console or text based representation in which the user
types the commands to operate the software or devices.

DATA & INFORMATION

DATA (Unprocessed information)
A collection of raw fact and figure is called Data .The word raw means that the facts have not
yet been processed to get their exact meaning. Data is collected from different sources .It is
collected for different purposes. Data may consist of numbers, characters, symbols or pictures
etc.
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Data may be in the form of text, number images, sounds and videos, data is collected for
different purposed. In an organization data is very important .It gives view of past activities
or history related of the rise and fall an organization. It helps an organization in making
decisions for future activities.

Examples of Data:
When student get admission in colleges or universities. They have to fill out an admission
from. The form consist of raw fact the students. These raw facts are students’s name, father’s
name, address etc
A list of class students, showing students roll numbers, names and marks is an example of
students’ data. The data of class students may be collected to prepare their result. The data of
students may look like the following:
1. Salem 62 63 64
2. Baber 50 75 70
3. Amanat 90 80 70
4. Salma 75 80 60
----- ------- ------
The above data does not convey proper meanings, because it has no relation among given
values and there is no proper labeling of data values.

Type of Data:
Data may be of the following types.
1. Numeric Data
2. Alphabetic Data.
3. Alphanumeric Data.
4. Image Data.
5. Audio Data.
6. Video Data.
1. Numeric data: Numeric data consists of digits form 0 to 9. Examples of numeric data are
420, 3.543, -7.2 and 302.
2. Alphabetic Data: Alphabetic data consists of alphabetic letter from A to Z , a to z e.g.
“Chemistry Class”, Computer” and “university” etc.
3. Alphanumeric Data: Alphanumeric data consists of numeric digits (0 to 9) letter (A to Z)
and (a to z) and all special characters like +, %and @ etc, like “87%”,”$4000” and “H#
82”
,23 –march 1940 , F-16. etc
It is type of data which combines both numeric and alphabetic data. It cannot be
mathematically operated.
4. Image Data: Image data consists of charts, graphs, pictures and free hand drawings. Image
data is also represented by bit patterns.
5. Audio Data: Audio data consists of recording of conversation, music, speeches or any
other

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 type of sound. It is continuous and not discrete. The audio data is in the form of
continuous
signals. It is converted into digital form before entering it into the computer.
6. Video Data: Video data consists of video recording of events .this type of data consists of
full-motion image that create actions and movements. It can be produced by a video
camera.
INFORMATION
(Data processed to reveal meaning)
An organization collect and store data from both internal and external source .usually, the
collected data is not in proper format and does not give proper meanings. Various operations
are performed on collect data to get required results that give proper and useful meanings
known as information, It means that processed data is called information .The processed data
(or information) is used for making decision.
Data is processed using various techniques. Data is used as input for processing and
information is the output of this processing .Figure below shows the data processing.

Data Information
Processing

Example:
For example the students, data could be analyzed and summarized using different tools. It
could also be presented in graphics form. You can sort the records of the students on the basis
of their names or marks.
The above-mentioned students data may be processed and the result may be as shown below.

Result Sheet for Class Students

Total
Roll No Name English Chemistry Computer Grade
Marks

1 Saleem 62 63 64 189 B

2 Baber 50 75 70 195 B

3 Amanat 90 80 70 240 A+

4 Salma 75 80 60 215 A

The processed data now gives the clear and proper understanding of students, obtained marks
in different subjects, total marks obtained, and grad of each student, To calculate the total
marks of the student, marks obtained in different subjects are used as data. The calculated
“total marks” is the information .The processed data can further be processed .For example,
to find out the grade of the student, calculated “total marks” is used as data and “grade” will
be the information.

