Sponsored by The

Sponsored by the
INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY

OF IAMAP OF'THE UNION DE GEODESIE ET
GEOPHYSIQUE INTERNATIONALE
and the
WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
Financial Support was Provided by

The Government of the Federal Republic of Germany
and the
Fraunhofer Society for the Promotion of Applied Research
Hosted by the
Institute on Atmospheric Environmental Research of the Fraunhofer Society
(Director: Dr. R. Reiter)
Garmisch-Partenkirchen
CONFERENCE CHAIRMAN
Reinhold Reiter' Fed. Rep. Germany
EXECUTIVE PANEL
L. Koenigsfeld . Belgium (Chairman)
R. D. Bojkov . WMO
H. Dolezalek . USA
R. Reiter' Fed. Rep. Germany
ADVISORY BOARD
O. Mohr' Fed. Rep. Germany (President)
K. Berger· Switzerland D. R. Lane-Smith' Canada
R. D. Bojkov' WMO J. Latham' United Kingdom
J. Bricard . France Anna Mani . India
S. C. CQroniti . USA S. Michnowski . Poland
H. Dolezalek . USA F. S. Mozer' USA
H. Ishikawa' Japan R. Miihleisen . Fed. Rep. Germany
H. W. Kasemir . USA R. E. Orville· USA
L. Koenigsfeld . Belgium E. T. Pierce' USA
V. P. Kolokolov . USSR R. Reiter' Fed. Rep. Germany
ELECTRICAL PROCESSES
IN ATMOSPHERES
Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Atmospheric
Electricity held at Garmisch-Partenkirchen (Germany), 2-7 September 1974
Edited by
HANS DOLEZALEK REINHOLD REITER
Washington D. C. Garmisch-Partenkirchen
With a Banquet Address by

HELMUT E. LANDSBERG
Washington D. C.
With 478 figures and 42 tables
DR. DIETRICH STEINKOPFF VERLAG

DARMSTADT 1977
All right reserved
(especially those of reprints and translations)
The reproduction (by photostats, xerographing, micro-films, by using electronic systems or other reproduction techniques)
of this book or of parts from it is prohibited and will be presecuted as a violation of the copyright laws.
:0 1976 by Dr. Dietrich Steinkopff Verlag GmbH & Co. KG., Darmstadt
Softcoverreprintof the hardcover 1st edition 1976
These proceedings have been printed with support by the Fraunhofer Society.
Germany
CIP-Kurztitelaufnahme der Deutschen Bibliothek
Electrical processes in atmospheres: proceedings of the 5. Internal. Conference on Atmospheric

Electricity held at Garmisch-Partenkirchen (Germany), 2-7 September 1974/sponsored by the
Internal. Comm. on Atmospheric Electricity of IAMAP of the
Union de Geodesie et Geophysique Internal. and
the World Meteorolog. Organization.
Ed. by Hans Dolezalek; Reinhold Reiter. - Darmstadt: Steinkopff, 1977.
ISBN -13: 978-3-642-85296-1 e- ISBN -13: 978-3-642-85294-7

DOl: 10.10071978-3-642-85294-7
NE: International Conference on Atmospheric Electricity (05,1974, Garmisch-Partenkirchen);

Dolezalek, Hans (Hrsg.)
Cover design by Ulrich Fleischer, Darmstadt

Manufactured by Dr. A. Krebs, 6944 Hemsbach/Bergstr.
PREFACE
These Proceedings are published to give a full account of the Fifth International Conference on
Atmospheric Electricity held in September 1974 in Garmisch-Partenkirchen in the Bavarian Alps in
Germany. Traditionally, the Proceedings of these Conferences have served as reference books updating
the textbooks and monographs on Atmospheric Electricity. As treated by these Conferences, Atmos-
pheric Electricity covers all aspects of this science, including the processes and problems which reach
out into the Earth's environment as well as analogous processes on other planets and on the Moon.
A history of these Conferences, an account of their purpose, and an outline of the scope and the
preparation is to be found at the end of these Proceedings. There, also the Business Meetings of the
involved organizations are mentioned.
The Proceedings closely follow the original program and are accordingly organized into "Sessions".
The papers printed in each "Session" in this book are the ones which were accepted for the sessions
of the Conference with the same numbers and titles. Only the two "Special Sessions" have been given
different numbers in the Proceedings, i.e. 2a and 10.
In principle, all papers which were accepted by the Executive Panel either for full oral presentation
or for printing in the Proceedings only, have in fact been included in these Proceedings, whether they
were presented or not. In the latter case, a special note is made to explain the absence of a discussion.
All discussions are here included as well, often after much and heavy editing. Some papers which
should have been printed were not submitted in spite of special efforts. In these cases, abstracts have
been included provided they were available in an understandable form.
The Banquet Address, which was delivered on the evening of 5 September, is printed after all the
sessions in order to express the editors' feeling that it deserves an especially careful reading by colleagues
of the field as well as by all meteorologists.
The Subject Index has been compiled for a reader who is well familiar with the complex field of
atmospheric electricity. A reader from another scientific domain who wants to use the index to extract
information on the one or other parameter should do so only with caution. Different authors may
disagree on the magnitude of a parameter by a factor of thousand. He may encounter a theory or a
mathematical model in which points of view (in which he may be especially interested) have been
neglected in order to retain manageability for a different purpose. Sometimes, it is advisable to read or
at least glance through the whole session to understand the significance of a single fact.
The scientitic community, especially that of Atmospheric Electricity, is indebted to the Fraunhofer
Society, to the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Research Associa-
tion, to the State of Bavaria and the town of Garmisch-Partenkirchen for their most generous support
and advice. The assistance provided by the companies operating the mountain trains to the Zugspitze
and Wank, and by the Bavarian Official Travel Agency is gratefully acknowledged. The parish of the
Wies Church, the Miinchner Kammer Orchester, the actors and organizers of the Bavarian Folklore
Evening, not to forget the friendliness of the people of Garmisch-Partenkirchen, added a special
dimension which was important and necessary, an essential contribution to the success of the Conference.
The ideas and advice and the actual work given freely by so many members and officers of the spon-
soring organizations, especially those who served as chairmen or as members of the Advisory Board,
constitute a genuine proof for the scientific spirit and personal warmth which is typical for this
scientific community.
We are certain to be in agreement with the participants of the Conference if we express our particular
gratitude to the staff of the Fraunhofer Institute for Atmospheric Environmental Research for their
never-tiring, always cheerful assistance in many large and innumerable small cases - ever smiling
and often seasoned with the pleasing local flavor of Upper Bavaria. It was well in tune with the beauty
of the landscape and of the town.
Summer 1977 H. Dolezalek and R. Reiter
v
<
-
Participants of the Fifth International Conference on Atmospheric Electricity, held at Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Fed. Rep. Germany 1974
WELCOMING ADDRESSES
Welcoming Address
L. Koenigsfeld
President, Internal. Comm. on Atmospheric Electricitv
Chairman, Executive Panel, Fifth Conference .
Your Excellency,Ladies and Gentlemen, dear Colleagues,
This conference was made possible by the contributions of quite a number of organizations. In addition
to the official sponsors, the International Commission on Atmospheric Electricity and the World
Meteorological Organization, numerous other international and German organizations have contri-
buted by financial, administrative or other kind of help. They have sent representatives for this Opening
Session. We now shall hear the addresses, presented by these representatives. At first, I invite Professor
Mohr, the President of the Fraunhofer Society, who participated in the preparations for this conference
as President of our Advisory Board, and who has helped us in many ways, either personally or by
providing various kinds of support through the offices of the Fraunhofer Society. Professor Mohr,
please.
Welcoming Address
O. Mohr
President, Fraunhofer Society
President, Advisory Board Fifth Conference
Ladies and Gentlemen,
In the name of the Executive Committee of the Fraunhofer Society for Applied Research, I cordially
welcome you to the opening of the Conference and thank you for your attendance in such large numbers
from all comers of the globe.
After the previous conferences in Wentworth-by-the-Sea, Montreux, and Tokyo, it is a great honor
for the Institute for Atmospheric Environmental Research to arrange and conduct this conference
here in Garmisch. We have endeavored to offer you the technical prerequisites for lectures and discus-
sions as well as the facilities for social diversions.
At the outset, I would like to express my sincere thanks for the assistance rendered the Institute
for Atmospheric Environmental Research in the preparations for the Conference. My special thanks
go to the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and the Minister for Research and Technology of the
Federal Republic of Germany who made possible the participation of a large number of overseas
scientists. In addition, I would like to express my gratitude to the Bavarian Ministries for Culture and
Education as well as for Environmental Questions. The latter department works in close cooperation
with the local Institute. Finally, our thanks are extended to the "Marktgemeinde" who put its spacious
meeting rooms at our disposal *).
At this time, I would like to mention some of the accomplishments of the Fraunhofer Society which
was founded 25 years ago in Miinchen with the objective of integrating into one common organization
different research institutions for applied natural and engineering science. By this means a basis was
established for promotion through governments and communities with the cooperation offered by
industry interested in the results of applied research. The local Institute for Atmospheric Environ-
mental Research has grown spectacularly within the framework of these tasks. For over a year now
it has occupied the new building which offers an unusually favorable geographic location for measuring
atmospheric profiles in the lower atmosphere, with observatories in the valley, the Wank peak, and on
the Zugspitze. You will be acquainted with the Institute and its facilities during your Saturday excursion.
And now I would like to conclude my welcoming address and tum over the platform to the official
opening speakers.
*) Marktgemeinde: Town of Garmisch-Partenkirchen.
VII
Welcoming Address
G. Lehr
Ministerialdirektor
Ministry for Research and Technology
Government of the Federal Republic of Germany

On behalf of the Federal Minister for Research and Technology, I should like to welcome you as
participants at this Conference. In particular, I wish to welcome the foreign scientists, who have come
to this Conference from all parts of the world. We are happy that you have elected to hold the Con-
ference here, and regard this also as a token of appreciation of the scientific work carried out by the
Fraunhofer Society's Institute for Atmospheric Environmental Research and its director, Dr. Reiter.
Allow me to follow this welcome by a few remarks from the point of view of the Federal Ministry
which is competent for the promotion of research and technology.
Over a long period, more or less successful endeavours have been made to classify research activities
under the sectors of fundamental research and applied research, respectively. This is still reflected today
in the appendage to the name of our host, the Fraunhofer Society, namely, "for the Promotion of Applied
Research". A characteristic feature and evaluation yardstick for research projects and their results
were - in the case of fundamental research - the gain in knowledge, and - in the case of applied
reasearch - the practical use. Using this slightly undifferentiated definition, it was not always easy
to classify the work of the research institute directed by Dr. Reiter, and, in addition, also the entire
field of work covered by the Conference commencing today.
Recently, a third evaluation factor has emerged from the issue of what contribution a research
project (or an entire sector of work) can make towards improving the quality oflife. If we wish to avoid
using the somewhat vague and already slightly hacknayed term "quality of life", we can also simply
ask what benefits can be expected by the individual or the community from such studies in this field.
I consider this a very justified question at a time when research expenditure has to be financed for the
main part from taxation resources.
In the light of this new evaluation yardstick, however, the range of topics covered by this Conference
- in other words, your own field of work - acquires quite special importance. Moreover, this field
of work appears to me to provide a particularly good example for combining all three evaluation
criteria: in addition to obtaining new fundamental insights into extremely complex problems, and
apart from the effects on the economy of the phenomena examined, its direct importance for the living
conditions of the peoples on this earth is thrown into sharp relief. This also explains the immense
and increasing interest in your work. It is my hope, therefore, that your Conference will be both success-
ful and rewarding.
VIII
Welcoming Address
M. Streibl
Minister for Environmental Affairs
Government of the State of Bavaria
Meine sehr verehrten Darnen, meine Herren!

Ich habe die Ehre und die groBe Freude, Sie hier namens der Bayerischen Staatsregierung herzlich
begriiBen zu durfen. Als Landesentwicklungs- und Umweltrninister, der sich besonders mit Problemen
der Luftverunreinigungen auseinandersetzen muB, und als Landtagsabgeordneter des hiesigen Wahl-
kreises freue ich mich besonders, daB die Intemationale Kommission fUr Atmosphiirische Elektrizitiit
in der Intemationalen Union fUr Geodiisie und Geophysik das schone Garmisc"I-Partenkirchen als
Tagungsort fUr ihre 5. Konferenz ausgewiihlt hat.
Garmisch-Partenkirchen, sicherlich weltweit als Erholungs- und Wintersportzentrum bekannt, hat
auch bereits auf wissenschaftlichem Gebiet intemationale Bedeutung durch die Forschungsarbeiten
des Instituts fUr Atmosphiirische Umweltforschung erlangt. Dieses noch verhiiltnismiiBig junge Institut
ist eine Forschungsstelle der Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft, die sich mit den lebenswichtigen Fragen der
Umweltforschung und Umwelttechnik befaBt. Die Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft, der ich bei dieser Gelegen-
heit zu ihrem 25jiihrigen Bestehen und Wirken meinen herzlichen Gluckwunsch aussprechen will, ist
mit ihrer gut funktionierenden Verwaltung der geeignete und leistungsrahige Triiger dieses intematio-
nalen Kongresses, eines Treffens hervorragender Wissenschaftler aus aller Welt, die in offentlicher
Diskussion und im personlichen Gespriich ihre Gedanken und Erfahrungen austauschen, urn noch
zielstrebiger wissenschaftliche Fragen zu lOsen.
Sie werden sich in den kommenden Tagen in vielen Fachvortriigen und Gespriichen neben Fragen
der MeBtechnik und Datenverarbeitung mit vielen speziellen Einzelproblemen der atmosphiirischen
Elektrizitiit auseinandersetzen und neueste Erkenntnisse erfahren. Aus dieser Vielfalt mochte ich nur
zwei Themen beruhren.
Sie erortem die Entstehung elektrischer Ladungen in Schauem und Gewittem, Blitzgefahr und Blitz-
schutz. Ich wunsche und hoffe, daB ihre Erkenntnisse dazu beitragen werden, diesen Gefahren und
damit verbundenen Schiiden ktinftig wirkungsvoller zu begegnen. So wurden 1973 allein in Bayem
bei tiber 1000 Blitzschliigen Sachwerte von 11 Millionen Mark vemichtet.
Sie diskutieren Moglichkeiten einer globalen Uberwachung von Luftverunreinigungen mittels at-
mosphiirisch-elektrischer Verfahren. AnliiBlich der UN-Umweltkonferenz in Stockholm 1972 wurde
von mir der Aktionspunkt intemationaler Zusammenarbeit bei der globalen Luftuberwachung begriiBt
und befiirwortet. Wir in Bayem meSSen diesem Problem nicht nur globale Bedeutung zu, sondern
haben dies auf Landesebene bereits praktisch verwirklicht. Ich darf Ihnen mit gewissem Stolz mitteilen,
daB kurz nach Ihrem KongreB in Bayem ein modemes und vollautomatisches Luftuberwachungs-
system in Betrieb genommen wird. In vielen Stiidten Bayems werden dann standig kontinuierlich
registrierende MeBstationen die wichtigsten Schadstoffkomponenten erfassen und die MeBwerte an
die rechnergesteuerte MeBnetzzentrale im Bayerischen Landesarnt fUr Umweltschutz in Munchen
ubertragen. Zentrale Speicherung und Auswertung der MeBwerte durch elektronische Datenverarbei-
tung gewiihrleisten in Gefahrensituationen rasche Alarmauslosung und Einleitung von AbhilfemaB-
nahmen. Diese kontinuierlichen Immissionsmessungen schaffen neben den Voraussetzungen fUr ge-
zielte SanierungsmaBnahmen auch objektive Entscheidungskriterien fUr landesplanerisch wichtige
Entwicklungen.
Wir wissen, daB sich alle schwierigen und lebenswichtigen Probleme nur durch die Mitarbeit vieler
bewiiltigen lassen. Auch der ProzeB der wissenschaftlichen Weiterentwicklung auf dem Gebiet der
atmosphiirischen Elektrizitiit bedarf des stiindigen Gedankenaustausches.
Namens der Bayerischen Staatsregierung wtinsche ich Ihnen einen erfolgreichen Verlauf Ihrer Kon-
ferenz und allen Teilnehmem einen angenehmen Aufenthalt im schonen Garmisch-Partenkirchen.
IX
Welcoming Address
R. D. Bojkov
Chief, Research Branch, World Meteorological Organization
Member, Executive Panel, Fifth Conference
Mr. Chairman! Your Excellency Mr. Streib!! Ladies and Gentlemen! Dear Colleagues!
On behalf of the Secretary-General of the World Meteorological Organization, Dr. D. A. Davies, it
is my privilege and my pleasure to welcome you to this Conference in picturesque Garmisch-Parten-
kirchen. As you already know, this Conference is organized by the International Commission on
Atmospheric Electricity of IAMAP and co-sponsored by WMO. It is not the first time that such a
gathering has been organized through the collaboration of the international scientific community.
The present Conference is in fact the fifth. This is an indication that their subject, namely the field of
atmospheric electricity, is proving to attract more and more interest, and from the scientific point
of view this is extremely valuable.
WMO's international responsibilities in the field of atmospheric electricity have become established
over many years and include the encouraging of governments to set up suitable networks of observing
stations; the publication of summary data on a world-wide basis; and assisting individual countries
on request to establish programmes incorporating atmospheric electricity projects.
At the present time, a substantial technical note on the Application of Atmospheric Electricity
Concepts and Methods to Other Parts of Meteorology is in the process of being prepared by the WMO
Working Group on Atmospheric Electricity under its chairman, Professor Koenigsfeld who is energe-
tically supported by our good colleague and friend Hans Dolezalek. The scope of this future publica-
tion will be the subject of discussions during Tuesday's session.
Research in atmospheric electricity has become increasingly intriguing to scientists due to the fact
that it is related to research in a number of other sub-fields of meteorology in general and of atmospheric
physics in particular. The technological challenge of today , which we not only witness but also participate
in, has created excellent conditions for expanded and more advanced studies in atmospheric electricity
as a means of better understanding the physics of the atmospheric processes. It is therefore our task
to encourage the application of knowledge gained in this field to purposes which will be of benefit to
mankind.
When we look at the agenda for this Conference so excellently arranged by the Conference Chairman
Dr. Reinhold Reiter, with the assistance ofthe Executive Panel and the session chairmen, one is tempted
to address some of the many interesting questions which we will hear discussed during the coming
week; however, I do not wish to take too much of your time, and therefore would like to conclude with
expressing my thanks and appreciation:
- To the authorities of the Federal Republic and State of Bavaria and in particular to our host, the
Fraunhofer Society, for providing us with such excellent accommodation;
- To both Mr. Dolezalek who, as Secretary of the LC.A.E. and Dr. Reiter who, as Conference Chair-
man bear the most responsibility for the excellent preparations; and finally my thanks
- To the participants who have travelled great distances to take part in this meeting. - I am convinced
that with your presence here this Conference will be a great success.
x
Introductory Address
H. Dolezalek
Secretary, Internat. Comm. on Atmospheric Electricity
Member, Advisory Board, Institute for Atmosph. Environmental Research
This is an international conference. International cooperation has been the tradition in atmospheric
electricity from the very beginning. Franklin wrote from America to the Englishman Collinson describing
his idea for an experiment, the Frenchman Dalibart heard from Collinson about it and executed the ex-
periment on 10 May 1752, followed by Franklin himselflittle later, and the Russian Richmann demon-
strated in a tragic way that this was a dangerous undertaking. Cooperation existed throughout the
ages. We have global effects in this science which are fundamental, and we have local effects which
cannot be investigated in all their forms in a single country. Some time ago I heard a remark from a
friend from overseas. He said that at present the Americans gain more than everybody else from this
international cooperation. This may be true because of the structure of research and development in the
United States which cares for a quick evaluation. However, everybody else participating in this cooper-
ation is gaining, too.
This is also a particular conference. Following the development led by Coroniti, we are not coming
together to hear a great number of short papers - for that purpose our community assembles at other
occasions - but to discuss some topics in depth. We are still experimenting with this approach, though,
and we shall have more experience in five days. Maybe we then shall suggest to go even more closely
back to the system applied in the Montreux Conference.
This conference is, however, also different from its predecessors, in its contents. Space considerations
are more pronounced, including such questions as the net electric charge on the Earth and on other
planets and the Sun; the application of networks of stations is more widespread, for example for in-
vestigating single lightning strokes from distances well below 100 kilometers; for investigating the global
lightning activity by a global network of automated specialized stations, or for investigating deviations
from the equipotentiality of the ionosphere as seen from below by another global network. - More
mathematics will be heard in this conference, maybe more on modeling, on the use of computers -
and sometimes we older laborers in the field are concerned that not the computer diverts our attention
away from the basic physics of a problem.
This is the first conference after we began our ten-year program. Some of you have been much in-
volved in it, others have hardly heard about it. In this program, the main problem is now that we have
nobody who carefully evaluates the full potential of the data gathered in six intensification intervals -
or now seven. There seems to be the potential for a few doctors' dissertations in it. We hope that some-
body will care to realize this.
This is also the first conference during which future research priorities are discussed in an organized
form. From my experience in the administration of funds for science I derive the feeling that this is
a growing trend. It may also help to narrow the gap between basic research and development.
XI
Welcome and Introduction
R. Reiter
Director, Institute for Atmosph. Environmental Research
Conference Chairman, Fifth Conference

On behalf of the Institute for Atmospheric Environmental Research of the Fraunhofer Society and
as Conference Chairman, I would like to extend a most sincere welcome to all of you. It has been a great
honor and pleasure for our Institute to plan and arrange the 5th International Conference on Atmos-
pheric Electricity and to invite to Garmisch-Partenkirchen the scientists engaged in this field. We have
tried, with the means available and the facilities at our disposal, to attain the best; however, we are
aware that the different wishes of our visitors can only be fulfilled imperfectly. For this reason, we
ask your patience and indulgence, and also, if for any reason mishaps or inadequacies should occur
during the course of the Conference.
It is my pleasure at this time to thank all institutions which made possible this Conference. This
particularly applies to the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, and with it to the Federal Government,
as well as to the State of Bavaria, for granting the necessary funds. My special thanks are extended also
to the numerous other contributors, to the Fraunhofer Society, the Municipal Council, and many
others. I also wish to thank all the colleagues, for suggestions and ideas they contributed to the organi-
zation of the Conference.
The Fifth Conference should convey an extensive picture of the present status of knowledge in the
field of atmospheric electricity. Beyond this, the cooperation of the competent scientists all over the
world, beyond all borders, should be promoted, concentrated, deepened and revitalized by our meeting.
Last but not least, completely new and unforeseen aspects may appear as if illuminated by lightning
strokes. Just here we meet the area of intuition, requiring something of the artist's sensitivity between
the scientist and his profession, and a non-utilitarian attitude. Both should be encouraged during the
Conference.
Of course, the Conference will involve a great deal of hard work and concentration. However, in
order to open your minds for a kind of leisure, which is possible at the same time, you, ladies and
gentlemen, as our guests, should feel at home here in a typical Bavarian alpine region. We would like
to acquaint you with its particular features, its scenery and people, its art and manner of living. We
hope, therefore, that you will enjoy the Baroque concert in ,the renowned Wies Church as well as the
concluding Bavarian folklore evening.
At last, please, consider whether it would be nice for you to schedule - whenever possible - your
individual discussions in the "Kurpark" Garden with its mountain panorama. In this atmosphere you
may hardly be aware that you are accomplishing your professional work at the same time.
In this sense, I wish all of you a pleasant and productive time.
XII
Contents
Preface, H. Dolezalek and R. Reiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V
Participants of the Fifth International Conference on Atmospheric Electricity VI
Welcoming Address, L. Koenigsfeld . VII
Welcoming Address, O. Mohr . VII
Welcoming Address, G. Lehr . . . VIII
Welcoming Address, M. Streibl . IX
Welcoming Address, R. D. Bojkov X
Introductory Address, H. Dolezalek . XI
Welcome and Introduction, R. Reiter XII
Session 1
Ions, Basic Research

Chairman: G. A. Dawson
Formation, Nature, and Mobility oflons of Atmospheric Importance, V. A. Mohnen 1
Positive and Negative Ion Mobility Spectra of Spray-Produced Ions, B. A. Thomson and J. V. Iribarne . . 18
On the Molecular Properties of Atmospheric Ion Clusters and Their Relationship to Nucleation, A. W. Castle-
man, Jr. and I. N. Tang. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Mobility Spectra oflons Created in Gases Under Atmospheric Pressure, M. Cabane, P. Krien, G. Madelaine,
and J. Bricard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
An Experimental Method for Determining the Charged Fraction in Aerosols, H. Kojima and T. Sekikawa. . 40
Evolution of Tropospheric Ions, M. L. Huertas and J. Fontan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Intensity and Interactions of Atmospheric Ions with Organic Contaminants, L. G. McKnight and E. W. Gray 52
Influence of the Electric Fields of Thunderstorms on Radon-222 Daughter Ion Concentrations, M. H. Wilkening 54
Ion-Aerosol Attachment Coefficients and the Diffusional Charging of Aerosols, W. A. Hoppel . . . 60
Coagulation Growth Rate of Charged Cloud Particles, N. V. Krasnogorskaya and A. I. Neizvestniy 70
Structure of Liquid H 2 S04 - H 2 0 Clusters Around Ions: Thermodynamic Theory, E. Wiendl. 76
General Discussion, G. A. Dawson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Session 2
Ions, Applied Research:

Atmospheric Electricity and Meteorology
Chairman: R. Reiter
Atmospheric Electricity in the Real World, R. V. Anderson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Relationship of the Ohm's Law Electrical Parameters with Meteorological Elements, Bhartendu . . . . . 100
Particulate Air Pollution Trends Deduced from Atmospheric Electrical Conductivity Measurements at Bet-
Dagan (Israel), A . Manes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Deformation ofthe Size Distribution of Aerosol Particles Dispersing from Land to Ocean, M. Misaki, M. Ike-
gami, and I. Kanazawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
On Recent Measurements of Electric Parameters and Aerosols in the Oceanic Atmosphere, Y. Morita and
H. Ishikawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Space Charge Distribution Near an Alpha-Particle Beam, J. Brock, J. Bricard, G. Madelaine, and M. Pourprix 131
Observation' of Atmospheric Ions and Atmospheric Phenomena in the Area of Kobe, Japan, Y. Tsunoda and
T. Satsutani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Atmospheric Electric Measurements during the 1972 Eclipse over Nova Scotia, D. R. Lane-Smith and
R. Markson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
XIII
Unusual Conditions of Charging of Aerosol Particles of Industrial Origin, V. G. MorachevskyandN. A. Dubrovich 157
Electric Characteristics of the Atmosphere over the Arctic, E. V. Chubarina . 160
Atmospheric Electric Measurements at the South Pole, W. E. Cobb . . . . 161
Effect of Dust-Raising Winds on the Atmospheric Electric Field, A. K. Kamra 168
General Discussion, R. Reiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Session 2a
Application of Atmospheric Electricity Concepts and Methods to Other Parts of

Meteorology/Film on Electric Fields
at the Ground Under a Thunderstorm
Chairman: R. D. Bojkov
Considerations on Practical Application of Atmospheric Electricity Concepts and Methods, H. Dolezalek 181
Film on Electric Fields Under Thunderstorms, E. Magaziner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Session 3
Principles and Problems of Instrumentation, Methods of Calibration, Data Handling

Chairmen: L. Saxer and H. Dolezalek
Review of Instrumentation for Atmospheric Electricity, D. R. Lane-Smith. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

A Technique for Continuons Recording of the Total Rate of Ion Formation in the Atmosphere, S. Mochizuki,
Y. Namiki, T. Kato, S. Masuda, and T. Sekikawa. . 204
Electric Charge Current Due to Drifting Snow, K. Itagaki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Variation of Omega at Two Land Stations, Bhartendu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Atmospheric Electrical Mechanical Transfer Currents to Plate Antennas, L. H. Dayaratna and W. C. A.
Hutchinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
The Measurement of Atmospheric Electric Fields Using a Newly Developed Balloon Borne Sensor, H. J. Christian
and A. A. Few. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Effects of Velocity and Other Physical Variables on the Currents and Potentials Generated by Radioactive
Conectors in Electric Field Measurements, M. L. Hill and W. A. Hoppel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Investigation of the Temporal Structure of the Electric Field Intensity Near the Earth's Surface in Application
to the Task of Dctermination of Mean Values, L. L. Braginskaya and Ya. M. Shvarts. . . . . . . . 249
Direct Determination of the Individual Concentrations of Radon Daughter Products in the Atmosphere by the
Means of Delayed Coincidence Technique, S. Nakatani 250
General Discussion, L. Saxer and H. Dolezalek. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Session 4
Cloud Physics, Non-Convective Clouds and Precipitation

Chairman: L. H. Ruhnke
Some Electrical Effects in Clouds, J. Latham. . . . . . . . . . . 263

Study of Warm Cloud Electricity, T. Takahashi . . . . . . . . . 273
Electrification Measurements from a Dropsonde and their Interpretation, G. Beesley, A. J. Illingworth, and
J. Latham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
On the Convective Electrification of Warm Stratified Clouds, R. F. D. Perret . . . 286
The Influence of Electric Forces Upon Droplet Conection Efficiencies, M. H. Smith. 287
XIV
Electrification by Collisions of Ice Particles on Ice or Metal Targets, O. Buser and A. N. Aufdermaur. . . 294
Melting Electrification of Single Ice Particles in Simulated Free Fall, P. F. Martin and W. C. A. Hutchinson 302
The Interactions of Freely-Falling Ice Crystals, C. P. R. Saunders . . . . 309
Electric Fields in the Vicinity of Clouds, Ya. M. Shvarts and Yu. P. Sumin . . . . . . . . 314
Charging Mechanism of Snowflakes and Soft Hail, K. Kikuchi . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Airborne Measurements of Electric Charging of Marine Fog, P. B. Wagner and J. W. Telford 322
General Discussion, L. H. Ruhnke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Session 5
Thunderstorms and Showers

Chairman: A. N. Aufdermaur
An Assessment of Thunderstorm Electrification Mechanisms, C. B. Moore 333

Radio Emission of Convective Clouds in Various Stages of Development, L. G. Katchurin. M. Karmov. and
Ch. M edalyiev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Electrical Conditions Near the Bases of Thunderclouds in the Southwestern United States, W. D. Rust and
C. B. Moore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Electrical Structure of Large Overwater Shower Clouds, D. R. Fitzgerald. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Precipitation Electricity of Thunderclouds and Showerclouds, Ch. Magono 368
The Velocities of Charged Hydrometeors and the Production of High Fields in Thunderstorms, M. J. Gay,
R. F. Griffiths, J. Latham, and C. P. R. Saunders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Electrochemical Charge Separation in Clouds, L. Wiihlin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
The Electric Discharges in Nimbostratus, I. M. Imyanitov, B. F. Evteev, and I. I. Kamaldina . . . . . . . 388
Point Discharge Characteristics and Charge Configuration in Thunderclouds, A. I. I. Ette, J. I. Aina, and
E. U. Utah . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . , . . . . , . 389
Modeling of Thunderstorm Electrification, Z. Levin, A. Ziv, and W. D. Scott . , . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Modeling of an Induction Process of an Electric Field Growth in Thunderstorm Clouds, V. M. Muchnik,
I. V. Budak, and B. E. Fishman . . . . , . . , . . . . . , . . . . . . 402
An Electrodynamic Instability in Thunderstorms, J. R. Melcher and R. F. D. Perret 403
Effect of Convection in the Electrification of Clouds, D. Chand and N. C. Varshneya 404
The Problem of Cloud Electricity, I. M. Imyanitov . , . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
The Theory of Electrokinetic Phenomena Accompanying the Crystallization of Supercooled Aerosols of
Aqueous Solutions, L. G. Katchurin. . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . 410
On the Freezing Electrification of Freely Falling Water Droplets, T. Iwabuchi and Ch. Magono. 411
About One of the Mechanisms of Electrization of Thunderstorm Clouds, N. S. Shishkin 417
General Discussion, A. N. Aufdermaur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Session 6
Global Circuit and Ten-Year Program

Chairman: B. Vonnegut
Theoretical Problems of the Global Atmospheric Electric Circuit, H. W. Kasemir. . . . . . , . . . . . 423

Diurnal Variation and Absolute Intensity of World-Wide Lightuing Activity, September 1970 to May 1971,
M. Clayton and C. Polk , . , . . , . , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Airborne Atmospheric Electrical Measurements of the Variation of Ionospheric Potential and Electrical
Structure in the Exchange Layer Over the Ocean, R. Markson , . . . . . . . , . . . . , . , . 450
Annual Variations of the Ionospheric Potential, the Air-Earth Current Density and the Columnar Resistance
Measured by Radiosondes, K. Uchikawa. . . , . . . . , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 460
xv
Air-Earth Current Density Over the Atlantic Ocean, W. Gringel and R. Muhleisen 464
The Global Circuit and Its Parameters, R. Muhleisen . . . . . . . . . . 467
On the Regional Effect in the Global Atmospheric Electric Field, M. Takagi. 477
Secular Trends in Thunderstorm Frequencies, S. A. Changnon, Jr. . . . . . 482
Quantitative Characteristics of Thunderstorm Activity, V. P. Kolokolov. . . 488
Effect of Convection Within the Austausch Layer on the Electrical Potential Gradient in the Atmosphere,
R. O. Weiss, R. K. Frazer, and M. L. Hill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
On the Turbulent Convective Component of the Fair-Weather Current Density, R. F. D. Perret. 496
Lightning Occurrence in a Subtropical Area, D. Mackerras . 497
General Discussion, B. Vonnegut. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Session 7
Atmosphere-Space Coupling, Solar-Terrestrial Effects,

Atmospheric Electricity on Other Celestial Bodies
Chairman: R. Bostrom
Global, Quasi-Static Electric Fields in the Earth's Environment, H. Volland . 509

Vertical Propagation of Time-Dependent Electric Fields in the Atmosphere and Ionosphere, R. Bostrom and
U. Fahleson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
The Effects of Magnetospheric Convection on Atmospheric Electric Fields in the Polar Cap, C. G. Park and
M. Dejnakarintra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Thundercloud Electric Fields in the Ionosphere, C. G. Park and M. Dejnakarintra . . . . . . . . . . . 544
Three-Dimensional Electric Fields and Currents in the Stratosphere, T. Ogawa, Y. Tanaka, A. Huzita, and
M. Yasuhara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Review of Planetary Electrical Models - Analogies to Earth, R. H. Manka. . 557
Review of Electrification Processes in Planetary Atmospheres, H. F. Eden. . . 567
Global Electric Fields Measured in the Stratosphere, R. H. Manka and F. S. Mozer 574
A Study of Possible Correlation Between Fair-Weather Electric Field and Auroral Activity, G. E. Shaw and
R. D. Hunsucker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
Stratospheric Electricity and the Global Circuit, E. T. Pierce 582
General Discussion, R. Bostrom . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
Session 8a
Physics of Lightning and Sferics

Part I
Chairmen: R. E. Orville and R. Reiter
Remark by the Editors . . . . . 595

Calculation of the Electric and Magnetic Fields Produced by Close Lightning, M. A. Uman . . . . . . . 597
Lightning Ground Stroke Charge Location from Multistation Electrostatic Field Change Measurements,
P. Krehbiel, M. Brook, and R. McCrory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
On Lightning Discharges in Winter Thunderstorm, T. Takeuti and M. Nakano. . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
The Triggering of Lightning by Corona from Ice Hydrometeors or Colliding Raindrops, J. A. Crabb, R. F.
Griffiths and J. Latham. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . 618
Radar Study of Precipitation Development in Thunderclouds, C. R. Holmes, C. B. Moore, R. Rogers, and
E. Szymanski. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
Advances in a Decade of Thunder Research, A. A . Few, T. L. Teer, and D. R. M acGorman 628
XVI
Spectroscopic and Electric Current Measurements of Lightning at the Monte San Salvatore Observatory,
Lugano, Switzerland, R. E. Orville and K. Berger. . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
Stepped Leader Initiation Via Positive Streamer System Intensification, C. T. Phelps 642
The Onset of Long Electrical Discharges in Clean Air, E. Barreto and H. Jurenka . 646
Anomalous Behavior of H Lines in Lightning Spectra, R. D. Hill. . . . . . . . . 647
Some Statistical Features of Discharging Processes in Thunderclouds, St. Lundquist, V. Scuka, and D. Yedda 652
General Discussion, R. H. Orville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
Session 8b
Physics of Lightning and Sferics

Part II
Chairman: N. Kitagawa
The Propagation of Atmospherics, W. Harth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663

The Fine-Structure of Electric Field Changes Produced by Lightnings, H.-J. Fischer, H. Kosche, and
R. Miihleisen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
Results of the Global VLF-Atmospherics Analyser Network, G. Heydt and T. Takeuti. . . . 687
VHF Radio Pictures of Lightning, D. E. Proctor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
Measurements of the Electric and Magnetic Fields Produced by Close Lightning, E. P. Krider 700
Global Monitoring of Atmospherics, A. G. Jean, R. N. Grubb, and H. M. Dumas 705
Development of Observations of Atmospherics, B. K. lnkov and L. G. Makhotkin. 706
General Discussion, N. Kitagawa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
Session 9
Late Additions
Chairman: A. A. Few
Krypton 85, a Global Contaminant, W. L. Boeck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713

Water Clathrates Formed in Supercooled Fog by Seeding with Pulverized Liquid Propane, R. Siksna. 716
Lightning Incidence in Britain and the Solar Cycle, M. F. Stringfellow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
The Measurement of Lightning and Thunderstorm Parameters Including the Application of Lightning Flash
Counters, R. B. Anderson and A. J. Eriksson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
Some Geomagnetic and Atmospheric-Electric Field Variations Observed at Swider and Belsk Observatories,
N. Nikiforova and S. Michnowski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
Long-Term Changes in Magnetic and Atmospheric-Electric Fields on the Basis of the Recordings of the "St.
Kalinowski Geophysical Observatory" at Swider, Poland, E. Kalinowska- Widomska 736
Secular Decrease in Ionospheric Potential, R. Markson . . . . . . . 740
Electric Charge Transmission by Lightning Flashes to Earth, K. Berger. 742
Neutrons from Lightning? R. L. Fleischer . . . . . . . . . . . 745
Lightning Detection from Satellites, R. E. Orville and B. Vonnegut. 750
Lightning Elimination, R. B. Bent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
Session 10
Atmospheric Electricity Activities of the Institute for Atmospheric Environmental Research

Chairman: L. Koenigs/eld
Atmospheric Electricity Activities of the Institute for Atmospheric Environmental Research, R. Reiter 759
XVII
Concluding Remarks
L. Koenigsfeld. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
Banquet-Address
The Role of Atmospheric Electricity in the Atmospheric Sciences, H. E. Landsberg . . . . . . . . . . . 799
Report on the Fifth Conference
H. Dolezalek 805
Author Index 810
Index of Chemicals in Symbols 822
Index of Localities and Areas . 824
Index of Institutes. Agencies. Organizations 828
Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
XVIII
Session 1
IONS, BASIC RESEARCH

Formation, Nature, and Mobility of Ions of Atmospheric Importance*)
V. A. Mohnen
Abstract
An understanding of the evolution of atmospheric small ions requires the knowledge of 1) the type of radiation,
2) the atmospheric trace gas composition as a function of altitude and the physical and chemical molecular para-
meters of these trace gas molecules such as ionization potential, electron affinity, proton affinity, polarizability,
chemical reactivity, etc., 3) ion-molecule reaction rates for eventually every collisional interaction of ions with the
neutral gaseous environment and 4) the theory of ionic mobility. Partial information on 1) -4) is available today
and presented in this paper. Based upon laboratory and field measurement, we can now derive a preliminary
picture of the nature of atmospheric ions as a function of altitude. The atmospheric ions are thought of being in
a state of constant change, reflecting in their chemical nature the collisional interaction with atmospheric trace
gas molecules. Molecular rearrangement of attached molecules can lead to the formation of new chemical species
on the ··surface" of small ions, which allows the ion to grow into larger ion clusters. The mobility spectrum of
atmospheric small ions is thought to be pseudo-continuous in the lower part of the atmosphere due to the presence
of numerous trace gases (on the level of less than 10- 9 of all parts) interacting with the ions during their lifetime.
However, direct mass spectrometric in situ measurements of tropospheric and stratospheric ions are still missing.
The earth's atmosphere can be considered as a weak plasma, inhomogeneous in space and time.
Ionization processes are rather well known, although the magnitude of ion pairs formed per unit volume
and time as a function of altitude still lacks some details.
Near the ground, (1, ~, Y radiation from tho ron and radon decay and cosmic radiation are the prin-
cipal ionizing agents causing charge separation initially into electrons and singly charged positive ions.
At altitudes up to 60 km, cosmic ray background is still the major ionization source, if we neglect
disturbances known to occur after high solar activity. Photoionization increasingly dominates other
ionization processes above this altitude; molecules such as nitric oxide will be ionized at wavelengths
below 134 nm, while molecular nitrogen requires less than 79.6 nm. This selective ionization as opposed
to nonselective ionization due to cosmic rays and (1-~-y radiation, considerably complicates the investi-
gation of ion evolution, particularly in the D-region (Fig. 1 and 2).
The free electrons will, after thermalization, attach to neutral molecules. The positive and negative
ions now undergo a series of so-called ion-molecule reactions, covering simple charge transfer of the
type A+ +B --+ A + B+
A- +B --+ A + B-
*) Invited Paper.
or attachment reactions (M = 3rd body)
A+ +B+M ---> A+'B+M
A-+B+M ---> A-'B+M
or switching reactions
A+'B+C ---> A+'C+B
A-'B+C ---> A-'C+B
or proton transfer reactions
or clustering reactions
A + . B + B + M ~ A + . B2 + M
A + . B2 + B + M ~ A + . B3 + M etc.
A - . B + M ~ A - . B2 + M etc.
rt
~
6
!
II)
5
~
3
VVI
~ II~ [-4
'\ \
3
f
2
\
~
.~
\ 2,
5-
I
~~
\
I
~
.........
,- 1\
~
\. "-
o
'II
~ 10
pa;res d';ons cm-3 s- '
Fig. 1. Various ionizing agents (ionization rates) from 0 to 8 km height; 1. from soil; 2. from radon; 3. from cosmic
rays at 35° N; 4. from cosmic rays at 45 ° N; 6. total (Guedelia et a\. (26)).
2
100
95
..... 90
E
~
.
~
.c:
.~
l:
80
75 L ct [NO]
70
55
50L-____- L______i L ______ ~ ______L __ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _~
10- 3 10- 2 10- ' 10

Ion Pair Production Rate (cm- 3 sec-')
Fig. 2. Ionization rates in the daytime D-region and lower E-region for solar minimum conditions and solar
zenith angles near 60° (Aitken (25))
These are just a few principal examples of ion molecule reactions to demonstrate the complexity of
the problem one is confronted with when attempting to establish the formation of positive and negative
small ions. Each ion molecule reaction is characterized by a rate constant. This fundamental measure-
ment task has been undertaken over the past several years at the Aeronomy Laboratory (NOAA
Environmental Research Laboratories) by E. E. Ferguson et al. Most of the rate constants of atmos-
pheric interest originate from this laboratory. An overview is presented by E. E. Ferguson (1), while
the various measurement techniques are summarized in Table I. A complete, continually updated
listing of all ion molecule reaction rate measurements is attempted by M. H. Bortner (2) (Editor) in
the DASA Reaction Rate Handbook.
Knowledge of the neutral gas composition, particularly of the atmospheric trace gas constituents, as
function of altitude is equally important. It is obvious by now that molecular parameters such as the
ionization potential and electron affinity, the proton affinity, the dipol moment,and the polarizability
play a determining factor in the type of ion molecule reactions observed in the laboratory, while
hydrogen bonding and chemical bonding in general determine the stability of the product.
Once the neutral gas composition and the type of ionization are known or reasonably well estimated,
reaction schemes can be constructed to follow the evolution of positive or negative ions. In Fig. 3 and 4,
examples are presented for the formation of atmospheric ions up to 90 km. Today, one can have reason-
able confidence in the validity of those ion formation schemes leading to ions that are in equilibrium
with the major constituents of the atmosphere, i.e., with nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, carbon dioxide.
The oxonium ion and its hydrates are the only positive ions which exist in equilibrium in a simple gas
system: H30+ . (H 2 0) ..
3
Table 1. Rate constants of thermal energy (definitions, methods, sources)
(From Eldon E. Ferguson, Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables, Vol. 12, No.2, 1973)
The rate constant is defined as the coefficient k in the expression d(A +)/dt = k(A +) (B) where (A +) and (B) are the
ion and neutral concentrations in the reaction A + + B --+ products.
DT - Drift Tube
This technique has been applied only recently to ion-molecule reactions with good results. The reactants are
expected to be in their ground states. The method has the advantage of yielding reaction-rate constants for ion
translational energies extending from thermal to several electron volts. The data on energy dependence thus tend
to augment thermal energy data in many cases.
FA - Flowing Afterglow
This is a relatively high-pressure experiment with many reactant-ion collisions prior to reaction so that the reactants
almost always are known to be in their ground states. This method has the greatest chemical versatility of all of
the methods and so has produced a large fraction of the available data. FA data have been obtained in the tem-
perature range 80° to 600 0 K.
SA - Stationary Afterglow
This is a high-pressure experiment in which reactant ions can be assumed to be in their ground states in most
cases. The ionizing discharge may produce however excited or dissociated neutral reactants. Photoionization
sources have alleviated this problem but have been very limited in their chemical versatility. Some SA experiments
have covered a range of gas temperatures from about 180° to 600° K.
References for Introduction

E. WMcDaniel, V. Cermak, A.Dalgarno, E.E.Ferguson, and L.Friedman, IonMolecule Reactions (New York 1970).
J. F. Franklin, ed., Ion-Molecule Reactions, 2 volumes (New York 1972).
E. E. Ferguson, Ann. Geophys. 28,389 (1972).
A. R. Hochstim, ed., Bibliography of Chemical Kinetics and Collision Processes (New York 1969).
G. A. Sinnott, "Bibliography of Ion-Molecule Reaction Rate Data", NBS Special Publication No. 381. Available
from Supt. of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office (Washington, D. C. 20402, 1973).
Fig. 3. Complete positive ion chemistry. Three-body reaction rates are in cm 6 /sec, two-body reaction rates in
cm 3 / sec. (Mitra and Rowe (23))
4
~
"... ...-
~ .!!
ote:
.... 0 0
Q,.~
00'"
- ..~-:
below. ..... c:
"'00
"« OIU
.;
.!!
...u
0'
ti
~
i:c:
o
Hp neutral ...u
Q
e Third body - [H2 0} • /C02 } - - - [C02 ) " [H2 0} ® Recombination