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Difference between Data and Information:
The difference between data and information as follows:

Data
1. Data consist of unprocessed raw facts.
2. Data is used as input in the computer.
3. Data is not meaningful.
4. Data is normally huge in its volume.
5. Data is the asset of organization and is
not available to people for sale.
6. Data is used rarely.
7. Data is an independent entry.
8. Data is not used in decision-making.
9. Data Does not depend upon information.
Information
1. Information is the processed form of data.
2. Information is the output of computer./
3. Information is meaningful.
4. Information is normally short in volume.
5. Information is normally available to people for sale.
6. Information is used frequently.
7. Information depends on data.
8. Information is very important for decision making.
9. Information depends upon data.

BASIC ORGANIZATION OF COMPUTER SYSTEM:

All the computer system performs the following basic operations.
1. Input Unit
2. Output Unit
3. Storage Unit
4. Central Processing Unit
5. Arithmetic Logic Unit
6. Control Unit

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1. Input Unit:
Data and instructions must enter the computer system before any computation can be
Performed on the supplied data. This task is performed by the input unit that links the
external environment with the computer system.
Following function are performed by an input unit:
1. It accepts (or reads) the list of instruction and data from the outside world.
2. It converts are instruction and data in computer acceptable form.
2. Output Unit:
The Job of an output unit is supplies information and result of computation to the outside
world.
Following functions are performed by an output unit:
1. It accepts the result produced by the computer which are in coded and hence cannot be
easily understood by us.
2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form.
3. Storage unit:
The data and instruction that are entered into the computer system through input units have to
store inside the computer before the actual processing start. Similarly, the result produced by
the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer system
before being passed on to the output units. Moreover, the intermediate results produced by the
computer must also be preserved for ongoing processing. The storage unit or the
primary/main storage of a computer system is designed to cater to all these needs. It provides
space for storing data and instruction, space for intermediate result, also space for the final
results.

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4. Central Processing Unit:
The control unit and the arithmetic logic unit of a computer system are jointly known as the
central processing unit (CPU). The CPU is the brain of any computer system. In a human
body, all major decisions are taken by the brain and other parts of the body function as

directed by the brain. Similarly, in a computer system, all major calculation and comparisons
are made inside the CPU and the CPU is also responsible for activating and controlling the
operation of other units of a computer system.
5. Arithmetic Logic Unit:
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where the actual execution
of the instructions takes place during the processing operation. To be more precise; all
calculation are performed and all comparisons (decisions) are made in the ALU.
However almost all ALU’s are designed to perform the four basic arithmetic operations –
add, subtract, multiply, divide and logic operations or comparison such as less than, equal to,
or greater than.
6. Control Unit:
How does the input device know that it is time for it to feed data into the storage unit? How
does the ALU know what should be done with the data once they are received?
And how is it that only the final result are sent to the output device and not the intermediate
result? All this is possible because of the control unit of the computer system.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE & COMPUTER HARDWARE

Software:
The term software is used for sequence of instructions given to the computer to perform a
specific task. There are two main types of software.ie system Software and Application
Software. e.g MS word ,MS Excel ,MS Power point ,Ms windows XP.
Types of Computer Software
1. System Software 2. Application Software

1. System Software:
System software is main part of software without system software computer system cannot
work and for application Software to work first of all system software is necessary its
Examples are Windows 98, Windows Xp, Linux, Unix etc.
2. Application Software:
The general programs in the market developed by famous software development companies
are known as Application software.
Application Software facilitates us to perform different tasks its examples are MS Word, MS
Excel, CorelDraw, etc.

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Hardware:
The tangible parts of the computer are known as hardware. These are usually attached with
computer e.g processor, keyboard, mouse etc. OR we can say that those parts of computer
system which we can see and touch are called hardware e.g Mouse, Monitor, Keyboard etc.