Lower Troposphere
Fig. 4. Reaction scheme for the formation of negative ions (0 - 50 km) (M ohnen (24))
VI
n-I, n ~Ho
n-l.n
kcal/mol ~G:_I.n kcal/mol
1,2 36 25
2,3 22,3 13,6
3,' 17 8,5
(Standard State 1atm., 300"K.)
Fig. 5. Thermochemical data for H30 + . (H 2 0). + M <2 H30 + . (H 2 0).+ 1 + M (Kebarle et a\. (3))
The degree of hydration depends on temperature and water vapor partial pressure. The work of
Kebarle et al. (3) contributed significantly to our understanding of thermochemical data for
H30+ . (HzO). + HzO # H 3 0+(H zO)n+ 1 (Fig. 5). The equilibrium distribution data for this cluster
ion are well established since there is a wealth of data from other authors confirming Kebarle's results,
either by measuring the forward and backward reaction rate constants for different n (E. E. Ferguson
et al. (1), F. E. Niles, J. M. Heimerl, G. E. Keller, and L. J. Puckett (4) at the Ballistic Research Labora-
tories, Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Maryland) or by determining the equilibrium constants K.- 1 ••
defined as
from vant HojJ plots (W Castleman, Brookhaven National Laboratory) as Kebarle did. There has
also been enough direct mass spectrometric evidence accumulated since 1965 (this date marks Narcisi
et al. (5), Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory's first successful rocket flight for direct D-region
positive ion sampling) to establish this cluster as the major ion sequence present at altitudes between
50 - 90 km. Confirming results of in situ mass spectrometric measurements have been reported by
Goldberg et al. (6) (NASA group) and Krankowski et al. (7) (Heidelberg, Germany, group) and by Narcisi
et al. after numerous further rocket flights.
Below 50 km there is, to date, no solid evidence available on the chemical composition of atmospheric
small ions, i.e., on their nature. However, experiments to measure in situ the ion composition in the
upper stratosphere are in progress at the Ballistic Research Center, Aberdeen Proving Grounds, by F.
Niles. Until those in situ experiments reveal to us the actual ion nature, we have to rely upon chemical
modelling techniques based upon measured rate constants for all possible collision interactions between
small ions and the surrounding neutral atmosphere, in particular the trace gases. We recall that the
oxonium ion evolution occurs in a simple gas system containing N z, Oz, COz and HzO (at least traces
of water vapor, such as 1 ppm) and that it is the major ion in the atmosphere up to about 85 km. Current
assumptions are that the hydrated oxonium ion sequence is also the precursor of atmospheric small
ions at stratospheric and tropospheric levels but that it is not a terminal ion there.
As for negative ions in a simple atmosphere containing N z, Oz COz and water vapor and where
molecular dissociation processes do not occur, two ion sequences emerge depending on the con-
centration ratio of [HzO] to [COz] as experimentally demonstrated by Kebarle et al. (8) (Fig. 6) and
V. Mohnen (9). Again, as it was the case for the oxonium hydrates, an equilibrium distribution between
these two hydrated cluster series develops, characterized by an equlibrium constant K.- 1 •• which
depends upon the [HzO]/[CO z] ratio, the temperature and the partial pressure of water vapor.
Kebarle's and Ferguson's groups have been the main contributors of thermochemical data and reaction
rates for the forward and backward reactions, respectively. The two ion sequences are connected via
an exchange reaction ("switching")
This reflects the fact that the binding energies of water molecules to C04' are appreciably lower than
the binding energies of water molecules to O 2,
6
.'0.
;/,y'+ co; H2O
- 10
CO; (H2 0)2
0
2 -_' 0
, -)- 9 -9 12] 1_12
' \ 51
0; H2O
- 8
0;(H20)2
--11-
-
-11
02 (H20)3 ~
.....11...
-13
0; (H2O),
Fig. 6. Scheme of reaction mechanism for O2 containing small concentrations of CO 2 and H2 0. For Pco , > PH,o,
main reaction channel for the hydration sequence is reaction 7; and experimentally observed 02'(H 2 0), and
02'(H 2 0h are formed via reaction 9. Reverse arrows indicate observed equilibria at room temperature and
Po, ::::; 1 Torr, Peo , ::::; 10- 1 Torr, and PH,o = 10- 12 ... 10- 13 Torr (Kebarle (8))
It soon became obvious, however, that the formation of negative atmospheric ions is very complex
and that the results of in situ measurements from rocket borne mass spectrometers taken at D-region
levels (Narcisi et aI., Goldberg et aI., Krankowski et al. (10)) are significantly different from laboratory
simulation experiments with major atmospheric constituents listed above. Negative ions such as
C03', HC03', OH-(H 20) or Cl-, N03'(H 20)., C04' were discovered. Minor trace constituents like
0,0 3 , NO, N0 2 and H, present at these levels and initially formed through photochemical dissociation
processes, are participating in ion molecule reactions leading to the formation of those terminal ions
as demonstrated in reaction schemes developed by Ferguson et al. (10) and Niles et al. (10) on the basis
of measured rate constants.
The field of negative ion chemistry is not as well advanced as is the case for positive ions. There is also
no in situ mass spectrometric identification in existence for negative ions below about 50 km. There-
fore, the present assumptions about the precursors of negative atmospheric small ions being
02' . (H 20). and C04" (H 2 0)k
in the troposphere and lower stratosphere respectively must be viewed with reservation. We should
recall that they have been found to be terminal ions in equilibrium with their gaseous environment
containing N 2, O 2, H 20 and CO 2 only. Reaction schemes for this simple system, based upon measured
rate constants and equilibrium constants, are consistent with the experimental findings.
The real atmosphere, however, contains trace gases such as NH 3 , NO, NO z, NzO, HN0 3 ; CO,
CH 4 and a host of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons; H 2S, S02, H 2S0 4 ; 0 3, 12, C1 2, HCL OH
and 0, etc. Their concentrations range from a few parts per million down to parts per trillion (10- 12 ),
and they are variable with time, space and geographic location. Each collision of a positive or negative
ion with one of these trace gases can conceivably result in an ion molecule reaction that would change
its nature, and upon collision with another trace gas change its nature again, etc. Furthermore, chemical
rearrangements or reactions can occur among trace gas molecules already attached (clustered) to the
ions. This apparently monumental task is currently attacked by many laboratory groups, for example,
Ferguson et al. - Kebarle et al. - Castleman et al. - Bricard et al. - Niles, Keller and Puckett -
Mohnen et aI., by measuring reaction rate constants and equilibrium constants involving trace gases
listed above. Results to date are far from being complete, but a few interesting conclusions can be drawn.
Ammonia reacts rapidly with the oxonium ion via proton transfer:
H30+(H20). + NH3 (<=t) NH4'(H 2 0)k
NHt(H 2 0)k + NH3 (<=t) NHt . NH3 . (H 20)m etc.
It was also found by Kebarle (11) that with increasing number of ligands, the NHt interactions with
water molecules become progressively closer in magnitude to those with ammonia. A cross-over occurs
after 4 ammonia have been attached to the central core ion NHt. Hence, the outer shell contains more
7
water molecules, the inner shell ammonia. If we translate these findings, confirmed within the past
three years by all laboratory groups mentioned above, to atmospheric conditions, where the ammonia
concentration is in the parts per billion (10- 9 ) range and the water concentration variable from several
ten thousands down to 2 parts per million (stratosphere), the nature of the precursor of positive small
ions should be of the type NHt . (NH 3)x' (H 20)m rather than H30+ . (H 20)•. Kadlecek and Mohnen
have further reacted this cluster ion with S02 and found combinations of the type NHt . [(NH 3h'
S02]x . (H 20lm . (NH 3)j (Fig. 7). The work of the group at the University of Paul Sabatier at Toulouse
(D. Blanc, J. Fontan, M. L. Huertas (12)) with a few selected hydrocarbons indicate clustering of those
molecules after a proton transfer reaction.
Gas Composition: NH3 = 28 ppm

Positive Ion Spectrum S02 =26ppm
~O = 2:!:2 ppm
N2 = balance
98 amu =( NH3~· S02
N~ (NH3)2,3,4 . (98)3
346363380
,.., -£
.~ CI)
c en
:!
oS 1z
..
c
oS ~
z
..
•2:
<;
II::
"
~
en
U)
'-"'""''--______
.r-..'''I'' '--:........_ _ _ _ _ _- __
Mass (amu)
Fig. 7. Positive ion spectrum (mass spectrum). Gas composition: NH3 = 28 ppm,SOz = 26ppm,H zO = 2 ± 2 ppm,
N2 = balance (Kadlecek and Mohnen (26))
Significant progress has been made by Ferguson's (13) group very recently, who reported on three-
body association reactions 02",0 3, C0 3, OH-(H 20) and 02"(H 20) with H 20 and on binary reactions
for these ions and their hydrates with H 20, CO 2, S02' N0 2, 0 3 and NO. The earlier mentioned pre-
cursor to negative small ions will further react with, for example,
0 3 + 02" . (H 20)2 .... 03'(H 20) + H 20 + O 2

No2. + 02" . (H 20h .... N02"(H 20) + H 20 + O 2
NO + 02" . (H 20h .... 02" 'NO'H 20 + H 20
8
followed by
CO 2 + 0 3 . (H 20)2 -> C0 3 · (H 20) + H 20 + O 2
NO + C0 3 . H 20 -> NO H 20 + CO 2 z·
S02 + NO z.H 20 -> NO z·S02 + H 20.
Many more ion-molecule reaction combinations must be studied before a preliminary reaction scheme
can be calculated for the positive and negative small ions present in the natural atmosphere (troposphere
and stratosphere). However, there has been tremendous progress over the last few years and, as was
attempted to be demonstrated here, pieces are beginning to fall into place.
Since the lifetime of small ions vary from tens of seconds to several thousand seconds, collision of
ions with most every atmospheric trace gas is a certainty and chemical or electrostatic interactions a
definite possibility. Hence, small ions can conceivably change their identity with time. From birth to
annihilation, small ions are in a constant state of chemical evolution, whereby the time constant de-
creases steadily. As the time constant for chemical changes decreases, a pseudo equilibrium can be
established, (i.e., attachment and detachment of neutral molecules might exist) between those prolonged
periods of time where no chemical reaction or charge transfer is encountered.
The mass and chemical nature of atmospheric small ions influence their mobility. This parameter
plays an important role in atmospheric electricity. While mobility measurements are easily carried
out near ground and become increasingly more difficult aloft, the reverse holds true for in situ mass
spectrometric identification. If there would exist a unique relationship between ionic mass and ionic
mobility, complimentary measurements with one or the other technique would allow at this time a
complete assessment of the atmosphere. For ions that do not change their chemical nature throughout
their lifetime, such a relationship can be constructed, but for atmospheric ions this assumption is fatal.
At a later state of this review, we shall return to this basic question. Ion mobility K; is defined as
K; = Vi/E (Vi is the ion drift velocity along the field E and in a direction implied by the sign of the charge).
Change in gas density p changes the collision frequency of the ions with gas molecules. This yields the
concept of the reduced mobility K;
K; = i (:J C;3 )
P = pressure in Torr; Po = pressure in Torr at sea level and 273 K
T = temperature in OK.
Mobility measurements in air near ground level date from the earliest years of this century. Extensive
discussion on both the mobility spectrometers used as well as the results obtained can be found, for
example, in the classic book by Leonard Loeb "Basic Processes of Gaseous Electronics", 1955 and, by
the same author, in "Recent Advances in Basic Processes of Gaseous Electronics", Physics Depart-
ment, University of California, Berkeley, 1973 and 1975.
H. Israel's classical book on "Atmospheric Electricity", Vol. I and II, provides another compre-
hensive summary of mobility measurements and instruments. The desire to fit things into a pattern has
led atmospheric scientists to define an average mobility value for small ions of
K + = 1.37 x 1O- 4} m 2jVot·sec

I (K
--- =.
1 38)
K- = 1.89 X 10- 4 ' K+
in "dry" air at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Those average values should not be
treated as constants. It has been known for over fifty years that the mobility of natural atmospheric
small ions forms a spectrum with all values represented lying between roughly 0.2 x 10- 4 and
2.5 x 10-. 4 m 2 /volt . sec. The most frequent value is then reported as average mobility. It has also been
observed by numerous investigators that more than one peak in the frequency distribution of atmos-
pheric small ion mobilities can exist, depending on the gaseous composition of the atmosphere. In
Table II, several average mobilities for atmospheric small ions are listed, taken at random from the
hundreds of reported values. Also shown in Table II are average mobility values for ions generated in
9
"pure" laboratory air by means of some ionization source just prior to their mobility analysis. A few
examples of mobility spectra are presented in Fig. 8. There is a distinct difference between the positive
and negative small ion mobility distribution, the latter being in general broader. Furthermore, the
average mobility value for both negative and positive small ions is smaller in the atmosphere (the real
world) than it is in "dry" laboratory air with artificial (increased) ionization prior to the mobility
analysis. Hence, the more relevant average mobility value for small ions in the lower troposphere is
given by K + = 1.14 X 10- 4 and K - = 1.25 X 10- 4 m 2 jV' s. No general conclusion can be drawn at
present on the mobility of small ions in the upper troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere due to
lack of experimental data. Fig. 9 shows the results of Widdel (14) indicating no dramatic excursions
from ground level values.
Table 2a. Average mobilities of atmospheric small ions

(STP corrected)
K+(x 104 m 2 jV's) K-( x 104 m 2 jV' s)
Zwang and Gutman, 1958 1.13 1.28 1.13

(Mountain Station, USSR)
Misaki, 1961 1.03 1.08 1.05
(Tokyo and Karuizawa)
Hoppel and Kraakevik, 1965 1.15 1.24 1.08
(above exchange layer,
3 - 5 km altitude) (1.14 ± 0.11) (1.24 ± 0.17) (1.09 ± 0.05)
TaQle 2 b. Average mobilities of small ions produced in "pure" air.

(STP corrected)
Zeleny, 1900 1.36 1.87 1.38

(X-ray ionization)
Chat lock, 1899 1.32 1.80 1.36
(Corona ioniser)
Langevin, 1903 1.40 1.70 1.21
(X-ray ionization)
Franck, 1906 1.34 1.79 1.34
(X-ray ionization)
Franck and Pohl, 1907 1.37 1.80 1.31
(ex-radiation)
Blanc, 1908 1.26 2.0 1.59
(X-ray ionization)
Kovarik,1912 1.35 1.89 1.40
(ex-radiation)
Rothgiesser, 1913 1.33 1.93 1.45
(ex-radiation)
Wellish,1915 1.23 1.93 1.57
(X-ray ionization)
Hoppel,1967 1.35 1.73 1.28
<t, and ex radiation of
clean laboratory air (1.33 ± 0.05) (1.84 ± 0.09) (1.39 ± 0.12)
with variable humidity)
L. A. Zwang and L. N. Gutman, Bull (IZV) Acad. Sci. USSR. Geophys. SeT. No.7, 891.(1958).
M. Misaki, Geophys. 12,261 (1961).
W A. Hoppel and J. H. Kraakevik, J. Atm. Sci. 22, 509 (1965).
10
30,-------~_,------------------,
Z WANG, GUTMAN,
HOPPEL,KRAAKEVIK,
AND MISAKI
HOPPEL
25 SHERMAN
20
>-
t:
(f)
z
W
f-
z 15
w
>
~
~
W
0:: 10
negative ions
5 .I
Small ion mobil ity in 10- 4 m2 ·V- 1 sec-I

Fig. 8. Mobility spectra obtained by various authors. Point-dash curves: lowest curve after Misaki 1961, middle
curve after Hoppel and Kraakevik1965, uppermost curve after Zwang and Gutman 1958. Dashed curves after Sher-
man (22). Solid curves after Hoppel (21) with settling chamber. Positive ions with the two indicated exceptions.
Over the past decades, discussions continued on whether or not the atmospheric small ions may have
discrete mobilities obscured due to a lack of instrument resolution. With the introduction of quadrupole
mass spectrometers coupled with so-called drift tubes (mobility spectrometers), those and many other
long-pending problems could be successfully attacked. Here, the ions are first mobility analyzed and then
mass analyzed. The mass spectrometer does not operate in the conventional mode, i.e., with internal
ionization, but relies solely upon the already existing ions entering the mass analyzer.
Simultaneous information can now be obtained on the nature of small ions and their related
mobilities. At the present time those combined systems are not sensitive enough to be used for in situ
investigations of atmospheric ions below 50 km. To bypass this technological difficulty, an air-like gas
mixture with any desired additions or combinations of trace gases is first ionized; the resulting ions
are then drawn into the mobility analyzer section and finally guided without delay into the mass
spectrometer. As was discussed in the evolution of ions due to their interaction with surrounding gas
molecules after the initial ionization event, we now can additionally study the evolution of mobility
spectra. Of interest here are again only those ions of atmospheric importance. The cluster ion sequence
H30+ . (H 2 0). was one of the first to be investigated. Young et al. (15), reported mobility values in
argon as the carrier gas of
3 X 10- 4 m 2jV. s for n = 0,
2.5 X 10- 4 for n = 1,
2.2 X 10- 4 for n=2
and 2.0 x 10- 4 for n = 3,
11
while Huertas (12), in an air-like gas mixture, determined the mobility of the hydrated oxonium ion to be
2.10 x 1O- 4 m 2 /V·s for n = 3,
1.95 X 10- 4 for n = 4,
1.85 X 10- 4 for n = 5.
70~--------+-----~~-r--T7~r-~
65~--------+---~----~77~T---~
60~--------4.~----T.~~~----~
55~--------1----7~---r--------~
[km]
h
50~--------~-T~---+~----------~
45~-------'~---T~~-r--------~
40~----~1-~--------~--------~
Fig. 9. Height profiles of mobility of positively and negatively charged particles. 1. negative ions, 1'. extrapolated
ground value; 2. positive ions, 2'. extrapolated ground value; 2*. "heavy" ions (Widdel and Rose (14))
Those mobility determinations for individual ions are only possible if the ion cluster maintains its
identity and structure during the time of flight measurement, i.e., if there occurs no collision with
another water molecule causing further hydration or if no water molecule is removed in collisions with
the molecules ofthe carrier gas. In the experiments of Huertas and Young those severe conditions are ful-
filled since their drift tubes are operated at low pressure (less than 40 Torr) and the drift times are in
the order of milliseconds or less. Superimposed on the drift motion of ions along the electrical field lines
is the diffusive motion with the usual zig-zagged tortuous random molecular type paths between mole-
cular impacts. This displacement along the field lines is on the average on the order of V2Dit/n in the
drift time t, where Di is the diffusion coefficient. Since diffusion yields a Gaussian distribution in time
and distance, the effect of diffusion will determine the shape of a mobility "line" spectrum. Huertas also
demonstrated that the well-known Langevin theory relating ionic mobility to atomic mass yields
reasonable agreement with the experimental results.
12
If the hydrated oxonium ions are allowed to freely interact throughout their lifetimes with the
surrounding molecules such as N 2 , O 2 , CO 2 and H 2 0, an equilibrium distribution for the number of
attached water molecules is established as discussed earlier, where n depends on the H 2 0 partial pressure
and gas temperature. For example, if the H 2 0 concentration is 2 parts per million and T = 293 oK,
the ions measured in the mass spectrometer consist of - 5 % H30 + . (H 2 0h, - 80 % H30 + . (H 2 0h
and -15 % H30+ . (H 2 0k Simultaneous mobility analysis (Kadlecek and Mohnen) in a drift tube
operating at 760 Torr revealed a single mobility value of 2.23 x 10- 4 m 2/V' s (peak of the narrow
Gaussian type spectrum). The equilibrium situation is characterized as follows:
[ H30 + . (H 2 0 )2 k2.3
'-k2.3' H30 + . (H 2 0 )3 k3.4
(-k3,4 ' H 2 0 + ' (H 2 0)4 ] (function of PH 20' T)
or, in general:
Hence, in an atmosphere containing ions that are in complete reaction equilibrium with their gaseous
environment, one single mobility value (Gaussian "line" spectrum) exists. Ifthe partial pressure of H 2 0
(denoted by P H20 ) and/or temperature T changes, a new equilibrium distribution is established,
resulting in a different, single mobility value. If PH20 increases, mobility decreases,
Another example of this type can be stated for negative ions, Fig, 6 shows the reaction scheme for the
CO,! , (H 2 0). ;:::t O 2 , (H 2 0)j clusters postulated as precursors to tropospheric and stratospheric
small ions. In a gas system containing H 2 , O 2 , CO 2 and 2 ppm water molecules, one observes again
one single mobility of 2.19 x 10- 4 m 2 jV' s, although the mass spectrum taken simultaneously reveals
the existence of an equilibrium distribution as shown in Fig, 10.
o~
II
....
<0
~
-'!' ~ ~
Q Cl Cl Cl
0'"' ~ ~ ~ ~
II 0'" C:5' 0'" b'"
t:
c ~
'"~ c
~
II
<0
~ ~
A I--.JJ A
Mass Number - 127 1<:6
A J\.
J.
Mass spectrum of negative ions
Fig. 10. Mass spectrum of negative ions (Mohnen (9))
If there are molecules present in the gas system other than stated above that are reacting irreversibly
with, for example, the H30+ . (H 2 0)., then one can observe the evolution of a new mobility peak at the
expense of the former one:
H 0+ '(H 0) ,pro(ontransrer
j NH+ '(H 0) ..
3 2 n (negligible 4 2 J
13
The time required for this or any similar process characterized by
HA + + B -4 A + B +H
is determined from
d [A +H] _ d
dt -
[~:H] = k [A+H]' [B] " "C =
1
k [B] sec.
(k: reaction rate constant; [B]: concentration of molecule B)
A typical bimolecular ion molecule reaction rate constant is on the order of 10- 10 em 3/s (10- 16 m 3/s).
At atmospheric pressure, the following reaction times can be calculated as a function of concentration
of gas [B]
[B]: 1 ppm (10- 6), "C ~ 0.4 milliseconds
[B]: 1 ppb (10- 9 ), "C ~ 400 milliseconds
[B]: 1 ppt (10- 12 ), "C ~ 6.5 minutes.
("C increasing with altitude as the pressure decreases). Ammonia has a global atmospheric background
concentration in the parts per billion (10- 9) range and most likely plays a role as precursor to small
ions in the lower atmosphere. The drift tube mass spectrometer indicates a mobility value of 2.46 x
10- 4 m2IV' s of the positive ammonium cluster in nitrogen containing variable amounts of NH3
(0.1-70 ppm) and 2 ppm of water. The nature of ions having this mobility are:
NHt . (NH3h [~10%] <=t NHt . (NH3h [~60%] <=t NHt· (NH 3h' N2 [~30%].
If S02 is added to this air-like gas mixture, new clusters develop as indicated in Fig. 7. The related
mobility spectrum is shown in Fig. 11. While the original mobility peak is still present, new lines have
developed associated to the following equilibriated ion clusters
1.73 x 10- 4 m 2IV' s -> NHt· (NH 3)1.2.3.4 . 98,
1.50 x 10- 4 -> NHt . (NH3k2.3 . (98h,
1.29 x 10- 4 -> NHt· (NH 3)2.3.4 . (98h,
10- 4
r-24'i
1.17 x -> NH; . (NH 3)3.4 '(98)4'
POSITIVE MOBILITY SPECTRUM

2
Units of Mobi lity are voftsec
~1.74 -
Gas Composition: NH3 = 28 ppm

>- S02 = 26 ppm
I- H20 = 2:!:2ppm
in
z N2 = balance
w
I- -1.51 - ------
-z
~
w
>
i=
«
....J
w I- 1.30 -
0::
2.16
1.18 1.05
/205
w~ I
Ilf
~U I
TIME
Fig. 11. (Relative) positive mobility spectrum. Gas composition as in fig. 7. Abscissa is time, mobility values in
cm 2 V-I sec-I are inscribed (Kadlecek and Mohnen (26))
14
High water vapor concentration (up to 5000 ppm) does not significantly alter the cluster compositions.
Mass 98 represents (NH3b . S02, a compound known to be stable on the basis of chemical forces. We
now see experimental confirmation that discrete mobility spectra can be generated, whereby each
mobility peak contains more than one ion mass. The generalized scheme for this process is as follows:
<= __• [A + , kA , B+ , kB • C+ etc.] <=~,:.",_) [0+ , ko • E+ , kE • F+ etc.] <=k!!.:,!!_.
equilibrium established within - kI,1I equilibrium established within - ku,IIl
cluster type I cluster type II
In order to obtain the measured discrete mobility spectrum, it must be: kA , kB,kc,k D , etc. ~ kl •lI ~
- kl •lI • Ion molecule rate constants are the fastest known in chemistry. The rate constant kl •lI , in order
to fulfill the above condition, must then describe molecular rearrangements within the cluster and/or
the formation of a chemical bond, processes that take longer than attachment-switching-charge transfer-
proton transfer reactions etc. They result, however, in rather stable charged aggregrates. We recall that
the air-like gas system contained besides H 20 only NH3 and S02'
There are hundreds of other trace gases in the atmosphere in the parts per billion range (10- 9 ). Of
particular interest, of course, are those hydrocarbons with proton affinity or ionization potential or
dipole moment, or polarizability, etc., allowing charge transfer, proton transfer, and clustering with the
surrounding ions. This investigation was started by the group at Toulouse University, and Huertas (12)
reported mobilities for the following mass-identified individual ions in an air-like gas mixture having
reacted with the H30+ . (H 20). precursor.
Ethanol (C 2 H sOH):
(C 2 H sOH' H+)' (H 2 0h' (C 2 H sOH) -+ 1.55 x 10- 4 m 2 jV. s
(C 2 H sOH' H+)' (H 20h . (C 2 H sOH}z -+ 1.35 x 10- 4
Acetone (CH 3 COCH 3):

(CH 3COH' H+ . CH 2 )· (H 2 0)' (CH 3COCH 3)2 -+ 1.30 X 10- 4 m 2 /V' s
It becomes obvious on the basis of these few examples that atmospheric trace gases must have a very
decisive influence on the nature of small ions. The lifetime of these small ions is in the order of seconds
to minutes, hence long enough to undergo numerous collisions with most any detectable impurity in
the air. The in situ mobility analysis of atmospheric small ions indicate average values of around
1.2 x 10- 4 m 2 jV. s. This clearly reinforces our concept of cluster growth, not through the addition of
water vapor but mainly through chemical reactions, molecular rearrangements, attachment of highly
polar molecules, polymerization of selected organic molecules, etc. In the real world all these processes
proceed simultaneously, forming numerous reaction paths.
We know today that discrete mobility spectra can exist as a result of non equilibrium conditions
while simultaneously each individual mobility peak is caused by ion groups that have reached equili-
brium among themselves. One can view the mobility spectrum of atmospheric small ions as a composite
of numerous individual mobilities. Whether or not these mobilities appear as a continuous spectrum
depends on the nature, amount and number of trace gases present and the age of the ion.
There seems to be growing evidence that atmospheric small ions play an important role in atmospheric
chemistry. It is thought that they are involved in the formation of the global background aerosol (so-
called Aitken nuclei). Laboratory investigations by J. Bricard (16), K. Vohra (17) and V. Mohnen (18)
are underway. It is also proposed that they act as centers for nucleation to form noctilucent clouds. (First
proposed by G. Witt, University Stockholm and R. Charlson, University Seattle. Experimental investi-
gation of the heteromolecular nucleation around ions is currently carried out by J. Kassner (19).
University of Missouri, Rolla and A. W. Castleman, National Laboratory at Brookhaven. The theory
ofheteromolecular nucleation around ions is now being developed by Kiang et aI., at Atlanta University
Center, Atlanta, and D. Stauffer, Technical University MUnchen).
Last but not least, atmospheric small ions endure a rather neglected existence in the conductivity
formula characterized by symbols n' K . e - sufficient for the atmospheric electricity community to
build a scientific empire without ever having to know what its real nature is.
15
Acknowledgments
This paper is dedicated to Professor Dr. L. Loeb and Professor Dr. R. Siksna who have devoted a
considerable part of their scientific career to the study of ions resulting in fundamental contributions.
The author gratefully acknowledges their advice and their most helpful discussions over the past
several years.
Sponsored by the National Science Foundation, Atmospheric Sciences Section, Grant No. GA 022760002 and
by the Office of Naval Research, Grant No. N00014-69-C-0043.
References
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Monograph No.1, 1975, U.S. Department of Transportation (Washington DC, USA 1975). - 2. Ion Reaction
Rate Tables, in: Appendix A. Climatic Impact Assessment Program, Monograph No.1, U.S. Department of
Transportation (Washington DC, USA 1975). - 3. Good. Durden and Kebarle, J. Chem. Phys. 52, 222 (1970);
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M. L., PhD Thesis, University Paul Sabatier de Toulouse, order No. 493 (1972). - 13. Fehsenfeld, F. C. and
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1. N. and A. W. Castleman, Jr., J. Chem. Phys. 60, 398 (1974). - 2t: Hoppel, W. A., PAGEOPH 81, 230 (1970/
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Atmospheric Science Research Center, State University of New York at Albany (1974).
Discussion
Miihleisell, Ravensburg, West-Germany:
What are the arguments for your saying that the mass measurements and the mobility measurements are really
simultaneous? In the instrument you use, or other people use, you have for the mobility measurements a pressure
of - say - one atmosphere, and in the mass spectrometer you have the vacuum, and you make the measurements
one after the other. What is the argument for saying that this is really simultaneous - that there is no change in
the orifice and in the vacuum chamber?
16
Mohnell, Albany, New York, USA:
In vacuum technology and mass spectrometry, it is standard procedure to calculate the collisions that occur
in the orifice where the pressure is reduced from atmospheric pressure to mass spectrum pressure. There is a
critical size for this orifice which cannot be exceeded and a critical concentration of trace gases that cannot be
exceeded in order to avoid modification of ions during the transition from atmospheric to low pressure. As long
as these criteria are met the mass spectrum one receives corresponds to the'mobility analysis. But if one neglects
these - I would say fundamental - criteria, then condensation occurs, i. e., disturbance of the mass spectrum.
I don't think that anybody working in the field of mass spectrometry is unaware of those problems.
Takahashi, Boulder, Colorado, USA:

Is the presence of an electric charge helpful in forming a cluster? Is it then possible to measure the attachment
coefficient in the laboratory?
Mohnen:
I am not too sure if I interpret your question correctly. If I am giving you an answer and that does not satisfy
you, bring me back to reality. In the laboratory, one can measure the reaction rates of clusters with any desired
gas composition. Those reaction rate measurements can be done in several ways. They can be done in a flowing
after-glow which would measure the forward reaction and/or the backward reaction, or it can be done in a sta-
tionary system where one has to change temperature, for example, and prepare a vant'HolT plot from which one
can calculate the equilibrium constant. These techniques are being applied, for example, by Ferguson, et al. and
Kebarle et al. It is essential for any kind of prediction model to know reaction rates. The problem is that we do
not know, at the present time, the mass spectrum of atmospheric ions. We know that whatever is in the literature,
in terms of mobility measurements, is very doubtful if no mass identification was made. We have no guidance
from field measurements that could give us a proper direction for the laboratory. We do not know many of the
trace gas concentrations or the exotic species that are in the atmosphere, and these, might modify the ion spectrum.
HN0 3 , for example, being just one of them.
Eichmeier, Miinchen, West-Germany:

I have one question to the small ion mobility spectrum of natural ions. Please, can you say something about
the composition of this small ion mobility peak. Do these ions consist of one uniform sort of ion, or do they
consist of a number of different ions in a few of your results?
Mohnen:
Yes, in any examples that I have presented here, the ions consist of many different mass numbers. They form
certain sequences. Negative ions, at upper tropospheric levels for example, consist of the C04 -hydrated and
Orhydrated species. The positive ions mobility peak contains the ammonium sequence. In general, we can
summarize as follows: One mobility peak consists of ions that are in equilibrium with each other; the clustering
reactions depend on the trace gas composition. Also, we see that if there are two mobility peaks, that the next
sequence of ions are again in equilibrium with each other.
Author's address:
V. A. Mohnen
Atmospheric Sciences Research Center
State University of New York at Albany
1400 Washington Avenue
Albany New York 12222
USA
17
Positive and Negative Ion Mobility Spectra of Spray-Produced Ions
B. A. Thomson and J. V. Iribarne
With 6 figures and 1 table
Abstract
As the first part of a thorough investigation of spray-produced ions, we have measured their mobility under
varying conditions of age, humidity and composition of the sprayed droplets. The most noteworthy result is the
low mobility of the final positive ion (about 0.95 x 10- 4 m2/V s) compared to that of the negative ion (about
1.77 x 10- 4 m 2IV s). The mass differences which this implies are discussed.
In a supplementary experiment it was shown that as the concentration of NaCI in the sprayed solution in-
creased, so did the density of salt nuclei in the plume of the evaporating spray.
Introduction
Evaporation of the charged droplets from aqueous sprays leaves ions in the atmosphere. Very little
is known about the process itself, and the mobility of the final ions was most recently studied by Chapman
(1937). In this investigation we have used a different method to determine the mobility spectra of the
ions under various conditions of composition of the liquid, humidity of the atmosphere and age of the
ion.
Experimental Arrangement
The mobility analyzer was a time-of-flight apparatus consisting of two double-grid gates bracketing
a drift section in which a uniform field (4.15 kV/m) prevailed (Fig. 1).
Table 1. Approximate masses of the predominant ions.
k = mobility; M = mass; amu = atomic mass unit
NEGATIVE POSITIVE
k(cm 2 /V.s) M(amu) k(cm 2 /V.s) M(amu)
1.77 96 1.13 300
1.55 133 0.95 450
1.08 320 0.76 700
t t
o
t t t
- A
Fig. 1. Experimental arrangement. A: pure dry air; S: sprayer; H: honeycomb; D: high voltage deflector plate;
I: interface; J: glass jar; G: grids; R: guard rings; C: collector plate; E: to electrometer
18
The analyzer sits inside a horizontal pyrex tube which is open at one end to admit the ions. A controlled
measuring environment was provided by slowly and continuously flushing the tube with purified air
of variable humidity, at the same time guarding the entrance with a transverse flow of the same air.
Beyond the air interface was maintained an equally transverse plume of evaporating spray coming
from an atomizer. The ions were extracted from the plume and injected into the tube by a field parallel
to the tube axis. According to the strength of the field, the minimum age of the ions before reaching the
measuring section (calculated for a mobility of 1 x 10~4 m 2 (V.s) could be varied from 45 to 400 ms.
The gates, normally closed with a reverse field, were simultaneously opened with a given frequency
by applying brief periodic voltage pulses. A mobility spectrum was produced by recording the ion
current received by a collector plate connected to an electrometer over a range of pulse frequencies.
Harmonics in the spectra were eliminated by a judicious choice of pulse duration.
In all cases the currents plotted (Fig. 2 - 5) were referred to the total current obtained with both gates
open, which decreased markedly with increased solute concentration.
18
16
14
12
10
I
8
4 /x
x--x""'-x-x_x-x __ x
2
2 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.2

k (cm2/V.s)
Fig. 2. Mobility spectra. Pure water. Medium age. Dry atmosphere. I: current (arbitrary units). x: positive ions;
0: negative ions
The sprayer was fed by deionized and distilled water of conductivity 1O~4 Q~ 1 m ~ 1 or NaCl
solutions of concentrations between 10~6 and 1O~2 M. Influence of CO 2 was minimized by soda-lime
traps.
Results
Fig. 2 shows the contrast between positive and negative ions under conditions of medium aging time
(greater than 95 ms), pure water and very dry atmosphere (as left by liquid nitrogen traps). Most of the
negative ions are contained in the narrow peak, implying a dominant reduced mobility*) of 1.77 x 1O~4
m 2(V s. The more complicated positive spectrum suggests that ions of more than one mobility may be
present, making up the broad peak centered at 0.95 x 10~4 m 2 (V s.
Changing the conditions of age, composition of sprayed water or humidity produces only minor
modifications ofthe spectra in a few instances.
*) All mobilities are given in reduced values (at NTP).
19
Increasing the concentration of NaCI in the sprayed solution has little effect upon the negative ion
until a concentration of 10- 3 M is reached, after which the number of small ions decreases (Fig. 3).
For positive ions (Fig. 4) however, a new larger ion (k = 0.76 x 10- 4 m 2 (V.s) appears at a concentration
of 10-5 M, dominating the spectrum at 10- 4 M.
14
12
10
1\
I
I 8
I
I
6 '1
~-
OL---~~~~-r-~~~~--~-----~-----~-
2 1.5 ).0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.2
( cm 2 /V.sl
Fig. 3. Mobility spectra. Influence of liquid composition on negative ions. Medium age. Dry atmosphere.
I:current (arbitrary units) .• : pure water; x: 10- 5 M NaCl; 0: 10- 4 M NaCl; +: 10- 3 M NaCl; 0: 10- 2 M NaCl
14
)()(
12 1\ +
I
I
10-3,' p.w.
10 I
I
............+ 10-6 ~
I 8 .......+ I
~/ I
. .*, ... ,+---+ ...
6 7
.,t
'+"
0
2 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.2
k (cm 2/Vsl
Fig. 4. Mobility spectra. Influence of liquid composition on positive ions. Medium age. Dry atmosphere.
I: current (arbitrary units). • :pure water; x: 10- 6 M NaCl; 0: 10- 5 M NaCl; 0: 10- 4 M NaCl; +: 10- 3 M NaCl
Changing the aging time produces an effect (increasing mobility with increasing age) only on ions ot
mobility less than about 0.4 x 10- 4 m 2 (V.s.
Humidification of the air in the aging and measuring sections did not produce the expected effect
of increasing the size of the final ions. The response of the negative spectrum is shown in Fig. 5, where
20
a new ion of mobility 1.55 x 10- 4 m 2/V.s appears for 80 % relative humidity and the shortest age.
Little effect is produced on the positive spectrum.
16
14
12
10 s
I 8 M
2
- -x--
OL---~~~~--~--~---------,--~ ____~__________- ,___
2 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.2
k (cm 2; v.s)
Fig. 5. Mobility spectra. Influence of age on negative ions. Pure water. Humid atmosphere. I: current (arbitrary
units). 0: short age; .: medium age; x: long age
Discussion
Until mass spectrometer identification of these ions is obtained, only approximate masses can be
attributed to the relevant mobilities mentioned (cf. C. W. Griffin et aI., 1973). However, for the sake of
discussion, we can make the estimates shown in Table 1 using the data from Karasek et al. (1971).
Negative Ions
The breadth of the main negative mobility peak is due solely to the resolution of the apparatus,
implying that most of the negative spray-produced ions have a unique mobility. This mobility compares
well with the predominant and well defined peak found by Chapman around 1.7 x 10- 4 m 2/V.s (reduced
value). Considering recent calculations by Mohnen (1970, 1971) for normal atmospheric ions, it may
be speculated that our main negative ion corresponds to C0 4 (H 20) at 94 amu or to O 2 (H 20)n with
n = 2 (86 amu) or n = 3 (104 amu). Both this and the smaller peak at 1.08 x 10- 4 m 2 /V.s appear as
stable species over our range of conditions. On the other hand, the peak at 1.55 x 10- 4 m 2/V.s, which
only appears for a short age and high humidity, suggests a metastable state with two more water
molecules than the species of the main peak into which it finally transforms.
Positive Ions
The dominant peak at 0.95 x 10- 4 m 2/V.s can be compared with the not always well defined
maximum at about 0.9 x 10- 4 m 2/V.s found by Chapman. It is interesting that our results bring a con-
firmation to the qualitative result, already apparent in his experiments, that positive ions do not reach
the higher mobilities of the negative ions and give broader maxima. This contrasts with the results
obtained by air ionization, where the positive ions produced have mobilities only about 10 % smaller,
than those of negative ions (ef. Bricard et aI., 1972).
The mass range of the main peak implies clusters of about 25 water molecules, likely of the general
form H30+(H20)n' The peak shape shows it to be composed of at least two separate peaks (the
smaller one at 1.13 x 10- 4 m 2/V.s), which would be easily resolvable by the apparatus were they each
21
to be made up of ions with a unique mobility. The implication is that these positive ions may be labile
clusters fluctuating about one or more mean values of mass. In addition to the distribution of mobilities
which would then be present at any instant, a contribution to the breadth of the peak: would be made
by changes in mobility occurring in the drift space.
The appearance of a peak at 0.76 x 10- 4 m 2 /Y.s for concentrated solutions suggests that the presence
of the salt material originates a new level of stability, associated with a mass increase of some 250 amu.
Nuclei Concentration in the Evaporated Spray
In a supplementary experiment we investigated the concentration of salt nuclei in the plume of the
evaporated spray. Using a General Electric condensation nuclei counter, we measured the density
of nuclei in the plume as a function of the concentration of sprayed solution. The results are shown in
Fig. 6, and indicate that as the solution concentration increases, so does the number of nuclei. In fact,
investigations with other solutions - various salts as well as sucrose and glucose - showed approxi-
mately the same increase in nuclei. Since the droplet spectrum remains unchanged at these low con-
centrations, it appears that some process is acting to produce more nuclei per drop. It was shown at
the same time that an increase in drop charge (by an induction ring placed near the sprayer tip) did not
produce an increase in nuclei, although it did increase the production of ions, so that the process is
apparently not associated with the evaporation of the ions from the drops.
This multiplication effect is of obvious interest as it applies to the atmosphere, considering the
evaporation of sea spray drops from the ocean as a source of nuclei.
60
50
40
-;:;
~
Q 30
.!:
2 20
10
p.w.
Fig. 6. Number density of salt nuclei in the plume of the sprayer as a function of solution concentration.
P. W.: pure water
References
1. Bricard, J., Cabane, M., Madelaine, G., and Vigla, D., J. Coli. Interface Sci. 39, 1,42 (1972). - 2. Chapman, S.,
Phys. Rev. 52, 184 (1937). - 3. Griffin, G. w., Ozidic, I., Carroll, D. I., Stillwell, R. N~ and Horning, E. C., Anal.
Chern. 45, 7, 1204 (1973). - 4. Karasek, F. w., Kilpatrick, D., and Cohen, M. J., Anal. Chern. 43, 1441 (1971). -
5. Mohnen, V. A., J. Geoph. Res. 75, 1717 (1970). - 6. Mohnen, V. A., Proc. 4th ERIN-ESLAB Symposium on
Mesospheric Models and Related Experiments (Frascat~ Italy, 1970).
Discussion of the Paper by Thomson and Iribarne

J. Latham, Manchester, England:
The work of Vonnegut and others indicates that as a charged droplet evaporates, the electrical pressure builds
up in its surface and the droplet eventually reaches the Ravleigh limit and explodes, ejecting a number of micro-
22
droplets. The particles may undergo a series of such explosive events. Do you think that this process may be
connected with the mechanism of production of ions in your experiments?
Iribarne, Toronto, Ontario, Canada:
The question involves two different problems. First, the mechanism of ion production. We do not know at this
time which is this mechanism, but we presume that ions "evaporate" from the bulk of the liquid (i.e., from the
evaporating drop). Secondly is the mechanism of multiplication of condensation nuclei with increasing solute
concentration. This is not directly related to the charges of the droplets, which are far too low to reach the Ray-
leigh limit of instability before reaching the residual crystal size. Therefore, there is no question of ejection of
charged fragments as in the experiment that you mention. We have also put an induction electrode at the sprayer's
tip to increase the charges of the droplets. In this case, an increase is obtained in the production of ions, but not
of condensation nuclei. I have recently done further work on this second problem in Bricard's laboratory; this
will be reported elsewhere.
Authors' address:
B. A. Thomson and J. V. Iribarne
Dept. of Physics
University of Toronto
Huron and Russel Streets
Toronto Ontario M 5 S 1 A 1
Canada
23
On the Molecular Properties of Atmospheric Ion Clusters
and Their Relationship to Nucleation
A. W. Castleman, Jr. and I. N. Tang
Abstract
In order to elucidate the chemical composition, stability, and nature of atmospheric ions, extensive studies of
the thermodynamic properties of molecular clustering about ions have been undertaken in our Laboratory.
Significant new findings show that the bond energies for polar molecules clustered about ions of open electronic
structure are far greater than expected for a simple ion-dipole interaction. The results clearly establish the fact
that chemical bonding is quite important in effecting the formation of atmospheric ions. These results have also
led to a clarification of the role of small clusters in ion-induced nucleation phenomena.
Introduction
Atmospheric ions are known to be responsible for the general fair-weather electrical properties of the
atmosphere, including aerosol charging. Furthermore, under some conditions they are also believed
to playa role as centers for nucleation. Although it is generally known that these ions actually exist
as clusters of polar molecules surrounding a central charge, an understanding of their molecular pro-
perties such as bonding and structure is still in a rudimentary stage. It is imperative that the molecular
aspects of ion clustering be elucidated in order to further our basic knowledge concerning their role
in atmospheric processes, as well as the influence of trace atmospheric constituents on their chemical
nature and behavior.
A broad research program is underway in Brookhaven National Laboratory to make the requisite
measurements. These include studies of the bond energies and entropy changes resulting from succes-
sive molecular additions to the clusters, and an investigation of the phenomena of ion induced nuclea-
tion. The experimental technique consists of extracting ions and associated clusters formed with
selected polar molecules, from a high pressure reaction cell, and subjecting these to mass spectrometric
analysis. Measurements are carried out over a wide range of temperatures under equilibrium condi-
tions such that a Boltzmann distribution is established for all reactants and products.
Thermodynamic Results and Bonding Considerations
Early work in this Laboratory (Castleman et al. 1971, Tang et al. 1971) led to the discovery of
relatively stabile mixed clusters of S02 and H 20 about the atmospheric ion NO +, as well as Na +.
This prompted the ongoing research directed to a study of the forces responsible for stabilizing ion
clusters.
Careful mass spectrometric analyses of the distribution of ion clusters under equilibrium conditions
permit a direct determination of the relevant thermodynamic properties via the relationships:
A +(B).-l +B <:2 A +(B).,
K = e-AGR-l •• /NkT = I.
1.-1 P
B
and,
dG~_l .• = dH~_l .• - TdS~_l .• ·
24
The symbols are defined as follows:
A + - ion
B - clustering molecule
dGo - free energy of reaction
dHo - enthalpy of reaction
I - intensity measured in mass spectrometer
K - equilibrium constant
N - Avogadro's number
n - number of molecules
k - Boltzmann Constant
dSo - entropy of reaction
T - absolute temperature.
At the present time, results have been obtained for clustering of water vapor about the radon progeny
ions Pb + and Bi +, as well as about Na + ; ammonia about Bi +, Na +, K +, Rb + and NHt ; and water
vapor and SOz about NO+, H30+, and Na+. Thermodynamic data show the expected fact that SOz
and HzO are largely electrostatically bonded to the electronically closed-shell alkali metal ions. The
results also show that hydrogen bonding is not necessarily a prerequisite to the formation of relatively
stable ion clusters. Other recent data are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Enthalpy of reaction for H 2 0 clusters and NH3 clusters
Ion -dH n - 1 •n (J/kgmole x to- 8 )
(H 2 0 clusters)
0,1 1,2 2,3 3,4 4,5 5,6 6,7 7,8
0.94 0.71 0.51 0.45 0.42 0.40 (0.39) (0.38)

0.95 0.74 0.59 0.50 0.44 0.41 (0.39) (0.38)
(NH3 clusters)
0,1 1,2 2,3 3,4 4,5 5,6
Na+ 1.22 0.96 0.72 0.62 0.45 0.41

K+ 0.84 0.68 0.56 0.49
Rb+ 0.78 0.64 0.55 0.48
Bi+ 1.46 0.97 0.56
NHt 0.58 0.49
Bond energies obtained for Bi+(H 2 0)., and n ::;; 6 are 0.95, 0.74, 0.59, 0.50, 0.44 and 0.41 x 108 JI
kg-mole, respectively. Likewise, the bond energies for Bi+(NH 3)m, m ::;; 3 are 1.46,0.97 and 0.56 x 108 JI
kg-mole as shown in Fig. 1. The observation that the first two ammonia clusters possess bond energies
larger than the corresponding water clusters cannot be explained on the basis of electrostatic bonding
alone. This is borne out by the fact that their radii of interaction are nearly equal, while the dipole moment
of ammonia is 20 % lower than that of water. Electrostatic considerations would lead to a prediction
of far weaker bonding in the case of ammonia.
Additional evidence is found from a consideration of the bond energies of clusters of water about
Pb + and Bi +. The unusually high bond energies found for the first few of these hydrates compared to
those about the alkali metal ions, clearly suggest that chemical bonding is quite important in the forma-
tion and stability of ion clusters. Further details of chemical bonding are given elsewhere (Tang and
Castleman, 1972, 1974).
25
ENTHALPIES OF GAS-PHASE CLUSTERING REACTIONS
35
1.4
... Si+-NH 3
t;. st -H 20
1.2
0 Pb+ -H 2O
25
..
"0
1.0
E CD
..... '0
c 20
0
"'"
.
0.8 x
..
0
c: E
,; co
0 15
:I:
<I
0.6 "'"
.....
....,
I
,,
\
10 \
0.4
'" '"
'" .... .... .......
5 ... - 0.2
0
0,1 1,2 2,3 3,4 4,5 5,6 6,7
(n, n +1)
Fig. 1. Enthalpies of successive clustering reactions.for NH3 and H 2 0 about Pb+ and Bi+. Note the increased
stability of the Bi + compared to the Pb + -water clusters, and the unexpectedly high values for the enthalpies of
NH3 clustered about Bi +
Role of Ions in Nucleation
Gas phase nucleation processes may be divided into three broad classifications: 1) homogeneous,
2) heteromolecular, and 3) heterogeneous about soluble or insoluble particles. Homogeneous
nucleation rarely, if ever, occurs in the atmosphere, and the second and third represent the pre-
dominant operative processes of interest in the field of atmospheric science.
Heteromolecular nucleation is defmed as that process which is enhanced by the presence of an ion,
atom, or foreign molecule of different chemical composition from the bulk nucleating phase. Although
foreign molecule enhancement is likely to be of significant atmospheric importance, we confme our
discussion to ions in this paper. Ion induced nucleation, which is also an example of heteromolecular
nucleation, comprises both the process of molecular condensation about a central ion and particle
formation via ion molecule switching reactions. The general role of ion molecule switching reactions
in promoting aerosol formation, and specifically those reactions involving atmospheric ions per se,
has been established in a number of ingenious experiments performed by Mohnen and his students.
Further details are given in the review paper by Mohnen (1974) elsewhere in this volume.
Concerning the process of molecular condensation about ions, Castleman and Tang (1972) have
recently clarified the molecular aspects of the phenomena. Reference should be made to a recent review
of the subject by Castleman (1974). It is now known that the overall height of the energy barrier to
26
nucleation about ions is related to the free energies of formation of the stable small cluster population.
Indeed, the differences between ions in their ability to promote nucleation is directly attributable to
the differences in the molecular properties of their respective small clusters.
Rigorously, the distribution function for clusters undergoing nucleation can be written as
I. = I, exp (-8cP'/kT)
where,
I,=II.,
•
and,
n'
8cP' = Io 8G~-1.'
Here, n* represents the number of molecules contained in the critical size cluster undergoing the phase
transformation and subsequent spontaneous nucleation.
It is usually more convenient to normalize the distribution to the peak intensity for the "quasi-stable"
small cluster population, I.a , and redefme 8cP accordingly. Thereby,
In = I' aexp (-8cP/kT),
and,
8cP =
.'
I8G~-1,n
'a
A typical barrier height is given in Fig. 2 for the clustering of H 2 0 about Pb + and H + (where H + is
taken to be the parent ion of the important atmospheric ion H30+). It is worth noting that the H30+
ions have the lowest predicted barrier height of any hydrated ion sequence studied to date.
15 FREE ENERGY
CHANGE FOR
NUCLEATION ABOUT
POSITIVE IONS
10
O~~----------L-----------~~--~~
o 100 200
n
Fig. 2. Plot of the predicted barrier height to nucleation, 1'l<P, versus the number of clustering molecules, n, for
water nucleating about the Pb+ and H+ ion
27
Atmospheric Implications of the Results
It is now clear that, except for a small period of time directly associated with their birth, atmospheric
ions are always composed of molecular clusters of polar molecules about a central ion.
The thermodynamic results of this study permit an assessment of the distribution of clusters about
ions under atmospheric conditions. Assuming the hydration rates to be fast compared with the rates
of ion removal processes, we conclude that lead and bismuth ions produced from radioactive decay of
radon and thoron would largely comprise a cluster composed of 5 water molecules under normal
tropospheric conditions. Depending on temperature and humidity, the next most abundant species
would contain either 4 or 6 water molecules. The existence of such clusters had been postulated by
Junge (1963) to account for the observed behavior of atmospheric nuclides including ThB 12 Pb), e
and the results of this work confirm his earlier explanation.
Even though the supersaturation ratios required to promote nucleation about ions are lower than
required in the case of homogeneous nucleation, nucleation of water about ions cannot be expected
to be of major importance in regions containing high aerosol number concentration. However, in
situations with low aerosol concentration, ions might be expected to be of dominant importance.
Based on the results discussed above, the oxonium ions, H30+, are expected to be important conten-
ders as sites for nucleation where ions do playa role. In fact, they have been suggested to initiate the
formation of noctilucent cloud formation in the vicinity of the mesopause. For details see
Castleman (1974).
This research was performed under the auspices of the United States Atomic Energy Commission and
partially supported by the National Science Foundation (AG 423).
References
1. Castleman, A. W Jr., Tang, I. N., and Munkelwitz, H. R., Science 173, 1025 (1971). - 2. Castleman, A. W Jr.,
and Tang, I. N., J. Chern. Phys. 57, 3629 (1972). - 3. Castleman, A. W Jr., Space Sci. Revs. 15, 547 (1974). -
4. Junge, C. E., Air Chemistry and Radioactivity, pp. 220 (New York-London 1963). - 5. Mohnen, V. A., Formation,
Nature, and Mobility of Ions of Atmospheric Importance. Electrical Processes in Atmospheres (Darmstadt
1977). - 6. Tang, 1. N., Munkelwitz, H. R., and Castleman, A. W, Jr., Nature 230,175 (1971). - 7. Tang, 1. N., and
Castleman. A. W, Jr., J. Chern. Phys. 57, 3639 (1972). - 8. Tang, I. N., and Castleman, A. W, Jr., J. Chern. Phys.
60, 3981 (1974).
Discussion
Barreto, Scotia, New York, USA:

What is the justification for using thermodynamic properties when you talk about a few molecule clusters?
Shouldn't you have electric field and electric displacement as a thermodynamic property?
Castleman, Boulder, Colorado, USA:

Answering your question properly would require a rather lengthy response, and I think perhaps we should
discuss these points privately. Therefore, let me just briefly respond to you now. Let us not confuse the fact that we
are still observing many, many ions and their clusters. In our studies of clustering, we don't have the statistics prob-
lem to which you refer. The fact that we just have one or two or three or four molecules clustered about an ion has
nothing to do with the inability to use thermodynamic functions to describe their properties. Certainly, we use
thermodynamic functions to calculate the reaction of one H2 with one-half 02 to give you H 20. Just due to the
fact that there are only a few molecules involved has nothing to do with the inapplicability of thermodynamics;
the point is that we are studying a bulk system. Secondly, with regard to your question regarding the electrical
potential, I would have to show you our apparatus to properly respond. But basically what we do is produce
ions, drift them into a field-free reaction cell, thermalize these to a Boltzmann distribution, and then extract an
equilibrium ion population. Furthermore, we operate at ion intensities low enough so that we don't have much
space charge repulsion; therefore, we are essentially observing thermalized ions at a Boltzmann distribution, from
which we then deduce the thermodynamic properties.
28
Mohnen, Albany, New York,USA:
What is your evaluation of the importance of atmospheric ions as a sink for trace gases, and where in the
atmosphere do you think that the ions can interfere with the trace gas cycle? You talk about nucleation followed
by condensation and hence it becomes an important field.
Castleman:
This is a very difficult question to answer briefly because there are many situations that one may encounter,
and we would really have to consider each region of the atmosphere separately. Consideration must be given
to the various types of species we are dealing with, the ion population, and the pre-existing aerosol particle
population. If we have some specie that can undergo nucleation, it either has the potential for being scavenged
by collision with pre-existing aerosols, or colliding with ions and perhaps nucleating. The ions could then serve
to lower the nucleation barrier because of the inherent ability of ions to cluster polar molecules. It would be my
opinion that very rarely would there be situations in the atmosphere where one might get so-called "homo-
geneous" nucleation. However, we can get what we in the field now term heteromolecular nucleation, such as the
reaction between water and H 2 S0 4 giving rise to clusters and perhaps eventually a particle. Alternately, these
pre-nucleation embryos (clusters) could collide with an ion which then could serve to further lower the barrier
to nucleation and thereby lead to nucleation. So, I think there are many situations where ions may be important
in partly governing the behavior for trace gases. But, it's difficult to generalize for all of the many species that may
exist. This is a very important area for future research.
Wilkening, Socorro, New Mexico, USA:
As n increases, i.e., as a cluster grows to larger size, would you expect an increase in the probability for a change
in the charge state of that ion in the atmosphere? I'm talking about heavy-metal ions, say lead.
Castleman:
Yes, let me explain. The ionization potential of the system is such that the clusters cannot hold more than one
charge until they reach the size of a finite aerosol particle. At the very small sizes, the energy necessary for putting
a second charge on them will generally exceed the ionization potential for any gas in the gas phase surrounding
the cluster. Therefore, if you were to put a second charge on a cluster, this charge would very readily charge-
exchange on collision with some neutral gas, which would then in turn be ionized. So, in general, these will all be
singly-charged ions with polar molecules clustered about them, and it's only aerosol sizes that are relatively
large which can acquire multiple charges. Of course, the probability for acquiring multiple charges goes with
some sort of an exponential of Boltzmann energy divided by the radius of the particle.
Authors' addresses:
A. W Castleman Jr. I.N. Tang
Department of Chemistry Dept. of Applied Science
University of Colorado Brookhaven National Lab.
Boulder, Colorado 88302 Upton. New York 11973,
USA USA
29
Mobility Spectra of Ions Created in Gases Under Atmospheric Pressure
M. Cahane, P. Krien, G. Madelaine, and J. Bricard*)
With 7 figures
Abstract
We study the mobility, K, of ions of both signs which are produced by ex or ~ rays under atmospheric
pressure.
For small ions (K > 1 x 10- 4 m2 V-I sec-I) and intermediate ions (1 x 10- 4 > K > 1 x 10- 5 m2 V-I
sec -I) one obtains, using a low resolution, a continuous variation of K with water vapor content of the gas or
with aging time.
The law of variation of K can be related to the attachment probability P of impurity molecules to the ion.
With r being the radius of the ion, this probability is given by P oc r- 4 •
In a preceding article (1), the existence of two categories of ions in air under atmospheric pressure
was demonstrated.
Ions in the first category have mobilities between 2.5 and 1 x 10- 4 m 2 V- I sec-I. These ions will
be called in this paper "small ions". The mobility spectrum of these ions is discrete and shows peaks
corresponding to fixed mobilities, the amplitudes of which vary with time of ion-gas contact (in other
words: with the age of these ions). During the attachment process with molecules or groups of mole-
cules, these ions have a rather large mobility, and the mobility variation because of attachment is larger
than the width of the peaks of the mobility spectrum. Thus, we can measure a discrete variation of K.
For contact times in the order of a millisecond, the value of K is 2.3 x 10-4, while for contact times
in the order of lOOms it is 1.2 x 10- 4 m 2 V-I S-I.
Ions in the second category we call "intermediate ions" which have mobilities between 10- 4 and
10- 5 m 2 V-I s -1. In this case, a continuous spectrum is observed. Here, mobility decreases continuously
with increasing contact time between ions and gas; for short contact times K < 0.8 X 10- 4 m 2 V-I s -I.
This means that the attachment of additional molecules produces a variation of K which is in the order
of the width of the mobility peak, is not more discrete and produces a smooth shift of the peak.
It is the intent of this paper to discuss the category of the intermediate ions. In particular, the
variation of mobility with ion age and with different gas compositions will be considered.
The presence of two ion categories can be linked to the theory of nucleation which predicts the
existence of a stable and an unstable state for the ions in a supersaturated atmosphere. Ions in the
unstable state (intermediate ions) develop from ions in the stable state (small ions) by means of con-
densation of water vapor.
Experimental Apparatus
The method to generate ions and to measure the mobility has been described before (1, 2, 3). To
summarize briefly: Ion of both signs are produced in space A (Fig. 1) by alpha-radiation from 210pO
or 238pU, or by beta-radiation from 3H. An electric field generated by a voltage difference between
G1 and S and F separates the ions according to sign; for example, negative ions are sedimented on
F and S, and positive ions drift under the influence of the electric field into space B, which is called the
"development space".
*) translated from French original by H. Dolezalek, assisted by some partial translations provided by J. Bricard.
30
F
A
B
c
Fig. 1. Experimental configuration
In this space, ions are in contact with the gas for a time t which depends on the distance, x, between
G1 and G2 , and on the magnitude, E, of an electric field in that space. For ions with a constant mobility
K, we have t = xK- 1 E- I . Introducing the "development parameter", = xE- I , we can write
f d~.
XE-l
t=
o
The value of t can be obtained by graphic integration of the function K- I = f(0.
After crossing grid G2 , ions enter the "measuring space", C, and are collected at plate P which is con-
nected to a current/voltage converter and an oscilloscope. The grid G2 is composed of two systems
of parallel wires which, in general, has a potential V versus P. If, for a time e, a square voltage V. is applied
between the two systems of wires, the grid is shut. Then, after a time interval of!!..t for the transit time
through space C, the current measured at P shows a minimum. With the distance bctwcen G2 and P
called I, we get
The width e of the square voltage pulse V. must be small in comparison to A.t. Also, if the ions do
develop in time, the parameters I and V must be selected in such a way that during !!..t the mobility of
the ions does not vary significantly. By then observing the variations at the output of the current/voltage
converter one can deduce the mobility values.
The apparatus sketched in Fig. 1 can either be placed into the open atmosphere, or into a glass
enclosure which is linked to a stainless steel assembly. To avoid any accumulation of neutral chemical
species in the gas, the measurements are taken with a permanent gas flow. Such chemical species may
be generated at the same time as the ions. The gases used were: laboratory air, nitrogen, argon,
filtered and purified compressed air, and "artificial air" (i.e., 80% N2 + 20% 02)' By allowing a portion
of the gas flux to pass over a surface of doubly distilled water, the amount of water vapor could be con-
trolled.
Investigation of Intermediate Ions
(10- 4 > K > 1O- 5 m 2 V- I s- l )

Positive and negative intermediate ions in laboratory air
Fig. 2 and 3 show the results obtained for positive and negative ions, respectively. The two partial
figures in Fig. 3 correspond to two different atmospheric conditions. We see that mobility decreases
31
continuously with increasing development"parameter ,. We can link the variation of K to the attachment
processes in assuming that ion mass and ion diameter are of such magnitudes that the mobility variation
as consequence of additional attachments appears as a continuous line.
2 _1 -1)
K ( em. V .5
0,7
0.6
In full line:
0,5
K
-J1z =0,6+2,4 ItL, Y3
0,4
0,3
0,2 o
o
0,1
o 50 100 150
Fig. 2. Positive intermediate ions mobility as a function ofthe ageing parameter, (laboratory air)
Let us now consider an ion of mass m and radius r which moves in a gas whose molecules have mass
mo and radius roo This gas contains a fraction! of impurities with mass m. which may attach themselves
to the ions. N is the total number of molecules per unit of volume.
For a given time dt, the ion is subjected to a number of collisions dn = vdt, where v is the collision
frequency. If we assume elastic collisions, we have dn = Nn(r + ro)2vodt; where Vo is the mean
thermal agitation velocity.
The number of collisions with molecules of the impurity is
32
K(em 2.. V .;f .5 -1)
0,9 0,9
0,8 0,8
in full line:
0,7 0,7
Q,6
0,5
o 0 0,5
o
0,4 0 0,4
.!.
0
0,3 0,3
7.. (cm2.v-1)~103
0 20 40 60. 80 20 40 60 80
FI~ 3
Fig. 3a and b. Negative intermediate ions mobility as a function of the ageing parameter, (laboratory air,
a and b: different meteorological conditions)
If P is the probability that a collision with one molecule of the impurity produces a permanent
attachment, the variation of the mass of the ion can be written as
dm = msP f Nn(r + ro)2v odt. [1]
If we replace dt by K- 1 dC, we get
dm = msP f Nn(r + ro)2 dCIK.
Still assuming that impacts are elastic, and assuming that the ion mass is greater than mo, we obtain
K- A mo+m _~.
- (r + ro)2 m - r2 '
dm = BfP(r + ro)4dC ~ p fPr 4 dC,

where the following substitution has been made:
B = NnvomsA-l.
Furthermore, by assuming that for C = 0 we also get the mass m = 0, we have
m = BJfPr4 dC;
o
33
but for spherical ions
1 [1
whereby
(K-t)3 ex f Pr4 d, and rex K-t ex f Pr4 d,] 1/3. [2]
In the Figs. 2 and 3, the curves of the function K-t = g(,1 /3) are shown, matched as close as possible
to the experimental points. There, K is expressed in 10- 4 m 2 V- 1 s-1, and, in 10- 4 m 2 V- 1 •
In detail:
Fig. 2, positive ions, K-t = 0.6 + 2.4,1 /3
Fig. 3a, negative ions, K-t = 0.67 + 2.1 ,1 / 3
Fig. 3b, negative ions, K-t = 0.67 + 1.8,1 13 ;
in other words, K as a function of , is always expressed in the form
K-t = a + b,1 /3 • [3]
Thus,JPr = const, and for r we get an integral which is a linear function of ,. During the time of
4
the experiment, f = const so that we get as an approximate value for the probability
P ex r- 4 ; [4]
then, the constant b in eq. [3] contains a term f 1/3 which is constant
b ex Cf1 /3.
This result means that the probability P for permanent attachment of a neutral molecule decreases
with the increase of the radius of the ion to which it gets attached.
In the classical condensation theory, the mass variation dm of a droplet with radius r suspended in
a gas containing a rate f of condensing vapor, in a time dt is (Fuchs (4)):
[51
In this equation, IX is the liquid evaporation constant. Comparing eqs. [1] and [5], we see that IX
represents the probability of permanent attachment. We still assume the coefficient as being constant.
It is, however, poorly dermed by experiment (from 0.03 to 0.4 for H 2 0 (5)), and it has only been
measured for condensation over liquid surfaces in the absence of charge.
In our experiments, the charged droplets were of molecular dimensions. If the classical theory is
supposed to remain valid in these dimensions, we will have to write that IX varies according to r- 4 if
we want to constitute an agreement of our results with classical theory.
Positive intermediate ions in gases of controlled purity

We have measured the mobility of positive ions of the continuous spectrum in argon, nitrogen, and
"artificial air". This has been done for several aging parameters, and as a function of vapor content p,
expressed in parts per million in volume (ppm). We always got a decrease of K as a function of p. In Fig. 4,
experimental results for argon are given. Curves for nitrogen and "artificial air" are similar.
We may attempt to interpret these results by following the reasoning outlined in the preceding section.
In fact, withf depicting the percentage of molecules in the gas which are liable to attach to the ion, we
see that in laboratory air the mobility seems to follow the expression
K-t = a + b,1 /3 [3]
with b = Cf1 /3, and a and C being constants.
In our case, the gas contains water vapor (P) and also an impurity which facilitates nucleation. There-
fore, we may write f = p + c, where c is a constant representing the percentage of impurity. From
this we get
[6]
34
K
0,6
_3
0,5 ~ =17.10
0,4
,1 3 10 30
K
0,7 0
0,6 0
0.5
0.4
l, =24.10- 3
0,3
1 3 10 30 100
0,5 0
0,4
1., =30.1 0-3.
0
0,3
1 3 10 30 100 P
K
0,
I--~Q~O----~O~~__( ) - ;____
O,4~ 00
0.3 It _3
c.., =64.10
0,2
3 10
Argon
In full lin-e:
Em 450 Y.cnf1 p In ppm
K-Y2... 0,57+4 '1l!J" -4 ~
c..., ,,0,22+10 p)
~ in cm 2 y-l K In cm2• y-~ 5-1
Fig. 4. Positive intermediate ions mobility in argon as a function of the ageing parameter, and hygrometry p
We calculated the values of a, B, and e which allowed us to come as close as possible to the
experimental points for K = f(p,,) for each of the investigated gases.
For example, in the case of argon we get the solid lines in Fig. 4 which are according to
K-t = 0.57 + 4.0 (1/3 (0.22 + 10- 4 p)1/3 .
Evidently, the variations on ,1/3 and (p + e)1/3 provide curves rather close to the experimental points.
35
Intermediate ions in filtered air
For this measurement, ftltered air was used which had about 500 ppm water vapor content.
Also in this case, we observed a continuous variation of the mobility as shown in Fig. 5. In the same
figure, the curve for the equation
is also shown.
( 2 ..:I -1)
Kcm.V.s
0,8
0,6 In full line:
0,5
K
-~
=0,6+.3,4 ~~ Y3
0,4
0,3
0,2
0.,1
o 50 10.0.
Fig. 5. Positive intermediate ions mobility in filtered air as a function of,
For intermediate ions, with water vapor content increasing in time, the continuous variation of
mobility corresponds to the attachment of additional molecules to the ion, the probability of (per-
manent) attachment being P ex r- 4 •
Investigation of Small Ions with Low Resolution

(2.5 x 10- 4 > K > 10- 4 m2 V- 1 S-1)
As stated above, the mobility of small ions is discontinuous (discrete) with a succession of peaks
having a fixed mobility.
However, in order to compare the development of intermediate ions with that of small ions, we
have limited the resolution power of our apparatus. This was achieved by increasing the width e of
the square pulse applied to grid G2 • For e = 400 J.lS, we have tlK/K = 20%.
36
We were then able to notice not more a discrete mobility spectrum but a continuous one between
the values of K = 2.3 X 10- 4 and K = 1.2 X 10- 4 m 2 V- 1 S-l.
Small positive ions in filtered air
Fig. 6 depicts the experimental results for compressed air with 500 ppm water vapor along with the
solid line according to
K-t = 0.53 + 0.85 1 / 3 . e
It should be noted that in this case of low resolution the empirical law established for intermediate
ions, namely
and
seems to apply to small ions, too.
2,0
in fu II line:
K
-x 2 :0,53+0,85
1,1>-3
S
1,5
1,0L-_ _ _ _ _ _----1_ _ _ _ _ _ _- ' -_ _ _ _

ve
c., 2 -1)
em . V . "103
~
o ~ 100
Fig. 6. Small positive ions mobility in filtered air as a function of,
Small positive ions in nitrogen

Fig. 7 shows the result of an investigation of the variation of K with varying water vapor content
in nitrogen - still with low resolution - for values of the aging parameter' of about 10- 7 m 2 V- 1 .
The solid line represents the function
K-t = 0.64 + 7.1 x 10- 3 p1!3 ;
in this case, the parameter ee/ 3 of eq. [6] is equal to 7.1 x 10- 3 in the units applied in the figure.
In this case, the parameter c of eq. [6] does not seem to play any substantial role. That means that
with our formulation the role of impurities is not as important as it was in the case of the intermediate
ions.
37
K( cm2•or.• -1 )
In full line'
1,9 K-% = 0,64.+7.1.10,-3• P31.3
1,7
1,6 o
1,5
1,4
1,3
1,2~ ____________~~__________~~~__________~~~____~
P(ppm)
o 5000 10000 115000
Fig. 7. Positive small ions mobility in pure nitrogen (C = 10- 3 cm 2 V-i) as a function of p
In the case of small ions, the variation of the various peaks (between K = 2.3 X 10- 4 and
K = 1.2 x 10 - 4 m 2 V-I S - 1) can therefore be expressed with a lower resolution by a variation of
mobility limited by the values K = 2.3 X 10- 4 and K = 1.2 X 10- 4 m2 V-I S-I, which complies
with the law for intermediate ions as previously established.
Correlation with Nucleation Theory

As stated in previous publications (2, 3, 5), an unstable condition leading to ion condensation and
ion development can be only given if the water vapor saturation is larger than 1. The existence of a
stable condition (line spectra of ion mobility) and of an unstable condition (band spectra ions) could
then be explained for supersaturations in the order of 3 to 4. Such saturation values are unrealistic
for the given gases in which p varied from 1 to 15000 ppm, because under normal conditions S = 1
corresponds to p = 20000 ppm vapor in the gas.
Nevertheless, one may determine a critical radius which we may calculate using existing theory cor-
responding to a mobility value of K = 10 -4 m 2 V-I s - 1, which separates the stable from the unstable
38
conditions. This fully corresponds to the limit between small and intermediate ions which we have
observed (e. g., Figs. 5 and 6).
On the other hand, Kiang and Stauffer (9) and Katz and Mirabel (10) have shown that nucleation can
take place for values of S that are smaller than 1, if the gas contains a very low fraction of sulfuric acid
(p < 10- 4 ppm1 in the case of neutral particles. In such a case, one part or all of the curve for the un-
stable equilibrium conditions for ions is located below the horizontal S = 1; therefore, ions may pass
from the stable to the unstable condition. Our experiments have shown that for an unsaturated atmos-
phere we may generally obtain a ratio higher than 10 between the concentrations of ions in a stable
and the concentration of ions in an unstable condition, the latter ones having already crossed into the
unstable condition where they then developed in time.
For the emergence of an unstable condition, generally S > 1 is required, but impurities other than
H 2 S04 can also generate the same change. The ions of the continuous spectrum which we have observed
must also be due to the presence of such impurities in the gases we used.
Conclusions
To summarize, let us say that in studying the development of ion mobility with time of contact between
ions and carrier gases, we have seen that the probability P for the attachment of water molecules to
an ion is found to be proportional to r- 4 for ions with mobilities between 10- 4 and 10- 5 m 2 V-I s-I,
where r is the radius of the ion.
Moreover, to explain the presence of these ions within the scope of our experiments, i. e. water vapor
content lower than saturation, we must assume the presence of nucleogenic impurities.
Lastly, when we consider ions with a mobility that is larger than 10- 4 m 2 V-I S-I with low resolution
(or high I!.K/K), the discrete variation of mobility in the spectrum is no longer discernible, and then the
development with the ageing parameter also indicates the same r- 4 law.
Acknowledgments
We wish to take this opportunity to thank Prof. L. B. Loeb for his kind discussion with us of the main points
treated in this paper.
References
1. Bricard, J., Cabane, M., Madelaine, G., and Vigla, D., J. Collo'id and Interface Sci. 39, 42 (1972). - 2. Cabane,
M., These de Doctorat d'Etat (Paris 1973). - 3. Krien, P., These de Doctorat de 3eme cycle (Paris 1974). -
4. Fuchs, N. A., Evaporation and droplet growth (1959). - 5. Amelin, A. G., Theory offog condensation (Jerusalem
1967). - 6. Kiang, C. S., and Stauffer, D., Disc. Faraday Soc. (Symposium Fogs and Smokes 1973). - 7. Katz,
J. L., and Mirabel, P., J. Chem. Phys. 60, 1138 (1974).
Discussion
Stauffer, Garching, West-Germany
What is the material of low vapour pressure which is allowing your ions to grow at relative humidities
below 100%?
Cabane:
We don't know. We have not made experiments with mass spectrometry, but if we consider the research on the
growth of neutral particles, it would be possible that something like sulfuric acid or some other impurity could
give us this continued growing of ions from humidities below 100%.
Authors' addresses:
M. Cabane and J. Bricard P. Krien and G. Madelaine
Physique des Aerosols 8 Res. du Moulin de la Planche
Faculte des Sciences de Paris F-91 Velleborne sur Yvette
Tour 25, 5. Etage France
9 Quai St. Bernard
F-75 Paris V
France
39
An Experimental Method for Determining the Charged Fraction in Aerosols
H. Kojima and T. Sekikawa
With 4 figures
Abstract
The purpose of the present investigation is to determine experimentally the charged fraction in aerosols.
Experimental arrangement consists of an ion denuder and an ion mobility analyzer of cylindrical type which
e
are connected in series. The air is irradiated by ionization source 10 po, 0.1 mCi) for obtaining charge equili-
brium before introduction into both tubes.
Before passing through the ion denuder, the charged fraction of particles with radius r, Ar is NrjZr. Nr is the
concentration of the charged particles and Z r is that of total particles including neutral particles. After passing
through the ion denuder, Ar is N'rjZr - Nr. From both relations, the following equation for Ar is given
Ar = Nr - N'r .
Nr
When a high voltage is supplied to the ion denuder, N'r is obtained by the ion analyzer, and when not, Nr is
obtained. Thus the value of Ar can be determined experimentally.
Introduction
It has been recognized that the problems on the fixation of small ions to aerosol particles are important
for determining the size distribution in aerosols. Up to the present, the problems have been approached
theoretically by many researchers [Bricard (1949) (1962), Junge (1955), Keefe (1960), Fuchs (1963)], but
experimental treatment has not been done except in a few reports (Nolan, 1949). The purpose of the
present investigation is to determine experimentally the charged fraction in the size range from
7 x 10- 9 m to 4 x 10- 8 m in radius.
When we deal with the charged fraction, we must consider the charge distribution in aerosols. In
the distance far from the aerosol origin the charge distribution in aerosols is usually in charge equilibrium.
But in an urban atmosphere a state of charge equilibrium seldom prevails (Flanagan, 1961). When
small ions and aerosols are stored together, they eventually attain a state of charge equilibrium in which
the charged fraction is related to particle size.
Flanagan, Pollak (1962) and Rich (1962) have developed another method which can produce quickly
charge equilibrium in aerosols by using a weak ionization source. Theoretical and experimental in-
vestigations were made on the efficiency of the ionization source and on the time taken to achieve
equilibrium charge distribution in aerosols. Both the following equations were the results for the time
needed to achieve the state of equilibrium derived by Flanagan and Rich.
Tl/2 = 0.693 Zj4q (sec) Flanagan
TC = 2.4 X 10- 2 Zjq (sec) Rich
where
Ti/2 = the time taken for aerosols to achieve the state of equilibrium;
TC = time constant of aerosols approaching the state of equilibrium;
Z = the concentration of aerosols per cm 3 ;
q = number of ion pairs produced per cm 3 per sec.
From both equations, the time for aerosols to achieve a state of equilibrium is in proportion to Z
and in inverse proportion to q. In order to check the equations, simultaneous measurements of the
charged fraction of aerosols stored in sealed metal chamber and aerosols irradiated by polonium-210
alpha source were carried out by Flanagan. In the conclusion it was found that a 210pO source in pro-
40
ducing charge equilibrium in aerosols is effective. From application of the above equations, it is found
that a 210pO foil having an activity of 0.1 millicuries should produce charge equilibrium in less than a
millisecond under the concentration of aerosols encountered in urban atmosphere (1011 Numb/m 3 ).
It has been reported by Bricard (1968) and Vohra (1966) that aerosols were produced in filtered air
by radioactive irradiation. We carried out some preliminary test to ensure that the 210pO did not pro-
duce any aerosols. Open air was passed through the filter made of glass wool so that all the aerosol
particles were removed. The air was introduced into a tube of 6 cm in diameter with 2lOpo foil of about
0.1 milli-curie and subjected to irradiation for varying periods from 10 sec to 120 sec in the tube. Aerosol
produced at rest in the tube was measured by Pollak counter. Maximum and minimum value of the
experiment are shown in Fig. 1. It is found from the data that the aerosol particles are newly produced
in more than 30 sec and with increasing the duration of irradiation the particle number increases suddenly.
Based on the data we should take the duration of irradiation less than 30 sec for bringing the aerosol
to charge equilibrium. It was shown by Pollak (1962) that no aerosols are produced until 15 min of
duration of irradiation. We think that the reason for a large difference between both results arises from
different amounts of trace gas in both atmospheres.
103
10
ME
I
~8
.c
E
::J
~6
r,j
c:
0
U4
!
II)
u
'f 2
'"
C1.
20 40 60 80 100 120
sec.
Fig. 1. The generation of aerosols by alpha-radiation to the still air
The Principle for the Measurement of the Charged Fraction

The diagram for the measurement is shown in Fig. 2. The experimental arrangement consists of an
rJ:
ion denuder and an ion mobility analyzer of cylindrical type, and both tubes are connected in series.
p.
a./ I-~ /Po
c-
CI
AIR
)
INTAKE _ - - -
n ; pA n ;
1 ][ lIT 1Y
Fig. 2. The schematic diagram for the measurement of the charged fraction
I: The first ionization chamber with polonium foils.

The air was irradiated by four pieces of 210pO (0.1 mCi) sticked around the inside of the tube of
about 10 cm in diameter. The strength of 2lOpo is sufficient to quickly produce charge equilibrium
with the flow rate used.
II: Ion denuder.
This can remove all charged particles with mobility larger than 5 x 10- 9 m 2 /V . sec.
41
III: The second ionization chamber.
Here the uncharged particles which were not removed in II are brought to charge equilibrium.
IV: Ion mobility analyzer.
The first inner electrode is not connected to the vibrating reed electrometer (V.R.E) but can remove
all the small ions which are not attached to aerosols.
In the range ofI:
Zr=Nr+Nor,
where Z r is the concentration of aerosol particles with radius r, N r is that of charged aerosol particles,
and N or is that of uncharged aerosols.
In the range of III :
Nor = N'r + N'or,
where N'r is the concentration of aerosol particles charged by 210pO of III, and N' or is that of uncharged
aerosol particles. Since the charged fraction depends on the particle size, the following equation is given:
Nr N'r
--=--=Ar [1]
Zr Nor '
where A r is the charged fraction of particle size r. Manipulation of eq. [1] yields the relation
Nr - N'r
Ar= [2]
Nr
When a high voltage is supplied to the ion denuder, N'r is obtained by the ion analyzer, and when not,
N r is obtained. Thus, we can determine experimentally the value of A r from eq. [2]. The method is
valid for the size range for which we can ignore the influence of multiple charge.
Measurements of the Charged Fraction

For obtaining Ar four ion-mobility distributions, i.e. positive and negative Nr and N'r, must be
measured. Therefore it is necessary to devise an ion analyzer which can measure the ion-mobility dis-
tribution in a short time. Fig. 3 shows the detailed diagram of the ion mobility analyzer of the multi-
electrode type which is schematically shown in the range of IV in Fig. 2.
~j
-I---- - J -
T
~..1~"0
176-
-250~
-355-
728 513 -
1045
I------ 325 1525 345_
Fig. 3. The ion mobility analyzer of multiple electrode type
The inner electrode, 7.0 em in external diameter, is divided into nine sections, electrically insulated
from each other by teflon cylinders. Each section, with the exception of first one, is connected to the
42
V.R.E by a wire leading through a brass tube lying inside the inner electrode. The first section is always
earthed. The inner electrode is enclosed coaxially by another cylinder of brass, 152.5 cm in length and
8.0 em in internal diameter, connected to dry batteries. The air flow passes between these two cylinders.
From the ion currents obtained with the analyzer of the multielectrode type, the ion-mobility distribution
was calculated by using the method which was developed by Nakatani (1972). The airflow between
electrodes must be laminar. We confirmed this using of smoke of visible size. This analyzer has the
following advantages: 1) Complete continuous data can be obtained. 2) As the analyzer does not
require varying the supply voltage, this can cause a greater decrease of troubles which would arise from
varying the voltage. On the other hand, since the bulk of the analyzer becomes large, it is not convenient
for observation in the field. Another disadvantage of the analyzer is connected with the characteristics
of each divided electrode. As a result of examination of the characteristic, it was found that when the
voltage supplied to electrode was kept below 180 V. correction for each divided electrode was un-
necessary.
For determining Ar, the measurements were carried out by introducing open-atmosphere air into
the ion denuder and the analyzer. The time required for one run was about 30 min. Electrical mobility
was transformed to particle radius by using the formula of Fuchs (1962). The mean values of experimental
points and standard deviation are shown in Fig. 4. The charged fraction was determined for radii smaller
than 4 x 10- 8 m since for those above this value the fraction of doubly-charged particles becomes
significant. The charged fraction was indicated with Z r/ N r, which is the reciprocal of the ratio of the
charged particles to the total concentration for each radius, for comparison with the values by other
researchers. The theoretical values obtained by several authors in a case of bipolar ions were plotted
in the same figure. The curves by Bricard (1949) and Fuchs seem to be close to the present experimental
points but seem to be too high in the range of small size. The experimental value by Nolan (1949) indicated
that Boltzmann's law appears to be satisfactory in its application to large particles.
20 _.- BOLTZMANN
I KEEFE)
--- JUNGE
- .. - FUCHS
10
"' - BRICARDI19491
z, "'- .• " , 119621
N,5 I ~. , .. , £ EXPERIMENT
3
2
~
I~.~.:.~.
I .. :-=:':-.:-'~
~:~
I
0.8 3 4
Fig. 4. The relation between Zr/Nr and the particle radius
A method for obtaining the charged fraction in aerosols and primary data were described with the
paper. It was possible to obtain the charged fraction in polydisperse aerosols by using our method. On
the other hand, incomplete points still remain. Our method does not give us the information on multiple
charge. We intend to investigate further on those problems by using monodisperse aerosols of known
size.
References
1. Bricard, J., J. Geophys. Res. 54, 39 (1949). - 2. Bricard, J., Geof. pura e appl. 51, 237 (1962). - Bricard, J.,
Billard, F., and Madelaine, G., J. Geophys. Res. 73, 4487 (1968). - 4. Flanagan, V. P. v., and O'Connor, T. C.,
Geor. pura e appl. SO, 148 (1961). - 5. Fuchs, N. A. Trans. Farad. Soc. 58, 1949 (1962). - 6. Fuchs, N. A., Geor.
43
pura e appl. 52, 185 (1963). - 7. Junge, c., J. Meteor. 19, 13 (1955). - 8. Keefe, D., Nolan, P. J., and Rich, T. A.,
Proc. R. I. A. 60, 27 (1960). - 9. Nakatani, S., J. Met. Soc. Japan 50, 151 (1972). - 10. Nolan, P. J., and
Kennan, E. L., Proc. R. I. A. 52,171 (1949). - 11. Pollak, L. w., and Metnieks, A. L., Geof. pura e appl. 51, 225
(1962). - 12. Rich, T. A., Pollak, L. w., and Metnieks, A. L., Geof. pura e appl. 51, 217 (1962). - 13. Vohra, K. G.,
Subbaramu, M. c., and Mohan Rao, A. M., Tellus 18, 672 (1966).
Authors' addresses:
H. Kojima T. Sekikawa
Dept. of Physics Science University of Tokyo
Science University of Tokyo 1 - 3 Kagurasaka Shinjuku-ku
1- 3 Kagurasaka Shinjuku-ku Tokyo
Tokyo Japan
Japan
44
Evolution of Tropospheric Ions *)
1\1 . I .. JJII('rl({S and .I . FOllldll
Abstract
The purpose of this work is to clarify the agglomeration phenomena around small positive and negative ions
of tropospheric air. Evolution of tropospheric ions is not well-known ; polluting vapors act upon this evolution,
according to chemical reactions which are not well understood.
The apparatus used enables us to measure simultaneously the mobility and the mass of ions created in a
mixture of atmospheric air and various polluting vapors, at a pressure up to 40 torrs. The experimental results
have shown the importance of porto nation in the positive ion formation. The evolution rate constants of negative
ions are slower than those of positive ions. Finally a mathematical model has allowed a qualitative approach to
the sequence of positive ion-molecule reactions in the lower troposphere.
Apparatus
In the source chamber the ions are created in atmospheric air at a pressure varying between several
torrs **) and 40 torrs by ionizing alpha rays or by a Townsend discharge between a point and a small
cathode. The two double shutter grids G 1 and G 2 allow the measurement of the time of flight of the
ions, before their introduction in the mass spectrometer. More details about the apparatus and procedure
may be found in (Huertas et aI., 1974-a).
liilil
11
IONIC PUMP
DIFFUSION PUMP
Fig. 1. Schematic drawing of the apparatus
*) Paper was accepted by the Executive Panel, but could not be presented. It was, therefore, not considered in
any discussion.
**) 1 torr = 133 Pa; 1 pascal = 1 Nm - 2 •
45
Identification of the Positive Ions
a) Atmospheric air:
The ions H30+(H20)nare formed very rapidly, in a time about 1O- 3 s at 10 torrs pressure.
b) lrifluence of various vapors:
With the introduction of some vapors there is a disappearance of the dominant positive ions
H30+(H20)n. This is the case with NH3, C 2H 50H, CH3COCH3. There are new ions which appear:
NHt(NH3),(H20)m, C2H50Hi(C2H50H),(H20)m, CH3COH+CH3(CH3COCH3),(H20)m (or
CH 3COH!(CH 3COCH 3),(H 20)m), where I and m are a function of concentrations of vapors and H 20.
These observations are in accordance with those obtained by other authors (Munson, 1965; Kebarle,
1968; Cohen et aI., 1971).
Other vapors are inactive. In the case of CCl4 no modification of ionic mass spectra is observed, even
when the air is saturated with CCI4 . In some cases (e. g. C 6H 12 , C 6H 14) the vapors are observed acting
through radicals (e. g. C 6Hii, C nH 2nH+) formed by the ionisation of hydrocarbon molecules (e. g.
C 6H 12 , C 6H 14) (Table 1). The study of benzene and its monosubstituted derivatives show that under
our experimental conditions when C6H6 or C 6H 5CI is present in the air, the detected ions do not result
from an H+ transfer.
Our interpretation of the cluster structures is based on the theoretical considerations of Siksna (1969,
1971); the structures of positive ionic agglomerates result mainly of the protonation of organic molecules.
In descending order of electronegativity, one finds F > 0 > Cl > C; therefore the oxygen atom of
H 20 will be atfJIched to H30+ rather than the a atom of the CCl4 molecule. On the other hand, the
steric hindrance, the polarizability and the permanent dipole moment may be of some importance.
Mobility of the Positive Ions

In Fig. 2, we can see that the mobilities of ions of the same mass but of different composition may
vary about 20% as a function of the ionic nature. Apparently these variations do not proceed from the
>-
to-
d
III
~ to
c
w
~
W
It: 0.5
IONIC MASS (a.m.u.)
50 100 150 200 250 300

Fig. 2. Mobility as a function of ionic mass. The mobility values plotted concern the reduced values taken at
760 torrs. Solid circle represents data and formulas given in present work; cross, Carroll and Mason (1971);
open circle, Young and Falconner (1972); plus Griffin et al. (1973)
46
Table 1. Here m is the mass and C % is the ionic abundances as a percent of the total ionic abundance. Source
chamber pressure is 20 torrs, and H 20 volumic concentration is 0.1 %. Ionization is by a Townsend discharge
placed 4 cm in front of the sampling electrode. Ionic age is about 10- 3 s. Generally, when the organic vapors are
injected, the ions of the initial air spectrum remain present and some additional ions appear; the relative pro-
portion of the initial ions is nearly unchanged.
Initial Air Mass Spectrum m C%
H 30+(H 2 0).
n=1 37 16
n=2 55 54
n=3 73 15
n=4 91 3
y+ 279 ± 2 12
Vapors Additional Ions m C%
no change
C6 Hti 83 15
C6H ll OHi 01 10
C 6H ll OHi(H 2 0) 19 2
C4H 9 0Hi 75 18
C 4H 9 0Hi(H 2 0) 93 14
CSH110Hi 89 2
C SH ll OHi(H 20) 107 1.5
C 6 Ht3 85 18
C 6H 13 0Hi 103 14
C 6H 13 0Hi(H 20) 121 1.5
C 7 H 1S OHi 117 1
C 6 Ht 78 16
C 6Ht(C 6H 6) 156 4
x+ 95 1
C 6 H s 3s Cl+ 112 5
C 6H s 37 Cl+ 114 2
C 6H s 3s CI +(C 6H s 3S C\) 224 0.3
C6HS 3sCI +(C6H S37 Cl)}
226 0.3
C6HS 37Ci+(C6Hs 3SCI)
C 6H sOHi(H 20) 113 3
C 6H sOHi(H20h 131 4
CH3C6H40Hi(H20).}
C 7 Hj(H 2 0).+1
n=2 145 4
n=3 163 1
C6HSNHj (H 20).
n=O 94 2.0
n=1 112 10.1
n=2 130 47.2
n=3 148 25.0
C6HsNHj(C6HsNH2)(H20).
n=O 187 4.5
n= 1 205 10.1
n=2 233 1.1
H30+(H20hC6HsN02 160 62
H30+(H20hC6HsN02 178 38
H 30+(H 20hCH 3N0 2 116 60
H 30+(H 2 0hCH 3 N0 2 134 40
*) All the ions of the initial air spectrum disappear.

47
measurement inaccuracy but, as reported by Griffin et al. (1973) may result from the ionic average
collision cross sections, depending upon the ion structure.
N: IONIC NUMBER (x 10')

10'~~~~~~~~~~------------------------------'
N IONIC NUMBER (x 10' )

106r7.~~~~~~~~----------~~--~====~--~~
'\
\. ._.-. ...........
\
\
Fig. 3. Ionic evolution times at 760 torrs pressure and water concentration of 103 ppm.
Ion number densities in cm - 3
48
Evolution of the Positive Ions
A computer program has been developed to study the evolution times of tropospheric positive ions
(Huertas et aI., 1974 b). 28 ions have been considered whose evolution times are a function of 79 ion-
N : IONIC NUMBER (x 10 6 )
106~----------------------------------------------~
Fig. 4. Ionic evolution times at 760 torrs pressure and water concentration of 104 ppm.
Ion number densities in cm - 3
49
molecule rate constants. These calculations are based on those developed for the study of the terminal
ionispheric ions (Ferguson et aI., 1969; Niles, 1970; Thomas, 1971). Mohnen has published a similar
study (1969, 1970) in which he discusses the formation mechanism of these ions and the nature of "final
ions" between 0 and 50 km, in the absence of polluting gases. The work presented here is a continuation
of the study presented by Huertas (1972). We have supposed that at t = 0 an instantaneous and ho-
mogeneous ionization ofN (N < 10+ 12 ions m- 3) positive ions are created in gas composed by the
mixture N 2 - O 2 - Ar - H 20 - NO. The concentrations of these various components are those existing
in tropospheric air, with a water concentration of 10+ 3 or 10+ 4 ppm *). In the energy range of 70 eV,
the ionizing electrons produce about 20% of dissociative ionizations in a gas such as N 2, which gives
N+ ions. These N+ ions may produce NO+:
N+ + O2 ---> NO+ + O.
We have studied the slowing down of the primary ions created by dissociative ionizations. In all, at
each ionization, there is about 5% of ions NO+ which are created mainly from N+ and 0+. The NO+
ions are hydrated in NO+(H 20)m, and H30+(H20). are the terminal ions ofthe NO+(H 20)m reaction
chains: .
NO+(H 20h + H 20 ---> H30+(H20h + HN0 2 ·
Thus, the formation of HN0 2 is about 5% at each ionization. At 10 torrs pressure, there is a good
accordance between our experimental results and the calculated ionic evolution times. The Fig. 3 and 4
show the ionic evolution times of positive ions at 760 torrs and water concentrations of 10+ 3 and 10+ 4
ppm. At 760 torrs and a water concentration of 10+ 4 ppm (or 20% relative humidity at 18°q, the ions
H 30+(H 20)., n = 1,2, ... ,7 are formed in less than 10- 3 s.
The Negative IODS

We are actually beginning this study. Already, we can say that the negative ion reaction rate constants
with organic vapors are far less rapid than the positive ion reaction rate constants.
The first results show that at 20 torrs pressure, ions of an age less than 10- 3 S are mainly OH -,02",
02"(H 20), 02"(H 20h and CO';-; when C 2H s OH or CH 3COCH 3 is injected there are additional ions
C 2H s O- or CH 3COCH2", but the ions OH- and 02"(H 20). remain present. These results are in ac-
cordance with those more complete given by Mohnen (1972). We are studying ions of an age greater
than 10- 3 S in air polluted by various organic vapors.
Additive note:
In our calculations on the evolution times of positive tropospheric ions (Figs. 3 and 4), we have first
assumed that the limiting value of a three body reaction becoming a two body one is 10- 9 em 6 S-I
(10- 21 m 6 S-I). It seems that is an upper limit. For example (Bohme et aI., 1968) saturation of ion asso-
ciation: Nt + N2 + He -+ Nt + He at 80 0 K is only 6 x 10- 12 cm 3 S-I (6 x 10- 18 m 3 S-I). There-
fore, other calculations have been made with 10- 10 or 10- 11 em 3 S-I (10- 16 or 10- 17 m 3 S-I) as
saturation value. And 10- 3 S is the upper limit of evolution times of all the curves.
Acknowledgments
We sincerely thank Dr. R. Siksna of the Institutet for Hogspanninsforskning, Uppsala Universitet, Sweden.
His help on the ionic structure interpretation has been very useful. In the computer program development, the help
of Dr. J. P. Patau, of Universite Paul Sabatier, France, has been much appreciated.
References
1. Bohme, D. K., Dunkin, D. B., Fehsenfeld, F. C., and Ferguson, E. E., 1. Chem. Phys. 49, 5201 (1968). - 2. Carroll,
D. I., and Mason, E. A~ A theoretical relationship between ion mobility and mass, paper presented at 19th
*) 1 ppm = 10- 6 •
50
Annual Conference on Mass Spectrometry (Atlanta 1971). - 3. Cohen, M. J., Kilpatrick, W. D., Carroll, D. I.,
Werlund, R. F., and Gibson, H. C, (abstract), Eos Trans, AGU 51 (11), 760 (1970). - 4. Ferguson, E. E., and
Fehsenfeld, F. C, J. Geophys. Res. 74, 5743 (1969). - 5. Griffin, G. w., Dzidic, I., Carroll, D. I., Stillwell, R. N., and
Horning, E. C., Anal. Chern. 45 (7),1204 (1973). - 6. Huertas, M. L., Contribution a I'etude des ions positifs de la
troposphere, Doctorat i:5-sciences physiques dissertation, n° 493, Univ. of Toulouse (France 1972). - 7. Huertas,
M. L., Marty, A. M., and Fontan, J., 1. Geophys. Res. 79, 1737 (1974a). - 8. Huertas, M. L., and Fontan, J.,
Evolution times of tropospheric positive ions, submitted to "Atmospheric Environment" (1974b). - 9. Kebarle,
P., Advance Chern. Ser. 72, 24 (1968). - 10. Mohnen, V. A., On the nature of tropospheric ions, Planet. Electro-
dynamics, vol. 1, edited by S. Coroniti and J. Hughes, p.197 (New York 1969). - 11. Mohnen, V. A., Pure and
Appl. Geophys. 84, 141 (1971). - 12. Mohnen, V. A., Pure and Appl. Geophys. 100, 123 (1972). - 13. Munson,
M. S. B., J. Amer. Chern. Soc. 87, 2332 (1965). - 14. Niles, F. E., J. Chern. Phys. 52 (1), 408 (1970). - 15. Siksna, R.,
Role of water substance in the structure of ions in ambient atmospheric air, Planet. Electrodynamics, vol. 1,
edited by S. Coroniti and J. Hughes, p. 207 (New York 1969). - 16. Siksna, R., The structure of aggregates formed
by means of the hydrogen bonds between molecules and some organic substances, paper presented at the 15th
General Assembly of the IUGG, Moscow (1971). - 17. Thomas, L., 1. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 33, 157 (1971).
18. Young, C E., and Falconner, W. E., 1. Chern. Phys. 57 (2), 918 (1972).
Authors' address:
M. L. Huertas and J. Fontan
Universite Paul Sabatier
Centre de Physique Atomique
Physique des Aerosols et
Echanges Atmospheriques
31077-Toulouse Cedex
France
51
Intensity and Interactions of Atmospheric Ions with Organic Contaminants
L. G. McKnight and E. W. Gray
Abstract
Interactions of ions with trace impurities in the atmosphere can lead to dramatic changes in the ion species
even though the reactants are present in only trace amounts. The processes of charge exchange, ion clustering
and proton transfer are found to convert ions of primary ait species into those characteristic of trace constituents
in the mixture. For these measurements we have used a drift cell-mass spectrometer combination to mass analyze
ions produced from arc and glow discharge sources in air and air-like mixtures at pressures up to 5 torr*). The
interactions of the ions with trace impurities present in the drift cell dominate the ion chemistry, with the result
that ions extracted from the gas after reaction are completely dilTerent from those produced by the primary ioniza-
tion process. The rapidity of these reactions inQicates that ions formed in the atmosphere will have their chemistry
and identity dominated by trace species present in the atmosphere. These results have been applied to the problem
of relay contact activation in which deposition of organic material on low current relay contacts results in an
increase in relay arc duration and a consequent increase in relay contact erosion. We will show specific application
to the case of ions interacting with organic materials present in the environment surrounding telephone relays.
Discussion
Campbell, Pullman, Washington, USA:
I think the point you made is very interesting. The organics you mention, both benzene and diethyl phthalate,
could be fairly described as chemically unreactive. Have you looked at all at more reactive organic chemicals?
McKnight, Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA:
We have looked at a whole series of compounds including alcohols, styrene and limonene. However, the critical
criterion for influencing the positive ion chemistry is not the chemical reactivity but the proton alT'mity which
determines whether H30+ and its water clusters H30+ . n(H 2 0) transfer a proton to the material. All of the
above materials (and diethyl phthalate imd benzene as well) have proton alT'mities greater than the hydranium
(H30+) ion and therefore strongly alTect the ion chemistry. Other organics (e.g., methane) have no elTect.
Dawson, Tucson, Arizona, USA:
I noticed at the beginning of your paper you said that the rate of deposition in the electric field could become
comparable to rates of deposition due to other processes. Was that meant to be applied at atmospheric pressure
or just at these reduced pressures?
McKnight:
The process of material transport certainly takes place at atmospheric pressure as well or better than at reduced
pressure.
Dawson:
Would you think it would apply in the uniform field case, for example, in large gaps?
McKnight:
It is not possible to generalize from our limited and very specialized application. We observe transport of organic
material to a realy contact which opens with a field across it. Under these circumstances, the relay opening arc
produces a burst of ions which interact with organic material present in the gap, and the ions are then attracted
to the contact surface where the organic material is deposited. Under these circumstances, transport of ions
appears to be great enough to compete with classical diffusion.
*) 1 tOfr = 133 Pa. 1 pascal = 1 Nm- 2 •