HARDWARE FAILURE
1. By viruses 2. By Power cut
1. By Viruses:
Usually the data get corrupted by computer viruses. Viruses can cause different types to
damages to the data, which can be unaffordable to any organization.
2. By Power cut:
Power cut means failure of power supply while the computer is running. Accidently
Pulling out of cable from power points may also cause loose power and will loose data a
result.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

1. Speed:
A computer is a fast computing device. Computer work at a very high speed and are much
faster than human. A computer can perform billion of calculation in a second.; which a
human being can do in many hours. The time used by a computer to perform is called the
processing speed. Computer speed is measured in Mega Hertz (MHz).
2. Accuracy:
The accuracy of a computer is very high and the degree of accuracy of a particular computer
depends upon its design. Errors can occur in a computer, but these are mainly due to human
rather than technological weakness. Computer can perform millions of operations in one
second without any errors.
3. Carefulness:
Unlike human beings, a computer is free tiredness and lack of concentration, etc.
4. Versatile:
A computer can perform different types of task. We can use a computer in hospital, bank or
at home. We can use it for calculating our budget or can play games. A variety of facilities
are available through computers.
5. Power of Remembering:
A computer can store and recall any amount of information because of its secondary storage
capability. Every place of information can be retained as long as desired by the user and can
be
recalled as and when required. Even after several years, the information recalled will be
as accurate as on the day when it was fed to the computer.
6. Storage:
We can store huge amount of data in the storage medium of computer i.e Hard disk, compact
Disk etc which can be used and modified in future. The storage capacity of the computer is
increasing rapidly.

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7. Control Sequence
A computer works strictly according to the given instructions. It follows the same sequence
of Execution that is given in a program.
8. Consistency
Computer works in a consistent way. It does not lose concentration due to heavy work. It
does not become tired or bored. Computer performs all jobs with equal attention.
9. Communication
Most computers today have the capability of communicating with other computers. We can
connect two or more computers by a communication device such as modem. These computers
can Share data, instructions and information .The connected computers are called network.
We can communicate with other people in the world using network like internet.
10. Cost Reductions:
We can perform a difficult task in less time and less cost. For example, we may have to hire
many people to handle an office. The same work can be performed by single person with the
help of computer. It reduces the cost

THE COMPUTER GENERATIONS

Computer Generations:
In the term of computers “Generation “ is a step in technology. It provides a structure for the
growth of the computer industry. At first, the term ‘generation’ was used to distinguish
between changeable hardware technologies.
Evolution of modern computer is commonly considered in term of generations of computers.
Each new generation has seen the following changes in computer characteristics.
1. Increase in Speed
2. Increase in storage capacity
3. Increase in reliability
4. Reduction in system
First Generation of Computer (1942-1955):
First generation of computers were made possible by the invention of “Vacuum tubes” Use
of magnetic drum for primary storage. Magnetic tape replaced punched cards as secondary
storage. Programmed in machine language. The use of the vacuum tube in computers is
usually regarded as the beginning of the computer age.
These computers were the fastest calculating devices of their time. They could perform
computations in milliseconds.
Disadvantage:
i. Large in size.
ii. Unreliable
iii.Thousands of vacuum tubes that were used produced large amount of heat.
iii. Frequent hardware failures
iv. Constant maintenance required
v. No portable
vi. Commercial production was difficult and costly
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 Second Generation of Computer (1955-1964)
The Vacuum technology was replaced with Transistor (a small and more reliable).transistors
were invented in 1947. In 2nd generation computers, Transistors were used as the brain of the
computer. Program in machine or symbolic language.

Advantages or Features:
i. Smaller in size as compared to first generation computers.
ii. More reliable
iii. Less heat generated
iv. These computers were able to reduce computational time from milliseconds to
microseconds.
v. Less hardware failures
vi. Better portability
Disadvantages:
i. Air conditioning required
ii. Frequent maintenance required
iii. Commercial production was difficult and costly.

Third Generation (1964-1975)

The third generation was based on IC (integrated circuits) technology and the computers that
were designed with the use of integrated circuits (IC) were called thirds generation
computers.
Advantages or Features:
i. Smaller in size as compared to previous generation computers.
ii. Even more reliable than 2nd generation computers.
iii. Working speed of these computers was faster as compared to previous generations.
iv. Maintenance cost was low
v. Easily moveable
vi. Less power requirement than previous generation computers
vii. Commercial production was easier and cheaper.’
Disadvantages:
1. Air conditioning required in many cases
2. Highly difficult technology required for the manufacture of chips

Fourth Generation (1975-1989):

In this generation ICs were replace with microprocessor. A microprocessor is a small chip
which contains thousands ICs. Invention of microprocessor reduced the size of the computer.
Advantages or Features:
i. Small in size
ii. Very reliable
iii. Heat generated is small
iv. No air conditioning required in most cases
v. Much faster in computation than previous generation
vi. Hardware failure is minor
vii. Easily portable because of their small size
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 viii. Totally general purpose
ix. Big memory
x. Cheapest among all generations
Disadvantages:
i. High difficult technology is required for the manufacturing of microprocessor chip.

Fifth Generation (1989-Present)

Scientist of different countries is working on the fifth generation computer. Scientist are
working on the machines with genuine I.Q (intelligence quotient). The computers of fifth
generation will be able to think and to make decisions like human beings.
Advantages or Features:
 Portable computers
 More powerful
 Cheaper
 Reliable, and easier to use desktop machines
 Very powerful mainframes
 Easier to produce commercially
Properties
The main properties of this generation computers will be:
 Ability to think
 Ability to make decisions
 Parallel processing(mean they will be able to perform different task at same time)
 Extremely high speed
 Very high primary memory
 Large number of VLSIS (VLSI is a technology according to which to put millions of
components on to on an integrated circuit).

USES OF COMPUTER

1. Computer in offices:
In many offices computers are for word processing instead of using type writers. Once
changes are made in the existing document, store in the computer instead of retyping the
whole thing all over again. The printer attached with the computer can immediately produce as
many copies of the latter as required. Mangeri staff can make spread sheets and graphical
images on the computer while accounts staff uses it for book keeping computers and hence
manages office accounts and finances. These computers are used as personal computers as
well as can be linked up through network to improve the efficiency as a whole.
2. Computer in banks:
Banks keep most of their records and data on computers. Banks accounts are maintained on
computer to avoid duplication or any chance of error. The cheques are read by MICR
(Magnetic ink character Reader), a device used to allow the data on cheques to be read by
machines).The numbers and special characters along the bottom of each cheques are printed
in a magnetized ink so they can be read by MICR. In this way , computers are used to keep

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track of customers, Accounts, deposits ,withdrawals, loan interest etc.It also help in
transactions of accounts from one bank to another even if the banks are not in the same city.
3. Computer in Industries:
Computers are used to control manufacturing systems and continuous running of the
machinery.
These are also helpful in monitoring temperature and pressure measurements needed in the
manufacturing process. In many industries computers are used in the form of robots (a
computer controlled mechanical device).Many products are made by robots. These robots
are often have one or more arms, which can move like human arms. The movements of the
arms are controlled by the programs stored in the computer and thus perform such tasks are
difficult and dangerous for human beings to perform such as automobile assembly line work.
Robots can work in intense heat or in a temperature below 0oc.
4. Computer in Education:
Computer are being used as an essential component in the field of education from primary to
university level. Online libraries have also brought the revolutionary change in the field of
computer based. Education By using computers with the networks, the barriers of distance
has been eliminate and one can access a book from an online library situated in any part of
the world through the web. In an online library, the books are kept in soft copy format on a
site/computer. Usually, these libraries are free for everyone. Online examinations are
conducted on computer networks where the examiner and student far away from each other.
The role of search engines on the web for educational purpose is also significant. Computers
are used in schools in different ways.
i.They are used to help Montessori children learn different skills such as distinguish b/w
shapes, colors etc.
ii. The young children learn how to read write.