The full text of this paper has been published in:
Internat. J. Mass Spectroscopy Ion Physics 17, 353 (1975).
52
Dawson:
All the experiments you did with positive ions, have you done any with negative ions?
McKnight:
Yes, we have examined the negative ion chemistry in many of the same mixtures as we used for positive ions.
The negative ion chemistry appears to be much less sensitive to the presence of organic materials. Our results
in negative ions are much less complete than for positive ions.
Authors' addresses:
L. G. McKnight E. W. Gray
Bell Telephone Laboratories Bell Telephone Laboratories
Murray Hill Columbus
New Jersey 07974 Ohio 43213
USA USA
53
Influence of the Electric Fields of
Thunderstorms on Radon-222 Daughter Ion Concentrations
M. H. Wilkening
Abstract
Some of the 222Rn daughters present in the atmosphere are known to exist as positive ions having mobilities
in the range of ordinary atmospheric small ions. Previous work has shown that the concentration of these ions
near the ground decreases markedly in the presence of thunderstorms although the concentration of the parent
222Rn remains essentially unchanged. In this paper the nature of this effect is examined in terms of ion migration
due to electric fields, attachment to condensation nuclei, and recombination effects. Data from 40 thunderstorms
studied at the Langmuir laboratory clearly show that the depletion of the radon daughter ions as well as the
ordinary atmospheric small ions of positive charge near ground level is due primarily to ion migration under the
influence of storm-produced electric fields. However, attachment processes become important for condensation
nucleus concentrations in excess of about four times normal values. Recombination appears to play only a minor
role. The experimental data are supported by a one-dimensional time-dependent numerical model developed by
Roffman in our laboratory which includes terms for ion attachment and recombination, electric field, eddy diffu-
sion, and vertical wind.
Introduction
Radon 222 and its short-lived daughter products are important to the study of atmospheric electricity
generally not only because of their significant role in production of ion pairs in the lower atmosphere,
but also for their use as tracers in the study of certain aspects of charge transport in the vicinity of thunder-
storms.
The daughter ions of interest are those resulting from the radioactive decay of 222Rn (3.8 d); namely,
218Po(3.0min), 214Pb(27 min), 214Bi (20 min), and 214PO(2 x 10- 4 sec). The times in parentheses are
the half-lives. The ions may be the nuclides themselves or ion clusters containing the nuclides, and under
normal atmospheric conditions 90% or more carry positive charges. The general characteristics of these
ions have been reviewed by Bricard and Pradel (1966). Simultaneous measurements of concentrations
of the 222Rn daughter ions and the total atmospheric ~mall ions of the same sign yield correlation
coefficients of 0.8 or better for both fair weather and storm conditions (Wilkening et aI., 1966) and Roffman
(1971).
Previous work has shown that the concentration of these ions near ground level decreases markedly
under an active thunderstorm (Wilkening, 1964). In this paper we will review work designed to determine
the relative roles of all factors present in the thunderstorm environment on the disappearance of the
222Rn daughter ions.
The terms affecting the concentration of the daughter ions are 1) formation by decay of parent;
2) removal by radioactive decay, by attachment to condensation nuclei, by recombination with negative
ions, or by precipitation scavenging and 3) transport processes including convection or advection, eddy
diffusion, sedimentation, and ion migration under the influence of electric fields. A detailed expression
of the differential equation for the concentration of a short-lived 222Rn daughter ion including these
terms has been given by Roffman (1972) together with appropriate numerical solutions.
The importance of eddy diffusion and convection in vertical transport is well-known and has been
treated extensively. Both affect the inert gas radon as well as the daughter ions. Sedimentation velocity
for submicrometer particles is of the order of 5 x 10- 6 m sec -1 and can be neglected in comparison
with that produced by the vertical wind component and eddy diffusion. Precipitation scavenging by
washout and rainout is negligible for ions of this size compared with removal by radioactive decay of
the short-lived daughter ions.
Attention is directed in the analysis of the experimental data which follow to the effects of 1) ion
migration under fair weather and storm-produced electric fields, 2) attachment of the ions to conden-
54
sation nuclei, and 3) recombination effects. All data were taken at the Langmuir laboratory at an eleva-
tion of 3240 m (MSL) in central New Mexico.
Experimental Results
The behavior of radon daughter ions and the concentration of positive and negative small ions are
shown in Fig. 1 on a day when the electric field intensity showed major fluctuation as the result of
thunderstorm activity over the laboratory. The daughter ion concentrations are expressed in terms of
the amount of 222Rn present in order to compensate for changes in the rate of 222Rn daughter ion
formation. Unfortunately, the ten minute sampling time required for these measurements places a
restriction on time resolution of the events. The daughter ion measurements were made using aluminium
foils in a Gerdien-type collector similar to that described by Jonassen et al. (1970). The electric field
intensity is smoothed to eliminate surges from nearby lightning strokes. There were only six such strokes,
most of which occurred in the period of the first field reversal. Less than one mm of precipitation fell
at the station during the time shown in the figure.
30r----~-----,----~~----~----,_----,
20 ~ • _ - - - - .______-. --~
S: I~t NUCLEI~ - j
....
Q
LL.
o
6
. ~Negatlve
.4
-
_-' \ >f
/
/" - ~ !\ -
\, '
..,.
\\ I / ~...- - - - -
J
.2 _---~ \ I I
~ o ~;:.!., ;::.t.
Z
r. --------1
~ SMALL IONS
~
.6t-----~ )..
.4 i\
I' ..... I
.2 .. '" / \ // " I
o Positive --- --.... ....-.l..
6
4
~ 2
~ 0
::.:: -2
-4
-6
.06 DAUGHTER IONS / RADON

'i'i'
.04
~ /1
/ \\
...................... I \
.02
--~ \
12 13 14 15
LOCAL STANDARD TIME
Fig. 1. Influence of the electric field of a thunderstorm system upon the 222Rn daughter ion and total small ion
concentrations near ground level at Langmuir laboratory. Horizontal bars indicate sample intervals, vertical
error bars are shown for representative daughter ion points *).
The negative and positive ion concentrations and condensation nuclei were measured with con-
ventional instruments. Anomalous readings from condensation nuclei from known artificial sources
are eliminated. On the day shown the nuclei count was relatively constant at an average of 17 x 10 9 m - 3
which was less than average due in part to unusually heavy rains in the area on preceding days. The
*) Electric field vector pointing downwards is called "positive".
55
calibration ofthe instruments represented in all of the measurements is not highly precise. It is the relative
values that are of greater importance in the results shown.
The data of Fig. 1 give an illustration of the effect of the electric field upon both the radon daughter
ions and the total small ion concentration. Several features are immediately observable: 1) the ratio
of radon daughter ions to radon reduces to approximately 10% of its previous value when the electric
field changes from fair weather to thunderstorm polarity, 2) the effect is immediate to within the ten
minute sampling interval required for the daughter ion measurements, 3) the daughter ion concentration
increases above normal fair-weather values by a factor of two or more when the field has fair-weather
polarity but is increased in magnitude.
Table 1. Change in 222Rn daughter ion ratio and ordinary positive small ion concentrations during storm
induced field reversals
Electric Field in kV/m *) Daughter Ions Positive Small Ions in 109 m- 3

Radon 222
-5.0 0.009 0.077

-2.5 0.007 0.039
-0.6 0.009 0.062
+0.6 0.047 0.40
+2.5 0.042 0.39
+5.0 0.050 0.45
1.6
.. 1.2 Positive
:E .8 SMALL IONS
iIr-
Q
IL.
0
.4
Negatlve
.~
/
0
~
~
l
~
"~NUCLEI
40
:E
~
f
_~ ELECTRIC FIELD
]
~
0 10 12 14 16
LOCAL STANDARD TIME
Fig. 2. Decrease in the daughter-ion to 222Rn concentration ratio and small ion concentrations produced by an
increase in condensation nuclei at Langmuir laboratory
56
The results of more than 90 data points from 14 storms are summarized in Table 1. The daughter-
ion-to-radon ratio changes on the average by a factor of 5.5 when the electric field intensity goes from
- 5 kV m -1 to + 5 kV m -I. Within the limits of uncertainty of the figures given, there is no indication
that the daughter ion concentration ratio continues to decrease following field reversal or that it continues
to increase as the fair-weather field increases in magnitude. A remarkably similar behavior is observed
in the total atmospheric positive small ion data.
The data given in Fig. 2 represent a case in contrast with those of Fig. 1. Here the condensation nuclei
concentration increased while the electric field remained constant. The weather was disturbed and
included some cumulus cloud build up, gusty winds, and a hazy atmosphere during the period with
some light rain beginning at 1500. The ratio of daughter ions to radon decreased by a factor of three
following an increase in condensation nuclei concentration by a factor of five to a maximum level
of 83 x 109 m- 3 • As expected, the concentration of both positive and negative small ions decreased
during the same period. The importance of condensation nuclei in reducing the daughter ion ratio is
clearly demonstrated. However, on days when field reversals do occur, cases where the condensation
nuclei produce an example of a decrease in 222Rn ions do not occur as frequently as do those produced
by ion migration.
Discussion
Mean life, recombination, and attachment. The mean life of a radon daughter ion can be expressed as
1" = (2 + an- + PN)-I,
where 2 is the radioactive decay constant, an- is the probability for removal with respect to recombina-
tion of the positive radon daughter ions with negative small ions, and pN is the removal probability
with respect to attachment to condensation nuclei.
A comparison of the magnitudes of these terms is instructive. For 218pO, the first radon daughter,
which is known to account for approximately 90% of all radon daughter ions, 2 is 3.79 X 10- 3 sec-I.
IC one uses a recombination coefficient a of 1.4 x 10- 12 m 3 sec - I appropriate to the positive 222Rn
daughter ions and the negative atmospheric small ions (Nolan, 1943; Hoppel, 1969) and a weighted
attachment coefficient Pof 2 x 10- 12 m 3 sec -I (Baust, 1967), (Kawano et aI., 1969) and values for the
negative total small ion concentration n- of 0.55 x 109 m- 3 and a mean condensation nucleus con-
centration N of 40 x 109 m - 3 from our results, one obtains for the "removal" constants for recombina-
tion an- = 0.77 x 10- 3 sec- 1 and for attachment pN = 100 x 10- 3 sec-I. Clearly, recombination
can be neglected with respect to attachment under these circumstances. This ratio would be further
reduced in situations illustrated in Fig. 2 where an increase in N is accompanied by a decrease in n -.
Additional study of this relationship is needed in cases where high fields of storm polarity produce
corona at the earth's surface which could leave high negative space charge near the surface and greatly
enhance the value of an - .
The effective mean life of 218pO ions based upon all three terms given above is 12 sec. The value for
the average condensation nuclei concentration N in Fig. 1 where the mean value is appreciably lower
than normal is 26 sec.
Migration length. Since the drift velocity of ions moving under the influence of an electric field is Vd = kE
where k is the ionic mobility and E the field, 222Rn daughter ions under fields of storm polarity and
magnitude shown in Fig. 1 move upward with a speed of 0.7 m sec- I if a mobility of 10- 4 m 2 V-I sec- I
is assumed. In one mean life the vertical distance travelled is 18 m if there are no other removal processes.
Roffman'S (1972) numerical model shows that for storm fields of this magnitude the electric field has
very little effect on 222Rn ion concentration above 25 meters which is consistent with the above estimate.
These results show that the reversed electric field accompanying a thunderstorm can result in a way
to promptly deplete the positively charged 222Rn daughter ions from near ground level. Additional
measurements of this effect to determine the vertical dependence in the near surface region and around
and above fully electrified convective cloud systems would be desirable.
57
Conclusion
Apart from the major transport mechanisms of eddy diffusion and the vertical wind component which
apply in both fair-weather and thunderstorm environments, the dominant mechanism for the depletion
of 222Rn daughter positive small ions near the ground in the presence of electric fields associated with
thunderstorms is ion migration. Large increases in condensation nuclei concentrations of the order
of 50 x 109 m - 3 or more can affect the daughter ion concentration but these situations are less frequently
observed. The effects of recombination of the daughter ions with negative small ions in the atmosphere
can usually be neglected in comparison with attachment to nuclei.
Acknowledgments
The contributions of T. W. Pohrte, Dennis Stanley, and Amiram Roffman in this work are gratefully acknowledged.
Financial support was received through a former THEMIS project under ONR contract N 00014-68-A-0157
and in part by grants from the Atmospheric Sciences Section of the National Science Foundation.
References
1. Baust, E., Z. Phys, 199, 187 (1967). - 2. Bricard, J., and J. Pradel, Electric charge and radioactivity of naturally
occurring aerosols, in Aerosol Science, pp. 91,104, Edited by C. N. Davies (New York 1966). - 3. Hoppel, W. A.,
Pure and Appl. Geophys. 75,158(1969). - 4. Jonassen, N., and M. H. Wilkening,J. Geophys. Res. 75,1745(1970). -
5. Kawano, M., Y. Ikebe, and M. Shimo, Measurements of attachment coefficients of small ions and radioactive
ions to condensation nuclei, Planetary Electrodynamics, pp.137, Eds. S. Coroniti and J. Hughes, Gordon and
Breach (New York 1969). - 6. Nolan, D. J., Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. 404, 67 (1943). - 7. Roffman, A., Radon 222
daughter ions in fair weather and thunderstorm environments, p. 97, Dissertation, New Mexico Institute of
Mining and Technology (1971). - 8. Roffman, A., J. Geophys. Res. 27, 5883 (1972). - 9. Wilkening, M. H., Radon-
daughter ions in the atmosphere, in The Natural Radiation Environment, pp.359 (Chicago 1964). -
10. Wilkening, M. H., M. Kawano, and C. Lane, TELLUS 18, 679 (1966).
Discussion of the Paper by Wilkening

Mr. Wilkening, you have avoided using the word corona discharges. I want to ask you if you feel that the results
could be due to corona discharges from the surface of the earth, the reason being that at those fields any
geometrical intensification produced by even a grass blade will go into corona.
Wilkening, Socorro, New Mexico, USA:
Although we have monitored corona-point discharge during some of these experiments, we do not have ad-
equate data to show its influence on daughter ion depletion. That's an area in which more work is needed.
Aina, Ibadan, Nigeria:
Is there a special reason why you have not considered the fact of precipitation?
Wilkening:
Yes, precipitation scavenging is important for larger particles but not for these ions (Roffman, 1972). Further-
more, we are limited in terms of our instrumentation to periods of other than those of high precipitation.
Reiter, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, West-Germany:
Sometimes when you have a storm you might also have a change in the kind of the air mass. And, if there is a
change in the air mass, there will also be a change in the aerosol composition, in the concentration of radon, and all
these things. I think it is necessary to consider some basically meteorological elements, such as the type of air
mass in this case.
Wilkening:
Yes, one of the clues, as I indicated, is by keeping track of the radon 222 which participates in the air mass
change. At the station, we do monitor the winds and other meteorological variables, and we use the synoptic
charts to assist interpretation.
58
Morita, Toyokawa, Japan:
What kind of process is effective for removing the condensation nuclei in the thunderstorms?
Wilkening:
The thing that we observe that makes the biggest contrast in condensation nuclei concentration is the local
updraft, downdraft, advective situation. It's the recent history of the air mass that counts most.
Author's address:
M. H. Wilkening
New Mexico Institute of
Mining and Technology, Campus Station
Socorro, New Mexico 87801
USA
59
Ion-Aerosol Attachment Coefficients and the Diffusional Charging of Aerosols
W. A.Hoppel
Abstract
The relative importance of image capture and three-body trapping in calculating the ion-aerosol attachment
coefficients for aerosol particles of small radii is evaluated. The results show that for uncharged nuclei the image
capture sphere is always larger than the trapping distance and therefore the trapping distance plays no role
in the attachment of ions to uncharged particles. However, for singly (doubly) charged particles with radii below
about 2 x 10- 8 (5 x 10- 8 ) m the trapping distance is larger than the image capture distance, and therefore must
be included in ion-aerosol attachment theories for small aerosol particles. Calculations of the combination coef-
ficients including both the effects of image capture and three-body trapping are presented and compared to ex-
perimentally determined values.
Introduction
The theory of the diffusion of ions to aerosols with radii larger than the ionic mean free path is well
established Bricard (1949) extended diffusion theory to include image forces and Gunn (1954) treated the
asymmetrical charging resulting from the difference in mobilities of positive and negative ions. The
extension of the theory to aerosols with radii comparable to or smaller than the ionic mean free path
has been more difficult. The most common correction [Bricard (1962), Fuchs (1964)] has been to define
a "limiting sphere" which is concentric with the aerosol but with radius the order of a mean free path
larger than the aerosol. The diffusion-mobility treatment holds outside of this sphere and kinetic theory
considerations are applied inside. If the aerosol carries a single electronic charge, then in the limit of
very small aerosol radi~ the ion-aerosol combination coefficient should reduce to the ion-ion recombina-
tion coefficient which is given by three-body trapping theory. Natanson (1960) developed a theory which
includes the effect of three-body trapping for small aerosols but numerical values from this theory
depend upon the calculation of the trapping distance which cannot be theoretically determined with
any degree of confidence. Hoppel (1969) gave an empirical method for determining the ion-aerosol
trapping distance from the ion-ion trapping distance obtainable from the ion-ion recombination co-
efficient. In addition to three-body trapping there can be trapping of the ion by the image force. Forces
which increase faster than the inverse square law (such as the image force) can lead to orbits which have
no apse and spiral into the aerosol. Keefe et al. (1968) calculated the "image capture sphere" and the
resulting attachment coefficient. Any ion which approaches the aerosol closer than the image capture
distance will spiral into the pucleus under the influence of the image force.
In this paper we seek to calculate the relative importance of image capture and three-body trapping
using the general methods as set forth in Keefe et al. (1968) for image capture and in Hoppel (1969) for
three-body trapping. Both effects are then included in a single theory and used to calculate values of the
combination coefficients. Fig. 1 illustrates the two trapping spheres. The image capture sphere is defined
Fig. 1. Image capture sphere LI and three-body trapping sphere b
60
by the distance ,1 which is the minimum apsidal distance. Orbits with impact parameters greater than bJ
will escape after passing through an apse, whereas orbits with impact parameters less than bJ will have
no apse and will spiral into the aerosol. As an ion approaches an aerosol, potential energy is converted
into kinetic energy. When the ion suffers a collision with a molecule, part of the excess kinetic energy
is removed by the molecule. If the energy removed is large enough, the ion will be trapped in the coulomb
field of the aerosol. The three-body trapping distance fJ is defined as the average separation distance
where the average energy removed by the third body is just sufficient to insure trapping. If the image
capture distance ,1 is greater than the tree-body trapping distance fJ, then three-body trapping is not
important. The image capture distance is always greater than fJ for ions approaching an uncharged
aerosol. However, for ions and aerosols of opposite polarity there is some critical aerosol radius below
which three-body trapping becomes important. If the ion is more than one mean free path from the
larger of ,1 or fJ, then the diffusion-mobility equation is assumed to hold.
Image Capture
The theory of image capture for the case of ion-aerosol attachment has been given by Keefe et al.
(1968). If the aerosol is assumed to be stationary the number of ion-aerosol encounters which result in
image capture is given by
dN = nea(e)F(e)dc, [1]
where n is the ion density, e the velocity, and F(e) is the Maxwellian velocity distribution. a(e) is the
collision cross section for capture given by
a(e) = nb~ , [2]
and bd is the critical impact parameter for capture. The total current of ions to the aerosol is obtained
by integration over all velocities
Id = nL+Jna2 SeB~F(e)de, [3]
where bJ = aBd' a is the aerosol radius, and nL+d is the ion density one ionic mean free path from the
image capture distance ,1. For convenience I J is written as
I J = nL+Jna 2 c(E. F.), [4]
where the enhancement factor is defined as
1
E. F. = -:- S eB~F(e)de. [5]
e
The equation which relates the apsidal distance ra to the impact parameter b is found by setting the
radial velocity to zero in the expression for conservation of energy. This yields
[6]
where the potential energy is given by

pe 2 e2a3 ] 1
cf>(r) = [ - , - - -- [7]
2r2(r2 - a2 ) 4nBo
and p is the number of electronic charges on the nucleus and is negative for attraction and positive for
repulsion. In terms of the normalized impact parameter
Y
B2 = S2 - 2pYs + -2--' [8]
s - 1
where
'a = as and Y= --
arne
2
e 2 ( -1-) .
4nBo
61
It should be kept in mind that B is a function of the initial velocity c. Eq. [8] has two real roots; the
larger root corresponds to the ion coming from infinity (open orbit), whereas the smaller root refers to
an inner orbit with the same angular momentum. The minimum value of the larger root just divides
those orbits which escape capture from those which spiral into the aerosol and are captured.
The minimum is determined by dB 2 Ids = 0 at which point s = A.
,15 - pY ,14 - 2,13 + 2pY ,12 + (1 - Y)A - pY= O. [9]
The procedure is then to determine A from eq. [9] and the corresponding B.1 from eq. [8], and then
find the enhancement factor (E. F.) by integration of eq. [5] over the Maxwellian velocity distribution.
If there is no charge on the aerosol (p = 0), only the image force contributes and the above process
can be carried out explicitly. Eq. [9] yields
,12 = 1 + VI. [10]
Substituting A into [8] yields
B.1 = 1 + 20', [11]
where it must be remembered that Y is a function of the initial velocity. Integration over the Maxwellian
velocity distribution as indicated by eq. [5] gives
E.F. = 1 + 2 V - - ( -1-) ,
e2n
8aKT 4nl:o
[12]
where K is Boltzmann's constant and Tthe absolute temperature. If eqs. [11] and [12] are compared,
it is evident that the integration over the Maxwellian velocity distribution of initial energies Hmc 2 )
could have been replaced by using an "equivalent" single particle energy
4
Eo = - KT = 1.27 KT . [13]
n
An exact result can also be obtained for a charged aerosol provided the image charge is neglected.
In this case no minimum apse exists and a collision occurs when the apsidal distance is equal to the
aerosol radius. In this case (s = 1)
B~Ol = 1 - 2p Y [14]
and
2
pe ( 1 ) [15]
E.F. = 1 - aKT 4n60 .
Comparing [14] and [15] in this case shows that the integration over the Maxwellian velocity distribution
could be replaced by using a single particle equivalent initial energy of
Eo = KT. [16]
If both image and coulomb forces are included, the problem becomes more difficult and must be
carried out numerically. This has been done by Keefe et al. (1968) and their result shows that for small
aerosol particles the equivalent single particle energy is KT, whereas for larger particles the equivalent
energy is 1.25 KT which is very nearly the value given in eq. [13] for pure image charge forces. This
result would be expected since the relative importance of the image force with respect to the coulomb
force increases as the radius increases. For aerosols of larger radii the electrical forces become increas-
ingly less important and the geometric cross section is the predominant factor (i.e., the E. F. is small).
In the development by Keefe et aI., the ion is assumed to be in free flight for the entire orbit, whereas
in reality the ion sutTers its last collision one mean free path away from the image capture sphere. This
leads to the rather unrealistic result that the difference (b.1 - A) is sometimes greater than the mean
free path. In the calculations made here the ion is assumed to be in free flight only from the point one
mean free path from A. This leads to smaller values of the E. F. than obtained by Keefe et al.
62
Table 1. Values of "Enhancement Factor" E. F., "Image Capture Sphere" radius .1, and three body trapping
distance () for particle charges p
p= -I P= -2 p=o P= +1
RADIUS
(lO-8 m) E.F.
~ 5 E.F.
~ 5 ~
E.F.
~
E.F.
/lO-8 m) /lo-8 m) liD-8m) lIo- 8ml liD-8m) l1o-8 m)
0.2 51.8 0.31 2.62 88.5 0.28 4.02 7.74 0.42 0 -

0.4 24.9 0.62 2.62 41.4 0.56 4.02 5.76 0.74 0 -
0.6 16.2 0.93 ~.64 26.2 0.86 4.03 4.88 1.03 0 -
0.8 12.0 1.23 2.67 18.8 1.15 4.03 4.35 1.31 0 -
1.0 9.57 1.53 2.71 15.8 1.45 4.04 3.98 1.58 0 -
2.0 5.08 2.90 3.27 6.82 2.84 4.22 3.06 2.87 1.54 3.04
4.0 3.09 5.40 5.06 3.64 5.36 5.42 2.39 5.26 2.01 5.43
6.0 2.47 7.74 7.02 2.74 7.68 7.19 2.08 7.56 1.95 7.74
10.0 1.98 12.2 11.0 2.08 12.2 11.07 1.78 12.0 1.78 12.2
20.0 1.58 23.0 - 1.61 23.0 - 1.50 22.7 1.53 23.0
50.0 1.31 54.5 - 1.31 54.5 - 1.28 54.0 1.30 54.4
100.0 1.19 106 - 1.19 106 - 1.19 106 1.19 106
Values of ,1, and E. F. are given in Table 1 for p = 0, ± 1, - 2. These values were calculated using
+
the exact eqs. [10]-[12] for p = O. For p 0 a single equivalent energy of KTwas used in place of the
average over the Maxwellian distribution and eqs. [8] and [9] solved to obtain B2. (B 2 is equal to E.F.
within the approximation of using a single equivalent energy.) As stated previously the use of a single
equivalent energy KT is accurate for small aerosols (a < 2 x 10- 8 m). For larger aerosols there is a
small error in the E. F. but the role of E. F. is much less important. More important in our calculations
is the correction that the ion is in free flight for only one mean free path before entering the image
capture sphere. It is this latter consideration that makes our E. F. considerably smaller than those given
by Keefe et al.
Three-body Trapping
In the limit as the aerosol radius approaches the ionic radius the attachment coefficient for ions and
aerosols of opposite polarity should equal that for ion-ion recombination. Natanson (1960) has extended
the three-body ion-ion recombination theory to the attachment of ions to aerosols. The difficulty with
three-body recombination theories is that the three-body trapping distance cannot be determined
theoretically with any degree of confidence (see for example Brukner 1964). In the case of ion-ion re-
combination the coefficient is known accurately enough so that the ion-ion trapping can be empirically
determined, whereas for the ion-aerosol case, measurements of the attachment coefficient as a function
of aerosol radius are much less reliable. Here the ion-aerosol trapping distance is calculated from the
ion-ion trapping distance by the method given by Hoppel (1969). Two mistakes in the 1969 paper have
been corrected: (1) A numerical mistake in the computer program has been corrected. (2) The average
single particle energy was previously taken to be the average relative energy between two colliding
particles (2 KT). As is evident from the arguments leading to eq. [16], the single particle energy obtained
when the enhancement factor is integrated over the Maxwellian velocity distribution should be KT.
The Natanson (1959) expression for the ion-ion recombination coefficient can be written as
63
4d 2v,f(g) [1 + ~)KT ( 4~BO)] exp [ (d +e~)KT (4~BO)]
d(d:
2
a=--------~~--~~------~----~--~~--~--~----~--~~~~ [17]
1 + (47tB o) d !'!e(g) [1 + d(d :2~)KT (4~6JJ{expLd +e~)KT(4~6JJ -1},
2
where k is the mobility, v, the relative velocity, and d is the ion-ion trapping distance, furthermore:
[18]
where
-g
w=1+2 [ _e_+_e_-g
_ _1 ] [19]
g2 g g2
and g = 2d/L.
In calculating the ion-ion recombination coefficient, values of the ionic mean free path and the trapping
distance must be known. The mean free path can be written in terms of the mobility and ionic mass by
V+-,
means of the equation
eL
k=0.75-_ 1 M [20]
Mv m
where M is the mass of the molecule, m the mass of the ion, and v the average thermal velocity of the
molecule. Although eq. [20] is believed to be the best of its kind (Loeb 1955), the numerical constant
appearing in the equation is somewhat uncertain. Any uncertainty in this constant can be included
2.5,..-------,-------,------,------,-------,---:::;...---,
U
~
..
II
e 2.0
N
~
\z
w
1.5
......w
!;!
8 1.0
z
o
~
z 0.5
iii
~
u
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

TRAPPING DISTANCE (l0-8 cm)
Fig. 2. Recombination coefficient as a function of trapping distance
in the uncertainty in the value later assumed for the ionic mass. The mobility was taken to be
1.2 x 10- 4 m 2 v- 1 sec- 1 (Hoppel and Krl.lukerik, 1965). Fig.2 gives the recombination coefficient
as calculated from eq. [17] as a function of trapping distance for several values of ionic mass. The value
of the recombination coefficient for atmospheric ions is here taken to be that given by Nolan (1943)
as 1.4 x 10- 12 m 3 per sec. For any value of ionic mass a corresponding value of the ion-ion trapping
distance can be determined.
The kinetic energy gained by the ion between its last collision and the trapping distance is just
1 ) e2d dr (1)e2 L
E = ( 4n6o T dlL 7 = 47t6o T d(d + L) .
[21]
64
E is thus the excess kinetic energy which an ion must possess if it is to lose sufficient energy upon collision
(with a molecule) to insure trapping. It is this excess kinetic energy in the ftxed system which is important
in determining either the ion-ion or the ion-aerosol trapping distance. The ion-aerosol trapping distance f>
is thus determined by the equation
4J(f» - 4J(f> + L) = E, [22]
where 4J is given by eq. [7].
The value for the ion-ion trapping distance for an ionic mass of 150 amu is 1.62 x to- 8 m (Fig. 2).
The corresponding ion-aerosol trapping distances as determined by eq. [22] for various radii are given
in Table 1. A comparison of Ll and f> for a singly charged aerosol of polarity opposite that of the ion
is shown in Fig. 3 and it is evident that three-body trapping is negligible for aerosols of radii larger than
about 2 x 10- 8 m. For aerosols smaller than 1 x to- 8 m three-body trapping becomes the dominant
mechanism.
10.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
E
a>
g
I
1.0
en
:::)
i5
« 0.6
It: 8
0.4
0.2
0.1 0 .2 20.0
Fig. 3. Comparison of the image capture distance LI and the three-body trapping distance 0 as a function of
aerosol radius
The rate at which ions enter the f>-sphere and attach to the aerosol is given by
16 = ynf(x)f> 2 cnHL' [23]
where c is the average velocity, ')I is the enhancement of ions entering the f>-sphere as a result of electrical
forces
4J(f» - 4J(f> + L)
')I = 1 - KT . [24]
f(x) is the total probability that an ion passing through the f>-sphere will collide with a molecule or
collide with the aerosol itself
[25]
where x = f>/L.
65
(}e is determined by
be
earcsin-
(} =
o' [26]
where
b2 = Ll2 [1 - 4>(Ll) - 4>(0) ] . [27]
e KT
Calculation of the Attachment Coefficients

For ion-aerosol separations of more than an ionic mean free path beyond the capture or trapping
sphere the diffusion-mobility equation is assumed to hold. For spherically symmetric aerosols the total
flux of ions to the aerosol is given by
!P.JJj
4nD[no - ne kT ]
I = --oo=--""!P.JJj'""'r--=- [28]
J~dr
r r2
where the solution satisfies the condition that the ion density far from the aerosol is no. By matching
the diffusion-mobility solution to the inner conditions given by ILl or I~ eq. [4] or [23] the following
expression for the attachment coefficient is obtained
[29]
where r = a x, and
[30]
Eq. [29] is valid in cases where Ll > 0. If 0 > Ll then f3~ is obtained by replacing Ll with 0 in eq. [29]
and F Ll becomes
F~ = n0 2 cy f(x). [31]
Eq. [29] has the same general form as discussed by Siksna (1966).
Table 2. Attachment coefficients
RADIUS ,6(1) ,6(1) ,6(2)

(10- 8 m) Ilo 12 11 12 b
0.2 0.0192 1.40 0 3.71 0.037

(1.60)
0.4 0.0555 1.41 0 3.72 0.103
(1.61)
0.6 0.102 1.45 0 3.74 0.180
(1.62)
0.8 0.157 1.55 0 3.78 0.261
(1.65)
1.0 0.218 1.60 0 3.83 0.342
(1.69)
2.0 0.575 1.88 0.0695 3.95 0.737
(1.96)
4.0 1.40 2.71 0.681 4.48 1.60
(2.72)
6.0 2.25 3.57 1.42 5.17 2.41
10.0 3.98 5.29 3.04 6.73 -
20.0 8.23 9.53 7.24 10.8 -
50.0 20.7 22.0 19.7 23.2 -
66
•u 40
31
E
N
~ 10
I-
~ 4.0F---------
U
ii:
II..
LLI
8
I- 1.0
z
LLI
:::!E
J:
~ 0.4
~
RADIUS
Fig. 4. Attachment coefficients as a function of aerosol radius
Calculations of the attachment coefficients by the procedure indicated in eq. [29] are given in Table 2
and in Fig. 4 where Po is the attachment coefficient for ions and uncharged aerosols. In the notation
Iff], p is the number of charges on the aerosol and j is one if the polarity of the ion is the same as the
aerosol charge and two if the ion polarity is opposite. The calculations have been carried out only for
those events which result in a maximum of two electronic charges on the aerosol. For radii less than
about 2 x 10- 8 m, no aerosol will be doubly charged and for aerosols less than about 3 x 10- 8 m
triply charged aerosols can be neglected. The values of Ifll in parenthesis are obtained if a value of
1.6 x 10- 12 m 3 sec- 1 is assumed for the ion-ion recombination coefficient.
The calculations are for aerosols stationary in the fixed coordinate system. In the limit as the aerosol
approaches the ionic size the aerosol will accelerate with respect to the fixed system by an amount
comparable to that experienced by the ion. It is interesting to note that PW very nearly approaches the
correct value given by the ion-ion recombination coefficient even though the aerosol is assumed sta-
tionary. An examination of the calculations reveals that even though the ion-aerosol trapping distance
is larger than the ion-ion trapping distance (because all the energy goes into a single ion rather than half
into each ion), the expected increase in Ifld is balanced by the decrease resulting from using the mean
velocity rather than the average relative velocity and by the increase in the factor y.
An accurate measurement of P as a function of radius is extremely difficult. Experiments measure
the "effective" attachment coefficient which for aerosols small enough so that triple charged aerosols
can be neglected (a < 3 x 10- 8 m) is given by
2po [ 1 + Ifll ]
PW
b- ~
- Po Po PW
1 + 2 PW + 2 PW {JIll
Values of b are also given in Table 2. Comparisons of b with experimental values obtained by Flanagan
(1966) and Shima et al. (1972) show that the values obtained by Flanagan are smaller than the values
shown in Table 2, whereas the values given by Shima et al. are considerably larger. Considering the
67
difficulties involved in the size measurement and counting of aerosols, it is the author's opinion that
the theoretical values given here are probably more accurate than the experimentally determined values.
For aerosols with radii smaller than 2 x 10- 8 m doubly charge aerosols can be neglected and the
ratio of uncharged to charged aerosols is given by the ratio of 11"8 to Po. Fig. 5 compares values of the
ratio tfll/ Po and the ratio of uncharged to charged aerosols as determined by Nolan and Kennan (1949).
The dotted line in Fig. 5 is obtained if the value of the ion-ion recombination coefficient is taken to be
1.6 X 10- 12 m 3 sec- 1 instead of 1.4 x 10- 12 m 3 sec-I.
100r---,--.-.,----,---,--,-,,---,
o NOLAN AND KENNAN
o
~ 10
~
6.0
4.0
2.0
1.0 ......._....L...--'---'-~_--L_ _"---__'___'_....L..._---'

0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 10 20
RADIUS (10- 8 m)
Fig. 5. Comparison of the theory with experimental values given by Nolan and Kennan
The calculations presented here were for an assumed ionic mass of 150 amu. If 60 amu were used
instead, then there would be about a 15 percent increase in 11"8 for aerosols with radii less than 4 x 10- 8 m;
for larger nuclei 11"8 gradually approaches the value given in the table. For Po the increase resulting
from reducing the mass to 60 amu is about 50 percent and the difference gradually decreases with
increasing radius such that at 10 x 10 - 8 m the difference is only about 10 percent. The increase in the
attachment coefficients is caused primarily by the higher mean velocity resulting from the reduction
in ionic mass.
References
1. Bricard, J., J. Geophys. Res. 54, 39 (1949). - 2. Bricard, J., Geofisica pure e applicata 51, 237 (1962). -
3. Brukner, K. A., J. Chern. Phys. 40, 439 (1964). - 4. Flanagan, V. P. v., Pure and Appl. Geophys. 64, 197 (1966). -
5. Fuchs, N. A., Bull. (Izv.) Acad. Sci. USSR, Geophys. Ser., No.4, 350 (1964). - 6. Gunn, R., J. Meteorol. 11,339
(1954). - 7. Hoppel, W. A., Pure and Appl. Geophys. 75, 158 (1969). - 8. Hoppel, W. A., and J. H. Kraakevik, J.
Atmos. Sci. 22, 509 (1965). - 9. Keefe, D., P. J. Nolan, and J. A. Scott, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. 66, Sec. A, 17 (1968). -
10. Loeb, L. B~ Basic Processes of Gaseous Electronics (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1955). - 11. Natanson, G. L.,
Zh. Tech. Fiz. 30, 573 (1960). - 12. Nolan, P. J., Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. 69 A, 67 (1943). - 13. Nolan, P. J., and
E. L. Kennan, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. 52 A, 171 (1949). - 14. Shimo, M~ y'Ikebe, T. Nakayama, and M. Kawano.
Pure and Appl. Geophys. 100, 109 (1972). - 15. Siksna, R., Tellus 18, 619 (1966).
Discussion
Mohnen, Albany, New York, USA:
As validation for your calculation, you use Nolan and Kennan. Wel~ Nolan and Kennan made the
measurements in order to validate their theory which is based purely on Boltzmann distribution. If the concept
68
that you present is true, then you automatically say that Boltzmann distribution and the theory behind it and your
theory give identical results. You wish to comment on that?
Hoppel, Washington D.C., USA:
I believe the results of Nolan and Kennan show that the Boltzmann charge distribution does not hold for
aerosols of very small radii. The values of the ratio of uncharged to charged aerosols predicted by the Boltzmann
distribution for very small aerosols are much larger than the experimental values obtained by Nolan and Kennan
given in Fig. 5. Since the Boltzmann distribution is derived from the integro-dilTerential equation of Boltzmann
which treats the distribution arising from binary collisions, it can hardly be valid in the case of three-body
processes.
Mohnen:
While the calculations are simple, the theory must require a computer.
Hoppel:
Yes, it takes a modest amount of computation time but I believe it is necessary since the Boltzmann distribution
is not valid for particles below about 2 x to- 8 m radius.
Rosenkilde, Manhattan, Kansas, USA:
Would you comment on the influence of a strong external electric field on your process.?
Hoppel:
I'm not prepared to comment on the elTects of strong external fields since it is beyond the scope of the paper.
Here I have considered only the elTects of dilTusion and the electrical forces between the ion and the aerosol.
Manes, Bet-Dagan, Israel:
Did you try to consider the influence of temperature on the collection efficiency?
Hoppel:
No, I did not. I believe the equations are valid for quite a range of temperatures but all the calculations were
for a single temperature of 288 OK.
Author's address:
WA. Hoppel
Code 8326
Naval Research Laboratory
Washington D.C. 20375
USA
69
Coagulation Growth Rate of Charged Cloud Particles *)
N. V. Krasnogorskaya and A. I. Neizvestniy
With 5 figures
Abstract
The results of both experimental and theoretical investigations of collision efficiencies of pairs of freely
falling droplets of comparable and equal sizes are presented. Droplet sizes varied from 5 to 30 micrometer in
radius, droplet charges were within the range of 0 - 3 x 10- 15 C.
Investigation results showed, that the importance of electric forces in the process of droplet coagulation to a
great extent depends on ratio sizes of droplets and increases considerably as droplet diameter ratios approach
unit.
The process of precipitation formation is determined to a great extent by the growth rate of cloud
particles during different coagulation mechanisms. Theoretical investigation of the cloud particles
enlargement mechanism by means of numerical solution of the coagulation equation needs knowledge
of their collision and coalescence efficiency. At present numerical methods are being extensively
developed for the determination of collision efficiency as the function of many parameters. The results
of these studies were reported by one of the authors in 1963 at the III International Conference in
Montreux (1). However, the compilation of theoretical models is complicated by the difficulties of
presentation of hydrodynamic forces in the interaction of particles of comparable and, particularly,
of equal sizes.
Though theoretical investigations (1- 5) indicate the substantial influence of electric forces on
collision efficiency of particles with comparable sizes, at present there is no single point of view on the
problem of the influence of electric forces on the precipitation formation.
The purpose of the present paper is to give experimental evaluations of collision efficiency of freely
falling neutral and charged droplets with comparable and practically equal sizes and to define conditions
in which the electric forces exercise substantial influence on the coagulation rate of cloud particles.
In our researches the radii of the interacting particles varied within the range from 5 to 30 1Jlll,
while the charge range was from about 3 x 10- 18 to 3 X 10- 15 coulomb.
Since the values of the collision efficiency in the range of the studied parameters can differ by six
orders of magnitUde, during the experiments two different methods were used: the method of statis-
tical tests for the determination of the drops collision efficiency with the ratios of sizes from 0.2 to
0.6 (6), and the method of direct determination of the target distance of the limit trajectory (7) of
particles practically equal in size (r2/rl ~ 0.96; where r 1 and r 2 are the radii of the larger and the
smaller droplets).
The experiments confirmed the results of theoretical studies of the dependence of collision
efficiency on the size ratio of the interacting particles, on the sign and value of their charge and of the
electric field intensity (8).
Fig. 1 shows the dependence of collision efficiency of oppositely charged droplets on their size ratio,
calculated by the equations in (1, 9) within the variation range r2/rl from 0.5 to 0.9; for practically equal
sizes (r2/rl ~ 0.96) the experimental and theoretical values are described by a common curve.
At any ratios of droplet sizes there are critical values of charges, above which the collision efficiency
of oppositely charged droplets is greater than the collision efficiency of neutral droplets. The increase
of values of oppositely charged droplets, equal in size, results in the increase of their collision
efficiency **) to 103 .
any discussion.
*-) Collision efficiency is given in relative units r 1.
70
50
I,
I
I
I 3
V-
, I
,I
I
IIf I,
I
V-
I
I
I
I
c:: I
~
"'- 1
"ct
QI
10
III
~
:§
QI
0,1. 0,6 0,8 1,0

Ratio of droplet radii, "1.;/""
Fig. 1. Dependence of target distance of the limit trajectory of oppositely charged droplets, Po, on their size ratio,
r2!r 1. Charges of droplets are equal by magnitude and opposite by sign;
1) ql = -q2 = 1.7 x 1O- '6 C; 2) ql = -q2 = 3.4 x 1O- '6 C; 3) ql = -q2 = 6.8 x 1O- '6 C; r2 = 5 11m.
Straight curves represent calculation, dotted lines represent the regions in which equations for numerical
calculations in 1) are inapplicable, ~ are the experimental values
In agreement with theoretical calculations (10) the increase of the vertical electric field intensity
results in the decrease of collision efficiency of oppositely charged droplets (Fig. 2), which is attributed
to the increase of relative rates of their movement due to the influence of electric forces.
Experiments confirmed the theoretically obtained conclusion (11) that at a certain size ratios there
is a region of their charge values, in which collision efficiency of charged particles with the same
sign is greater than the collision efficiency of neutral droplets (Fig. 3).
It has been experimentally established, that there is a region of charge values of droplets where the
efficiency of their collision is practically independent of the charge value (Fig. 3). As follows from the
figure, the results of experimental evaluations of collision efficiency have a good correlation with the
numerical calculation results by the equations in (1) and with the calculations by the approximation
formulas in (12).
71
10 20 30 40
V,ertical electric field, E (V/cm)
Fig. 2. Dependence of target distance of the limit trajectory on the intensity of the electric field. The field is given
in V/cm. Droplet radii are r1 = r2 = Sl!m; charges are of opposite sign and of the following magnitudes:
l)q, = -q2 = 1.7 x 10- 16 C; 2)q, = -q2 = 3:4 x 1O- 16 C; 3)q, = -q2 = 6.8 X 1O- 16 C
Fig. 4 implies that our experimental values of neutral droplet collision efficiency correlate with the
experimental values, obtained by Picknet (13) and Woods and Mason (14). Theoretical values of colli-
sion efficiency, obtained by Hocking and Jonas (15) and Davis and Sartor (16), are on the average two
times underrated in comparison with the experimental values (curves 5, 6). But if the [; parameter,
designating the distance between the droplet surfaces, in calculations (15) is assumed equal to
10- 2 x rl, then the calculated and experimental data are in good correlation with each other (curve 4).
Allowance for the "effect of slip-flow" (17, 18) permits obtaining much more accurate values of collision
efficiency of neutral droplets which, as seen on Fig. 4 (curve 7), are in good agreement with experimental
data.
Thus, at the distance between the surface of droplets being approximately equal to the distance
of free path of the gas molecules A, it is necessary to apply the equation of droplet movement with
consideration of the "effect of slip-flow", while at [; x rl > 2A the usual hydrodynamics equations,
obtained earlier in (15, 16), can be used.
Let us evaluate the expected effects when applying experimental collision efficiency values during
the study of coagulation processes occurring in natural clouds. As known, simultaneous increase of
collision efficiency and decrease of time of droplet spectrum development by the same number of times
does not influence the solution of the coagulation equation. Since our experimental values of collision
efficiency Ke are equal to the doubled value of the theoretical value K, (15,16), in the existing numerical
72
./"
0_1 3 .~,.,
b. - 2 ~, .:
./>"-'!..
,
./,'
/,
/','
. , 7
5
./~
Y
~ /f~L: J,i I.
6
0,1
,v,'
II/ I
iti:§.--il _~I-fI
JI I
j\
0,01
I I
• I, It! , ,
\/
I,!! It ,I
II
! ! ! I ,"
"ltll,l , "" , "I ..,
10- 6 10-6
10- 5
Negative Charge Positive Charge
Electric charge of large drops, 'I, rE.s.u.)
Fig. 3. Dependence of collision efficiency on the charge of a large droplet. Radii: '1 = 11.3 11m, '2 = 6.5 11m.
Charges on small droplet: 1) q2 = 0; 2) q2 = -3 x 1O- 16 C; 3) calculation by Paluch (12); 4) Numerical
calculation by equations in (1,9) at q2 = 0; 5) Numerical calculation in (1,9) for q2 = - 3 X 10- 16 C. The
charge on the larger droplet is given in e.s.u. at the abscissa (1 esu = 1/3 x 10- 9 C)
solutions of the coagulation equations the time of spectrum development should be decreased two
times. Such an operation is equivalent to the accomplishment of numerical solutions of the coagulation
equation with the experimental values of collision efficiency of neutral droplets.
The evaluations were made on examples of Bartlett (19) numerical solutions of coagulation equation,
in which at the same water content (W = 10- 3 kgjm 3 ) three types of droplet distribution by size were
analysed (Fig. 5).
The figure shows that if in the initial functions of droplet distribution by size (types 1 and 2) there is
even a small number of droplets with 18 - 21 11m radius, then for the times 9 -14 minutes the droplets
of the indicated distribution grow to 30 11m. The droplets with narrower initial distribution (type 3)
for the times 13 - 26 minutes grow to the radii of 18 - 20 11m. In this case gravity coagulation is insuffi-
ciently effective. Therefore, approximated evaluations of the coagulation growth rates of neutral cloud
particles with application of the obtained experimental data have shown that if in the initial function
of size droplets distribution there is a sufficient number (about 10- 3 %) of large droplets with the
radius of not less than 20 11m, then for the times 10 -15 minutes the droplets of such a cloud grow to
the radii of 29 - 30 !lID. In the case of a narrower initial function of size droplets distribution the gravity
coagulation is ineffective.
The evaluation of the influence of charges on the interaction of particles has shown, that for the
natural cloud droplets occurring even in undeveloped cumulus, the collision efficiency of charged
73
0,5 • _ 1
o - 2
A - 3
I~Y
~ ,
\. ~~""-::r -
,
,\.~ ~---=r..--- - - - - - "
--.r:
~., --.--.--.--.--.-......c5
..... - - - - - - - - - - - _ 6
V-
O'OIL-----~------~------~------~----~------~
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1.0
Ratio of droplet radii, ';/-,.,
Fig. 4. Dependence of collision efficiency on the ratio of radii of neutral droplets. Experimental data obtained by
Woods and Mason (14): curve 1; by authors of present paper (6): curve 2; by Picknet (13): curve 3. Results of
calculations by Hocking and Jonas (15) at B = 9 x 10- 3 : curve 4; the same at B = 1 x 10- 3 : curve 5. Results of
calculations by Davis and Sartor (16): curve 6; by Davis (17) and Jonas (18): curve 7. Abscissa: r 2 1r 1 ; r 2 = 6.5 11m
droplets is greater than the collision efficiency of neutral ones, if r2/r1 > 0.4. Considering the fact that
the charge values in developed cumulus and in thunderclouds can be 20 - 30 times greater than in
undeveloped clouds, the effect of the electric coagulation shall be greater by several orders.
Thus, the results of experimental studies of interaction of charged droplets of comparable and equal
sizes confirmed the hypothesis (8) about precipitation formation based on the coalescence mechanism
of cloud particles with the same charge sign. The occurrence of sufficiently large charges in clouds due
to the indicated effect results in considerable increase of coagulation growth rate, which in its turn causes
the appearance in clouds of a sufficient number of large drops. In compound with the action of gravity
and aerodynamic forces, electric coagulation enhances precipitation formation in warm clouds.
References
1. Krasnogorskaya, N. v., The role of electric forces in precipitation formation. In: Problems of Atm. and Space
Electricity, Ed.: S. C. Coroniti (Amsterdam 1965). - 2. Krasnogorskaya, N. v., Influence of electric forces on cloud
droplets coagulation. Meteorologia i gidrologia, N 3 (1967). - 3. Sartor, J. D., J. Geoph. Res. 65, 7 (1960). -
4. Semonin, R. C., and H. B. Plumlee, J. Geoph. Res. 71, 18 (1966). - 5. Lindblad, N. R., and R. G. Semonin, J.
Geoph. Res. 58, 4 (1963). - 6. Krasnogotskaya, N. v., and A. I. Neizvestniy, Meteorologia i Gidrologia, 12 (1973). -
7. Krasnogorskaya, N. v., and A. I. Neizvestniy, Experimental researches of the collision efficiency of charged
droplets of equal size. Izvestia AN SSSR, AiO, t. 9, N 4 (1973). - 8. Krasnogorskaya, N. v., Electricity of the lower
layers of the atmosphere and methods of its measurement. Gidrometeoizdat, L. (1972). - 9. Krasnogorskaya, N. v.,
Calculation of collision efficiency of particles of comparable size. Doklady AN SSSR, t.154, N 2(1964). - 10. Kras-
nogorskaya, N. v., Influence of electric forces on particles coagulation of comparable size. Izvestia AN SSSR, Fizika
74
--.- I -
---- 2
---- 3
-
Drops radius (microns)
Fig. 5. Transformation of the size spectrum of cloud particles during application of experimental values of neutral
drop collision efficiency. Curves 1,2, 3 are types of the initial neutral droplet distribution by size. Time t is given
in minutes. Abscissa: r in 11m
atmosfery i okeana, t. 1, N 3 (1965). - 11. Krasnogorskaya, N. v., Role of electric forces in precipitation formation.
Izvestia AN SSSR, t. I, N 4(1965). - 12. Paluch, I. R.,J. Geophys. Res. 75, 9 (1970). - 13. Picknet,R. G., J. Air. Pollut.
3 (1960). - 14. Woods, J. D., and B. J. Mason, Q. J. Roy. Met. Soc. 90, 386 (1964). - 15. Hocking, L. M., and P. R.
Jonas, Q. J. Roy. Met. Soc. 96, 410 (1970). - 16. Davis, M. H., and J. D. Sartor, J. Geophys. Res. 68,13 (1963). -
17. Davis, M. H., J. Atmosph. Sci. 29, 7 (1972). - 18. Jonas, P. R., Q. J. Roy. Met. Soc. 98, 417 (1972). -
19. Bartlett, J. T., Q. J. Roy. Met. Soc. 96 (1970).
Authors' addresses:
N. V. Krasnogorskaya A. S. Neizvestniy
Inst. Physics of Earth Inst. of Applied Geophysics and
Akademia Nauk, SSSR Central Meteorological Observatory
B. Gruzinskaya I.D. Hydrometeorological Service of the USSR
Moskva 123242 Molodezjnaya 3, Moskva 117296
USSR USSR
75
Structure of Liquid H 2 S04 - H 2 0 Clusters Around Ions:
Thermodynamic Theory
E. Wiendl
With 5 figures
Abstract
The example of H 2S0 4 - H 20 clusters was taken because of its importance for air pollution problems.
H 2S0 4 is formed by photo-oxidation from the primary pollutant S02 by gas-to-particle conversion in the
atmosphere. Ionized H 2S0 4 - H 20 clusters are expected to be observed in polluted city air (Cox, 1974).
Furthermore H 2S0 4 - H 20 droplets were identified in background atmosphere near Antarctica (Meszaros,
1974), in dependence of the available NH 3 -concentration.
In this paper it was calculated by how many H 20-molecules and H 2S0 4 -molecules a single-charged ion is
surrounded at 25°C for various relative humidities (R H ~ 100 %) and various activities of sulfuric acid vapor
(5 x 10- 3 to 1 x 10- 5 ) using the Becker-Flood-Doyle theory of the heteromolecular homogeneous nucleation
for stable clusters.
The size and composition is given by the minimum of the droplet formation free energy, dependent on the
concentrations of gaseous H 20 and H 2S0 4 vapors in the atmosphere. The cluster composition (400 -700 pm
in size) is shifted to a larger number of H 20-molecules with increasing RH at nearly constant H 2S0 4 -con-
centration.
The calculated cluster concentration for pure ion-water molecules is compared with the experiment and showed
good agreement. The aim of this paper is to predict results of future experiments on the structure of binary
mixture droplets around ions. This comparison would test how good the classical thermodynamic theory
describes aerosol particles in the range of hundreds of picometers despite using macroscopic concepts (i.e. surface
tension).
Theoretical Presumptions
Heteromolecular homogeneous nucleation means in the following text: Nucleation of sulfuric acid
vapor and water vapor without further aerosols or other surfaces as condensation nuclei (Stauffer,
1974). The theoretical and experimental assumptions of the nucleation theory date back to Flood (1934),
Becker (1935) and Doyle (1961). Recently the theory was carried on development by Kiang (1973) and
independently by Katz (1974). The heteromolecular nucleation theory takes for the free energy I1G/kT
of a binary mixture droplet an expression containing nA molecules of type A and nB molecules of type B.
Doyle (1961) used first an equation containing two bulk terms and one surface term, which is now ex-
tended with an electrostatic term for a single-charged ion:
I1G
[1]
kT
I1G/kT is the free energy of droplet formation with k = 1.38 X 10- 23 JK- 1 (Boltzmann constant) and
T = 298.15 K. nA,nB are the numbers of water respectively sulfuric acid molecules; PA,P B are the
actual gas partial pressures; PC;:, P: are the equilibrium vapor pressures, dependent on the cluster com-
position nA/nB. PAis, divided by the vapor pressure of the pure compound, defined as relative humidity
RH. Correspondingly the activity of the sulfuric acid is defined as P B divided by the equilibrium vapor
pressure of H 2 S0 4 • The cluster radius is calculated using the volume of H 2 0 and H 2 S0 4 molecules,
considering "volume contraction effect" of the mixture (Stauffer, 1974). (J is surface tension ofthe droplet
and q = 1.6 X 10- 19 C (elemental charge).
Calculation of the Cluster Distribution