5. Computer Simulation for training:

Creating an artificial environment approaching to the real one is called SIMULATION.
Simulation done by computer is known as computer simulation. Computer is capable of
creating such an environment, which looks like a real one by using special software.e.g
different games have been developed which reflect the real environment like in a car racing
game, the cars, and the tracks looks like the real ones. Simulation techniques are used to
teach everything from piloting an aero plane, learn safety procedures in an oil company,
bomb making, and temperature and pressure constraints in natural gas pipelining, train
health care professionals to running a nuclear plant.
6. Computer in Stores (Markets)
The items in the store are labeled with Universal Product Code (UPC) I the form of black
and white Stripes. These bar codes represent data that identify the manufacturer and product
when scanned by a computer having Barcode Reader (or barcode scanner). Barcode Reader is a
machine that detects the bar codes printed on the items. It then prints the relative item price
against that item (stored in the computer)on the bill for the customer.

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7. Computer in Health care/Medical field
Now a days computer are being used widely in medical field in two ways:
In hospital the record of patients, doctors, medicines and laboratory tests are maintained
through special purpose application software known as Data base management systems.
These software are able to produce monthly reports based on different criteria .These reports
are then use to identify and remove the flaws of the system.
8. Computer in Home
The invention of personal computer by Intel corporation it easy to use for almost every
person. In homes the computer can be used to keep track of the monthly budget and
expenditures. The computer can also for entertainment purpose. it can be used either
watching movies using DVDs or listen to music using CD-ROMs. Children play games on
it, keeps track of the stamp collections, Draw pictures, play music, view movies and do some
sort of reading and writing according their needs. Father can write his reports and make
calculations while mother can plan nutritional meals, they can use computers for e- mail and
internet services to learn increase their vocabulary.
9. Computer in E- commerce:
The exchange or buying & selling of commodities on a large scale involving transportation
is called commerce, E-commerce or Electronic commerce is any kind of transaction done
partly or completely over network.E-commerce is the term used to describe the selling of
goods & services over the internet. Business transactions (sales & purchases) taking place on
web are termed as
10. Worldwide communication
Worldwide communications are not possible without the computer. From fax, email,
Satellite transmission etc all depends upon computers. Wireless Application
Protocol (WAP) is also part of telecommunication network.WAP utilizes wireless devices
like mobile phone.
DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER
1. Dependent upon human:
Computer always depends upon the human being and cannot take decision by itself.
2. Health Problem:
Continuous use of computer creates a problem of eye weaknesses, headache etc.
3. Unemployment:
Computer has increased the ratio of unemployment, because one computer operator can
do the work of several persons and organizations need not to appoint various employees
to keep Record of the organization.

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TYPES OF COMPUTER
1. Mainframe computers.
2. Super computer.
3. Microcomputers.
4. Mini computers.

1. Mainframe computers:
Mainframe computers are very large general purpose computers. They are faster and more
Power than minicomputers.
Characteristics of Mainframe computer
 Large in size
 Large in memory.
 Powerful.
 Expansive
 Design for the computerization of the data of huge business, Universities, banks, scientific
 Multiple I/O devices are used.
 Million of bytes of information stored in large mainframe are processed at the speed of
over 100 million arithmetical operations.
Uses of Main frame computers:
They are used where large amount of data are to be processed or very complex calculation
are to be made, and these tasks are beyond the computing capacity of minicomputers.
They are used in research organizations, large industries, large business, banks and
government organizations, banks and airline reservations where a large database is
required.

2. Mini Computer
Minicomputers are introduce in 1960s/1970s.They have less capacity to manipulate and store
data as compared to mainframe computers. These machines, as the name suggests, are
relatively small in size and cheaper in cost than mainframe computers. Some minicomputers
are uni-processor systems whereas some are multiprocessor systems. Minicomputers are
extensively used for payroll preparation accounting and scientific computations with graphics
input/output capability use minicomputers. Minicomputers are used for multi user
universities, research organizations, government organization, industries etc.

Characteristics of Minicomputers
1. Small in size and more compact.
2. Small in memory.
3. Less expansive.
4. Design for the computerization of the data collection.
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 5. They have large storage capacities.
6. They can make use of a wide variety of software. They are sensitive to variations in
temperature, humidity, dust, etc, and are hence kept in a controlled environment, i.e air
conditioned rooms.