H 2 S0 4 -H 2 0 mixture droplets
At a given composition (nA,nB) I1G/kT is calculated as function of RH and activity a for the examples
RH = 7.35 %,20%,50%, 100%. The corresponding activities were chosen, causing distinct minima
76
of IlG/kT. The higher RH, the lower is the activity where you receive stable clusters. For RH = 7.35 %
and a = 5 x 10- 3 the absolute minimum of IlG/kT is found at a cluster composition (nA = 5,
nB = 3); at RH = 20% and a = 1 x 10- 3 the absolute minimum is shifted to (nA = 8, nB = 3) and at
RH = 100% and a = 1 x 10- 5 it is located at (nA = 16, nB = 3). There is a trend that stable clusters
impinge much more H 2 0-molecules with increasing RH. Activities a up to 10- 2 can be expected
(Wiendl, 1974), if the H 2 S0 4 gas production rate is equated with the H 2 S0 4 gaseous removal rate due
to impingement on aerosols in Los Angeles smog. (The volume contraction effect leaves the positions
of free energy minima nearly unchanged).
-- Q =5'10"' • R.H. =2!J°/o

--- - Q=1·113 .RH. = 2!J'o
Fig. 1. Free droplet formation energies ilG/kT for stable H2 S0 4 - H2 0-clusters around a central ion as function
of nA' In the example the curves for nB were calculated at constant RH, but varying activity a
A typical energy barrier is shown in Fig. 2a, taken from Castleman (1972). First 1l4J grows in conse-
quence of the surface term contribution for small droplet radii; the two negative bulk terms pre-
dominate with increasing cluster radius; for very small radii the electrostatic term stabilizes the ion-
clusters. Fig. 1 considers only that part of the free energy round the stable minimum.
Q b
I
I
I
I
I
,I
- n
- n
Fig. 2. a) Typical energy barrier il4J for clusters around a central ion. n. is the range of stable clusters, n* critical
cluster composition for nucleation.
b) Cluster concentration I. for the same case; the maximum of I. corresponds to the minimum in Fig.2a,
Castleman (1972)
Comparison of the values at constant RH with varying activity gives a similarity form for each nB'
You can see, that IlG/kT has only to be transformed by means of an expression nB • In (a - a') in order
to vary the activity. In the following the stable clusters are related with a probability distribution. The
77
5 Il 15n...
Fig. 3. Distribution of H2 S0 4 - H2 0 clusters, calculated as function of nA for nB = 1,2,3; R H = 50 % and
a = 1 x 10- 5. The distribution is related to the free energy with exp ( - L'1G/kT), and is normalized to 1 at
maximum. n A = 9, nB = 2 is the composition at the absolute minimum of L'1G/kT; nB = 1, nB = 3 is calculated
relatively to nB = 2
resulting cluster concentration In is referred to the probability that a certain cluster composition exists
in the atmosphere, with the following relation:
[2]
The absolute minimum of !J.GlkT corresponds therefore to the most probable cluster concentration
in Fig. 3. It was calculated at RH = 50% and a = 1 x 10- 5 , starting with the absolute minimum at
a composition (n A = 9, nB = 3). The results showed a quick decay of In; values larger than nA = 14
or smaller than nA = 4 could already be neglected. For comparison In of the adjacent minima (nB = 1,
nB = 3) were calculated in the same way. Despite of unimportant differences for !J.GlkT there is to be
observed a quick slope in the probability distribution relative to the absolute minimum. The contri-
butions of higher values of nB are negligible. The shape of the distribution is shifted continually to larger
nA with increasing nB . Furthermore there exists a dependence on the H 20-partial pressure. At increasing
RH there should be observed a broadening of the distribution, whereas at low partial pressures a distinct
maximum of In can be expected. "The trend of an asymmetrical distribution is explained with the pre-
ponderance of the attracting potential, caused by the central force field of ions" (Castleman, 1972).
The modification of the most probable cluster composition as function of nA and nB, at constant
RH is caused by variation of the activity (Fig. 4). The activity (characterized by arrows in the figure)
corresponds to the cluster composition in equilibrium with the surrounding gas. These values are
equivalent to the "zero-super-saturation" of Kiang (1973); that means, the actual partial pressures are
equal to the partial pressures in equilibrium. The corresponding activities in Fig. 4 are: 9.1 x 10- 5
at RH = 7.35%; 3.5 x 10- 5 at RH = 20%; 3.9 x 10- 10 at RH = 50% and zero at RH = 100%.
Activities lower than these are unimportant, since the partial pressures of H 20 and H 2S0 4 cannot be
smaller than those over the surface of a liquid mixture in equilibrium with their vapors.
Cluster distribution of water-ion molecules, compared with the experiment

Since there exists till now no experiment for binary mixture droplets, the test of the theory is restricted
to the calculated ion-water clusters. The test (Fig. 5) with the experiments for Pb+(H20)n-ciusters
78
-
RH.=!OO%
J 10
Fig. 4. Modification of the most probable cluster composition as function of a, for various R H. The arrows indicate
for each R H the activity in equilibrium with the surrounding gas. In the limiting case of very small a, the clusters
consist of pure water
(Castleman, 1972) showed good agreement of theory and experiment. In in the experiment is slightly
shifted to smaller values of nA; this might be explained with properties of the hydrated Pb + -Ion. The
calculated cluster concentration is asymmetrical and broadened to larger cluster sizes, whereas the
experimental values show a more narrow distribution and concentrate In only to a few clusters.
Castleman (1972) says, that clusters with less than 5 molecules or more than 15-20 molecules could
eventually not be detected in the experiment.
100
....
5
5 10 15
Fig. 5. Comparison of calculated ion-water molecules (nB = 0) as function of nA (vertical lines) with the
Pb+(H20)n-experiment of Castleman (1972; curve). The cluster concentration for PHzO = 20 torr, T = 300K
is normalized to 1 at maximal concentration (1 torr = 133 pascal = 133 N m- 2)
Castleman (1972) realizes at the moment the experiments for H 2 S04 - H 2 0 mixtures (private
communication); thus the test of the heteromolecular homogeneous nucleation theory can be extended
soon to binary mixture droplets. Stronger deviations between experiment and theory are to be expected.
Recently Briant (1974) calculated the free energies of stable prenucleation embryos with one central
ion. Their suggested potentials give qualitative agreement with the experiment (Castleman, 1972), but
without statements with regard to cluster distributions. Furthermore the free energies of droplet
formation for uncharged liquid H 2 S0 4 - H 2 0 clusters were calculated by Heist (1974), independently
79
of the submitted paper. Their results indicate that virtually all the H 2 S0 4 present, especially for
RH ~ 100%, exists in hydrate form.
Acknowledgments
I thank Dr. D. Stauffer for drawing my attention to this problem and for encouraging discussions.
References
1. Becker, R., and W. Doring, Ann. Phys. 24, 719 (1935). - 2. Briant, C. L., and J. J. Burton, J. Chem. Phys. 60,
2849 (1974). - 3. Castleman Jr., A. w., and I. N. Tang, J. Chem. Phys. 57, 3629 (1972). - 4. Cox, R. A., Tellus 26,
235 (1974). - 5. Doyle, G. J., J. Chem. Phys. 35, 795 (1961). - 6. Flood, H., Z. Phys. Chem. A 170, 286 (1934). -
7. Heist, R. H., and H. Reiss, J. Chem. Phys. 61, 573 (1974). - 8. Kiang, C. S., and D. Stauffer, Faraday Symposia
7, 26 (1973). - 9. Meszaros, A., J. Aerosol Sci. 5, 101 (1974). - 10. Stauffer, D., and C. S. Kiang, Icarus 21, 129
(1974). - 11. Wiendl, E., Size distribution of atmospheric aerosols (1974).
Discussion
I'd like to ask about the contribution of this ion chemistry for rain formation. For instance, a warm rain, we
know that nuclei suitable for producing a rain shower range from 10- 18 kg to 10 -15 kg. There is still a big size
gap between clusters and such cloud nuclei. In this session many speakers talked about the cluster formation
and it looks to me as if the existence of charge on a particle might help to make a cluster. Can you extend your
consideration of clusters up to nuclei sizes?
Castleman, Boulder, Colorado, USA:
If I understand the last question, I must take some exception. I would like to make some additional comments
on nucleation in order to perhaps clarify some of the points which I attempted to bring out during the discussion
at the end of my own paper. Namely, I believe that ion clusters can provide a basic tool for studying nucleation
in the laboratory. Under some conditions in the atmosphere, they may also provide nucleation sites. But, I believe
that this would only be true in those regions where the preexisting particle concentration is very small. The
reasons for this could be established more clearly if one could go to the blackboard; perhaps it's not necessary at
this point and I could discuss the details privately later. Regarding the collision of any constituent with an
aerosol particle, whenever we are considering the troposphere under most storm conditions, the collision rate
between any gas, or condensable species such as water vapour, with an aerosol particle, would be very rapid. Since
the amount of supersaturation necessary for nucleation on particles is so small, to my way of thinking, the
alternative mechanism of nucleation about ions would not playa significant role in cloud formation processes
or in producing rain. However, I do believe the role of ions may be quite important in the upper atmosphere,
perhaps in the stratosphere, and certainly in the mesosphere. Although a somewhat controversial subject, calcu-
lations suggest that noctilucent cloud formation, in fact, does involve nucleation about the H+ or more correctly
the H30+ hydrated series. Likewise in the stratosphere, there may exist condensable gases that are at fairly low
supersaturation ratios with respect to the condensed state, but still exceeding a value of unity. Since in the strato-
sphere there exists only a fairly low number concentration of aerosol with a correspondingly low surface area,
nucleation on surfaces may be relatively rare in this region. However, the related ion clustering rates can be quite
appreciable, thereby eventually leading to nucleation under some situations. However, I don't agree with the
last remark that it would be important in storms.
Mr. Castleman's point is that while homogeneous nucleation by growth of these particles in the troposphere
would be extremely unlikely for cloud formation, however, in the stratosphere or mesosphere, he thinks that
possibility should not be thrown out. In fact, I understand him to say he thinks it's quite likely.
Barreto, Scotia, New York,USA:
I understand that homogeneous nucleation occurs in a situation where supersaturation is around 800 per
cent. There's no question, this never happens in the atmosphere. I question whether you should call nucleation
the growth of little particles, molecule by molecule. I am very skeptic of what the surface tension is of an
800 picometer size particle. I don't think the concept of surface tension has any meaning at that size. And again,
thermodynamics of a few molecules, I don't think is possible. You have to think of the fairly large droplet before
you can talk about thermodynamics.
80
Stauffer, Garching, West-Germany:
I agree that the concept of a surface tension for 800 picometer droplets is dangerous, but I think there is now
an increasing amount of information that it really can be applied. One are the experiments of Castleman and Tang
which were just presented again by Wiendl, where this concept really worked pretty well. The other are computer
experiments in simple models by Stoll, Binder and Schneider, and Muller-Krumbhaar, which also seem to indicate
that the surface tension concept can be applied even for clusters containing 2 or 3 or 4 molecules.
I just wish to comment that I believe there is a test from gas phase chemical reactions on the validity of the
thermodynamics of surface tension. The calculations, in fact, are much the same. One would expect to see marked
discrepancies in gas phase reaction rates, compared with predicted solid-gas phase reaction rates, if in fact there
were substantial errors in the use of the concept of surface tension.
Muhleisen, Ravensburg, West-Germany:
I would like to add one comment concerning the situation over the oceans. Can we derive some consequences
for the mobility and the mass spectrum of maritime ions? Up to now, it is impossible to give an exact answer,
because pollution over the ocean is also existent and, therefore, it would be very difficult. But we have now from
several expeditions with research vessels many data about the aerosol composition over the ocean, and therefore,
it may be possible to say something about this.
Dawson:
Mr. Latham earlier asked a question, I believe, of Mr. Iribarne about the ions that are coming from discharges
from water surfaces. While I probably shouldn't enter into the discussion on this point, I feel reasonably strongly
that under practically all cases the ions of interest will indeed be air and gas discharge ions. There seems to be
no reason, certainly from our experiments, to imagine that the ions produced by corona or other electrical
effects on water surfaces should be any different from those produced at any other type of surface than water.
Certainly, our experiments do not show any difference.
Author's address:
E. Wiendl
N usselstral3e 51
D 8000 Munchen 60
West Germany
81
General Discussion
Pierce, Menlo Park, California, USA:
I have had reason recently to examine the experimental information on positive ion mobilities at altitudes
from 10 km to 70 km. Between 10 and 30 km, we have I think three reliable groups of data. These are from
Paltridge in Australia, from Morita and Ishikawa in Japan, and from Muhleisen and Riekert in Germany. They
all give (reduced) positive ion mobilities ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 x 10- 4 m 2jVs which is approximately what we
expect the mobility to be at ground level. Now, if we go to the range from 40 to 70 km, again, we have three fairly
reliable' sets of data. One of them was shown fleetingly by M ohnen on one of his slides; that was by W iddel and
Rose. We also have some good information from Hale and his co-workers in the U.S., and also from Conley
in the U.S. All these groups of data suggest that the (reduced) positive ion mobilities from 40 to 70 km range from
2 to 5 X 10- 4 m 2jVs. In other words, we appear to have a positive ion mobility from 40 to 70 km, which is three
times that from zero to 30 km. I'd welcome some possible explanation from M ohnen or anybody else.
I agree with what Pierce said in regard to the reliability of measurements. My explanation is as follows: We
have in the 70 km altitude range several checkpoints, in the form of mass identified ions. Direct measurements
have been made by Narcisi from Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory, by Goldberg from NASA and
Krankowsky from Heidelberg. At this moment, it is my belief that the positive ion chemistry, as far as mass
identification is concerned, is rather reliable. The predominant ion are H30+ . (H 20)., i.e., the hydrated oxonium
ions species. The mobility analysis in proper spectrometers (Huertas from Blanc's group, Bricard's group, and
my laboratory back in Albany) reveals mobilities that range between 2 and 2.5, which is the range that Widdel
reported. So, as far as the high mobilities are concerned, that one finds between 40 and 70 km, I believe
the explanation is satisfactory. Mobility measurements become more and more difficult at higher altitudes
while mass spectrometry becomes more and more simple with increasing altitude. At ground level, it is well
recognized for over 50 years that the mobility of ions that "are aged", (those that have had a chance to
interact with trace constituents in the lower troposphere) range between 0.5 and, at the very most, 1.5 with
a maximum around 1 or 1.2. These tropospheric ions, in my present belief, are ions that have started in the
sequence as pointed out in my talk this morning. They have gone through the H30+(H20). sequence and have
further reacted with ammonia forming the ammonia core, and then have further reacted with the atmospheric
trace constituents. At this point, we are able to produce mobilities in the laboratory down to 1.05 x 10- 4 m 2
V-I S-1 with S02 and NH3 as trace gases. Blanc (Huertas) and Bricard have done similar measurements with
organic constituents. We have learned this morning from McKnight that organic vapors give similar low
mobility values. It is my belief, therefore, that tropospheric ions having a mobility of around 10- 4 are large
conglomerates that have collected during their lifetime numerous molecules and hence are in a continuous state
of evolution that not necessarily has to limit their mobility to 1 x 10- 4 . They can even grow into particles.
The transition between 10 and 40 km is the range where the influence of trace gases is limited by the life time of
ions and the low concentration of these gases.
Seems to me that there is one slightly troubling part, and that is the experiments in the lab at very low humidities.
As you decrease the humidity, the mobility does not seem to increase very significantly. If I understand you, you
think that the smaller amount of water vapour is contributing to the higher mobilities.
Mohnen:
It is rather difficult to limit the discussion to what's called "Dry Air". It is clear that for laboratory measurements
at tropospheric pressure, "Dry Air" is the most inconclusive description. To me dry air is not a chemical descrip-
tion of a gaseous system. Just removing water vapour down to 10 parts per million does not mean that the air
now has everything but the water vapour. By decreasing and removing the water vapour in a laboratory system,
one also removes other condensable gases, and one absorbs such gases that influence the mobility. Therefore,
the ion mobilities that we find reported in the literature for artificial ionization in "dry air" do not necessarily
reflect the nature of tropospheric ions. We are in each and every case of artificial ionization dealing with ions
that have a life time of less than one second. They have been generated artificially in a gaseous environment
where water has been removed and with it other trace gases, and it is extremely difficult now to agree on one
particular mobility value for "tropospheric ions". This is clearly documented by the numerous results that have
been reported over the past decades. The effect of trace gases on mobility is more severe than the effect of changing
water vapour concentration.
82
I'd like to supplement Mohnen's remarks concerning the difficulty of removing water vapour without basically
changing the composition of the air and, perhaps, take a slight issue with yourself, Dawson, over the volume of
hydrocarbons in the air. I work with a group where hydrocarbons are being measured in the cleanest air we can
find. We go to remote sites to measure the trace constituents of the air, and indeed, there are literally hundreds
of hydrocarbons measurable at concentrations near 100 parts per trillion (100 ppt = to- 10) in the atmosphere.
It is important to remove water vapour, because of the interference with the measuring of the hydrocarbons, but
it is technically very difficult to remove the water vapour without, in fact, removing a large part of these hydro-
carbons.
Dawson:
Any comments on the relationship between mobility and size, mass units measured and inferred?
Mohnen:
I think that you addressed a very important question in ion physics. Number one, the theory that relates mass
to mobility, the so-called Langevin theory, has been investigated over many, many years. We know today that the
ions that we see in the atmosphere are in a constant change and evolution. Their mass can change from collision
to collision. This is the basic ion cluster concept. So what Langevin theory can give us, at the very best, is an
"average" mass. Investigations that have been carried out over the previous four years seem to indicate that for
masses that are in the excess of three hundred amu, Langevin theory gives rather reasonable results. But, Langevin
theory applied to ions in an evolutionary state (such as all ions in the troposphere) does not give good results.
I would stress the point that any attempt should be made in the future that mobility measurements must be ac-
companied by mass measurements. I also would stress the point, that specific consideration should be given to
the measurement of the gas composition. It is completely irrelevant for an atmospheric physicist or chemist to
have definitions, such as "Dry Air" or "Pure Air". The upper limits of the concentration of various species that
have been measured in a gaseous system should be stated.
Ryder, Bracknell, Berkshire, England:
Listening to Mohnen talking about the mobilities in the mesosphere, I wasn't sure whether he was suggesting
that the fact that the mobilities are rather higher there than below is because there are simply no organic
compounds up in that area. It would surprise me, if, for example, methane wasn't present in the mesosphere.
Therefore, if that is the case, I would also be surprised if it doesn't come into the category of trace gases, just as the
organic compounds do in the troposphere.
Mohnen:
Methane is of no consequence in positive or negative ion chemistry.
Ryder:
As I recall, essentially the methane is a method of producing or getting carbon into that area, and that it will
then, presumably, be capable of forming other organic compounds. You've now got a supply of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen.
Mohnen:
This is correct. We now look at other trace gases that are photochemical derivatives of methane, such as the
intermediate formaldehyde, or organic acids, or such as H0 2 or OH. But methane itself does not seem to play
any role in positive and/or negative ion chemistry.

I would like to mention some measurements of the mobility spectrum in the atmosphere near the ground made
by Riekert with the method of a normal Gerdien-type ion-counter. The results of these measurements in 1971
gave a mobility spectrum of positive ions from about 0.7 to 2.6 x 10- 4 m 2/Vs with a maximum frequency
near 1, and the mobility spectrum for the negative ions between 0.8 and 3.3 with a maximum near 1.4; that means
very similar to the mobilities mentioned by Mohnen. Because this was done by the old Gerdien-type ion-counter
by measuring the ion current in function of the voltage at the ion capacitor, this encouraged me to support the
proposal by Mohnen to make more and more mobility measurements in the free atmosphere near the ground
at different places and different altitudes and also with this type of ion-counter. The method was to make a correct
ion current measurement and differentiate this function twice, and then you'll get the mobility spectrum. The results
in very good agreement with other methods encouraged me to support this proposal to not only make measure-
ments with the drift method, but also with the Gerdien-capacitor.
83
Lane-Smith, London, Ontario, USA:
Tomorrow morning I will be describing a precision drift tube mobility spectrometer which is being developed
by Seville Chapman which is producing spectra with resolution better than 1 %. The results tend to show that
the ions have a long life time, that is that a single cluster ion maintains its identity for a life time longer than the time
spent in the spectrometer, which is contrary to the results of Mohnen.
Mohnen:
It's the first time that I hear of discrepancies or differences of opinions between Chapman's results and my own
ones. I do not have any difficulties in explaining Chapman's measured mobility spectra. A life time of an ion and
its nature is governed by the interaction with its environment. We can produce in the laboratory different and
discrete mobility spectra. Some "terminal" ions that emerge do not react as fact with minute trace gases as others
do. One typical example is the following ion:
NHt . (NH3l•. (H 20), . [(NH3h . S02].
(x, y, n dependent on respective trace gas concentration and temperature)
These cluster ion types are rather stable against conversion. They give rise to several mobility peaks, corre-
sponding to n = 0,1,2,3, etc. So, from that point of view, I think that Chapman's results, showing several "stable"
mobility peaks, are not inconsistent with our present knowledge.
I agree that Chapman's instrument is very precise, it's portable and should be used by field experimentors.
In certain other fields, it has become quite common over the past five years to make instrument comparison.
I do strongly suggest that instrument comparison be conducted between all mobility analyzers in operation.
Lane-Smith:
Trying to explain briefly what I think Chapman's results indicated, I should like to discuss what a resolution of
one percent might be able to achieve. If one has sharp peaks in a spectrum, two explanations can be offered. Either
one has a statistically sharp peak because the ions change their nature very often, or one has a sharp peak because
they change their nature very rarely. If one then modifies the environment of the measurement slightly, a pos-
sibility appears to distinguish between these two cases. Either the sharp peak will drift in its position, or it would
change its size, but remain in its position exactly. In the former case, it would mean that equilibrium was changing
because of the change of environment, which would support the frequent changes in nature of the ion. In the
latter case it would mean that there are fewer ions of this nature produced, but that they maintain their identity
throughout the time of the drift, and it appears that it is the latter case, that has been observed.
Certainly, it appears that the more prominent spectral peaks do not change their position, as you change the
environment but merely their relative sizes.
Mohnen:
Chapman's mobility measurements of artificially produced ions in atmospheric air show several mobility peaks.
The resolution of his mobility spectrometer is better than 1 %. The evolution time of ions in his instrument is less
than 800 milliseconds. Let us denote the individual ions with A +, B +, C +, D +, ... etc., and the individual trace gas
species with a, b; c, d, ... etc.
I. The existence of one mobility peak in a mobility spectrum would then indicate: 1) all ions present in the gas
system are reacting with each other:
A + ~ B+ ~ C+ ~ D+ ~ etc.
to(l) to(2) to(3) ko(4)
The forward reaction rates k, and the backward reaction rates kb have to be measured in order to obtain the
equilibrium constant K = k,(i)/kb(i) from which one can deduce the concentration of individual ions
[A +], [B+], [C+], etc. ([A +], [B+], etc. can be measured in a quadrupole mass spectrometer attached to the
mobility spectrometer.) A shift of this one mobility peak would indicate a change in temperature and/or pressure
and/or trace gas concentration [a], [b], etc. influencing the ion concentration [A +], [B+], etc. 2) There is only
one ionic specie present in the gas system, stable against any further conversion upon collision with trace gas
species a, b, c, etc.
II. The existence of two or more mobility peaks with no mobility continuum in-between would indicate:
1) Within each mobility peak, equilibrium conditions exist as mentioned above. However, a very slow "transfer"
of ions occurs between ions from one mobility class into the other. The forward reaction rate Kr is not only
orders of magnitude smaller than the reaction rates kr(i), but the backward reaction Kbis also smaller than K r.
[A+ ~
~Q
B+.,:t etc] ~
K~q
[E+.,:t F+.,:t etc]
.
(withkr(i)~Kr).
84
These conditions would be indicative of chemical reactions rather than ion molecule reactions. Typically, ion
molecule reactions are in the order of kr(i) - to- 15 m 3 js while chemical reactions are Kr(i) _ to- 19 m 3 js.
The life time of certain ionic species is governed by the concentration of trace gases [ a], [b], [c], etc. participating
in ion molecule or chemical reactions with ions. 2) Each mobility peak consists of one single ionic specie not
interacting with the gaseous environment and hence not changing its chemical nature with time.
III. Two or more individual mobility peaks connected by a rather continuous mobility spectrum individual
peaks possibly shifting within. This situation would indicate that processes 1-1 and II-I are operating simultaneously.
There are ion molecule reactions and chemical changes occurring resulting in average life times of the species,
against "permanent" changes in ionic nature, comparable to the life time of ions in the mobility analyzer, where
the ions have been generated prior to their analysis. This last point stresses the importance of analyzing ions as
they exist in the free atmosphere, i.e., having life times ranging from seconds to minutes. Laboratory experiments,
where ions are artificially generated just prior to their analysis, will reveal to us the evolution of ions and the reac-
tion schemes, but when this evolutionary process is studied up to times comparable to the average life time of
atmospheric ions, we should not assume these laboratory mobility values being representative of atmospheric
ions.
McKnight, Murray Hill, New York, USA:
One criterion which must be included in the analysis of the peak shapes in measuring mobilities of ions in
equilibrium is the mobility of the individual ions. If the ions in equilibrium have the same mobility, then the peak
will be narrow. If two ions are in equilibrium, and they have quite different mobilities, then the peak may stay in
the same position but its width will increase. In the real world, the possibility of peaks formed by ions in equilib-
rium is very likely so that consideration of the mobilities of the constituent ions must not be neglected in
analyzing the position and shape of the peaks.
Chairman's address:
G. A. Dawson
Inst. of Atmospheric Physics
University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona 85721
USA
85
Session 2
IONS. APPLIED RESEARCH:

ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY AND METEOROLOGY
Chairman: R. Reiter
Atmospheric Electricity in the Real World *)

(Useful Applications of Observations which are Perturbed by Local Effects)
R. V. Anderson
With 6 figures
Abstract
Attempts to separate global and local effects in atmospheric electricity observations and to define "fair weather"
are briefly reviewed. It is shown that commonly used definitions contain an inherent bias which depends on
instrumentation, the parameters observed, and the interests of the observer. Reasons are adduced to encourage
the study of local or "non-fair-weather" effects themselves. Atmospheric pollution is discussed in its relation to
electrical observables. It is shown that the effect of pollution on conductivity is obvious, on electric field is am-
biguous, and on vertical current density is such as to impart the properties of a useful index. The diminution of
conductivity before and during fog is explored, the extensive literature on the subject is examined, and the con-
clusion is exp~unded that conductivity measurement is a forecasting tool ready for immediate application. The
surface-electrode effect is shown to have two dominant length scales for electrical studies, and the problems
inherent in measurements within the planetary boundary layer are analyzed. Relationships are shown between
the Kolmogorov spectrum of atmospheric turbulence and spectra of atmospheric electricity observables. Data
from the solar eclipses of 1970 and 1973 are presented which provide corroboration of the picture presented of
the turbulent electrode layer. In conclusion the interrelations and interactions of all the phenomena discussed
are emphasized, and directions for further investigations are indicated.
Introduction
A major goal in studying atmospheric electricity has long been the identification of local effects in
observational data in order that patterns of global scale variations might emerge (42,50). Local phenom-
ena have been called "disturbances"; whereas the (presumed) global variation is described as "the
fundamental problem of atmospheric electricity" (24). To this end many schemes of instrumentation,
measurement technique, and analysis have been suggested, attempted, and used as approaches toward
this goal (1, 45, 78, 79). That such work is continuing indicates both the interest in and the difficulty
of the problem. The discussions at this conference on the global circuit show that the subject is far
from closed.
Recent practice has been to define "fair weather" for the purposes of atmospheric electricity as the
absence of detectable local perturbations. Though such a definition is quite unobjectionable, it serves
only to transfer the problem from the verification of a positive assertion of fair weather to the
establishment of the categorically negative statement that no local effects exist. The effect of local
influences on each measurable parameter must be examined in detail if the development of viable
*) Invited Paper.
87
criteria to that specific measurement for fair weather is to be possible. The electric field may react
strongly to a small charged cloud overhead or to the movement of little globs of space charge near the
surface (29), but it may be almost totally unaffected by a fog (27, 34) or pollution (11, 66) incident.
Exactly the opposite is true in the case of conductivity. The determination of current density is further
complicated in that the different techniques employed respond differently to some stimuli such as con-
vectively transported charge and hence might well require different operative definitions offair weather.
Additionally any useful such defmition must consider the physical scales of interest. Do we derme as
local any process which is of the order of millimeters, meters, kilometers, or megameters? Is our interest
in diurnal variations, or are seasonal patterns the information which is to be extracted? Long-term
secular variations in global pollution clearly require a different frame of reference than the small-scale
Kolmogorov-type transfer of turbulent energy into viscosity. The nature and extent of all conceivable
perturbing mechanisms must be thoroughly studied to make a valid separation of global and local
effects. Hence much recent attention has been focused on the use of techniques and/or locales in which
many types of disturbance cannot exist (2, 45, 59, 77).
It can be inferred from the foregoing that, in concept at least, it is much easier to remove global-scale
variations from data and study the local perturbations. Universal variations can be removed either
by subtraction of a typical "universal" curve or by ignoring appropriate periodicities in the analysis
process. Turbulence and fog have effects with periodicities shorter than a day; and, though pollution
can have effects both greater and shorter than 24 hours, few manifestations have exactly a diurnal
periodicity. Additionally those few local phenomena which do have a daily variation will exhibit a
correlation with local time rather than universal time; this provides another means of identification
and separation which is useful unless the specific local phenomenon happens to coincide in phase with
a global variation.
Often the most immediate applications of atmospheric-electricity research are direct consequences
of local perturbations. Obvious applications include the detection and monitoring of atmospheric pol-
lution, fog forecasting, and the use of atmospheric ions (both small and large) to trace and parameterize
turbulent air motions. In addition a thorough understanding of these processes is necessary to studies
of traditional problems in atmospheric electricity.
Pollution
The subject of atmospheric pollution has recently become quite fashionable in scientific citcles, and
much interest has been generated in techniques which might yield better indices of pollution. The use
of atmospheric electricity observations in such a role was an obvious suggestion in the light of the
general qualitative agreement that conductivity will always be markedly reduced by concentrations
of extraneous particulates. It is customary to express the conductivity by A. = n e k, where k is the average
mobility, and couple this with an ion equilibrium equation involving production, recombination, and
capture rates for small ions to give a relation between conductivity and pollution. This conductivity
equation implies a homogeneous ion population characterized by a Dirac delta in mobility space as
its distribution function. This is mentioned because isolated instances have been observed in which a
conductivity increase coupled with a decrease in the density of small ions resulted when vast numbers
of intermediate ions (10- 6 to 10- 5 m 2fV-s) completely obliterated the small-ion contribution.
The use of conductivity as a pollution index was suggested by Cobb and Wells (16) explicitly, and
numerous other investigators have shown results which indicate the validity of this use (40, 54, 55, 57,
60, 70). Hogan and coworkers (36) questioned the validity of this use of the conductivity measurement,
pointing out that conductivity follows the product of aerosol size and number density rather than density
alone; Cobb replied (15) that this product is really closer to what is meant by pollution than the mere
number density itself. The use of conductivity as a pollution index does seem to have merit both
because of the considerable number of successful demonstrations which have occurred and because a
measurement of conductivity inherently provides a useful integration over a great volume of sample
and the entire ion spectrum.
88
The effect of pollution on the electric field is more ambiguous. Pollution and field have often been
observed to increase in magnitude together (53), and a generalization of this has offered strong
temptation. If the pollutants are confined to a thin layer near the surface which fills only a small fraction
ofthe total mixing layer, the effect on the columnar resistance will be small, and the field will be enhanced
due to the reduced conductivity within the polluted air. If, however, the contamination is distributed
throughout most or all of the mixing layer, the columnar resistances will increase substantially; and the
field at the surface can be relatively unaffected. Two observations made by scientists of the u.s. Naval
Research Laboratory (NRL) illustrate this point: An increase in field was observed during morning
hours at sites in the polluted megalopolis between Boston and Norfolk (8) although no appreciable
effect was seen in current density; and it was found that the current density measured on the second
of two flights over the Gulf of Alaska was 16 %lower than that measured on the first flight even though
potential gradients measured on the two flights were comparable. Data from these flights are shown in
Fig. 1; the explanation of the difference became apparent when conductivity profiles from the two flights
were integrated and indicated a 16 % increase in the columnar resistance during the 24 hours between
flights. This increased resistance indicated the gradual filling of a fresh, clean polar air mass with con-
taminants as it passed into more populated regions. Hence the electric field must be considered a de-
pendant variable in the case of pollution rather than a primary observation.
Contained in the preceding discussion is the implication that current density could serve as an index
of pollutant burden throughout the mixing layer. Observations have been presented which indicate the
validity of such a premise (8, 80). Since the current density reflects changes in the columnar resistance,
such a measurement also includes an integrating effect, and the tendency is to yield an index of meso-
scale or regional pollutant burden rather than the in situ determinations provided by air sampling.
Thus there is no real competition between analysis of air samples obtained at a single point in space
and time and a time recording of a current density which senses effects over a substantial volume of
space - the two types of data can serve widely different purposes.
The use of current density as a pollution indicator raises the question ofthe proper measuring techni-
que. What is desired is an unambiguous measure of the total net vertical current flux. Although this
question is properly the subject of a discussion on instrumentation, the dominant nature of local effects
on measuring systems themselves renders a limited analysis in the present context to be germane. First,
the reduction of current density with pollution has been observed with all presently used methods of
current determination: plate, wire, and probe antennas, and indirect computation as the product offield
and conductivity. Further, the effect observed in Alaska was in the absolute, unambiguous current
density determined as the product of field and conductivity measured in clear air well above the mixing
region. At the surface the best measurement is probably made with a plate antenna set into the ground
plane; but an indirect measurement based on a Gerdien conductivity meter and a radioactive probe
system would probably be easier to maintain in all weather. Either measuring technique may be imple-
--
3 30
J (Amps/m 2 X 10.12)
First Flight 0--0 E (Volts/Meter)
2 20
24 6 12 GMT 18 24
Fig. 1. Potential gradient E and current density J measured on two flights over the Gulf of Alaska.
89
men ted simply and inexpensively with solid-state technology. Measuring considerations will be further
evaluated in discussing the electrode effect.
A pollutant burden affects other observable parameters as well. The effect of pollution on ion spectra
has been studied (56) and found to be significant. The space charge in the atmosphere will be affected
in two ways. Many pollution generators are also effective producers of separated charge, and air in-
fluenced by them will generally have a larger and more variable space-charge density. In clean air the
charge is forced to reside on small ions; in polluted air the dominant charge is carried on aerosols. The
change in the mobility of the charges effected thereby results in a different behavior in turbulent mixing;
as will be shown, the frequency spectrum of a space-charge recording can be used to indicate whether
the charge is carried on large or small ions.
Fog
The reduction in conductivity before and during fog has received extensive study for many years.
Dolezalek (22) reviewed a vast amount of research, and a substantial number of studies have been
published since his review. This high level of interest and work is probably indicative of the obvious
practical application of a fog precursor. Research on this "atmospheric electric fog effect" has been
further facilitated because it can be done in and near population centers without recourse to exotic
instrument sites or vehicles. Recent studies of the fog effect can for convenience be lumped into three
categories: attempts to correlate conductivity with measured visibility, evaluations of the accuracy and
usefulness of the precursor effect, and examinations of extant data for the presence of the phenomenon.
Ferrara and Tonna (30) studied three cases offog: light, medium, and dense. Their goal was to correlate
the values of conductivity with an optical extinction coefficient, and this was accomplished with
correlations in excess of 0.9 for all but dense fog, in which case a floor appeared to exist below which
the conductivity would not drop. They do not discuss any precursor effect, but the curves presented do
indicate one, and this indication might well be better if the plots had extended to earlier times.
Ruhnke (71) studied relations between visibility and small-ion density and concluded that a single-
valued relationship existed for visibilities from 0 to about 10 kilometers. The applicability of this result
to conductivity is immediate if the hypothesis that the fog effect is dominantly a change in small-ion
population (7) can be accepted.
The question of improved forecasting of fog with the aid of conductivity measurements has received
lively attention. Following the Dolezalek review came an NRL report evaluating the effectiveness of
forecasts made in questionable conditions (temperature-dewpoint spread less than 2°) at several
stations over a period- of years (7). Accuracies close to 90 % were obtained at all stations for forecasts
of onset, persistence, and dissipation. Sivaramakrishnan and Selvam (75) report a 30-to-90-minute
precursor in their observations. Burke, Dalu, and Dalu (14) studied forecasting in artificial fogs,
suggested three mechanisms for its operation, and concluded that droplet growth and increases in
numbers of condensation nuclei probably both had roles in the fog process. Ottevanger (67) studied the
phenomenon with a modified conductivity meter, and he concluded that any improvement in fore-
casting accomplished with the conductivity measurement was too slight to warrant the cost and
complexity required. He surmised that the high level of pollution at De Bilt might suppress the atmos-
pheric-electricity effect. These conclusions were challenged by Dolezalek (26), who questioned the
instrument used by Ottevanger and pointed to consistently successful forecasts at Aachen, which is prob-
ably every bit as polluted as De Bilt. Ottevanger's conclusions are also contradicted in the NRL
experience in that the accuracy obtained at the heavily polluted Lakehurst and Norfolk sites is generally
as good as, and in some instances better than that obtained at the relatively clean Argentia station.
Additionally it is now possible to built a conductivity meter at considerably less cost than most
visibility measuring devices.
Although fog obviously affects other electrical parameters (the behavior of the electric field was in-
corporated into the empirical forecasting rules used in the NRL study (73)), studies of the effect of fog
on observables such as the field have produced ambiguous results. Endoh et al. (27, 28) observed an
increase in field with liquid fog, Gherzi (34) saw no such increase, and Jaskowska (43), after many ob-
90
servations, found a decrease of field in fog to be the most common event. It is clear from this that there
is still much to be learned about the processes which occur in fog and certainly about electrical processes
within the turbulent mixing layer.
At present the conclusions given in the 1966 NRL report (7) and which are echoed in part by Burke
and his colleagues (14) still appear to offer the best explanation for the reduction in conductivity prior
to the onset of fog. In this model the actual fog is preceded by a period of the growth of subvisible
droplets, which growth requires both an adequately high moisture content and a sufficient density of
condensation centers; and this growth to visible size requires 1 to 2 hours. The conductivity is
immediately affected by the loss of small ions, which are collected by the growing droplets, but the
electric field responds to both this drop in conductivity and to the totality of other electrical stimuli
acting in the region (cloud cover, thickness of the fog layer, and turbulent transport of charge will
certainly require consideration) and thus exhibits the variety of behaviors noted. The prediction of
advection fogs is seen to be reasonable, since it is likely that the air advected to the measuring site ahead
of the actual fog will contain growing subvisible droplets which lower the conductivity.
We can conclude that the fog effect is still less than perfectly understood and that more work is needed
to obtain a thorough picture of the phenomenon. We do have however a reasonable working hypo-
thesis which can suffice both to direct further investigation and to guide practical utilization. The use
of the conductivity measurement as an additional aid in forecasting has been well authenticated to be
viable, and its implementation has been rendered both straightforward and relatively inexpensive by
recent developments in electronic technology.
Electrode Effect
The term electrode effect does not always have the same meaning to different hearers. In every case
the idea conveyed is that the electrode effect comprises those phenomena whose existence is a direct
consequence of the presence of a nongaseous surface to the earth. The air-earth or the air-sea interfaces
present discontinuities in composition, density, conductivity, and almost every other imaginable charac-
teristic. In atmospheric electricity the idea of an electrode layer is that it usually contains an increased
positive ion density near the surface (assuming fair weather conditions) and a decreasing or vanishing
negative ion density as the surface is approached. The altered vertical distributions of atmospheric ions
implicit in this effect are created by electrical forces acting on the ions, and these distributions can be
grossly altered by the action of more powerful forces such as turbulent mixing. Although the electrode
effect is often studied for its own sake, it is crucial that all investigations of atmospheric electric phe-
nomena near the ground must consider the electrode phenomena, because almost all measurements
made near the ground will be affected by it to some degree.
Measurements
Within the general subject of electrode effect are two distinct length scales into which most analyses
and observations tend to fall. The larger is of the order of tens of meters, and its observation is often
connected with balloon measurements over bodies of water (61). The smaller length scale is of the order
of millimeters, or possibly centimeters, and it is usually associated with conditions of highly stable
stratification (19). With such a disparity of scales, experimental techniques which can observe the one
are probably incapable of detecting the other; and it is not surprising that most reports mention only
one or the other. Such a situation will not negate the validity of either set of observations, but it is obvious
that a proper interpretation of data taken at ground level must account for the presen~e of both. It is
for reasons such as these that the necessity for exhaustive descriptions of instrument design, siting,
and exposure has been so strongly stressed (25) as a requisite for meaningful application of surface
atmospheric-electricity measurements.
Numerous contributions have been made in recent years toward knowledge of the variations in
electrical entities near the ground which are influenced by the electrode effect. Ruhnke (70) observed a
pronounced effect over the Greenland ice. Frimescu (31) discussed the conversion of mechanical energy
into electrical separation, and Buis (12) questioned the validity of including negative ion conductivity
91
into computations of conduction current density from data obtained near the surface. Hamilton (35)
responded with the conclusion that available data did not force the Buis conclusion but demonstrated
that "the true air-earth current can only be measured at the surface". Aspinall (9) measured current
density with a plate antenna and compared its readings to the product of "ground level" conductivity
(with the instrument well described) and the output of an inverted field mill at a height of 1 meter. His
conclusion that much more needs to be known about antenna behavior and about the mechanical
transport of charge is well taken, as is his mention of uncertainties in his computation of current density.
Ette (29) has shown that horizontal inhomogeneities may introduce error into surface-level observations.
A recent study (6) has related unusual vertical profiles offield and conductivity in the lowest 2 kilometers
to a layer of radon trapped by a strong, deep inversion. It is seen that observations have been varied
and fruitful and that there can be no excess of parameters measured or care in their measurement.
The electrode effect will be analyzed further by considering several commonly measured parameters
and discussing what actually is measured by instruments purported to measure them. The electric field
at the surface is measured with a field mill flush with the ground or equivalently by the rapid uncovering
of a plate antenna of the type used for measuring current density. An elevated or protruding field mill
at a fixed potential with respect to ground does not measure the field at the surface; it measures a
quantity which is functionally related to the surface field and is strongly correlated with it but is not
identical to it. The same can be said for radioactive collectors at various heights above ground, though
here the reading does have a proper defmition which will be explored later. With both potential probes
and elevated field mills the exact instrument configuration should be documented and the recording
should not be mislabeled as something which it is not. A field mill which is flush with the surface of
the earth does measure the true field immediately above it, but the possibility exists that the motion
of the shutter may disturb the small-scale electrode layer. Some attempts have been made to detect
such a disturbance, but results are still inconclusive.
The Gerdien cylindrical capacitor for measuring atmospheric conductivity is another instrument
which indicates the true parameter that it purports to measure. In the electrode layer the difficulty arises
when an attempt is made to measure the conductivity at a specific height above the surface or, con-
versely, when one tries to ascribe an effective height to a conductivity measurement. This problem
arises because aspiration is inherently volumetric. If attempts are made to restrict the sampling inlet
to draw from only a narrow range of height values, inevitably the sample is modified and distorted by
diffusional losses and/or extremes in velocity. The problem is exacerbated as the surface is approached
because of reduced natural air velocities near the boundary and the effects of surface roughness. We have
found that the conductivity of a surface layer can differ from that measured by a Gerdien instrument
at 1 meter by as much as a factor of 2. For conductivities at heights above a few tens of centimeters, the
problem is quite negligible. The real problem is the measurement of "ground level" conductivity - the
instrument configuration must be minutely specified if the data are to have appreciable usefulness,
and the measurement still is not a ground-level determination.
Vertical current density is measured directly by interposing some sort of antenna into the path of
the current and measuring the amount intercepted. We have alluded to the idea that such an antenna can
be used to measure the electric field. It is also possible to determine the conductivity at the antenna
surface through the use of the same coverings and uncoverings which yield values of electric field at the
surface. It has been shown (47) that with proper antenna exposure the matching of the instrument
input circuit to the effective source impedance seen by the antenna is necessary and sufficient to insure
that the amplified antenna output is proportional to current flux. How then is the proper matching
established? It was stated in the discussion of the conductivity measurement that the true surface con-
ductivity can differ from that measured with a Gerdien capacitor by a factor of 2. Consider now a plate
antenna flush with the surface and grounded through a matching network whose impedance is low
with respect to atmospheric impedances. Such an antenna system is shown schematically in Fig. 2 with
the atmospheric electrical source shown as an equivalent circuit. If the antenna has been exposed for a
long time, there will be a charge on the capacitor, and a bound surface charge proportional to the field
will exist on the antenna. If the antenna is abruptly covered with a grounded screen, the output of the
current meter will undergo an abrupt change proportional to the field. Two equivalent criteria now
92
can determine whether the input network is matched (Ro Co = R C) and hence indicate the con-
ductivity at the surface. If the abrupt change in the output brings the indication exactly to zero, then
the network is matched. The second criterion involves an examination of the recording trace for a short
while after the screening of the antenna. The three possible responses are shown in Fig. 3. The first,
an undershoot (overdamping in engineering terms) indicates an R C which is too large. Similarly
overshoot connotes an R C too small, and a sharp 90° angle in the recording trace at the bottom of the
transition indicates a proper match. This technique has been found to give a satisfactory indication
of mismatches as small as 2 %, but it is ill suited for a continuously operating system.
Co
Va
C R Vaut
Fig. 2. Representation of a generalized antenna, input matching network, and an equivalent circuit of an at-
mospheric-electricity source.
a b c
CONSTANT R ASSUMED - C is VARiED
Fig. 3. Idealized response characteristics when the antenna represented in Fig. 2 is screened (constant R is assumed
and C is varied): (a) RC too large, (b) RC too small, and (c) RC properly matched.
Antennas for current measurement can take any shape as long as the effective cross section screened
by the antenna is known. In practice, however, the use of other than simple shapes introduces excessive
complications. Most antennas which have been used can be described as plates, wires, or points.
Plates have employed surfaces of metal, screen, soil, and water in attempts to match the natural environ-
ment as closely as possible. All of these surfaces have been used at the NRL Waldorf site, with as many
as four antennas recording simultaneously in an attempt to determine whether the choice of surface
is critical. Preliminary measurements show little difference, but the investigation is continuing. The
horizontal wire was proposed as an antenna which simultaneously had a large effective cross section
to conduction current and a small effective area to mechanically transported current. It has been
found, however, that the grounded wire responds to a variable fraction of the total current. The fraction
is between 0.5 and 1.0 and appears as a function ofthe small-scale electrode layer on the wire itself. High
winds or strong turbulence can easily destroy much of this electrode layer, but its development can
approach the classical limit of doubled positive-ion conductivity and a vanishing negative-ion
component under conditions of great stability. Also, breakup of the electrode layer on a plate antenna
is encountered during times of strong turbulence.
The discussion of current-density measurement within the electrode layer may therefore be some-
what ambiguously summarized with the statement that a plate antenna with a suitable surface which
93
is flush with the plane of the ground will measure the total incident current flux if the antenna is
matched to the atmosphere and if the voltage between the antenna and the ground is zero. The last
requirement can readily be approximated with feedback electronics. The matching requirement,
although valid, is not as severe as might be imagined, since any antenna, however ill matched, is
forced to indicate the true average current flux over some long averaging period by the continuity
of charge. Consequently the effect of mismatching is the introduction of error into higher frequency
components of the record. The required accuracy of matching in any specific instance is thus a function
of the use to which the observations will be put.
A common measurement of "potential gradient" made within the electrode layer is based on an
electrostatic potential equalizer such as a radioactive source. Naive statements of the form "since a
radioactive collector at one meter height indicated 137 volts, the field at the ground was 137 volts per
meter" are still encountered. Under the best of conditions a collector can be described only as indicating
the integral of the potential gradient from the surface to the height of the probe. Furthermore the
radioactive probe is a complex device (30, 21) which is not fully understood. Nevertheless it is a useful
device which is best used as a totally passive detector (18) but which must be properly described and
evaluated in order to yield meaningful results within the electrode layer.
One final tool for atmospheric-electricity research within the electrode layer which must be
considered is the measurement of field at altitude. This has been accomplished with free and tethered
balloons, low-flying aircraft, and elevated double-field mill systems. Balloons and aircraft have provided
our knowledge on the large-scale electrode effect which is most commonly seen over water and reaches
to heights of the order of 100 meters (63). The very fact that these vehicles can reach altitudes of hundreds
of meters (and more) limits their applicability for studies of small-scale effects. Consequently double-
field mill systems were developed to make undisturbed measurements of the electric field in heights
of 1 to 10 meters (32, 76).
Theory
Though the basic processes which produce the electrode effect are readily known and understood,
a codification of these processes into an analytic formulation is impossible without introducing limiting
assumptions to simplify the governing equations. The most obvious such assumption is the omission
of turbulence. In this case analytic solutions exist which agree well with observations made during times
of great stability (37). As soon as a coupling with turbulence is permitted, however, the turbulent N avier-
Stokes equation is added to the system; and, since an analytic solution of this equation is generally
considered impossible, the electrode effect becomes similarly without solution. As indicated, theorists
have attempted to achieve mathematical formulations which agree with observed reality as well as pos-
sible by introducing more or less reasonable simplifications which leave equations that can be solved.
A study of electrode-effect theories can therefore be thought of as a study of various sets of simplifying
assumptions.
The most commonly made assumption in the formulating of turbulent-electrode-effect theories is
the existence of a coefficient of turbulent diffusion and thus by implication the mixing-length hypo-
thesis. This assumption and the choice of a specific functional form for the height dependence of the
coefficient are sufficient to yield the numerical solutions of Hoppel and Gathman (39). Latham and
Poor (52), with similar assumptions, derive one-dimensional time-dependent solutions and conclude
that disparities in time scales keep this model from indicating observed convection currents within the
mixing layer. Yordanov (81) derived a diffusion coefficient assuming that small-ion recombination (and
small-ion mobility) are negligible. Krasnogorskaya (51) also considers a system of one-dimensional
equations in which small-ion effects are ignored; she neglects the nonlinearity which is coupled into
ion-density equations through Poisson's equation, and she obtains a solution which agrees qualitatively
with observation in the limiting case of no turbulence. She does, however, retain a term for molecular
viscosity throughout the analysis, thereby avoiding the errors which can result from the casual elimina-
tion ofthe highest order derivative term because its effect is "negligible".
94
Turbulence
There has been new interest in the idea that atmospheric-electricity parameters can be used as
tracers and indicators of atmospheric turbulence. Reiter (69) was able to formulate relationships between
observed distributions of radioactive aerosols and turbulent-mixing parameters. Muhleisen (62) analyzed
records of electric field obtained at sea and found the existence of two or three dominant periodicities
in the data. He was also able to obtain a fit between some of his data and the Kolmogorov spectrum.
Knott and Schumann (49), in describing a field-mill design, report that they have observed four distinct
types of recorder trace.
Power spectra of random processes have proven to yield valuable information with which to
characterize and identify phenomena of interest. Aspinall (9) has shown some coarse spectra of
current-density recordings. Another analysis (4) has derived relationships between the power-law
decay of spectra of space-charge density and the composition of the charge carries. Two limiting
cases are developed. The first has all the charge resident on aerosols, in which case mobility effects
can be neglected. It is shown that this case yields the exact - 5/3 power law derived by Batchelor (to)
for turbulent mixing of scalar contaminants.
The second case consists of the opposite limit of no aerosols and the space charge contained entirely
on small ions. In this case little interaction between turbulent stresses and electrical forces is assumed.
On its face such an assumption appears ridiculous, since it is well known that turbulent air motions
move the ion population and at least one case has been shown in which electrical forces induced turbulent
motion (3R). What was stated, however, was that the electrical and mechanical forces do not significantly
modify one another; if is expected that both will affect the motion of electrified particles in the air. Given
this assumption, the conservation equation for space charge density can be reduced to the form
in one dimension with clean air (number density of aerosols Z = 0), where D is the molecular diffusion
coefficient for space charge (carried on small ions, since Z = 0) and P and ~ are related to field E,
space charge p, and mobility k by p = 6E/6x, x = -~, and P = E k. This equation has published solu-
tions which exhibit the characteristic behavior of forming steep wavefronts and sawtooth patterns
at large values of time (13, 17). The power spectrum of an entity governed by this equation would decay
with the - 2 power of the frequency. A spectral decay of power law of - 5/3 is already present in the
turbulent mixing itself (10); so the combination of electrical and mechanical phenomena will result
in a spectral decay with a -11/3 power law. Addition of the decay exponents is valid under the stated
assumption of noninteraction of the forces.
Thus the effect of the small ions is to augment the damping of small-scale fluctuations in the distribu-
tion of space charge. The sawtooth pattern predicted by this model is observed, and a typical trace is
shown in Fig. 4. Similar patterns were published by Ogden and Hutchinson (65), and this analysis can
provide the explanation which the authors sought. A typical spectrum from a space-charge recording
obtained on a clear sunny day is shown in Fig. 5. A number of such spectra have been measured, and
a power-law decay has been found in all with exponents always between - 5/3 and -11/3. This
Fig. 4. Space charge recording trace obtained at 1 meter elevation on a sunny day showing characteristic sawtooth
waveforms.
95
-23
'"a::w
~ -24
w
::E
"-
'"!Xl
::E -25
0
..J
:::l
0
(.)
I
a -26
Q..
l!)
Q
l!)
0 -27
...J
-28
-4.0 0.0
Fig. 5. Fourier pectrum of a pace charge recording.
analysis could be used to indicate the fractions of ambient charge density on small and large ions, and it
might have practical usefulness as an indicator of pollution.
It is possible to conclude that all models of boundary-layer and turbulent electrical phenomena which
have been offered contain some gratuitous assumptions the validity of which is highly questionable.
Beyond this, however, lies the reasonable agreement with observation often achieved, and we do have
a fairly good picture of the electrode layer. Most importantly, in both theory and measurement the
nature of the phenomenon studies and the effects of the limiting assumptions must be kept clearly in
view if serious pitfalls are to be avoided.
The solar eclipse of March 1970 was extensively studied because the path oftotality traversed almost
the entire length of the populous east coast of the United States. Many of the electrical observations
on this eclipse have been summarized by Dolezalek (25). From the observations at the NRL Waldorf
observatory (3, 5) the effects appeared to be wholly those of the diminution and reestablishment of
turbulent mixing near the ground. An effect was seen which depends on the existence of an equilibrium
state prior to the eclipse in which there is a mechanically transported component of current comparable
in magnitude to the total flux; and effects were observed which indicated the establishment of strati-
fication near the surface during the darkness. A tentative model was presented which accounted for
all of the observed phenomena. It was determined that an adequate test of this model would require
additional electrical and micrometeorological data. The eclipse of 1973 across the Sahara was chosen
for an attempt at such a definitive measurement program. Seventeen electrical and meteorological
parameters were simultaneously measured and recorded on both strip charts and magnetic tape. The
chief obstacle to atmospheric-electricity measurements in the desert was found to be electrified blowing
sand similar to that reported by Kamra (44). Analysis of the recordings is not yet complete, but pre-
liminary indications show the definite establishment of a stable stratified layer near the ground and the
responses of all sensors are completely consistent with the hypothesis derived from the 1970 observa-
tions. A reproduction of a few of the parameters during, and after totality is shown in Fig. 6.
96
TOTALITY
-! f-
1040 1050 1100 1110 1120

GMT
Fig. 6. Data traces from 30 June 1973 total solar eclipse. The parameters represented are: (J): current density
indicated by a horizontal wire antenna in 10- 12 Am- 2 ; (B): general sky brightness with no scale indicated;
(E): electric field measured with a field mill in the ground in V m - 1 ; (A. ±): positive and negative polar conductivities
measured with Gerdien capacitors 5 cm above ground in 1O- 14 (} -I m- I ; (V): potential of 210pO probe at 1 m
height in V; (Tl): air temperature in 1 m height in degrees Celsius; (TO): ground surface temperature measured
with an infrared radiation thermometer.
Summary
A wide diversity of subjects has been discussed. It is common to treat one or two such subjects as though they
existed unto themselves. We have seen here that studies of the fog effect are affected to a greater or lesser degree
by the presence of pollution. This pollution, however, is mixed and transported by turbulent processes which
themselves are alTected by the presence of the ground surface. A close look at the surface itself, in its role as a
discontinuous boundary, leads to the electrode effect, which has been seen to influence all measurements made
near the ground. We must therefore return to the concepts of turbulent mixing and attempt to include them in
analyses of interface phenomena. Finally, it was seen that an analysis of the behavior of one electrical observable,
the space-charge density, in a field of boundary-layer turbulence led to a possible application in pollution studies.
Similarly, this same analysis could be applied to the anomalous happenings during a solar eclipse in such a way
that a coherent model was developed.
Obviously, discussions of interactions like these could continue almost indefinitely. It will suffice, however, if
the essential point of this study is appreciated: All atmospheric-electricity observations made in a region which is
influenced by surface-related effects - electrode effect, turbulent mixing, pollution, fog and low clouds, ionization
from radioactivity in and near the ground, etc. - must be considered to be potentially influenced by all these
phenomena, and the validity of observations made without proper consideration of the effect of the real world
must be questioned.
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A few works in this list are not specifically cited in the text. They have been included because of their pertinence
and applicability to the subject matter.
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61. Milhleisen, R., Met. Rundschau 22, 175 (1969). - 62. Milhleisen, R., Ann. der Met. (Neue Folge) 4, 102
(1969). - 63. Milhleisen, R., P. and A. Geoph. 84, 112 (1971). - 64. Milhleisen, R. and H. Riekert, Meteor
Forsch.-Ergebnisse, Reihe B, No.5, 46 (1970). - 65. Ogden, T. L., and W. C. A. Hutchinson, J. Atm. and Terr.
Phys. 32, 1131 (1970). - 66. Ohta, J., 1. Met. Res. Japan 17, 661 (1965). - 67. Ottevanger, W. P. A., P. and A.
Geoph. 95, 221 (1972). - 68. Phan-Cong, J. Luan, and J. B. Jordan, IEEE Trans. Geosci. E!. 8, 285 (1970). -
69. Reiter, R., P. and A. Geoph. 83,158 (1970). - 70. Ruhnke, L., 1. Geoph. Res. 67,2767 (1962). - 71. Ruhnke, L.,
J. Geoph. Res. 71,4235 (1966). - 72. Sekikawa, T. and H. Kojima, J. Met. Soc. Japan 47,329 (1969). - 73. Serbu,
G. and E. M. Trent. Trans. AGU 39, 1034 (1958). - 74. Shimo, M., Y. Ikebe, T. Nakayama, and M. Kawano,
P. and A. Geoph. 100, 109 (1972). - 75. Sivaramakrishnan, M. and M. Selvam, Indian J. of Met. and Geophysics
22,499 (1971). - 76. Smiddy, M. and J. A. Chalmers, J. Atm. and Terr. Phys. 12,206 (1958). - 77. Takagi, M.
and M. Kanada, Proc. RIA, Nagoya U. 16, 169 (1969). - 78. Takagi, M., P. and A. Geoph. 100, 44 (1972). -
79. Trent, E. M. and S. Gathman, P. and A. Geoph. 100, 60 (1972). - 80. Uchikawa, K, P. and A. Geoph. 100,
54 (1972). - 81. Yordanov, D., Archiv fiir Met. A, 18, 163 (1969). - 82. Yordanov, D., P. and A. Geoph. 79,
85 (1970).
Discussion
MilhleiselJ, Ravensburg, West-Germany:
In your paper you stated that the idea of an electrode effect layer usually contains the presence of an increased
positive ion density near the surface, assuming fair weather conditions. According to my experience, the concentra-
tion of positive small ions is changed only a little, and this hardly through the electrode effect but because of the
increase of ionization approaching the earth's surface. Therefore, I would say that the concentration of the positive
ions is nearly equal at each height, but the concentration of the negative ions is decreasing if you approach ground
from higher up.
Anderson, R. v., Washington, USA:
More or less I would agree with that except that some of the data of Crozier and also of Gathman show grossly
increased layers of positive ions very near the ground. In general, I think what you say is probably quite true:
In the ion balance, the positive ions tend to become dominant because the negatives do tend to become less.
The positive ion density will either increase or remain substantially constant.
Milhleisen:
To the problem of matching the air-earth current antenna: you mentioned in your paper that this matching
can be checked by screening. I feel that in this case of matching the slope of the record is due to the conductivity
98
below the antenna, between soil and net; while during the measurement of the current density the matching must
be due to the conductivity over the antenna. This may be different because of the stronger ionization near the
ground, near the soil.
R. V. Anderson:
Only two quick points to this. If you have a plate antenna in the ground, when it is open and exposed to the
field, the bound charge is only on the upper surface if the antenna is at ground potential, which it should be. So,
consequently, the charge is residing on the top surface and it would be the conductivity on the top that you feel.
Secondly, we can do this with a wire antenna by introducing what is, in effect, the open circuit voltage which is
felt by the wire antenna. Although there is no question here of half of it being shielded, the results are comparable.
h1agono,Sapporo,Japan:
I have experience with concentrations of small ions. The concentrations were strongly affected by the electric
field. So I would like to consider that this was caused by the electrode effect. My question is: what is the effective
height of the electrode effect?
R. V. Anderson:
As I mentioned, there are two processes existing with radically different height scales. For want of better terms,
these may be called the "Crozier-Effect" with a vertical scale of the order of centimeters, and the "h1uhleisen-
Effect" which can extend over a hundred meters ore more. I might just very briefly mention here that at present
we are working on some data of conductivity measurements taken in a small boat on the ocean, and there is at
least a possibility that we may be seeing the effect of the Gerdien-intake moving up and down with various long
period wave motions and actually moving through the large-scale electrode effect. I don't say this dogmatically
because the data analysis is just getting going.
Reiter:
Thank you, Mr. Anderson, for your invited paper.
Author's address:
R. V. Anderson
Code 8325
Naval Research Laboratory
USA
99
Relationship of the Ohm's Law Electrical Parameters with Meteorological Elements·)
Bhartendu
With 7 figures
Abstract
Measurements of the electrical conductivity, potential gradient and air-earth current density, and the atmos-
pheric pressure, relative humidity, temperature, wind speed and direction have been made near Toronto, Canada.
Two years of data are analysed and the power, coherence coefficient and phase coefficient spectra are computed
and the results for the fair weather and all weather are compared.
Significant maximum at the diurnal component is observed in the power spectra for all parameters except
pressure. In addition, significant maxima at the semidiurnal and terdiurnal components are also observed for the
potential gradient, conductivity and the relative humidity, temperature and wind speed. The coherence coefficient
spectra, in general, show the minimum coherence for air-earth current density and the maximum coherence for
conductivity. The meteorological parameters in order of importance are relative humidity, wind speed, tempera-
ture, wind direction and pressure, for the diurnal variation. Maximum coherence is observed in the conductivity-
pressure spectrum for the semidiurnal variation. Significantly high coherence is observed in the potential
gradient-relative humidity and the conductivity-relative humidity spectra for the terdiurnal variation. The
phase coefficient spectra show that the phase relationship is variable. In general the potential gradient lags behind
the relative humidity, wind speed and direction, and pressure, and leads the temperature. Opposite phase
relationship is observed for the conductivity. The fair-weather and all-weather results are similar with most variable
phase relationship for the air-earth current density.
Introduction
In the study of the relationship of atmospheric electricity with meteorology, it is important to know
which electrical and meteorological parameters exhibit maximum correlations. Most studies carried
out so far (2,3,4,9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 17,22 and 25) have either lacked in total measurements or thorough
analyses. Simultaneous measurements of all the three Ohm's law parameters, viz. potential gradient,
conductivity and air-earth current density, and usual meteorological variables, viz. pressure, tempera-
ture, relative humidity, wind speed and wind direction should be made and statistical analyses which
take into account the time dependent nature of these elements should be employed (5).
Complete measurements of the potential gradient, air-earth current density, conductivity, pressure,
temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and direction have been made at the Station for Atmospheric
Experiments of the Canadian Atmospheric Environment Service. The station is located in a rural sur-
rounding, near Woodbridge, about 32 km from the heart of Toronto city. The details ofthe site and the
instrumentation have been discussed somewhere else (2, 3, 4).
Two years of data for 1969 -1970 have been considered and the twenty-four mean hourly values for
each month are used. Power and cross spectral analyses have been employed. Theories of these techni-
ques have been described in the literature (e.g. 8, 11, 21, 23).
Diurnal Variation
Fig. 1 shows in percent, the variation of the annual hourly means of the potential gradient, E, con-
ductivity, A, air-earth current density, 1, pressure, P, temperature, T, relative humidity, R.H., wind speed,
w" and wind direction, w". The conductivity and potential gradient variations are, as expected, opposite
in phase and approximately equal in amplitude. The air-earth current variation is less in amplitude and
its phase does not show any evident relationship with potential gradient or conductivity.
The minimum amplitude is observed for pressure variation (a separate scale is used on the right hand side
of the lower diagram for it) and shows two maxima. The maximum amplitude is observed for the wind
any discussion.
100
.\
I·
140 \
\
,
\
/
, ,
,
I ,
,', .'
120 / 'I
/
/
",/ .\
ANNUAL "10 VARIATION

1969-70
40
-E
-1
-A
20
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
HOURS (EST)
-", p
ANNUAL "10 VARIATION

134 1969-70 100.06
--p
-T
126 - - -R.H. 100.04
- .. - -Ws
1
_.- -Wd
i
z 118 100.02
0
j:
« ........ \
a: .........
\
~ 110 ..~' :.:.:::.-._._.-._.- 100.00
I- I ,.'
Z f /..'
'"
U
0::
\
\
i /--
'./.--
'"
0-
102 \~t ... 99.98
/1'1~
94 I." I \
99.96
I \
-.....
................... :> ..;. - ./
.. /
/
\
""-
\
\
86 99.94
/ "-
/ " " --
./
78 .........
......... -"-. /'
./.
/
99.92
70 99.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
HOURS (EST)
Fig. 1. Annual hourly variation of the potential gradient (E), air-earth current density (1), conductivity (A),
pressure (P), temperature (T), relative humidity (R.H.), wind speed (w.) and wind direction (w;,), EST = GMT-5h
101
speed. The relative humidity variation is approximately equal to that ofthe temperature but is opposite
in phase. The wind direction variation is approximately equal in amplitude and phase to the temperature,
but it is not a smooth curve.
The maximum of the temperature and wind speed and the minimum of the relative humidity occur
at about the time of the maximum of the potential gradient and minimum of conductivity and a rela-
tionship is expected. This is confirmed in the coherence coefficient spectra. The fair-weather means of
the potential gradient, conductivity and the air-earth current density are 177 V m - 1, 4.3 x 10- 12 A m - 2
and 1.28 x 1O- 14 g- 1 m- 1 respectively. The corresponding all-weather means are 140Vm-1, 3.6 x
10- 12 Am- 2 and 1.37 x 1O- 14 g- 1 m- 1 • A reduction factor of 2.2 is to be applied to the current
density as discussed in another paper published in these proceedings (7).
Power Spectra
The spectral density estimates of the electrical and meteorological parameters are shown in Fig. 2.
The fair weather E, A, I spectra are similar to the all weather E, A, I spectra although more energetic
maxima are observed in all weather. Significant maxima at the diurnal, semidiurnal, terdiurnal and higher
frequencies are found in the E and A spectra. The I spectrum shows little evidence of high frequency. The
terdiurnal maximum in the E spectrum, especially in fair weather, is approximately equal to the semi-
diurnal maximum and has been discussed earlier (4,6).
A maximum at the diurnal frequency is observed in the spectra of all meteorological elements except
pressure. The diurnal pressure wave at Toronto is weak and appears only in the summer months. The
data used here contains all seasons, and, hence no maximum is observed at the diurnal frequency.
10 4 I!. Potential Gradient

(Fair Weather)
+ Air-Earth Current
x Conductivity
10 4 (AII- Weather)
I!. Potential Gradient
10 3
.to + Air-Earth Current
.@ 10 2
x Conductivity
~ 10 7
·001
r--_ . . -__ . . . . . . "' . . , ·0001 L.....,----:-2-3=---4c---:S:--76-77-8::--:9'--/:-::0-'-:-:'-::'2

'-"' .... - Cycles per day
.... -.,.. --" - ---.... ---,-/ ..

10·5l---~-~--~-----------
o 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 II 12
Cycles per day
Fig. 2. Power spectra of the fair-weather and all-weather potential gradient, air-earth current density,
conductivity, pressure, temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and wind direction
102
J
1.0
Pressure -(F W)
1.0 r-~-~-
Pressure _( A.W)
l
b
.9 - - - Potentiol Gradient .9 ___ Potential Gradient
_ .- Air-Earth Current - - Air-Earth Current
·8 ·8
- Conductivity
- Conductivity
<:., .7 c: .7
'u .~
~ 6 ~ ·6
0>
Q -1 (99.9%) ~ -i-M- , ; - - (99.9%)
u ·5 u·5
.,...,
'I .!
,.t-,-~''H~-l' (99%) ., ----,..--'t'l (99%)
.,c: ·4
.,~ .4 /
.,.... ~ ·3
.c:
u
0
8 .2 \~I
,,1
.d ~
o
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0~1~~~~~~~~
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 /I 12
Cycles per Day Cycles per Day
c 180!- d
150 I II
120
90
..
c:
'u 60
;.::
'Qi 0
'I \''
30
J
I, 30 ,
~ \,1, II ~
- 30 v I
]_ 60 1 r~I~II /\'
a.. - 90 II I I,
-120 I I, \
-150 I il \,
- 180'--T--:;2,.......,3.--4;---;;
5--;:6:--:7.--8~9
-=-7:
/O,.-L-:,:-
, --:l'2
12
Cycles per Day
Fig. 3. Coherence coefficient and cross-spectral phase spectra of the fair-weather (F.W.) and all-weather (A.W.)
potential gradient and pressure (E-Pl; air-earth current density and pressure (J-P); and conductivity and
pressure (2-P)
Maxima at the semidiurnal and terdiurnal frequencies are also observed in the T, R.H. and W. spectra.
High frequency maxima are one or two orders of magnitude less.
Coherence Coefficient Spectra

Fig. 3 a to 7 a and 3 b to 7 b show the coherence coefficient spectra of the electrical and meteorological
variables for fair weather and all weather respectively. The significance levels of 99 % and 99.9 % prob-
ability are shown in the figures by horizontal lines. Values larger than these could be found due to
random error only with 1 % or 0.1 % probability.
The fair weather E-P, E-R.H., E-T, E-J-Y. and E-~ coherence coefficient spectra all show maxima
at the diurnal frequency. Significant maxima at the semidiurnal frequency are observed in the E-P,
E-R.H., E- T and E- ~ spectra and at the terdiurnal frequency in the E- R.H. spectra. Maximum
103
/.0 --- '--- I.nr-- . - - - - - - - - - :l
I
~
I Relative Humidity -(F. W) a Relat i ve Humidity-(A.W) b
9 -- - Potential Gradient 9 r - - - Potential Gradient
_.- Air-Earth Current '\ _ . - Air -Earth Current
.e - Conductivity ,8 - Conductivity
c: .7 .7
.~
. ,
c
~
,: f : .5
.6 ,~
,~
~
0>
,5
~ (99.9'10) ~
l3 ,5
0>
u
r'-
~
-c;-+!-i---j (99'1o) H--H--H,-,-----;--- ~~t--.--- I
c: ~ ·4
0>
.... c:
0> ~ ,3
.c::
o , .c::
r
'\1
U
~ .2 r\
I ']
·1
5 7 8 9 10 II 12 o 2 3 ~ 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12
180 r 180
150
120 120
90 90
~ 50 I <:
0>
60 ·
'ij ,
::: 30 :~ 30
::::
~ 0 ~rt-~~~+-~~~~~Tr~' ~ 0
u _ 30 <..J _ 30
0> 0>
~ - 60 ~- 60
.c:: -<::
Cl_ 90 Cl_ 90
-120 1, -120
-150 r -150 i
-180 LI--:-~~~----=---::-~)--=- -180
2 3 ~ 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 1 2 3 ~ 5 6 7 8 9 10 1/ 12
Fig. 4. Coherence coefficient and cross-spectral phase spectra for the fair-weather and all-weather potential
gradient and relative humidity (E-R.H.); air-earth current density and relative humidity (l-R.H.); and
conductivity and relative humidity (A-R.H.)
coherence is observed at 1.5 cycles per day in the E-R.H. coherence coefficient spectrum and at 1.25
cycles per day in the E- T spectrum. This frequency shift could be due to selection of data. The long
periods when instruments are off for servicing produce data gaps and these could introduce errors.
Continuous data for several years, possibly 5 years, might minimize this error.
The fair-weather A-P, A-R.H., A-T , A- W, and A- ~ spectra all show maxima at the diurnal frequency.
Except for A- ~ spectrum, all spectra show maximum coherence values for A cases as compared to E
and I. The A-P spectrum shows maximum coherence value at the semi diurnal frequency. The A-R.H.
and . A- W, spectra also show maxima at the semidiurnal frequency. A significant maximum at the ter-
diurnal frequency is also observed in the A-R.H.spectrum.
The fair-weather I-R .H., J-T, loW, and 1- ~ coherence coefficient spectra show maxima at the diurnal
frequency. Except for I-~ the coherence for I cases is less than that for A and E.
The all-weather coherence coefficient spectra are similar to the fair-weather ones although generally
higher coherence is observed in the all-weather cases. The terdiurnal maxima observed in the all
104
I . O ,----~ - - - - - - ---,
Temperature -(F. w.) a Temperature - (A.w.) b
- - - Potential Gradient - - - Potent i a l Gradie nt
_ . - Air -Earth Current - .- A ir - Earth Current
- Conductivity - Conduc tivi ty
<:
.~ .
c:
:::.
<.J
:~
(99.9%)~ (99.9%)
0 o
.
u v
...<.J ., I' (99%)
..
c:
"- ·3
..
<.J
c:
'-
,
.c:: .c::
0 o
V ·2 v .2
-I .1
a I 2 3 ;; 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0
I 2 3 ;; 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
180
d
t"
150 II
120 I'
90
<:
.~
.
<.J
~
0
v
\
I,
I', I'
1\//.,
i',
l
2 3 ;; 5 6 7 8 9 10 /I 72 2 3 ;; 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Fig. 5. Coherence coefficient and cross-spectral phase spectra of the fair-weather and all-weather potential
gradient and temperature (E- T); air-earth current density and temperature (I- T); and conductivity and
temperature (A.- T)
weather A- T and A- W, are not observed in the fair-weather spectra. The similarity of the fair weather and
all-weather spectra indicates that at land stations the meteorological variation of the electrical para-
meters is present with reduced amplitude in fair weather and the nature and extent of this perturbation
should be known if a separation of global and local effects is desired (1) and it may be useless to look
for global variation at land stations (18).
Cross Spectral Phase Spectra
Figs. 3c to 7c and 3d to 7d, show respectively the fair weather and all-weather phase coefficient
spectra of the electrical and meteorological elements. The positive angle in the spectrum means that
the electrical variable lags and the negative angle means that it leads the meteorological parameter
under consideration.
The fair weather diurnal frequency of the potential gradient lags behind that of the relative humidity,
pressure, wind speed and direction and leads that of the temperature. The fair-weather diurnal fre-
105
,·0 1-0
Wind Speed -(F. w.) a Wind Speed -(A.W) b
·9 -- - Potential Gradient ·9 ~- - Potential Gradient
- .- Air-Earth Current - .- Air-Earth Curr ent
- Conductivity ·8 - Conductivity
·7
c:
'"
:~ .6 ,,
~
\
(99.9%)~ t-:H-iHl-h~--r----+-----1(99·9%)
u
0 ·5 :
mt-t.-frltmr---j-\-;r---it-t+--?!tr-I(99%)
.,'c:" '"c:
u
u .~
... ...'"
'"
..c::
U
o
0
'"
..c::
u
, , .1
o , 2 3 ~ 5 '2 0 L-'~~
2~3 ~~~5~=-~~~~~~U
180 ,.-;:::----;-----r.-~~__:__, 180,-"'-;-----