Super Computer
Super computers are the largest, fast and most expansive computer system in the world. They
are used to process complex scientific jobs. They are considered to be the resources of any
nation. Unlike other computers are based on the concept of parallel processing (means to
perform millions of instructions at same time).Very few companies in the world produce
super computers. Cray Research and ETA systems are two primary manufacturers of super
computers in the united states. Fujitsu, Hitachi and NEC are the companies in Jaspan, which
produce supercomputers. Super computers are extremely powerful computers. The term is
commonly to the fastest high performance systems available at any given time. Such
computers are used primarily for scientific and engineering work requiring high speed
computations. Supercomputers have certain distinguish features, like conventional computers,
Examples
Famous super computers are Cray-1, Cray x-MP, Cray-2 ,Cray-3 and ETA. these computers
can perform 10 to 100 billion calculations per second.

Uses of Supercomputer
Supercomputers are widely used in meteorological office where weather pattern are
predicated by manipulating huge amounts of data.
Characteristics of Supercomputer
1. These computers can run business type applications if required.
2. Solving scientific problems and calculating number.
3. These are very expansive computers that sell at prices ranging from $5 to $20 million
each.
4. They are used in industrial research as they feasibly perform complex and crucial task in
product design.

Micro Computers /Personal Computers /Desktop Computers

These computers are used widely for data processing and in industrial applications.
Microcomputers are the name given to a small, low cost and digital computer. It contains a
microprocessor unit as its CPU, a memory unit and equipped with an input device an output
device to constitute a complete computing system. Manufacturer of microcomputers include
IBM, Apple, Radio Shack and Accer. These small computers are often called Personal
computers (PCs).Personal computers are microcomputers for general purpose computations,
user can work on PCs in high level languages such as BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL,
PASCAL etc. Popular application packages such a word processing, spreadsheet, database
management systems, graphics, accounting packages etc also run on PCs.

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Characteristics of Micro computers
 They are cheap and easy to use.
 They have limited input and output capacities.
 They have low storage capacity.
 Hard disk and floppy disk drivers are used to enter and store data and programs.
 A visual display screen
 Smallest in size.
 Very small in memory.
 Least expensive.
 These are highly flexible.
Uses of Microcomputers
Most of the computers are micro/personal computers. They are used for various applications
ranging from business to engineering design. They are also used by millions of persons all
over the world for entertainment and other personal applications.

Classification of computer According to Construction

According to construction computers are divided in following sections
1. Analogue computers.
2. Digital Computers.
3. Hybrid Computers.
Analog computer:
This computer accepts an analog input and provides an analog output of information. It
represents physical quantities such as distance, velocity, acceleration, temperature, pressure
or angular position, as force or voltages in mechanically or electricity equivalent circuits. It
measures continuous changes in some physical quantity e.g speedometer of a car measure
speed in terms of km/h or m/h, the change of temperature is measured by a thermometer in
degrees, the weight machine is measured in term of kg/gm.
Output from an analog computer is generally in the form of reading on a series of dail
(speedometer of a car) or a graph on a strip chart.

Digital computer:
This computer provides a digital output from an input of information represented in digital
form and processes information which is based on the presence or the absence of an electrical
charge or binary one or binary zero. Digital computers represent data as numbers or as
separate units. A digital computer is a computer, which measures in terms of digital quantities
e.g: computer used in scientific/business oriented jobs. The most common examples of digital
computers are accounting machines and calculators.
The result of digital computers are more accurate, precise and repeatable than the results of
analog ones. Analog computers are faster than digital.

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Hybrid computer:
A hybrid computer has the characteristics of both Analog and Digital computer which means
that it is a computer which can measure both in terms of physical as well as digital quantities.
It combines the best features of both analog and digital computers. They have the speed of
analog and accuracy of analog and digital computer.

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