d
'50 150
'20 120
90 -
c:
,~ 60
u
~
~
'"
.,- 30
'"
~- 60
Il.._ 90
-120
- '50
- '801L--:-'---;;:
2--::3:--:~--;5:--6::;---=
7 --=
8 --=9--:"'0::-7,-:--
, -.J'2
Cycles p er D ay
Fig. 6. Coherence coefficient and cross-spectral phase spectra of the fair-weather and all-weather potential gradient
and wind speed (E- w,); air-earth current density and wind speed (1- w,); and conductivity and wind speed (J.- w,)
quency of the conductivity leads that of the relative humidity, pressure, wind speed and direction and
lags behind that of the temperature. The phase relationship of the air-earth current density is similar
to that of the potential gradient. It is also found that the phase relationship of the semidiurnal and
terdiurnal frequencies, when significant, is similar to that of the diurnal frequency.
A comparison of the fair weather and all weather spectra shows that the phase relationship for the
potential gradient spectra varies least, and for the air-earth current density spectra varies most.
Discussion
The high coherence observed in the A-R.H., A- T, A- W. and E- R.H., E- T and E- W. could be explained
due to atmospheric motion and variation in the vapour pressure and convection as explained by
Israel (13,14). The vapour pressure, important as it is, is dependent on several factors and its measure-
ments are complicated (24). The vapour pressure, e, is given by e = ew - AP(1d - Tw) where ew is the
saturation vapour pressure at the wet bulb temp. Tw,1d is dry bulb temperature, P is the atmospheric
pressure and A is the psychrometric constant.
106
1-0 - in-d- D-ir-e-c-t i-on·-_(-A-.-W-.)- - -b--'
/.O r-----W
Wind Direction - (F. W) a
·9 -- - Potential Gradient .9 - - - Potential Gradient
_ .- Air-Earth Current - .- Air -Earth Current
·8 .8
",
- Conductivity - Condu c tivity
c: ·7 ~
c::
'"
~~
.~
·6
:::
l>
~
A-.----j (999%) '" ---:--'1----:'1; (999%)
''""
l) ·5
~~~~-----7r--~~1_~ (99%) ~'" ~~--~-----~~~~~---j (99%J
'c:"
l> .,: l>
c::
...'" 3 '"
....
~ '" '"
~
l)'" '"
l)
.1
a 2 3 .: 56789101112 0L---~
2 ~3--':~5~~
6 ~7---:8:--9~1~0~'I~U
Cycles per Day Cycle s per Day
180 180
c d
ISO ISO
120
90
c:
:g'"
::::
"'"
- ISO _ ~":
~I '
- 180'-~-2
c:---o-
3~4---:5:--6::;--;;7---'-;8---:9::--'-':1:;:;
0--;";
11~'2 2 3 .: 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Fig. 7. Coherence coefficient and cross spectral phase spectra of the fair-weather and all-weather potential gradient
and wind direction (E- w,,); air-earth current density and wind direction (1- w,,); and conductivity and wind speed
(A.- w,,)
The purpose of this paper is to determine the relative importance of the meteorological elements
commonly measured for the relationship with the electrical parameters.
The conductivity at Toronto is found (19) to show large change at about ooe and this suggests that
it is affected by phase change of water, possibly evaporation (20).
The high coherence of the potential gradient and relative humidity, temperature, and wind speed
and conductivity and relative humidity, temperature and wind speed found for Toronto might well
be true for other similar stations and if so it will provide an important clue in understanding the rela-
tionship of atmospheric electricity and meteorology.
The less energetic high frequency variations (maxima of 2 -4 hour periods) observed in the power
spectra and coherence coefficient spectra could be due to the drifting of space charge clouds at the local
wind velocity (26).
Lastly, the stability of the spectra could be determined only with more data for additional stations.
The Blackman and Tukey method is slow and expensive on the computer. Fast Fourier transform
method should therefore be used in future studies.
107
Conclusion
The study of the power and cross power spectra for Toronto indicates that in order of importance
the electrical parameters are conductivity, potential gradient, and air-earth current density and the
meteorological elements relative humidity, wind speed, temperature, wind direction and pressure for
the relationship of atmospheric electricity and meteorology.
References
1. Anderson, R. v., These proceedings, this session. - 2. Bhartendu, Canadian Meteorol. Res. Rep., CMRR 5/69,
49 (1969). - 3. Bhartendu, Atmosphere 9, 16 (1971). - 4. Bhartendu, Pure and Appl. Geophys. 88, 210 (1971). -
5. Bhartendu, J. Geophys. Res. 77, 6487 (1972). - 6. Bhartendu, 1. Atmos. Terrest. Phys. 36, 343 (1974). - 7. Bhartendu,
These proceedings, session 3. - 8. Blackman, R. B., and J. W Tukey, The Measurement of Power Spectra (Dover,
New York, 1958). - 9. Cobb, WE., 1. Atmos. Sci. 25, 470 (1968). - 10. Gherzi, E., Assoc. Geofis.ltaliana 16-17,
447 (1966). - 11. Hamon, B. v., and E. J. Hannan, J. Geophys. Res. 68, 6033 (1963). - 12. Israel, H., Thunderstorm
Electricity, 11-12 (Chicago, 1953). - 13. Israel, H., Atmospheric Electricity, Vol. I, Fundamentals, Conductivity
and Ions, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Va. (TT 67-51394/1), (Springfield, 1971). - 14. Israel, H., Atmospheric
Electricity, Vol. II, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Va. (TT 67-51394/2), (Springfield, 1973). - 15. Janeselli, R., Geofis.
and Meteorol. 13, 1 (1964). - 16. Janeselli, R., Annal. Geofis.ltaly 21, 305 (1968). - 17. Kamra, A. K., J. Atmos.
Terrest. Phys. 31,1281 (1969). - 18. Lane-Smith, These proceedings, session 3. - 19. Lawford, R. G., and Bhartendu,
Eighth Canadian Meteorological Congress (Toronto, 1974). - 20. Muhleisen, R., Recent Advances in Atmospheric
Electricity, ed. L. G. Smith, 213 (London, 1958). - 21. Rodriquez-Iturbe, I., and Nordin, Water Resources Res.
5,608 (1969). - 22. Pakiam, J., and J. Maybank, Te\1us 26, 844 (1969). - 23. Panofsky, H. A., and G. W Brier,
Some Applications of Statistics to Meteorology, Pennsylvania State Univ. Press University Park, Pa. (1958). -
24. Polavarapu, R. J., Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 98, 198 (1972). - 25. Reiter, R., U.S. Air Force Report,
Contract AF 61 (052}-55 (1960). - 26. Yerge, D. G., and K. R. Johnson, 1. Geophys. Res. 79, 2177 (1974).
Author'S address:
Bhartendu
Atmosph. Environm. Service
4905 Dufferin Street
Downsview, Ontario M 3 H 5 T 4
Canada
108
Particulate Air Pollution Trends Deduced from Atmospheric
Electrical Conductivity Measurements at Bet-Dagan (Israel)
A. Manes
With lO.figures
Abstract
A nine year record of atmospheric electrical conductivity taken at the Central Meteorological Institute in Bet-
Dagan (about 10 km south-east of Tel-Aviv) has been analyzed with due consideration of the local meteorology
and air pollution climate. The annual, diurnal and weekly patterns of atmospheric electrical conductivity seem
to be well correlated with the local aerosol air pollution patterns. The relationship between the unipolar
conductivity and condensation nuclei concentration is drawn experimentally and compared to the theoretical
values. The aerosol mass concentration is deduced from conductivity data. A downward trend of the total con-
ductivity, presented by the meteorologically stable summer averages, is found.
The long-term decreasing trend seems to be affected by the air pollution build-up over the Tel-Aviv metro-
politan area.
Introduction
The concern that man's activity in a world of rapidly growing population may lead to inadvertent
modification of the climate, on a local basis and even on a global scale, has led to the establishment
of a worldwide network of air quality monitoring stations. This network will comprise of so-called
baseline stations located in areas remote from human activity, as well as regional stations, which
should be located relatively close to largely populated areas. An important parameter to be monitored
at the network is the particulate load ofthe atmosphere, which may have a direct impact on the climatic
change (1-4). It is but natural that recently atmospheric electric scientists have renewed their interest
in the possibility of using atmospheric electrical parameters as indices of air pollution trends, despite
the complexity of the relationships involved. The usefulness of records of the atmospheric electrical
conductivity over the oceans in revealing long-term trends in global aerosol pollution (in "Baseline"
areas) has been demonstrated recently in a study by Cobb and Wells (5, 6). Comparing fair-weather
conductivity data recorded during the 1967 global expedition of the research vessel "Oceanographer"
to the Carnegie expedition data obtained about half a century ago, they found a decreasing trend of
conductivity, which has dropped by at least 20 % in the North Atlantic. This decreasing trend in con-
ductivity is attributed to a significant rise in the aerosol pollution over the northern hemisphere.
An attempt to infer pollution trends from atmospheric electrical conductivity on a regional basis, due
to extensive urbanization, has been made recently by Mani and Huddar (7). The atmospheric electrical
conductivity recorded in Poona during the period 1967 - 69 was compared to a record made in
1935 - 37. Both polar conductivities decreased almost to one third of the values recorded during the
period 1935 - 37. The authors conclude that the "balance of the mechanisms of particle injection and
removal is already being modified".
In the present study a nine year record of atmospheric electrical conductivity, taken at the Central
Meteorological Institute in Bet-Dagan, about 10 km south-east of Tel-Aviv, has been analyzed in an
attempt to reveal the climatology and synopsis of the aerosol pollution trends and its correlation with
the behavior of the electrical conductivity.
Site and Instrumentation

Bet-Dagan (32°00'N 34°49'E, elevation 30 m above MSL) is a rural area located south-east of the
greater Tel-Aviv area.
The prevailing winds are from the west-north-west to north-north-east, which means that an
integrated urban effect is to be expected. No appreciable pollution sources exist in the vicinity of the
station. The Tel-Aviv metropolitan area has expanded very rapidly during the last two decades.
Population has grown from around 350000 inhabitants in 1946 to about 1.2 million in 1974. During
109
the last decade there has been a very sharp rise in industrial activity and motor vehicle traffic. Taking
into account the poor dispersion conditions, prevailing almost permanently during the rainless
summer season typical for the subtropical areas of the Eastern Mediterranean one may expect a rising
trend of the particulate mass load of the atmosphere. The atmospheric electrical observatory is located
on the fourth floor of the Meteorological Institute building. Positive and negative polar conductivities
have been recorded continuously by means of two aspiration Gerdien-type capacitors. The instrument
has been manufactured by Saxer and Sigrist (8). Surface and upper air meteorological observations
are carried out routinely at the station. Measurements of condensation nucle~ Aitken particles, environ-
mental radioactivity, solar radiation and atmospheric turbidity were also carried out during the period
of study.
Atmospheric Electrical Conductivity Climate at Bet-Dagan and its Relation to the Aerosol Pollution
a) Annual variation
The average annual variation of total conductivity is portrayed in Fig. 1 (in local standard time).
This pattern has some peculiarities which seem to have a direct bearing on the synoptic scale and
local air pollution meteorology. One can notice (lower part of Fig. 1) three "depressions" on the annual
total conductivity curve. Two such "depressions" occur during the transition months (March-April
and October-November). During these months the Eastern Mediterranean is exposed occasionally
to khamsinic weather caused by low pressure systems originating usually over the North African deserts,
and carrying huge amounts of desert-borne aerosols (9).
200
/
"", , r'i
/ \
160 I "/DAY \
/
0800 - 2000 \
.(
/ L5T \ A
/
,;-- +- -+---io
1~0 "- ,
~
's
x
80 NIGHT
'5 2100 - 0700
'"
0 1;5T
..c
:::;; 40
1::; 200
1=
u
;:J
Q 160
z
0
U
120
g
...l
E-<
80
40
F M A M J J A 5 0 N D J
MONTH
Fig. 1. Annual variation of total conductivity at Bet-Dagan 1966 -1971. Upper picture: monthly-means separated
for day and night; LST = local standard time. Abscissa: months; ordinate in 10- 16 0- 1 m- 1
110
Electrical conductivity is strongly affected by this weather phenomenon. A daily pattern of conduc-
tivity during khamsinic weather is shown in Fig. 2 (broken and dotted line). For the sake of comparison
the seasonal average is also plotted in Fig. 2 (solid line).
A sharp decrease of conductivity in daytime is evident. The transition months "depressions" are
therefore more pronounced in the annual curve averaged over daytime values only (upper part of
Fig. 1).
The mid-summer (July) conductivity "depression" seems to be of a more complex nature. The very
low conductivity values occurring during nighttime (see upper part of Fig. 1) are probably due to the
very calm conditions prevailing during the summer nights, resulting in extremely reduced mixing.
A reasonable explanation for the mid-summer daytime minimum may be drawn from the striking
resemblance between the daytime conductivity pattern and the afternoon mixing depth curve shown
in Fig. 3 (10). This is a characteristic feature pertinent to the regional air pollution climatology. During
the summer the Eastern Mediterranean is influenced by the warm subtropical anticyclone, leading
to the prevalence of relatively stable atmospheric conditions, clear sky, formation of semi-permanent
subsidence inversions and light winds.
A shallow mixing layer (with a lid created by the upper level inversion) reduces the mixing efficiency
leading to high relative humidity and high pollutant concentrations. All these factors may be responsible
for the decrease of the daytime conductivity values in mid-summer.
~ 200
sax ,-,
1: 160
I '
I '
I •• "
I l ~
1l'"
I I'.
I ,',
I ,.
::!1 120
>- ,
I / ~'''\
.... I
:>
~ ao
~ 40
u
~ 10~0~--4r---~a~--'12----1~6----2TO----'2~
Fig. 2. Diurnal variation of total conductivity at Bet-Dagan. Seasonal average (solid line), two days with
khamsinic weather (dotted and dashed lines). Abscissa in local standard time; ordinate in n- 1 m- 1
g,J
~16
!;i14
~12
810 AFTERNOON
!a
z:
$6
":4
~2 MORNING
~
::z:: 0 .J--.----,----r--r--,----,---.----,----r--r--,---..,.
J F M A M J J A SON D J
MONTH
Fig. 3. Annual variation of the heights of morning and afternoon mixing layers over Tel-Aviv. Abscissa: months;
ordinate: height in hundreds of meters
111
160 160
120 SPRING
120
:£
S 80 80
x
-:e
~ 40 40
..<:
:;;
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 0 4 8 12 Iii 20 24
>=
E-
;;
1=
g160 160
Q
~ AlITUMN
u 120
-l
120
..:
E-
O
E- 8 80
40 40
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
HOLR HOLR
Fig. 4 : Diurnal variation of total conductivity in 10- 16 0- 1 m -1, in the seasons June-August, September-
November, December-February, and March-May, at Bet-Dagan, 1966 -1971. Abscissa in local standard time
\ \ \ rr /' / /' .,
o(') o(')
o
(II
0.1 Cit eG ",- 2 seo 1
Fig. 5. Wind direction, wind speed, positive and negative polar conductivities, and diffuse solar radiation at
Bet-Dagan on one particular day. Note the change of wind direction and the correlated abrupt changes in
conductivities, plus the variation in wind speed and solar radiation. Time is backward and time scale is different
for the various curves, local standard times entered
112
b) Diurnal variation
The diurnal variation of the total conductivity, averaged by seasons, is shown in Fig. 4. Summer
stands for June, July and August; Winter - for December, January and February; Spring - for March,
April and May; Autumn - for September, October and November. All curves exhibit two maxima. As
expected the highest daytime maximum occurs in summer, and the highest night-time maximum - in
winter. The morning minima are relatively deep and considerably extended towards midday. They
seem to be affected by the air pollution dome over the greater Tel-Aviv area. This effect is clearly dis-
cernible in the secondary minima occurring around 0900-1000 hr LST in summer, and towards
midday in winter. With the strengthening of the sea-breeze and veering of the wind direction from the
north-east to the north-west sector, the air pollution dome seems to spread towards the Bet-Dagan
area, causing a decrease of conductivity. A test-case documenting this phenomenon is shown in Fig. 5.
This record was taken on 3 February 1974 (time is backward).
It shows a sharp decrease of both polar conductivities and a simultaneous increase of diffuse solar
radiation (with completely cloudless conditions) as the wind changes direction around half past 1200
LST from north-east to north-west and strengthens from avout 2.5 to about 5 mls (uppermost curve).
It is probably the integrated effect of this meso-scale synoptic feature which is responsible for the
extension of the· morning minima and the occurrence of the secondary minima in summer and winter.
"-~
i: 100 - -0,
> "-- :-... ...... _ - - - A ...
Eo-
i:5 90
Q
~
o
u OO+---~----~--~----~--~~--~
SUN. MON. TUS. WED. THURS. FRL SAT.
Fig. 6. Weekly variation of positive polar and negative polar conductivities in Bet-Dagan, 1966 -1968, in
percentage of the mean
IT:J-"Oay of Atonement"holiday
D-consecutive days average
'"b '">.
..;g 200
.,
X .::
78 :;
:r; ~ 160
-'" c
::::;; 0
'-'
>0-
o· 120
Eo-
:;
E=
."
c
8
u
80-
-E
;.J
Q
Z
0 8
0
u .: 40
-l ;::
~ "~
0
E0- "
:=... 0
1966 1970 1971 1973
Fig. 7. Daily averages of total conductivity in 10- 16 0- 1 m -1 for the "Day of Atonement" holidays (dotted bars)
and consecutive days averages (white bars), for four selected years. Ordinate: percentage of consecutive days
113
c) Weekly pattern, weekdays and holidays
The effect of aerosol pollution on the atmospheric electrical conductivity is revealed clearly in the
weekly pattern of conductivity, shown in Fig. 6. The behavior of the polar conductivities reflects prob-
ably the pattern of human activity in the course of the week. On Saturday, which is the Sabbatical
day in Israel, the conductivity rises by about 20 % above the weekly mean. The "Day of Atonement"
holiday in Israel provides a unique opportunity to reveal fully the effect of a "clean" from anthropogenic
pollution atmosphere on the conductivity pattern. During this holiday man-made pollution sources
are practically shut off. The daily averages for the "Day of Atonement" holidays versus consecutive
days averages are shown in Fig. 7. There is a rise in conductivity by about 80 %with respect to the con-
secutive days averages. The "Day of Atonement" in 1973 seems to be an exception, connected probably
with the October War high traffic.
Condensation Nuclei Concentration and Atmospheric Electrical Conductivity in Bet-Dagan

Attempts to infer the aerosol air pollution from conductivity data have been made by several in-
vestigators (5, 6, 11-15), however most of these studies were made over oceanic regions or other areas
with relatively small particulate loads. The basic relationship applied usually in these studies is the
small-ion balance equation under equilibrium conditions, solved by Sagalyn and Faucher (12):
-PN + (P 2 N 2 + 4IXq)1/2
n= • 21X [1]
Assuming that the unipolar large ion density N presents about 20 percent of the total nuclei popula-
tion Z and N 1 ~ N 2 = N, N 0/ N = 3, i.e., Z = 5 N and the unipolar small ion density can be presented
by the conductivity:
A
n=--
. ekm [2]
where: A - unipolar conductivity (positive)

n - small ion number density
k m - average small ion mobility
e - electron charge,
eq. [1] can be rewritten:
Z = 2.(Qekm _ ~). [3]
P A ekm
The following values were applied for the constants in eq. [3]
P = 10- 11 m 3 sec- 1 (Chalmers, 1967)
k~ = 1.14 X 10- 4 m 2 V- 1 sec- 1 (Mohnen, 1974)
IX = 1.6 X 10- 12 m 3 sec- 1 (Chalmers, 1967)
e =1.6xl0- 19 C.
Eq. [3] is plotted in Fig. 8 for five different values of the ion production rate Q: 1.6; 4; 6; 8 and
lOx 10 6 ion pairs m - 3 sec - 1. The measured positive conductivities are also plotted versus the
simultaneously measured condensation nuclei concentrations in Fig. 8. One can notice that the best
fit between the experimental data and the calculated values is obtained for q = 6 X 106 ion pairs
m - 3 sec -1. This seems to be reasonable evaluation of q for the coastal plain of the Eastern Mediter-
ranean, which is influenced by the local meso-scale sea-breeze and land-breeze circulation.
Aerosol Mass Loading and Atmospheric Electrical Conductivity

The particulate mass concentration in the atmosphere is an important characteristic of the air pol-
lution levels, and the air quality standards for particulates are usually given in terms of mass concen-
114
120
70
X 100
"s
'"
Q
..c 00
::::s
>-
E-
;; 60
1=
u
;:>
Q
:z: 40
0
u
~
;> 20
1=
(j)
0
c:l...
2 4 6 8 W n M ffi ill W M ~ m~ ~M
CONDENSATION NUCLEI COUNT xW 3
Fig. 8. Positive polar conductivity in 10- 16 0- 1 m -1 (ordinate) versus number density of condensation nuclei
in 109 m - 3 (abscissa). Solid lines: calculated for various ionization rates q in 10 6 ion pairs m - 3 sec-I; circles:
experimental data
tration, in ~gr/m3. Mass concentration involves, in addition to the number concentration of particles,
their size distribution and density. Direct measurements are very difficult, and practically there is
no single method to measure the size distribution in the total size range. Indirect methods are there-
fore often applied, using either turbidity indices (16) or radiation scattering properties of the aerosols
(17). It is of interest to test the possibility of using polar conductivity as a measure of mass concentration.
Applying eq. [3] for the total nuclei content and assuming a size distribution of Junge:
Z(r) = Cr-(y+l) [4J

where y = 3, the mass will be given by:
4
J
"lTlin
M = 31CP r 3 Z(r)dr. [5]

"min
The solution of this integral is
[6]
where ex = y + 1.
The minimum size of the nuclei measured in Bet-Dagan (18) is around 0.1 ~m. For the computation,
a size range of 60 nm ~ r ~ 6 ~m (two orders of magnitude) is assumed provided that most ofthe aerosol
mass remains within this size range (19). Under the above assumptions and taking for the average
density p = 1,eq. [6] may be expressed in the simple form:
M = (12.56 X 10- 9 Z) ~gr/m3 [7]
where Z is the nuclei concentration per m 3.
Applying eqs. [3] and [7] the aerosol mass concentration can be inferred from the unipolar conduc-
tivity values. Some of the computation results are listed below.
115
1..+ Z M M Estimated from
x 10- 16 0- 1 m- 1 m- 3 J.lgr m- 3 J.lgr m- 3 visibility meas. (20)
50 21.82 x 109 250 200

70 15.00 X 109 188 160
100 10.00 x 109 125 120
The Secular Change of Atmospheric Electrical Conductivity in Bet-Dagan .

The long-term trend of the total conductivity in Bet-Dagan, presented by the mid-summer averages
(July-August) is illustrated in Fig. 9. The choice of the mid-summer averages for the time trend analysis
was dictated by the following considerations: the summer season at the Eastern Mediterranean is
meteorologically stable and completely rainless. In July and August khamsinic weather is a very rare
phenomenon, the interference with naturally occurring aerosols is thus negligible. The "Fair Weather"
criterion can thus be applied to the whole season. One may expect therefore that the impact of anthro-
200 ...
+
160 + DAY, 0800- 2000 L5T
+
120 ~ +
+
• •
A
80 A .A ~ + +
A
A
NIGHT, 2100-0700 L5T
40
"1 A
14
"7,,-
0
'"
'j 0
...."/
0
0
0 l2
0 0 0
0
'6 0
j 200 1.0
:::Ii!
>-
!:: 160
:> • 0.8
E:
g 120
• • A 0.6
Q
Ii!!:
0
• • •
u
80
•• • 0.4
g
...:I
~ 4(} (12
1966 1968 1970 1972 1974

YEAR
Fig. 9. Long-term variation of total conductivity in 10- 16 0 -1 m - 1 (left ordinate), and of the ratio of polar
conductivities (right ordinate). Summer averages (July-August) at Bet-Dagan. Upper part: total conductivities
split for day and night in local standard time
116
28 0
24 0
E 0
00 00
00
~ 20 0
000 0
>- 16 0
000
t: 0
0
-l 12 00
C5
Cii 8
:; 4
0
50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72
YEAR
Fig. 10. Long-term variation of atmospheric visibility at Ben Gurion Airport, in kilometers; averaged over day-
time observations at 03, 06, 09,12 and 15 GMT during summer months June-September 1950-1971
pogenic air pollution on the atmospheric electric climate will be predominant. As can be seen in Fig. 9,
there is a well pronounced decreasing trend of total conductivity (shown by dots in the lower part of
Fig. 9). The average conductivity drops by about 50 % during the period under study, from about
160 x 1O- 16 0- l m- 1 in 1966 to about 80 x 1O- 16 0- l m- 1 in 1974. The average values of the
positive to negative conductivity ratio are also plotted in Fig. 9. No trend is observed in this ratio. In
the upper part of Fig. 9 the average daytime (crosses) and nighttime (triangles) total conductivities are
plotted. The downward trend of the daytime values is strongly pronounced. There is a decrease from
about 200 x 10- 16 0- 1 m -I in 1966 to around 80 x 10- 16 0- 1 m -I in 1974. The nighttime values
however show only a slightly decreasing trend. A possible explanation for the difference between the day-
time and night-time trends may be as following:
a) The surface layer is thermally stable during the night, and mixing is caused only by the wind field.
The wind speed dependence of conductivity during night should therefore be predominant (this
explains the nighttime maxima in winter). Obviously, no time trend in the average nighttime wind speed
is observed.
b) During the summer nights the land-breeze blows from the east-south-east sector, the urban effect
is thus strongly reduced. It is of interest to compare the downward trend of the summer-time total
conductivity in Bet-Dagan during the period 1966-1974 to the secular change of the average summer-
time visibility, measured at the Ben-Gurion International Airport, located about 15 km south-east of
Tel-Aviv (see Fig. 10) (20). The similarity between the visibility and electrical conductivity trend patterns
is striking, implying that anthropogenic air pollution should be kept responsible for both trend patterns.
Aerosol air pollution affecting the attenuation coefficient for visible light seems to affect also the small
ion density, i.e. the electrical conductivity.
Conclusions
a) There seems to be sufficient evidence that atmospheric electrical conductivity, properly reduced
and analyzed, with due consideration of the local meteorology and air pollution climatology, may serve
as a sensitive and practical tool, capable of documenting aerosol air pollution trends, especially secular
changes, in largely populated areas.
b) The classic concept of "Fair Weather" atmospheric electricity should be reconsidered, with due
attention to the ,aerosol air pollution and its effect on the atmospheric electric climate.
c) Taking into account the relative simplicity and reliability of the electrical conductivity measurement,
which is well suited for continuous and automatic recording, its inclusion in the measurement program
of the regional air pollution station network may be recommended.
Acknowledgments
The author is indebted to the members of staff of the Research Division who have contributed to this work.
Thanks are due to Dr. Zizvashvili, Mrs. Segal and Miss Guetta for their assistance in performing the numerous
computations.
117
Special thanks go to Mrs. Matzliach, Mrs. Kerbel, Miss Chechik and Miss Ben-Shalom for the efficient data
handling, drafting and typing.
References
1. Machta Lester, Man's influence on the climate. A Status Report WMO. Commission for Atmospheric Sciences
6th Session (Versailles 1973). - 2. Rasoo/, S. J. and S. H. Schneider, Science 173, 138 (1971). - 3. Robinson,
G. D., Long-term effects of air pollution - A survey. CEM 4029-400, The Center for the Environment and Man
(Hartford 1970). - 4. Study of Man's Impact on Climate (S.M.J.C.), The MIT Press, 308 (1971). - 5. Cobb,
W. E. and H. J. Wells, J. Atmos. Sci. 27, 814 (1970). - 6. Cobb, W. E., Atmospheric electrical conductivity and
the detection of global aerosol pollution. TECOMAP Conference (Helsinki 1973). - 7. Mani, A. and B. B.
Huddar, Pure and Appl. Geoph. 100, 154 (1972). - 8. Saxer, L. and W. Sigrist, Archiv fUr Meteor. Geoph.
und Biokl. Serie A, 12 (1961). - 9. Joseph, J. H. and A. Manes, J. Appl. Met. 12, 792 (1973). - 10. Rindsberger,
M., Israel Journ. of Earth Sciences (in press). - 11. Saga/yn, R. c., The production and removal ofsmall ion and
charged nuclei over the Atlantic Ocean. Proceedings of the second conference on Atmospheric Electricity (1958). -
12. Saga/yn, R. C. and G. A. Faucher, J. Roy. Met. Soc. 82, 428 (1956). - 13. Phillips, B. B., P. A. Allee, J. C.
Poles, and R. H. Woessner, Journ. of Geoph. Res. 60, 289 (1955). - 14. Morita, Y., H. Ishikawa, J. Nagasaka, and
M. Kanada, J. Met. Soc. of Japan 51, 5 (1973). - 15. Ikebe, Y., and M. Kawano, Pure and Appl. Geoph. 83, 120
(1970). - 16. Griggs. M., 1. Air Poll. Contr. Assoc. 22, 356 (1972). - 17. Charlson, R. J., 1. Colloid and Interface
Sc.39, 1 (1971). - 18. Gagin, A. and B. Terliuc, A modified Wieland-Twomey, thermal-diffusion cloud nuclei
counter. J. De Recherches Atmospheriques (1968). - 19. Horvath, M., Staub-Reinhalt. Luft 29, 26 (1969). -
20. Manes et aI., Met. Servo Series C 29 (1973).
Discussion
Mohllen, Albany, New York, USA:
One slide was of particular interest where you showed the conductivity versus condensation nuclei ratio with q
(the ion birth rate) as parameter. In the last slide you showed the trend of conductivity for the past nine years.
Could one conclude that: 1. the condensation nuclei concentration might have gone up 2. the ion birth rate
might have gone down and 3. the mobility of ions might have decreased? Which of the three is the dominant
parameter?
If I could have an extra minute, I could show an additional slide which would give you proof that your first
assumption is correct, meaning that there was a very sharp rise of the condensation nuclei concentration. We
have also analyzed the average visibility recorded at the station for the last 20 years, and a strongly decreasing
trend in visibility is found. We know that the so-called optically active aerosols are within the size range of about
1/10 to about 1 micrometer, which approximately matches the size range of the condensatio!l nuclei. The
aerosol pollution build-up, as deduced from the downward trend of conductivity, is confirmed by the decreasing
trend in visibility. There may have been other factors, but we didn't go into the microphysics of these processes.
Author's address:
A.Manes
Research and Development Div.
Israel Meteorological Service
P.O. Box 25
Bet-Dagan
Israel
118
Deformation of the Size Distribution of Aerosol Particles Dispersing from Land to Ocean
M. Misaki, M. Ikegami and I. Kanazawa
With 6 figures
Abstract
When the aerosols originated on land are dispersed over the ocean, they are not only decreased in the concen-
tration, but deformed in the pattern of size distribution. This deformation was ascertained by the experiments
aboard an observation ship in 1972 and 1974.
From the mobility spectrometry of atmospheric ions using the apparata we have developed, and the concur-
rent size spectrometry of large particles using a Royco Optical Counter, the whole size distribution of aerosol
particles covering the radius range from 3 nm to 5 !lm was determined over the cruising course of 1000 km from
Tokyo.
With the aid of the result of 222Rn concentration measurements, the effect of dilution by the spatial dispersion
was estimated. Subtracting the dilution factor from the apparent decay rate of the aerosol concentration, the
residence time of aerosols was determined in relation to the particle size.
In both the expeditions in 1972 and 1974, the deformation of the size distribution was found to take place in
such a way that the center of gravity of the distribution is shifted towards smaller size with the increasing age of
aerosols.
Introduction
The large scale dispersion of aerosols from land to ocean has been discussed by Misaki et a!. (1970),
Cobb (1973), Morita (1973) and others. In the problems of global pollution by aerosol particles, however,
it is essential to recognize how the size distribution of particles might be deformed with time as they
are dispersed to a wide area, because the effect of aerosols on climate is different according to the particle
size. As far as the authors know, the only work of this kind is the air-borne measurement made by
Sagalyn (1958).
If the residence time of the particles does not depend significantly on the size of particles, the size
distribution would not be deformed but be only depressed in the concentration with time. On the
contrary, if the residence time depends on the size, the size distribution would be changed in the shape.
Though the residence time in the atmosphere has been well estimated as a whole, experimental
informations have been seldom reported on the size dependence, while the theoretical estimation of the
dependence is extremely difficult because of the complexity of the processes concerned, such as co-
agulation, sedimentation, diffusion and scavenging by precipitation.
In order to obtain the experimental evidence on the deformation of the size distribution of aerosols
dispersing on a large scale, the authors attempted the size spectrometry of aerosols, aboard the obser-
vation ship "Ryofu-Maru" when she made voyages to Ogasawara Islands (1000 km south of Tokyo)
in winter of 1972 and in spring of 1974.
Instrumentation during the Expedition 1972

a) Size spectrometry of aerosol particles with the radii less than 0.1 11m.
The size distribution of the range listed above (actually 3 nm - 80 nm in radius) was obtained by the
conversion from the mobility distribution of atmospheric ions under the assumption of ionic equili-
brium. The mobility distribution of ions which covers the mobility range 3.2 x 10- 4 - 1.3 x 10- 8
m 2 IV sec was determined using three sets of automatically operated mobility spectrometers: small,
intermediate, large ion region, respectively. Details of the apparatus and the analytical procedure were
described in the previous paper (Misaki et a!., 1972).
b) Size spectrometry of aerosol particles with the radii more than 0.1 11m
The size range listed above (actually 0.15 11m - 5 11m in radius) was covered by the operation of multi-
channel scanning of a "Royco" aerosol spectrometer (scattered light pulse analyzer).
119
Experimental Results of the Expedition 1972
The expedition started on 21 November 1972 from Tokyo towards Marcus Island (24 18' N,
153° 58' E) and came back on 5 December via Ogasawara Islands (27° 05' N, 142° 11' E). The
measurements on the course from Tokyo to Marcus Is. failed because of a stormy weather. The data
presented in this paper were those obtained on the return trip from Ogasawara Islands to Tokyo.
The result of the mobility spectrometry of atmospheric ions is shown in Fig. 1. This figure is a version
of the time sequence of histograms derived from the mobility spectrometry. The numerical figures on
the contour lines represent the ion concentration (Particles/m 3 ) with the mobilities limited by two
adjacent horizontal grid lines. The vertical grid lines indicate the time of the measurements.
2£.or
.., 1
, __.. , z , ".01 1£
:-=~1: •
1(.01
.-1
Ii:> I I~ • /li I I~ I I'll I i1) I 3; I 24 I ~ I 4 I G II

I I 10 I 1'2 ' I~ I (~ , I'll I 10 ' 12 I 2~ . 2 I <I • I: I II .
3 DEC . 1972 4 DEC. 5 DEC.
Fig. I. The mobility distribution of atmospheric ions obtained aboard the observation hip " Ryofu-Maru"
approaching to Tokyo from Ogasawara Islands
The mobility spectrum was converted into the size distribution of aerosol particles based on
Bricard's theory, assuming ionic equilibrium. The whole size distribution in the range from 3 nm to 5 ~m
in radius was thus derived by the combination of two kinds of measurements, mobility spectrometry
of ions, and size spectrometry of large particles by Royco, which is shown in Fig. 2.
-k~3 +~3
110 ions.cm-~div. 110 ions.cm·~div.
F - f",' ,...
r~~~.
/~
/ ,
-k~O.OOl +k~0.4 +k"!0.04
3600 ions·cm-~div. 110 ions· cm-'/div. 360 ions . cm-~div.
10 ; 25 Wind SE 0 . 2m/sec 12;02 Wind NW 2.2m/sec 16; OS IHnd m~ 5 . 7m/ sec

Humidity 83 . 6% Humidity 77.2% Humidity 59.0%
Temperature 8.S o C Temperature 9.3°C Temperature 10.4°C
Pressure 1008 . 0 rob Pressure 1007.5 rob Pressure 1006.9 mb
Fig. 3. Recording of currents representing ion number densities for the indicated mobility ranges on 17 February
1972. Fair weather with a change from dense haze to no haze. ( umber densities given in cm - 3)
120
~ 10 r "'O.3~m
'"
.!a 5 I I
'"
"-
z
0
'" 6.111
4 r :oO.Sl'm
n
2 I I
0
,
r -O.Sl'm
I
I
t
ru
,
I'" 1.51'~
n I
06
50ec.
I
24
I
18
I I
12
I
I
r 112.5p.m
06
4 Dec. 1972
I
24 18
I I I
3 Dec.
I
I
12
I
I
06
o 900 f
I
Tokyo Bay DISTANCE FROM TOKYO in km Opo.oro Is.
Fig. 3. Time variation of the concentration of aerosol particles with respect to various particle radii. Corresponding
distance from the Tokyo Bay is also given on the abscissa
In Fig. 2 the size distribution is represented in terms of the distribution function dN/d log r (Particles/
m 3 , Nand r being the particle concentration and radius, respectively). A cross section of Fig. 2 parallel
to the radius axis gives a size distribution at the corresponding time, while a cross section parallel to
the time axis gives a time variation curve of the distribution function for the specific radius.
Fig. 3 shows the time variation curves thus derived with respect to eight selected radii. In this figure
the distance from the Tokyo Bay is also given on the abscissa. It may be seen that every curve shows ap-
proximately exponential decay with the increasing distance from the land. At di,tance long enough
the curve tends to more or less a certain constant value. This is regarded as the back-ground value,
probably representing the concentration of aerosols inherent in the maritime atmosphere. The
distribution function dN/d log r deducted by the back-ground value is assumed to correspond to the
concentration of aerosols of land origin.
According to an air mass trajectory analysis based on the 850 mb (85 kPa) weather chart, the age
of aerosols of land origin was determined as the time length taken until the air mass reached the ship
after leaving land. Then dN /d log r for the aerosols of land origin was related to their age. The time
constant of exponentially decaying aerosol concentration with respect to the age was estimated in this
121
way for various particle sizes. The estimated time constant is 5 hours for the particles of2.5 Ilm in radius,
8 hours for 0.5 Ilm, 15 hours for 0.2 Ilm, and 18 hours for 0.01 Ilm.
It must be noticed, however, that these values do not stand for the residence time of aerosols im-
mediately, because the observed decay is partly due to the dilution effect by spatial dispersion.
Instrumentation and Experimental Results ofthe Expedition 1974

In order to estimate the dilution effect of dispersing aerosols as they travel over the ocean along air
mass trajectory, the measurement of the concentration of 222Rn by the filter pack method was added
in the expedition 1974. The other instrumentation was the same as in 1972.
140 \ 145
~-36
Fig. 4. Air mass trajectories during the expedition 1974. The figures on the trajectory lines show the time length
(in hour) before the air mass reached the ship
Unfortunately during the period of this expedition the barometric distribution was not favorable
for our purpose. As shown in Fig. 4 the major part of the expedition was under the influence of an air
mass which came from the oceanic area. This made it impossible to estimate the age of aerosols except
for the first several hours of the expedition. At the exit of Tokyo Bay (19h , 23 April) the wind was
westerly, showing apparently that the air mass was coming from the nearby land. It turned gradually
southward and at 02h , 24 April the trajectory line came to the southern rim of Kyushu Island.
Therefore only the data obtained from 19h, 23rd till 02h, 24th were treated in the present work.
The upper half of Fig. 5 shows the time variation of 222Rn concentration as the ship was leaving lang
towards south. The rapid decrease in 222Rn concentration after 02h, 24 April seems to meet the story
that the air came from the oceanic area. In the lower half of Fig. 5 the plot was made against the time
length after the air mass left land. Natural decay of the 222Rn concentration, the half life being 3.83
days, is indicated by the broken line in the lower figure. Because 222Rn is in a gas state in the atmosphere,
122
~E 40n:~--------.------------,,------------,----------
"
U
Q. 30 I--+--+-
.S
020304050607080910 11121314 15 16 17
\. \. \ 24 Apr. 1974
\. \ \. \
~ 5Or---~----~---r--~~--~--~r-~----------~---------
~
U
Q.
4OIA---~~--~~~---4----~~~~~------+---------
.S
-
.§ 30
12Or-----------+-----------4-----------~--------
2
c
a:
o I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 192021 22
Hours after Leavl ng Land
Fig. 5. Decay of 222Rn concentration measured in the expedition 1974. Broken line shows the natural decay of
222Rn. Chain lines indicate the correspondence of the plotted points in the upper and the lower figures
it is not subject to the dissipation factors for aerosols. Furthermore the origin of 222Rn is practically
restricted to land. Consequently it is supposed that the excess of the observed decay rate over the natural
decay is due to the dilution effect by the spatial dispersion. The decay time constant exclusively due to
the dilution was thus estimated as 60 hours.
The apparent decay time constant for the aerosol particles were determined as a function of particle
size just in the same way described before. Since the apparent decay is due to not only the limited life
of aerosols but also the dilution effect, the latter was subtracted from the apparent decay, assuming that
the dilution factor determined from the 222Rn measurement can be applied to the dispersion of
aerosols. Fig. 6 summarizes the final results showing the dependence of the decay time constant of
aerosol particles on their size.
Discussion and Conclusion

It must be noticed that the estimation of the effect of dilution by dispersion was not accurate in this
work because of the unfavorable situation of the barometric system. However, the decay constants
for the particles of the radius more than 0.3 11m in radius are large enough so that the effect of the
dilution can be almost neglected. On the contrary, the decay time constant for the smaller particles than
that size is comparable to dilution factor. Moreover, the accuracy of mobility spectrometry of ions was
123
~
.c
- -- ..
0
c
... 100 L"""
~ 9~0
(f)
0 ~ ,
z
0
u
OJ
w
V
l I
~
~
10 0 APR. 1974
~
0
>-
«
u
x DEC. 1972
t-~ ~x
w 11
a
II
0.001 0.01 0.1 I 10
RADIUS in p.m
Fig. 6. Size dependence of the decay time constant of aerosol particles dispersing from land to ocean
not good enough for the extremely low concentration in mid-ocean, so that the curve below 0.2 (lm in
Fig. 6 must be regarded just to show the tendency. Nevertheless, it seems to be very clear that larger
particles decay more rapidly in concentration with increasing age. These observational results show
the evidence that the size distribution of aerosols is deformed with time as they are dispersed over the
ocean in such a way that the center of gravity of the size distribution is shifted to the smaller size region.
Another particular interest is in the comparison of Fig. 6 with the rain scavenging effect discussed
theoretically by Greenfield (1957). According to his theory scavenging is not effective in the region of
radius between 0.05 (lm and 0.5 (lm. The maximum time constant appearing in the region 0.01 ~ O.1(lm
in Fig. 6 seems to reflect the theoretical result by Greenfield.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their thanks to Prof. Y. Ikebe, Department of Nuclear Engineering, Nagoya Uni-
versity, for lending us a set of 222Rn measuring apparata, and for his extremely helpful discussions on the experi-
mental results. They also wish to express their appreciation to Prof. T. Sekikawa, Department of Physics, Science
University of Tokyo, for lending us a Royco aerosol spectrometer.
References
1. Cobb, W. E .. J. Atmosph. Sci. 30, 101 (1973). - 2. Greenfield, S. M., 1. Met. 14, 115 (1957). - 3. Misaki, M.
and T. lukeLlli, 1. Met. Soc. Japan 48, 263 (1970). - 4. Misaki. M., M. Ohtugaki, and I. Kanazawa,
PAGEOPH 100,133 (1972). - 5. Morita, Y., Proceedings of the Res. lnst. of Atmospherics, Nagoya Univ. 20,
A, 1 (1973). - 6. Sagalyn, R. c., The production and removal of small ions and charged nuclei over the Atlantic
Ocean. Recent Advances in Atmospheric Electricity, Edited by L. G. Smith. Pergamon Press 21-41 (1958).
Discussion
Muhleisen, Ravensburg, West-Germany'
I have a question concerning the ordinate of some of your graphs. You wrote: dN/d log r, but you gave the
dimension in particles per m3 . dN/d log r has a dimension: particles per m4 , but I think you mean particle
concentration per m 3 •
124
Misaki, Tokyo, Japan:
The denominator of d /II, d log r, "d log r" is a nondimensional quantity. So, the dimension of dN /d log r is the
same as that of N. Therefore, that is (No. of Particles/m 3) instead of (Number of Particles/m 4 ).
Supplementary explanation: The dimension of dN /dr is (Number of Particles/m4 ), certainly as Dr. Muhleisen
said. However, the dimension of dN/d log r is different from that of dN/dr.
I am interested in the last diagram. The fine aerosol has a longer decay time than that of the larger particles.
Dr. Misaki explained this by the scavenging effect. The smaller particles will be captured more easily than the
larger particles if you include all termal and diffusive forces. Thus, the conclusion is more like the opposite.
Misaki:
What is showed is just the result of the observation, and I referred it to Greenfield's theory. According to this
theory, small particles can be easily trapped by the cloud droplets. However, the large particles are also easily
removed by the wash-out effect by rain drops. Between them there is a region where the scavenging effect is not
effective. My result, I suppose, corresponds with Greenfield's theory.
Takahashi:
For your consideration, I wonder if you could consider the thermophoresis and the diffusiophoresis besides
just the Brownian motion.
Authors' address:
M. Misaki, M. Ikegami and J. Kanazawa
Meteorological Res. Inst.
4-35-8 Ko-Enji-Kita
Suginami, Tokyo
Japan
125
On Recent Measurements of Electric Parameters and Aerosols in the Oceanic Atmosphere
Y. Morita and H. Ishikawa
With 4 figures
Abstract
This paper summarizes some results of the authors' recent measurements of the electric parameters and
aerosols in the oceanic atmosphere. Ten expeditions and five aircraft flights have been carried out during the
period 1968 to 1974 to undertake measurements of the electric conductivity, small ion density, nucleus concentra-
tion, diffusion coefficient of nuclei, and size distribution of large particles over the Pacific Ocean and the East
China Sea.
The results have been analysed to see the influence of the land pollution on the measured parameters, and have
been discus'sed to see how these parameters depend on the minimum distance from shore, on the air stream patterns
and on the time histories of air masses. The interpretation of most of the data showed that among many
possible factors which would influence the measured parameters, the age of the relevant air masses is very
important when we investigate the extension of land pollution to the oceanic atmosphere.
A brief discussion on the inter-relationship between small ions and condensation nuclei in the oceanic atmos-
phere is also included. The dependence of the effective attachment coefficient on the equivalent radius of nuclei
suggests that large-ion equilibrium conditions prevail in the oceanic atmosphere (far from the shore).
Some measurements carried out in "mid-ocean" and on Bonin Island (Chichi-shima of Ogasawara Shoto
27° N, 142 0 E) have been interpreted in terms of the background level of global pollution.
It is generally believed that the measurements of electric parameters of the atmosphere over the
oceans will lead to a better understanding of the various physical processes involved than similar
measurements over land masses. Ever since the famous Carnegie expeditions between 1915 and 1929,
many attempts have been made to measure the electric properties and aerosols of the atmosphere over
oceans. Most of these results, ifnot all, however, indicated that the continental pollution and air masses
influence the sea surface measurements over long distance from shore (e.g., Cobb and Wells, 1970,
Misaki and Takeuti, 1970, Junge and Jaenicke, 1971 and others). It thus becomes necessary to study
systematically how far the influence of the land pollution continues to exist before one can reasonably
assume that a particular set of ship-borne measurements represents the atmospheric conditions un affect -
ed by the land pollution. Though there are many individual measurements of electric parameters over
oceans, systematic studies of the transitional behavior of the electric parameters of the atmosphere
from land to the ocean are relatively few. For such studies, of course, combined measurements of
electric parameters and aerosols would be of great value. In view of the above, the authors have under-
taken a systematic study of the nature of the variations of the electric parameters and aerosols of the
atmosphere from land to mid-ocean. This paper summarizes the authors' recent measurements in the
oceanic atmosphere.
Under the auspices of the Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo, and Tokai-Kisen Co. Ltd.,
ten expeditions have been carried out during the years 1968 to 1973. The relevant data pertaining to
these expeditions are described in a previous paper (Morita et aI., 1973). The expeditions covered the
oceanic regions of the North and South Pacific and the East China Sea. The small ion density and electric
conductivity have been measured by the ordinary aspiration Gerdien capacitors. The condensation nuclei
and their diffusion coefficient were measured on seven expeditions. The condensation nuclei were
measured by means of the Pollak-type counter. One of the main difficulties encountered in practice
was the influence of pollution from the ship itself, which under certain wind directions could make the
data unreliable. To avoid such influence in the present measurements, the air intakes of the instruments
were stuck out of the bridge and only the data obtained when the wind blew directly from the open sea
to the intakes were used in the analysis.
126
The Extension of Land Pollution to the Atmosphere over the Oceans and its InOuence
on the Sea Surface Measurements
The variation of electric parameters could become a measure of the extension of land pollution to
the oceanic atmosphere. A systematic measurement of these parameters would acquire new meaning
in the field of meteorology, atmospheric electricity and "Aerosol Climatology". In this respect, the
results have been analysed to see the influence of the land pollution on the measured parameters, and
have been discussed to see how these parameters depend on the minimum distance from shore, on the
air stream patterns and on the time-histories of the air masses (Morita et aI., 1973). Though in some
favorable cases a clear dependence of the electric conductivity and nucleus concentration on the distance
from shore has been observed, in many cases the dependence of these parameters on the distance was
very complicated. An example of the variation of conductivity with distance from shore is shown in
Fig. 1. As far as we have analysed the data of different expeditions as a function of the distance from
shore, the results were apparently random and it appeared that there was little systematics in the data.
Attempting to explain the significant differences between the results of individual expeditions and to
seek a meaningful interpretation of the apparently random results obtained as a function of the distance,
one would have to consider the local small-scale meteorological environment, the movement and time-
history of the air masses, etc. Towards this end, it is essential to investigate the air stream lines and air
mass trajectories. The result of such an analysis is shown in Fig. 2 in which the time axis refers to the age
of the air masses. It is at once clear from Fig. 2, which shows the dependence of total conductivity on
time, that age of the air masses is certainly a better parameter than the minimum distance from shore.
This fact is clearly brought out by a comparison of Figs. 1 and 2. While in Fig. 1, for some distances, the
conductivity is "double valued", in Fig. 2 we find the open and closed circles are well separated in time
to yield "unique" values. We can state from an inspection of Fig. 2 that among the many possible
factors which could influence the conductivity and nucleus concentration measurements, the age of
air masses is very important.
Five aircraft flights have also been made during the period 1973 to 1974 to obtain measurements of
nucleus concentration and size distribution of large particles over the Pacific Ocean. Even though the
age of the relevant air masses was also found to be an important factor, it does not always lead to the
physics of diffusion processes of the continental pollution. To understand fully the physics, further
Expedition IV
0 0
0
o 00 0
2.0 0 0 000 lSt.,
0 00
0
ooe
•
000
1.5 0
• •
• •
1.0 •• • ••
SUp
••
0.5
o
o 100 200 300
Fig. 1. An example of the dependence of total conductivity on minimum distance from the shore. Ordinate:
10- 14 0- 1 m- 1 ; abscissa: kilometer
127
2.5
Expedition III ,IV, IX
2.0
• 0 00 IS)
1.5 • ••• o
x.
x ••
1.0 x • ••
••
st.2Jt
0.5 x
x •
0 I I
IL-________~----------~-----------LI~b~'--~I----------~1
0 10 20 30 60 70
Fig. 2. Example for the dependence of total conductivity on the age of air mass. Ordinate: 10- 14 n- I m -I,
abscissa: hours
and more detailed studies of spatial and temporal variations of the electric parameters and aerosols
from the continental to the oceanic atmosphere are warranted.
The Interrelationship between Small Ions and Condensation Nuclei in the Oceanic Atmosphere
In our attempts to gain a physical insight into the various processes controlling the electrical state
of the atmosphere, whether it be over land or oceans, the importance of the relationship between the
ion-pair production (q), small ion density (n) and nucleus concentration (Z) cannot be overemphasized.
For the aged air masses having relatively low nucleus concentration, the expression q = rxn 2 + fJnZ
would be satisfying and we could hope to estimate both IX (the recombination coefficient) and P(the ef-
fective attachment coefficient) from the linear relationship between q/n 2 and Z/n for the aged air
masses having the rather uniform equivalent radius of nuclei. We can take a value of 1.9 J for q (Parkin-
son and Weller, 1953, and Shima et aI., 1972) and n can be derived from the measurements of conductiv-
ity and by using the measured average ionic mobility of 1.3 x 1O- 4 m 2 jVs (Morita et aI., 1973).
The value of IX in the present results lies between 1.6 and 1.8 x 10- 12 m 3 /s, and that of Pbetween 1.0
and 4.2 x 10- 12 m 3 /s. The present results also show a dependence of fJ on the equivalent radius. This
is clearly brought out in Fig. 3. Assuming a large ion equilibrium over oceans, we can estimate the
values of fJ as a function of the radius (Keefe and Nolan, 1962). For comparison, both the experimental
and theoretical results are also shown in Fig. 3. The agreement between the theoretical estimates (dotted
line) and the present experimental results is reasonably good. On the other hand, the results of Ikebe
and Kawano (1970) and Shima et al. (1972) (full and broken lines) deviate significantly from both the
theoretical and present estimates. One of the causes of this discrepancy may be attributed to the dif-
ference in degree of pollution of the relevant air masses. The measurements of Ikebe and Kawano (1970)
and Shima et al. (1972) were carried out in regions of relatively high nucleus concentration and their
measurements seem to be much complicated by the presence of a great variety of sizes in the aerosols.
On the other hand, sizes and number of aerosols could be considered as rather uniform in the atmos-
phere far from land and especially in aged air masses. One thus could expect good agreement between
theory and experiment. One could also expect that large-ion equilibrium conditions prevail in the
atmosphere over oceans, especially in aged air masses. Indeed, one could view the results depicted in
Fig. 3 as -lending support to the contention that large-ion equilibrium conditions prevail in the atmos-
phere over oceans (far from the shore).
128
2.0,---..,.---------,---,
1.01----+---------+---1
0.5
M· ...
...
• #.'
.'
.....-k·N
,'
0.11---"'T ....
• /------t----i
0.05 ....................L...J.-_----'-_'__~....L...L~'___ .....
5 10 50 100 200
Fig. 3. Correlation between effective attachment coefficient (P), and equivalent radius, according to various authors.
M = present results; IK = Ikebe and Kawano (1970) and Shimo et al. (1972); KN = Keefe and Nolan (1962).
Ordinate: effective attachment coefficient in 10- 11 m 3 sec-I; abscissa: radius in nanometer
The Background Level of Global Pollution as Revealed in the Conductivity Measurements

The recent run-away growth of the industrial potential of the world has resulted in a sort of "global
pollution" and today, there is hardly any place in the world which can boast of a "perfectly clean atmos-
phere". One can only speak of an atmosphere with a varying degree of pollution. It is being increasingly
realized that "monitoring" of such global pollution is of vital importance. Towards this end, it is worth-
while to pursue the studies of any parameter whose measurements even remotely promise to be of
value in monitoring pollution. The conductivity, measured in the atmosphere over "mid-ocean", could
be useful index of the background level of pollution. Cobb and Wells (1970) have found a secular
26 r--
22 Chichlshima Marcus - Chichishima

( Misaki et al.,1972 )
18
L __ ,
14 I
I
I
I
I
10 I
I
L.._ ..
I
I I
•
I I
r--01 I
I
I I
I
I
I
...._, ,.--,
I
r-- 01 "--' II
2 r--·L.l I
I
I I
I I I I I I
1.8 1.1 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.. 2.8
Fig. 4. Frequency distribution of total conductivity according to Misaki et al. (1972), and to the present
measurements. Ordinate: frequency in percents; abscissa: total conductivity in n- I m- I
129
decrease in conductivity over the North Atlantic, the value in 1967 being 1.97 x 1O- 14 0 - 1 m- 1 .
Muhleisen (1968) has also found the value over the same ocean in 1965 being 1.14 x 10- 14 0-1 m- 1 .
On the other hand, the present measurements indicate that the average total conductivity over the
North Pacific was 2.3 x 10- 14 0-1 m- 1 in November to December of 1968 and 2.1 x 10- 14 0-1 m- 1
in February to March of 1970. The measurements on Bonin Island (Chichi-shima of Ogasawara Shoto
27 0 N, 1420 E) also indicate a value of 2.06 x 10- 14 0-1 m- 1 in March of 1973. Although available
data are few over the North Pacific, Misaki et al. (1972) have reported the value of2.54 x 10- 14 0-1 m- 1
based on their measurements covering the latitudes of 24 0 N to 300 N and the longitudes of 1420 E to
154 E in July to August of 1971. For comparison, both the results of Misaki et al. (1972) and the present
0
measurements on the island are shown in Fig. 4. The measurements made by Misaki et al. (1972) were
carried out in a middle latitude high pressure region and the relevant air mass had presumably a long
history (i.e. very aged). On the other hand, the meteorological conditions prevalent at the time of the
present measurements were favorable for the pollution to spread over large oceanic regions from the
main land of Japan. The difference between the two results thus may be attributed to that of the
properties of existing air mass. The results of the North Pacific are somewhat higher than those over
the North Atlantic.
Acknowledgments
We wish to express our sincere thanks to Dr. M. Misaki of the Meteorological Research Institute,Tokyo, and
Dr. Y. Ikebe of the Department of Nuclear Engineering, Nagoya University, for their valuable suggestions and
inspiring discussion regarding the interpretation of the measurements. We also wish to express our heartly thanks
to Prof. K. Isono of the Water Research Institute, Nagoya University, for his very valuable discussion and encour-
agement during the present work.
References
1. Cobb, W. E. and H. J. Wells, J. Atmos. Sci. 27, 814 (1970). - 2. Ikebe, Y. and M. Kawano, Pure and Appl.
Geophys. 83, 120 (1970). - 3. Junge, C. E. and R. Jaenicke, Aerosol Sci. 2, 305 (1971). - 4. Keefe, D. and
P. J. Nolan, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. 62, 43 (1962). - 5. Misaki, M. and T. Takeuti, J. Meteor. Soc. Japan 48,
263 (1970). - 6. Misaki, M., M. Ikegami, and I. Kanazawa, J. Meteor. Soc. Japan 50, 497 (1972). - 7. Morita, Y.,
H. Ishikawa, J. Nagasaka, and M. Kanada, J. Meteor. Soc. Japan 51, 294 (1973). - 8. Muhleisen, R., "Meteor"
Forschungsergebnisse Reihe B, Heft 2 (Berlin-Stuttgart 1968). - 9. Parkinson, W. D. and R.I. Weller, J. Geophys.
Res. 58, 270 (1953). - 10. Shimo, M., Y. Ikebe, T. Nakayama, and M. Kawano, Pure and Appl. Geophys. 100,
100 (1972).
Discussion
Muhleisell, Ravensburg, West-Germany:
From your last slide I think you can derive the average mobility of the ions, because you have the density and
you have the conductivity. What is the value of the average mobility derived from the slide?
Morita:
The average mobility of positive small ions is 1.3 x 10- 4 m2 /Vs.
R. V. Anderson, Washington D. C., USA:
Again referring to the last slide*), I did not understand how you obtained such a range of values. Is this the
totality of your measurements in all of these region at all distances from shore? Or could you just repeat the
source of the data in that last diagram? (*) This slide is not reproduced here as a figure. - Remark by the editors.)
Morita:
The data are measured on the different expeditions and at different distances from shore. This straight line
fit can be taken as signifying the consistency of the data.
Authors' address:
Y. Morita and H. Ishikawa
Res. Inst. of Atmospherics
Nagoya University
Toyokawa, Aichi-ken 442
Japan
130
Space Charge Distribution Near an Alpha-Particles Beam
J. Brock, J. Bricard, G. Madelaine, and M. Pourprix
With 2 figures
Abstract
Experiments are described, and a simplified theory is proposed, to show the part of electrons in the ion distribu-
tion near alpha-particle trajectories.
1. A Polonium 210 radioactive source, emitting ex particles, and whose activity is 1 mCi, is collimated
to produce a flat ionizing particles beam, 2 mm thick, 1 em high and whose length is equal to ex
particle path (1.4 em in our experiments). The device is represented in perspective by Fig. 1 b and in
horizontal projection by Fig. 1 a. The distribution of ionic concentrations along axis x' x, perpendicular
to the beam, is defined using an already described method (1) wherein aerosol particles of the same
size and kind are used as small electrostatic probes characterizing the electrical state ofthe surrounding
air. Let p be the mean electrical charge carried by each particle of radius R, when its distance to the
ionizing beam is x. p is experimentally defined using a mobility analyzer that has already been
described (1) and is similar to the Erikson device (2). Our results are presented on Fig.2a. On the
ordinate is the mean charge p. On the abscissa is the distance between the particle and the symmetry
plane of the beam.
The marked points represent experimental results. It will be noted that the aerosol particles' electrical
charges are positive near x = O. This indicates that a zone exists where the space charge is positive.
Inversely, the space charge is negative outside of this region. If the pressure is reduced, other things
being equal, the ex particle path increases, as expected, and the curve aspect does not change.
2. A simplified theory allows us to explain these experimental data. To find the equations of the
problem, let us schematize the device shown in Fig. 1, by assuming that the ionized region is bounded
by two infmite parallel planes, which are 2 b distant from one another. It is assumed that this region
is continuously ionized, with a uniform density, at the rate of Q pairs of electrons and positive ions
formed in m- 3 S-1 (cubic meter per sec.). These different charge carriers will tend to scatter outside of
the region where they are created.
The purpose of our studies is to calculate the distribution of ionic concentrations in this medium
by using the following hypothesis:
- positive ions and electrons move about with their own diffusion coefficients, De and D+. That amounts
to saying that ionic concentrations are low enough so that ambipolar diffusion can be neglected;
- the probability for an electron to be collected by a positive ion is zero;
- the attachment of an electron to a neutral molecule gives rise to a negative ion.
Such being the case, let a half axis 0" be perpendicular to the above mentioned planes, the point 0
being equidistant from both planes. The rate at which the ionic concentrations vary along 0" can be
expressed. Let us draw up a balance of charge carriers which appear and disappear in a volume unit
around the point whose abscissa is x. This may be written at stationary equilibrium:
for electrons:
d2 +
for positive ions: D+ d;2 - exon+ n- + Q(x) = 0;
_ d2 n- + _
for negative ions: D dx 2 - exon n + Pn e = O.
131
s··"'r
Alpha
I . Collimator
I
I
~
I
I
I 1cm
I
1.4em I
1
01
x' : I x
I
I
U
+-t.
0.2 em
Fig.:.!!.
Ionizing Parlicl. S.am Alpha Sourc.
1cm
Fig. 1. Measuring device, (a) horizontal projection, (b) in perspective
In these equations:
n.. n+ and n- are respectively electron, positive ion, and negative ion concentrations at abscissa x.
Pist the electron attachment coefficient to neutral molecules;
1X0 is the ion recombination coefficient.
Q(x) is such that:
Q(x)=Q for x!f,b,
Q(x) = 0 for x> b.
If it is assumed that D+ and D- are equal, that they do not vary with time, and that the electron
diffusion coefficient De is greater than the ion diffusion coefficient, an analytical expression can be found,
132
p (eharg. un it )
- 20 .---......-,..-........--r--r--......--, a
-10
01---""*"-+--"1-------1
·10
.20
·30
2 o 1 2
X (em)
-5
3 2 1 o 2 3
X (em)
Fig. 2. (a) Measured results. Ordinate: mean charge p in elementary charge units; abscissa: distance between
particle and symmetry plane of alpha-particle beam in cm. Experimental results: circles;
(b) Calculated curves; ordinate ion and electron number densities, namely ne + n- - n+ in 10 15 m- 3 ;
abscissa: distance x in cm; parameter c (see text) in cm. Ionization rate assumed as 2 x 1015 ion pairs m -3 sec- 1
for n. on one hand and for (n- - n+) on the other hand. The calculation of the space charge
n - - n + + ne for each value of x leads to:
for x::;; b:
133
for x> b: QDe-[2b
n - -n + + n =
e DP -c-
(1 x) ---e-e
--
c
e-· 2
x
(.b -'b)]
where IX = fJ/De and c is the x value over which ionic concentrations can be neglected. It is supposed
that c is much greater than b (c ~ b). Fig.2b shows n- - n+ + ne as a function of x, in the case
Q = 2 X 1015 ion pairs m - 3 and s - 1, this value being congruent with the used source. The value
IX = 102 m- I has been taken according to Loeb's (3) data. On the other hand, b = 10- 3 m, D = 3 X
10- 6 m 2 S-I. As the value of c is undetermined, a network of curves is drawn with c as parameter. For
a particular value C 2 = 2.65 cm, the curve can be compared with the one shown in Fig. 2a, since the
change of space charge takes place at the same abscissa.
In order to explain quantitatively these results, it is advisable to seek a relationship between jj and
(n- - n+ + ne)' But actually, the only possibility is to express p as a function of (n+ /n-) owing to the
Gunn (4) relation. The purpose of our present studies is to execute this calculation. However this may
be, it must be noted that, from a qualitative point of view, the theoretical calculation agrees fairly well
with the experimental results.
References
1. Pourprix, M., These Docteur-Ingenieur (Paris 1973). - 2. Erikson, H. A., Physical Review 1, 117 (1922). -
3. Loeb, L. B., Basic Processes of Gaseous Electronics (Los Angeles 1960). - 4. Gunn, R., Journal Meteorology 11,
337 (1954).
Discussion
Magono,Sapporo,Japan:
I am very impressed by your presentation. I think the fact of the absorption of aerosol is very important.
Authors' addresses:
J. R. Brock J. Bricard
Professor Chemical Engineering Physique des Aerosols,
University of Texas at Austin Faculte des Sciences de Paris
Austin, Texas 78 712 Tour 25, 5. Etage
USA 9 Quai St. Bernard
F-75 Paris V
France
G. J. Madelaine M. Pourprix
8 Res. du Moulin de la Planche 10 Avenue de Gimeral de Gaulle
F-91 Velleborne sur Yvette F-94240 L'Hay les Roses
France France
134
Observation of Atmospheric Ions and Atmospheric Phenomena in the Area of Kobe, Japan
Y. Tsunoda and T. Satsutani
With 11 figures
Abstract
Ion number densities for various mobility ranges change in accordance with air pollution and other atmospheric
phenomena. Several characteristic patterns of ion number density are pointed out. Continuous observation of
ion mobility spectra may become the most important method for the monitoring of air pollution. Their mean
values and changing patterns should be considered.
Introduction
In order to investigate electrical phenomena in the natural atmosphere, ion spectra and other factors
have continuously been observed for several years in addition to the measurement of meteorological
factors.
For the observation of ion spectra in 1972, two co-axial type ion-counters were used simultaneously.
After that time, the number of observing elements of the ion spectra was increased year after year.
Moreover, continuous records of direction and speed of wind have been added in the last year. It has
become clear that the wind direction has an important effect on ion spectra at our observation point.
The geographical position of our observing point is shown in Fig. 1. Cities with industrial districts along
the sea shore are situated in southern direction. To the north, on the other hand, mountains of about
800 -1000 meter altitude are situated, with some houses and no factories among them.
~.':-
J •
OSAKA lJAr
f
N
OSAKA &
VICINITY
, , •
.
, ,
t
Fig. 1. Geographical situation of observation point
Measuring Apparatus
The general configuration of our ion-counters is shown in Fig. 2. The two sets of dimensions of their
elements are tabulated in the figure. If we assume that every ion is an uni-charged particle, a collect ,'r
electrode current of 1 x 10- 15 ampere corresponds to an ion number density of 17 x 106 ions per m 3 .
135
In 1972, when only two ion-counters were used, one ion-counter was continuously used for the
observation of negative extremely small ions (mobility k;::; 3 x 1O- 4 m 2 y- 1 sec- 1), and played the
role of a monitor. The results from this apparatus can be thought to correspond to the conductivity
of atmosphere by multiplying with a suitable factor. The other ion-counter was used to observe
alternatively large (k ;::; 10- 7 m 2 y-1 sec- 1 ), medium (k ;::; 4 x 10- 7 m 2 y-1 sec- 1 ), middle (k ;::; 4 x
10- 6 m 2 y-1 sec- 1 ), small (k ;::; 4 x 10- 5 m 2 y-1 sec -1) ions for both polarities. Color photographic
views were also taken, to check the visibility.
In 1974, the polarity of four ion-counters has been automatically changed every 15 minutes by
adding a relay and timer to the circuit of the voltage applying electrode. At the first 3 minutes after the
changing of polarity the meter is grounded to avoid the disturbance from the transient. The indication
of the meter for the following 12 minutes is recorded. A recording speed of 180 mmlhour is used. (In the
recording figures one division corresponds to 10 mm at the time scale. Thus, the time scale is 10 minutes/
3 divisions.)
Fig. 2. Configuration and two sets of dimensions of the ion counters
Results of Observation
Typical characteristics of atmospheric ion spectra for various weathers were described in previous
papers (1, 2). Only several examples are described here.
Example for fair weather (abrupt humidity change)
The ion-spectra pattern when the weather was fine and the relative humidity changed from 83.6 %
to 59 % is shown in Fig. 3. The atmospheric pressure decreased slightly (1 mb = 100 Pal, and the
temperature raised by 2 K. Direction and speed of wind were SE and 0.2 m/sec respectively at about
10: 30, but they changed to NW and 2.2 m/sec at about 12: 00, and the wind-speed increased as the
-k~3 +~3
110 ions.cm-~div. 110 ions.cm-~div.
110 ions· cm- 3/div.
10:25 Wind SE 0.2m/sec 12:02 Wind NW 2.2m/sec 16:05 Wind NW 5.7m/sec

Humidity 83.6% Humidity 77.2% Humidity 59.0%
Temperature 8.5°C Temperature 9.3°C Temperature 10.4°C
Pressure 1008.0 mb Pressure 1007.5 mb Pressure 1006.9 mb
Fig. 3. Recording of currents representing ion number densities for the indicated mobility ranges on 17 February
1972. Fair weather with a change from dense haze to no haze. (Number densities given in cm- 3 )
136
-k~3 occured
110 ions'cm- 3/div
-k!!.O.OOl
,
3600 ions.cm~div
12 :30 Wind SE 3 .0m/sec 15:28 Wind SE 1 . 5m/sec

Humidity 57.6% Humidity 56.6%
Temperature 29.1°C Temperature 29 . 5°C
Pressure 1008 . 0 mb Pressure 1007 . 2 mb
Fig. 4. The same for 4 September 1972, a day with incident of photo-chemical smog
time elapsed. The negative extremely-small-ion number density began to increase at about 12: 00, and
the simultaneously observed negative small-ion number density also changed. The visibility that had
been small in the morning became larger in the afternoon. Photographs taken at about 10: 30 and
16: 00 are shown in Figs. 11 a and 11 b respectively.
-k~O.OOl
A'
injury oceured 3600 ions . em-~div.
+k~0.001
I
~l
3600 ions · cm-~/div.
~-,., . ,1,J/ ~,I'I~,.I·".~J,4! 1~"~IoI~ '-'
( a )
.,t, .,.-•••
-k~0. 04
520 ions- em"'/div .
e )
.
+k?o3
110 ions' em- 3/ di v .
10 : 24 12:45 15 : 28
Wind S 2 . 0m/sec Wind S 0.7m/see Wind E 0 m/sec

Humidity 62 .4% Humidity 62 . 4% Humidi ty 61. 4%
Temperature 24 . 2°C Temperature 24 . 4°C Temperature 25 . 5°C
Pressure 1003.9 mb Pressure 1003.S mb Pressure 1002.8 mb
Fig. 5. The same for 14 June 1973, another day with incidents of photo·chemical smog
137
Examples for smoggy days when photo-chemical pol/ution occurred
(i) The records of September 4 in 1972 (when the photo-chemical smog forecast was offered at a
little after 12:00 and the first incident occurred at the eastern part of Kobe) are shown in Fig.4. The
negative extremely-small-ion number density (the upper record) decreased and the total negative-ion
numberdensities (the lower record) increased as the time elapsed. The total ion number density increased
to about 6 x 109 ions/m 3 at 15 :40 -15: 50. One of the photographs of the surrounding scenery taken
at about 15: 30 is shown in Fig. 11 c. The visibility was not large, in spite of fair weather.
(ii) The records of 14 June 1973 (when the first photo-chemical smog forecast in that year was offered
in Kobe area at 13: 45 of that day) are shown in Fig. 5. An incident due to photo-chemical smog was
+k~3 -k~3
110 ions · em- 3/ div. 110 ions · cm- 3 /div . violent rain
+k~0.004
llOO ions· em- 3/ div .
+k~0.04
-k~ 0.004 360 ions cm- 3/ di v.
llOO ions· cm- 3/div.
12:19 Wind not observed 15 : 00 Wind not observed

Humidity 90.4% Humidity 91. 3%
Temperature 23 . 9°C Temperature 24.1°C
Pressure 999.2 mb Pressure 998.9 mb
Fig. 6. The same for 12 Ju ly 1972, a day with violent rain
- k~3 +k~ 3 -k~3

110 ions·cm-1div . 110 ions.cm-o/div. 110 ions.cm-o/div .
/ . .. .... • .... . .. ,.··.· . . . . . . . . . . . . . rr
.t~
' ~m~~~~~
+k~ 0.004 -k~O. 004 +k?'0.04
1100 ions.em- o/div . 1100 ions.em-o/div . 360 ions · em- 3/div .
12:25 15 :12
IHnd N~.J 8 . 5m/ s ec Wind NW 5 . 5m/sec Wind NH 6.9m/sec
Humidity 7l . 5% Humidity 61. 8% Humidi ty 62.5%
Temperature 23.9°C Temperature 25 . 9°C Temperature 25 . 9°C
Pressure 1003.8 mb Pressure 1003.5 mb Pressure 1003.0 mb
Fig. 7. The same for 14 Ju ly 1972, cloudy weather after heavy rain
138
J-EN
=r
.......r w wind-direction
"
--r- S
--- E;:12 m/sec
~~t.I..~ ~~ wind-speed
~O
ions/cm3
· ,+110}
· = ___ 0 ±k~3
--110
. '...,. "~ ' --+360j

1 '", I · ~o +k~O,4
,1 I :'Ym .
.: ~- ,,,,,,,,"~·j.·~·"1 ~-360 -
· -.r+ 7200
~ +3600 } +k~O.OOl
--0
~
snow
~
12:15 15:08 17:08
~
Humidity 46.0% Humidity 52.0% Humidity 57.0%
Temperature 4.7°C Temperature 4.9°C Temperature 4.4°C
Pressur"e 1015 . 8 mb Pressure 1015.2 mb Pressure 1015.2 mb
Fig. 8. Recordings of wind and ion spectra on 13 March 1974
......
w
\Q
reported at a high school situated at about 1400 meters south-southeast from our observation point.
In Fig. 5a the total ion number density is shown. Its increase at about 10: 30 is inversely correlated
with an extremely small-ion number density (Fig. 5c). No correlation is found in extremely-smaIl-ion
number density for the increase of total ion number density to about 7 x 109 ions/m 3 at about 13 : 40.
In Fig. 5b the number density of the middle ions is shown. It increased at about 10: 30 and 13: 30.
The increase at the latter when the smog incident occurred can be distinguished.
Example for violent rainy weather
The records of 12 July 1972 (when rather great damage occurred at various parts of Japan owing to
the heavy rain) are shown in Fig.6. By the way, no great damage occurred in the area of Kobe.
Intermittent heavy rain fell all that day and the visibility was small. The amplitude of the negative
extremely-smaIl-ion number density began to change strongly about 16: 00. The positive small-ion
number density also increased similarly at that time.
Example for cloudy weather after heavy rain
The records of 14 July 1972 are shown in Fig. 7. Though it was cloudy after the two rainy days of 12
and 13, the visibility was large as shown in Fig. 11 d. These results correspond to those of L. H. Ruhnke (3).
Example for the beginning of snowfall
The records of 13 March 1974 are shown in Fig. 8. In this case, the direction and the speed of wind
were also recorded simultaneously. The snow began to fall at about 14:50. The wind shifted from NW
to NE at that time. From then on, the small-ion number density increased and the total ion number
density decreased. These results seem to show the clean-up effect of snow.
The arrangement of results depending on the direction of the wind
The diagrams oftotal ion number density during March 1974 plotted versus the direction ofthe wind
is shown in Fig. 9. The total ion number density is roughly less than 2 x 109 ions/m 3 when the wind
N A: -50(%)R.H.
o : 51"'60
6 : 61"'70
• : 71 "OJ
t>
A 0
Fig. 9. Total ion number densities plotted for wind directions in March 1974
140
I~O
....>-
11\
c:
CII
0
c:: lonl/em '
0
~
• : for the wind from north side
200.
• x • south sid.
I
g
0
100
E
•••
~
eI)
>- leo ••• •
E
~
C
Ii
E •
• •••• •• x
x
41
.?:
:; .... 100
L-
•
.
• •
.;:; ~O )(
u w
•
-
::>
"uc
0
CII
~ eo • x x ,.
d• X"-:
t • x x
0
Q.
11\ • • .x x
Xlix
x x xX
I( ~
X. • x
x x It
2000 8000
Fig. 10. Conductivity in 10- 16 g - l m - 1 (ordinate) versus Total Number Density of Positive Ions
(abscissa, in ions per cubic centimeter)
~ .... , . -.-. ". ' . '
Fig. 11 a. View to the North at 10: 25 on 17 February 1972
Fig. 11 b. View to the North at 16 : 05 on the same day (17 February 1972)
141
Fig. 11 c. View to ESE at 15 : 28 on 4 September 1972
Fig. 11 d. View to ESE at 12: 25 on 14 July 1972
blows from the north (mountains) side. It is larger than 6 x 109 ions/m 3 when the wind blows from
the south (city and sea) side. The conductivity versus simultaneously measured total ion number
density plotted in different marks depending on the direction of the wind is shown in Fig. 10. The
upper left side group of plots are all for the north side wind. The lower right side group is mainly for the
south side wind. But some plots for foggy or rainy weather are situated in the latter group even when
the wind blows from north side.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Dr. M. Misaki, Dr. H. Ishikawa and other members of the Research Group on
Atmospheric Electricity of Japan for advices on these observations.
References
1. Tsunoda. Y. and T. Satsutani. Observation of Atmospheric Ions and Atmospheric Phenomena in Kobe Area;
Memoirs of the Faculty of Engineering, Kobe University No. 19, 27 (1973). - 2. Tsunoda, Y. and T. Satsutani,
ibid. 20, 251 (1974). - 3. Ruhnke, L. H., J. Geophysical Res. 71, 4235 (1966).
Authors' address:
Y. TIunoda and T. Satsutani
Kobe University
Faculty of Engineering
Kobe, Japan
142
Atmospheric Electric Measurements. during the 1972 Eclipse over Nova Scotia
D. R. Lane-Smith and R. Markson
With 14 figures
Abstract
An observing station was set up near Malignant Cove, Nova Scotia, close to the centre line of the 10 July 1972
eclipse. Measurements were made of positive and negative polar conductivity, air-earth current density, space
charge density, potentials at 25 cm, 1 m, 2.5 m and 6 m in a vertical array and at 1 m with a fast response probe.
Airborne measurements at constant altitude above the exchange layer were made of potential gradient. Also
monitored were solar radiation, wind speed and direction.
Totality lasted about 2.5 minutes. The vertical probe array showed nearly simultaneous perturbations of
potential dropping to a minimum of about 35 % of normal fair weather potential 45 minutes after totality. The
fast response probe showed a progressive attenuation of the higher frequency flnctuations during and after the
eclipse and then a sudden reversion to the pre-eclipse noise spectrum about 25 minutes after totality. The measure-
ments of conductivity, air-earth current density and space charge also showed interesting changes, some of which
are consistent with an overall pattern of events. The airborne readings showed no clearly defined effects.
The area covered by the eclipse may be considered as a moving region of inhibited convection. Mixing dies
away from the ground up. Ions move mostly under the influence of the electric field. Removal of the convective
component results in an increased total current density bringing excess positive space charge to ground. Radio-
active gas from the ground is trapped near the earth, producing a region of high ionization. The development
of these phenomena and their behavior on the renewal of convection are used to explain the observed changes in
atmospheric electric parameters.
Introduction
An eclipse constitutes a rapid, profound and widespread perturbation of the solar radiation to the
earth's surface. The effect ofthe eclipse on atmospheric electric parameters provides a tool to investigate
the dependence ofthese parameters on solar radiation. At the site ofthe measurements described in this
paper, the weather during the eclipse period was nearly ideal. The results show clear trends whose inter-
pretation is attempted.
Instrumentation
An observing station was set up near Malignant Cove, Nova Scotia, near 62° W 45.8° N, close to the
centre line of the eclipse, Fig. 1. A house, standing in its own extensive grounds, provided shelter for the
experimenters and most of the apparatus. A 12 m mast was erected about 27 m north of the house with
a nylon rope stretched from its top to the house roof. Half way between the two a vertical array of
radioactive probes was hung. The probes were mounted at 0.25 m, 0.85 m, 2.53 m and 5.79 m. The
lead to each probe was horizontal and at the same potential as the probe for at least 2 m. The sources
were 200 microcurie "Staticmaster" P 0 210 units. Each was driving a 1012 ohm resistor except the lowest
which was direct into an electrometer of 10 14 ohm impedance. This array was erected over stony
ground with very little vegetation.
The rest ofthe layout, Fig. 2, was S.E. ofthe house. A field was covered with tall grass and tree seedlings
to a height of about 50 cm. Two patches, about 3 m radius, were mowed. In one was set up a flat plate
antenna and in the other a radioactive probe. The flat plate measured air-earth conduction current
and was compensated for displacement currents (Kasemir, 1958). The plate was wire mesh, mounted
level with the ground over a 10 em deep pit. The probe, 200 microcurie Po 210 , was mounted 1 m above
ground on a shield under which was placed the 1012 ohm resistor. The effect of the arrangement was
to give the probe a time constant of about 1 second. Conductivity of both polarities was measured at
a height of 1 m over uncut grass. 80 m S.E. of the house, an old barn provided a ready made Faraday
cage. A probe was set up inside in an attempt to measure space charge directly. A photo-voltaic cell by
the house gave a recording of sunlight. A wind vane, anemometer and barograph were also operating.
143
Fig. 1. Eclipse path and measurement sites. Solid dot, ground station: cross hatched area, airborne measurements
An aircraft was equipped to measure continuously the potential. gradient in one location. Voltage
differences were measured between two radioactive probes on a vertical mast which were arranged
(balanced) so that charge on the aircraft was not sensed (Vonnegut et aI., 1961). The measurements were
made at a constant altitude of 3.65 km, above the exchange layer, over the Northumberland Strait
near the centre line of the eclipse path. This body of water, which separates Nova Scotia from Prince
Edward Island is about 30km wide, thus the airborne measurements were obtained in a region 10 to
20 km NW of the ground station. This over water, above inversion, measuring location was selected
to minimize effects due to variations in convection in order to investigate possible upper atmosphere
mechanisms as suggested by Koenigsfeld (1953). Previous constant altitude measurements of the
vertical potential gradient over an ocean during an eclipse have been made by Markson and Kamra
(1971), but these data were severely limited by instrumentation problems.
144
S
House
•
Flat Plate
• Conductivity
Barn
• Field
Probe
a 5 10 15m
I I
Scale
Fig. 2. Layout of ground site
10 3
500
5.79m
300
~ 100
c:..
(;
..
Q..
.Q
0
50
....
Q..
30
20
Time min after 20.00 U. T.
Fig. 3. Vertical array potentials
145
160
-a-O·12m
- .. - 0-55 m
--1.69m
----'.16 m
"; 120
E
:::.
c:.
.
=t; 80
0
(!) /
J
~
c:
~
0
'0
~
0
0
Time
20 '0 60 80 100
min. from 20,00 U. T,
120
Fig. 4. Vertical array potential gradients
- a - 0.3' m
---- 2·93m
--1.12m
a
a
('.J
a\
aVa,-j .\
'...,~''''- ..
20 '0 60 80 100
Time min, from 20.00 U. T
Fig. 5. Vertical array space charge
146
Results
The vertical array potentials are shown in Fig. 3. From these were calculated the mean potential
gradient, Fig. 4, and the space charge density, Fig. 5. Of the measurements made over the field with
high grass, Fig. 6 shows the conductivity, Fig. 7 the air-earth current density, Fig. 8 the space charge
in the barn and Fig. 9 the field probe. Figs. 10, 11 and 12 show different parts of the field probe record
with much greater time resolution.
The "Ohm's Law" relationship is given in Fig. 13, using the data obtained over the field with high grass.
Fig. 14 is the constant altitude potential gradient record from two hours before to one hour after
totality.
Discussion of Results
a) Vertical probe array
The general picture is clear. The potential gradient dropped from around 100V/m 10 min before
the eclipse to a minimum of around 40 Vim about 50 min after totality and then proceeded to recover.
/-,
/
, /
--
-
E /
6:
/ Negative
/
/
I'
- /
I
,
I
/
I
I
21·00 21·20
Time u.r.
Fig. 6. Positive and negative conductivity at 1 m
147
-:::q,
c::
OJ
::s .
<J
Time V.T.
Fig. 7. Air-earth current density
This means that the bound charge on the ground surface was reduced from 10- 9 C m- 2 to less than
half in 60 minutes. The corresponding positive space charge in the air must also have been reduced by
the same proportion.
The simple, qualitative, one dimensional explanation, then, is as follows; in normal convective fair
weather, conduction current is opposed by the mechanical transfer of space charge down the density
gradient. The net current is therefore less than the conduction current alone. As the eclipse cooled the
ground, convective mixing ceased from the ground up. The conduction current then brought to earth
the excess space charge aloft from progressively higher layers. When the ground heated up again,
convection was reestablished and restored the original condition. The size of the drop in potential
gradient (60 V1m) indicates that the inhibition of convective transfer must have extended to a height of
500 m or more. The vertical array was erected over hard ground so that these results and their explana-
tion are not complicated by the emission of radiation from the ground. Calculation of the space charge
density is so sensitive to small errors in the original readings that it is difficult to draw definite conclusions
from Fig. 5.
148
E
'<>"
t:J
J}
Fig. 8. Space charge in the barn
b) Measurements in the field of tall grass

i) Radioactive probe
The general behavior of the 1 m probe potential is similar to the vertical array, except that the super-
imposed peak at 21.00 G.M.T. is bigger, and may be explained in the same terms. The fine structure
before the eclipse, typically as in Fig. 10, changed over a period of 20 minutes to become as in Fig. 11,
10 min after totality. It reverted to the original structure when the wind picked up again 15 min later,
Fig. 12. It is clear that this demonstrates the inhibition and later redevelopment of small scale mixing
at a height of 1 m.
ii) Conductivity
In normal fair weather, positive ions are conducted down towards the ground and negative ions
are conducted up away from it. The negative ions rely on local ionization and mechanical mixing for
replenishment. The positive conductivity is therefore normally higher than negative conductivity at
1 m. Over hard ground, when mixing is inhibited, one would expect the electrode effect to intensify,
149
Time V.T.
Fig. 9. Field probe potential gradient
the positive conductivity to increase a little, the negative conductivity to decrease significantly and
stay very low. The observed behavior, Fig. 6, followed this pattern at first, but about 5 minutes after
totality the negative conductivity began to rise again up to high values. This effect may be explained
in terms of a blanket of radon emanating from the ground in the stationary air, diffusing upwards and
reaching the height of 1 m shortly after totality.
iii) Air-earth current density
As opposed to the previous measurements, the flat plate antenna was flush with the ground. It may
therefore be considered to measure the total current density to the earth. The increase in total current
around the time of the eclipse ·shows the effect of the inhibition of the opposing mechanical transfer
current. The extra charge brought to earth during this period amounts to about 2 x to- 1O C m- 2
which is nearly half that required to give the observed drop in potential gradient. The subsequent
drastic drop in air-earth current to a minimum less than 0.1 of the normal fair weather value cannot
be explained in one dimensional theory and contradicts what has been discussed so far. The plate was
150
,
E
~
-..
c:
...
:t;
00)
(!)
Time minutes
Fig. to. Field probe potential gradient 45 min before totality
surrounded, at a radius of 3 m, by uncut grass 50 cm high or so. It may be that as this area filled with a
high concentration of ionizing radon gas, it effectively screened the antenna, diverting the air-earth
current to the high grass.
c) Space charge in the barn

The accuracy of the measurements in the barn is suspect because 1. ventilation depended on holes
in the decrepit walls, 2. pigeons lived in the barn and 3. the presence of semi-partitions and cross beams
made the estimate ofthe size of the equivalent Faraday cage difficult. The suspicions may be alleviated
in part by the observations that 1. the air in the barn was probably replaced in much less than the
electrical relaxation time, 2. a pigeon flight could easily be recognized as a discontinuity in the space
charge record and they seemed to go to sleep during the eclipse, and 3. the shape problem, though re-
maining, is not serious. The results presented are based on a guess and may be out by as much as a factor
of 2 - but this factor is a constant. The results indicate that the space charge density at around 2 m
height dropped to a minimum of half the fair weather value in the 50 minutes after totality. This is
consistent with the observations of potential and the theory used to explain them.
151
,
~
.
.~
-;:10.
'0
a..
Time minutes
Fig. 11. Field probe potential gradient 10 min after totality
d) Airborne measurements
The airborne measurements showed no effects due to the eclipse except possibly some unsteadiness
in the record near the total phase. A malfunction prevented data collection for 15 minutes just before
totality. Five minute averages are given except during the 10 min period centred on totality when 1 min
averages are given. The unsteadiness near the total phase is not due merely to the different averaging
times since it was observed on the original trace. The decreasing trend during the period of measure-
ment is presumed to reflect the unitary diurnal cycle of ionospheric potential which maximises at about
1900 GMT (Chalmers, 1967; Markson, 1974). No explanation is offered for the possible agitation of the
potential gradient trace just before and during totality. Further clarification of this point awaits better
data in the future.
Conclusion
The clear decrease in potential gradient during the eclipse has been reported by Israel and Fries
(1955) and others. The explanation in terms of inhibited convection is generally accepted (Anderson and
152
,
E
~
minutes
Fig. 12. Field probe potential gradient 25 min after totality
Dolezalek, 1972). Our results showed that more than half the space charge aloft was conducted to ground.
The reduction in convective activity therefore must have extended to above 500 m.
The dramatic change in the noise on the potential gradient record has also been observed before
(Israel and Fries, 1955) and indicates the dying away and restoration of turbulence. Electric field data
alone are insufficient for quantitative analysis of this effect.
The mechanism used to explain the ground based observations would not be expected to occur over
the ocean. The lack of an anomalous change in the airborne measurements during the period following
totality indirectly supports, therefore, our explanation of the ground records.
References
1. Anderson. R. V. and H. Dolezalek. J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 34, 561 (1972). - 2. Chalmers. J. A .• Atmospheric
Electricity, 2nd edition (New York 1967). - 3. Israel, H. and G. Fries. Z. Geophys. 20, 137 (1955). - 4. Koenigs-
feld. L.. Thunderstorm Electricity, ed. H. R. Byers 24 (Chicago 1953). - 5. Markson. R. and A. K. Kamra. J.
Atmos. Terr. Phys. 33, 1197 (1971). - 6. Markson. R .• Investigation of the temporal variation of ionospheric
potential and electrical structure through the atmospheric exchange layer, presented at the Fifth International
153
.....
.
;"'
,,10
'"
....
\!!.
~
c:"
'!
~
....a
•VI
E
.c::
0
Fig. 13. The "Ohm's law" relationship
Conference on Atmospheric Electricity, Garmisch-Partenkirchen (Germany 1974). - 7. Vonnegut, B., C. B.

Moore and F. J. Mallahan, J. Geophys. Res. 66, 2393 (1961).
Discussion
R. V. Anderson, Washington D. C., USA:
You talked about this barn having holes in it. Can you give an idea as to the height above ground of, say, the
main hole?
Lane-Smith,London, Ontario, Canada:
One of the biggest holes is the doorway which extends from zero to 2 or 3 meters, perhaps, but the point is
that the whole of the walls were falling apart, and there were holes everywhere at all sides up to the top of the barn.
So it is a very rough and dirty sort of measurement. It just gives an indication.
Orville, Albany, New York, USA:
What is your explanation for the apparent significant overshoot of the positive conductivity following the
eclipse?
154
equipment totality
malfunction
aircraft maintaining 3·65 km altitude
Fig. 14. Airborne potential gradient measurements
Lane-Smith:
This is the effect of the eclipse on the electrode effect. We normally have fewer negative ions and/or more
positive ions at the ground because the positive ions have been brought down by the conduction current, the
negative ions being removed. They are both being produced by the radioactivity as well. Now, during the eclipse
the conduction current in the mixing region brings charge down which it was unable to do before because of the
convective mixing, and that is an additional supply of positive ions in addition to those being produced by the
radioactivity which in itself will be enhanced because of the concentration of the radioactive gases close to the
ground.
I think this is a very well founded investigation; however, in such a case it would be very interesting to
measure thoron concentration in different altitudes, especially within the region of the electrode effect. The thoron
concentration in different altitudes is a very sensitive indicator for the vertical mixing processes near the ground.
You mentioned a decrease of the current density from a normal value to zero, in spite of the increase of the
electric field and the increase of the conductivity. That is not in accordance.
Lane-Smith:
That's right. I cannot explain it. There may be a possibility of diffusion from the tall grass of a thin stratified
layer of highly conductive air which screens off the flat plate. That seems the only way I can attempt to
explain it.
Muhleisen:
Another explanation may be spider webs and an increase in humidity during the eclipse. This means the isola-
tion drops down. This may occur during an eclipse because of the decreasing sun radiation.
Lane-Smith:
It could be instrumentation as well. But we observed a return to a reasonable level later - I don't know.
155
Reiter:
In such case it would be interesting to check Ohm's law.
Lane-Smith:
I did that. I did not have time to show the slide. But that of course goes to zero, practically too, because it's a
product including air-earth conduction current density, and that effect dominates it. Could I make one more
point? In comparison with Anderson's results we reached a final similar conclusion but the actual results are
quite different. And the explanation is also quite different.
Did you measure the wind speed during the eclipse?
Lane-Smith:
We observed it.
Manes:
Was there any change in the wind speed?
Lane-Smith:
Yes, indeed. It dropped practically to zero for about 15 minutes, and it changed direction afterwards, which
is the usual thing.
Authors' addresses:
D. R. Lane-Smith R. Markson
23 Chapple Hill Road Measurement Systems Lab. W-91-201
London, Ontario Massachusetts Inst. of Technology
N 6 G 2 H 2, Canada Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
USA
156
Unusual Conditions of Charging of Aerosol Particles of Industrial Origin·)
V. G. Morachevsky and N. A. Dubrovich
Abstract
The processes of the charge separation in the clouds in a real atmosphere in the absence of strong electric fields
are considered. Attention is called to the basic phenomenon - the existence of double electric layers at the inter-
faces. Existing data on the dependence of the electric properties of these layers on the concentration of various
chemical substances are reviewed. One of the main sources of the charge separation - the so-called crystallisa-
tion potential - is discussed in detail. The authors conclude that the variation of the electric characteristics of
the double electric layers may have a determining influence on the electric properties of clouds.
Preface
The processes of the charge separation in clouds in a real contaminated atmosphere are determined
by the existence of double electric layers at the air-water, ice-air and water-ice interfaces. In the
absence of strong electric fields the slightest changing of the electric properties of these double layers
may have a determining influence on the macro-electric properties of the clouds. At present, the electric
properties of the surfaces of water and ice cannot be considered to be well studied. As can be seen from
the review presented below the dependence of these properties on the chemical content of the cloud-
water can be evaluated only qualitatively. In order to show in which way the changing of the properties
ofthe interface may influence the charge separation processes, the occurrence of the potential difference
between water and ice during crystallisation is discussed in some detail. This process is one of the main
sources of charge separation in clouds. We think that the time has come for the "physicists of the
clouds" to use physico-chemical methods and to study the basic electric properties of cloud droplets
and ice particles.
Air-Water Interface
We have performed an extensive research of the electric properties of the air-water and air-solution
interfaces. The results are in good qualitative agreement with the results obtained by other authors
(4,6,8). The research presented sometimes insuperable difficulties because the slightest contamination
of the samples changed the results drastically. One must not forget that even for pure distilled water
surface, the potential is not definitely determined: the values from 0.2 to 1 Volt are often mentioned.
Nevertheless, the qualitative picture of the influence of the various soluble chemical substances on the
value of the surface potential of the solution is now clear. Inorganic salts such as halides and
sulfates of the alkaline metals in concentrations not higher than 10- 3 -10 - 5 N change the sign of the
surface potential. Surface-active organic compounds in the same concentrations reduce the surface
potential, and the influence of the non-electrolytes is stronger than that of electrolytes. When an ion
approaches the surface work is to be done against the hydration forces, that is why the role of the
surfactants is determined simply by their position on the surface ofthe solution. However, sometimes the
surface-active substances increase the surface potential, but in all such cases one can always detect
a hydrophylic group which is negatively charged and by structural reasons approaches the surface.
We find it premature to present here the tables of our results, for the reasons aforementioned.
Ice-Air Interface
Since Faraday, the problem ofthe structure of the air-ice interface was discussed many times (3,5,9).
Nowadays, the existence of a quasiliquid layer on the surface of the ice is ascertained beyond doubt.
On the surface of that layer with the depth of some tens of monomolecular layers, a part of the water
molecules contacting with air is oriented just like on the surface of water. Ice may be considered posi-
*) Paper was accepted by the Executive Panel but could not be presented. It was, therefore, not considered
in any discussion.
157
tively charged with respect to air. This quasiliquid layer may be described as adsorption of water on
ice. That layer has all the qualities of the adsorbed phase, e.g., the dielectric constant is lower, the specific
mass higher, the specific heat is also larger than that of pure water. The layer undoubtedly exists but
the surface conductivity, the surface potential and other physico-chemical parameters of the layer are
not yet measured. And just as in the case of water the role of the contamination of the surface is not
fully determined.
Ice-Water Interface
In all the models of the crystallisation processes, the existence of the double electric layer at the
interface is always assumed (1, 2,10). The structure of the interface is in most cases described as follows:
the ions of the solute are adsorbed on the surface of the ice, above them lies a layer of oriented water
molecules and the charge is neutralised by a diffuse cloud of ions in the liquid phase. The ions which
are able to penetrate into the crystal structure of the ice are assumed to play the main role at the interface.
But, as we have seen in the previous paragraph, the surface of ice does not differ greatly from a water
surface. We think it is possible to assume that in the first degree of approximation, all the three discussed
interfaces may be considered identical. In particular, we can check this assumption since in the case
of the water-ice interface a most sensitive function of the structure of the interface is known: the so-
called crystallisation potential. That is the potential difference which exists between water and ice
during crystallisation. Ice becomes positively charged, water acquires a negative charge. It was found
(2), that this potential changes the sign when simple inorganic salts (see above) in the same concentra-
tions (10 - 3 -10 - 5 N) are dissolved in water. The potential is lowered or even reduced to zero in the
presence of surface-active organic substances. That is why we can suppose that water-air and ice-water
interfaces are identical. Just as in the case of the discriminative capture of the atmospheric ions on the
surface of the cloud drops, the moving crystallisation front discriminatively captures only positive
ions. Let us consider the processes related to such mechanism.
Charge Separation during Crystallisation
Ice may be called a protonic semiconductor. The mobility of protons in ice is of the same order as in
one of the most typical semiconductors - silica (silica 2.5, ice appro 0.5 V cm sec). The concentration of
the ion-accepting centers is also approximately of the same order (silica 1017 , ice 10 15 per cm 3 ). The
main role in our model is ascribed to the native water ions - H + and 0 H -. For the latter the potential
barrier which presents the moving crystallisation front is practically insurmountable. One can expect
a redundancy of H30+ or H+ ions in the rear of the moving crystallisation front and the redundancy
of OH- ions before the front with subsequent neutralisation of the double layer. It does not happen
only because the protons are subjected to thermodiffusion. They begin to move to the colder end of the
sample. The temperature gradient becomes the determining factor in the process. Indirect evidence of
such a mechanism was obtained by (7). It was noticed that during the routine experiments in which
we measured the crystallisation potentials, at the moment of the switching off the refrigerator the
potential difference began instantly to decrease, though the front was still moving. We may say that
the temperature gradient is the driving force and the double layer is the determining factor in the process.
Of course, the explanation presented here is oversimplified but this is done on purpose. We meant
to emphasize the role of the double electric layer.
It can be easily shown that all the other processes of the initial charge separation in the clouds in the
absence of electric fields are also determined by the structure of the double electric layers. The
knowledge of the physico-chemical characteristics of the double electric layers will permit us to predict
the course of the charge separation processes in the clouds.
However, even now two important conclusions can be formulated:
1. The contaminations present in the atmosphere - particularly in industrial regions - can
strongly change the electrical properties of the clouds.
2. The substances which change the properties ofthe interfaces may become active agents in lightning
suppression.
158
References
1. Drost-Hansen, W., J. Colloid Interface Sci. 25, 131 (1967). - 2. Eyerer, P., Advan. Colloid Interface Sci. 3,
223 (1972). - 3. Faraday, M., Proc. Roy. Soc. London 10,440 (1860). - 4. Hermans, I. I., Rech. Trav. Chim. 60,
747 (1941). - 5. Jelinek, H., J. Colloid Interface Sci. 25, 192 (1967). - 6. Kamiensky, B., Electrochim. Acta 1,
272 (1959). - 7. Psalomstchikov, V. F., (personal communication) Leningrad Hydrometeorological Institute. -
8. Siwek, B., Zest. nauk. Pro chem. 264, 16 (1971). - 9. Weyl, w., J. Colloid. Sci. 6, 389 (1951). - 10. Workman,
E. J. and S. E. Reynolds, Phys. Rev. 78, 254 (1950).
Authors' addresses:
v. G. Morachevsky N. A. Dubrovich
Leningradskij Gidromet. Inst. Leningradskij Gidromet. Giteski Inst.
Malo-Okhtinskij Prospect 98 Malo-Okhtinskij Prospect 98
Leningrad 194018 Leningrad 195196
USSR USSR
159
Electric Characteristics of the Atmosphere over the Arctic·)
E. V. Chubarina, I. M. Imyanitov, G. F. Pavlyuchenkov, and Ya. M. Shvarts
Summary
1. With vertical sounding of the atmosphere the results of measuring the potential of atmospheric upper
layers is substantially affected by horizontal heterogeneity of the atmosphere. The difference between the
potentials at the altitudes measured by two sounds launched simultaneously over the same place in fine
weather, was approximately equal to 30%.
2. The main causes of chance nature of readings which occur when measuring the potentials of the atmospheric
upper layers, are rather the properties of a horizontally heterogeneous atmosphere than characteristics of
measuring equipment.
3. Parallel soundings carried out by means of three aircraft have shown that with the sounding executed over
such homogeneous surfaces as, for example, Aquatoria the scattering of potentials measured values diminishes.
Averaging of horizontal soundings data has a similar effect.
4. Here are presented the results of measurements of electric field intensity, conductivity, electric current and
potentials of upper atmospheric layers over the Arctic regions of the USSR that have been carried out under
undisturbed conditions of a vast anticyclone and stable temperature inversions within the layer up to 0.5 -1.5 km
from the ground. The atmosphere in its aerosol state is similar to the atmosphere over Aquatoria; and in terms
of convection conditions - to a continental station in winter.
5. Under such conditions changes in field intensity and air conductivity due to altitude differ much from the
behavior of these values over the continent. The electric field intensity reduces with the altitude somewhat slower
than grows conductivity. Electric current in the atmosphere is not constant - it grows with altitude in exponent
with the index of 0.03 - 0.05 h (h is in km). Analysis of results enables us to conclude that this effect is not due
to the measurement errors. No explanation of the mentioned fact has yet been found.
Authors' address:
E. V. Chubarina, J. M. Imyanitov, G. F. Pavlyuchenkov, and Ya. M. Shvarts
Main Geophysical Observatory
Karbysheva 7
Leningrad 194018
USSR
.) Paper was accepted by the Executive Panel, but it was not presented. Full text of paper not available.
Therefore, it was not considered in any discussion.
160
Atmospheric Electric Measurements at the South Pole
w.E. Cobb
With 3 figures
Abstract
A five-year program of atmospheric electric measurements is now in its second year at the Amundsen-Scott
South Pole Station. Major objectives of the program are to establish an environmental benchmark of the atmos-
pheric electric climate of the region and to investigate those processes which may control, maintain, or influence
the "global circuit". Surface measurements of the potential gradient and the air-earth current density exhibit
the well known 24-hour pattern found at other remote monitoring sites. Balloon measurements of the air-earth
current density reveal that the current, measured at the same time each day, may vary by more than an order
of magnitude even in the stratosphere, and is usually not constant with altitude.
. Introduction
Atmospheric electric measurements are frequently made from remote locations in order to establish
the regional atmospheric electric climate and also to investigate by what processes the flow of current
within the so called "global circuit" is controlled and maintained. For the purposes above, measure-
ments are usually considered only during periods of undisturbed weather and from locations remote
•from sources of anthropogenic influences. Typical locations for baseline measurements are mountain
observatories such as Mauna Loa in Hawaii, Zugspitze in Germany and oceanic regions such as those
explored by the sailing vessel "Carnegie".
Extensive atmospheric electric measurements have been reported from coastal stations in Antarctica
(Buis, 1968; Kondo, 1971; Lobodin and Paramonov, 1974; van der Schueren and Koenigsfeld, 1963) but
relatively few from the central plateau region. This report discusses the 5-year atmospheric electric
program currently underway at the South Pole.
The main objectives of the program, now in its second year, are to establish the existing atmospheric
electric climate on the polar plateau so that secular changes may be detected in later years, and also
to investigate any solar-terrestrial correlations which may be manifested in the electrical records. It is
expected, for example, that corpuscular radiation following solar flares will be funnelled to lower regions
of the atmosphere near the poles, making any influence on the global circuit more likely to be detected
than at lower latitudes.
At present, the potential gradient and the air-earth current density are continuously recorded at the
surface. Balloon-borne sensors are used to measure the air-earth current density from the surface to
30km.
Description of Site
The Amundsen-Scott Station is located at the geographic South Pole. Uncontaminated by the activ-
ities of mankind and situated on a vast plateau of 2800 meter thick ice and snow, the station provides
an ideal environmental monitoring site. With respect to electrical measurements the advantages are
1. the near absence of anthropogenic influences; 2. the absence of the 24-hour solar day; 3. the non-
existence of radioactive soil and 4. the proximity of the site to the southern hemisphere auroral belt.
All of the features above make it easier to detect global influences upon the atmospheric electric para-
meters. At lower latitudes, on the other hand, 24-hour diurnal effects, radioactive soils, local aerosol
pollution, etc., frequently control the environmental electrical properties to such an extent that the
detection of global effects is at best difficult.
The meteorological climate at the Pole is also favorable to long term electrical measurements and is
best described as cold and dry. Frontal passages and abrupt air mass changes are rare. The region is actually
a desert receiving little more than a trace of precipitation annually. The surface wind is predominantly
from the same direction thus making it possible to locate sensors so that activities at the station do
161
not affect the electrical measurements. The loss of "fair-weather" data is nearly always due to blowing
snow which occurs to some extent about 30 percent of the time. It should be noted that the altitude
at the Pole is 2800 m (msl), however, the density of the air is equivalent to that found at about 3300 m
at mid-latitude.
The disadvantages of the site quite obviously are associated with the extremely low temperatures at
which both men and instruments must operate. These are problems, however, which can be overcome.
Instruments
The potential gradient sensor is a modernized version of the reliable Gunn field mill (Gunn, 1954)
with operational amplifiers and a rotating capacitor signal transmission system replacing vacuum tubes
and slip ring contacts. The instrument is mounted one meter above the snow surface and the indicated
potential gradient is adjusted to that above a flat plane through an experimentally determined form
factor.
The air-earth current density is measured using the method described by Kasemir (1955), with the
current collector being an antenna 10m in length and suspended 1.5 m above the snow surface. The
vertical structure of the air-earth current density is measured using the balloon radiosonde method
described by Kasemir (1960).
The Conductivity of the Snow
It is generally assumed that the earth above which atmospheric electric measurements are made
is a conducting equipotential surface. The validity ofthis important assumption was somewhat in doubt
for the vast Antarctic ice and snow cover until Buis (1968) measured the specific resistance of the snow
at various levels at the Roi Baudouin Base. He found the specific resistance of the snow at depths
down to 10m to be about 5 x 10 5 ohm m, about 108 times less than the value of the air near the surface,
and thus concluded that the snow surface could be considered an equipotential layer. As Buis has
pointed out his conclusion may not pe valid during disturbed conditions with blowing and drifting
snow.
Discussion of Results
a) Surface Measurements
Figs. 1 and 2 depict the average hourly values of the air-earth current density and the potential
gradient recorded during undisturbed weather for the period November 1972 through March 1974.
The average potential gradient during this period was 71 V m -1 while the air-earth current density
was 2.5 x 10- 12 A m - 2. Both parameters exhibit the same 24 hour pattern characterized by'an irregular
increase from about 00 GMT until 1700 GMT followed by a rapid decline for the rest of the period.
Significantly, the cyclical variation is observed whenever a 24-hour period remains undisturbed by
blowing snow or ice crystal precipitation. Ice crystal precipitation, incidentally, is a clear sky phenomenon
at the Pole which frequently cannot be observed visually but is readily detected by the electrical
sensors.
The dashed lines 1:tl.Figs.! and 2 represent measurements made some years ago at Mauna Loa,
Hawaii (Cobb a'lld Phillips, 1962). Note that the air-earth current density at Mauna Loa and at the
South Pole follow eath other very closely. The cyclical pattern of the potential gradient at Mauna Loa,
on the other hand, is displaced by several hours indicating that this parameter is locally influenced at
the mountain observatory.
In summarizing the surface data obtained thus far, it can be stated that the South Pole, because of
its extreme remoteness and perpetual snow cover, provides an excellent site for the long term
monitoring of electrical parameters. The 24-hour pattern displayed by the potential gradient and the
air-earth current, particularly in view of the absence of any local day-night changes, strongly support
the concept of a universally controlled global circuit.
162
>-
./. MEAN
s: .'-1 X
-12 -.
I-
Ln
13121 MAUNA LOA
- - SOUTH POLE ( MEAN 2 s: X
(MEAN 1121
1121
-12
A M
A M -.
Z
w 12121
c
I- _/ \
z /
w 11121
Ct:
Ct: /
::J
V /
1121121
I
I-
Ct:
II 9121 '/ \
w
1 f ~
Ct:
II 8121 "- /
D3 06 09 12 IS: 18 21 21..1
GMT
Fig. 1. The mean hourly air-earth current density at the South Pole and at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii.
The curves follow each other closely with respect to Universal Time indicating that the separate observations are
controlled by the same worldwide force
0/0 MEAN
-I
13121 MAUNA LOA (MEAN 12121 .s: V M
-- SOUTH POLE (MEAN 71. 1 V M
-I
I-
z 12121
/ "-
w
c \ /
II
Ct: 11121
/
l!l
....I
II
\ - ,.. /
1121121
I-
z
w
\ /
/
I- 9121 /
0
Il..
..... ,.. ,..
BI21
D3 06 09 12 IS: 18 21 21..1
GMT
Fig. 2. The mean hourly potential gradient at the South Pole and at Mauna Loa. The potential gradient diurnal
variation at the mountain observatory is displaced que to local influences
b) Upper Air Measurements

Balloon-borne sensors are released bi-weekly to measure the air-earth current density to as high as
35 km. Extra flights are scheduled during the austral summer and whenever significant solar flare
activity occurs. The average current density profile from soundings obtai.ned thus far is shown in Fig. 3.
The profiles of individual soundings are quite similar in shape once the initial charges accumulated
during launch are dissipated, and are characterized by a rapid increase in current from the surface to
about 11 km (msl) and a slow decay thereafter.
Two interesting aspects of the soundings have emerged. First, the current is usually not constant
with altitude even in the stratosphere and secondly, the average current in the stratosphere may vary
163
RIR-ERRTH CURRENT DENSITY
SOUTH POLE
MERN OF IY SOUNDINGS
KM
30
2S
IS
10
o I s:
CURRENT
Fig. 3. Mean altitude profile of the air-earth current density at the South Pole. The horizontal bars indicate the
range of values observed during 14 soundings
by an order of magnitude from day to day. (Note that the air-earth current sondes are released near
0300 GMT). The statements above are interesting since they appear to conflict with classical global
circuit concepts. In the first case, the decrease in the air-earth current with altitude frequently observed
at the South Pole, is certainly in disagreement with the classical concept of an unchanging current with
altitude. With respect to the large day to day changes found in the stratospheric air-earth current, it
does not seem likely that the global thunderstorm activity and the resultant air-earth current could
change by 100% from one; day to the next as the classical hypothesis would require. It should be noted
that the tropopause level at the South Pole occurs at a very low altitude (9 km) and thus balloon ob-
servations are mostly representative of the stratosphere and lower mesosphere.
Summary
Atmospheric electric measurements being made at the South Pole are described and objectives of the program
are outlined. The site is ideally suited as a "clean air" benchmark location and for investigations of the global
circuit. Observations to date indicate that surface measurements of the potential gradient and the air-earth current
density support the "classical" global circuit hypothesis while upper air observations frequently do not.
Solar activity has been very low and the solar-terrestrial correlations recently reported by several authors
(Cobb, 1967; Reiter, 1969; Olson, 1971; Lobodin and Paramonov, 1972) have not been observed at the South Pole
as yet. Simultaneous balloon measurements of the air-earth current density at the South Pole and various northern
hemisphere sites are planned during 1975 -1978 to investigate, among other things, any direct solar influence
to the global circuit.
It is somewhat frustrating to admit that a solution to one ofthe major problems in atmospheric electricity, the
origin and maintenance of the earth's charge, is less certain today than it was when discussed by W. F. G. Swann
(1955) before the first Conference on Atmospheric Electricity twenty years ago. The role of the global thunderstorm
activity, whether it be dominant, subordinate or even nonexistent is frequently questioned. Kasemir has proposed
at this conference that the electrosphere and the spherical condenser concept be abandoned. The "classical"
global circuit hypothesis, while widely accepted, may, at the least, be due for considerable revision. Reliable ob-
servations from remote sites at the earth's surface, from the free atmosphere and quite possibly from the moon
and other planets will be necessary to find answers to existing global circuit problems.
164
Acknowledgments
This research has been supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. It is a
pleasure to acknowledge the help and assistance of Professor Donald Olson of the University of Minnesota who
has provided the air-earth current radiosondes for the South Pole project.
References
1. Buis, P. M., Expedition Antarctique Belgo-Neerlandaise 1964. Atmospheric Electricity (Bruxelles 1968). -
2. Cobb, W. E., Monthly Weather Rev. 95, 905 (1967). - 3. Gunn, R., Electric field meters. Rev. of Scientific
Instruments 25, 432 (1954). - 4. Kasemir, H. W., Measurement of the air-earth current density. Proceedings of
the Conference on Atmospheric Electricity. Edited by R. E. Holzer and W. E. Smith. Geophysics Research
Directorate, Air Force Cambridge Research Center (Massachusetts 1955). - 5. Kasemir. H. W., A radiosonde
for measuring the air-earth current density. USASRDL Technical Report 2125 (1960). - 6. Kondo, G., Data of
atmospheric electricity at Syowa Station in 1969 -1970. Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition, Report No. 11.
Polar Research Center, National Science Museum (Tokyo 1971). - 7. Lobodin, T. V. and N. A. Paramonov,
PAGEOPH 100, 167 (1972). - 8. Olson, D. E., PAGEOPH 84, 118 (1971). - 9. Reiter, R., PAGEOPH 72,
259 (1969). - 10. van der Schueren, A. and L. Koenigsfeld, Electricite atmosphhique Ii la Base Roi Baudoin,
Institut Royal Meteorologique de Belgique, Publications, Serie A, No. 40 (Uccle/Bruxelles 1963). - 11. Swann,
W. F. G., The present status of atmospheric electricity. Proceedings on the Conference on Atmospheric Electricity.
Edited by R. E. Holzer and W. E. Smith, Geophysical Research Papers No. 42. Air Force Cambridge Research
Center, pp. 2 -10 (1955).
Discussion
Anderson, R. v., Washington D.C., USA:
Your vertical profiles of current density always had some weird looking behavior at the lowest altitudes. I noticed
you didn't mention it. Does this mean that you think that this perhaps is anomalous?
Cobb, Boulder, Colorado, USA:
These are charges which are built up on the antenna as it's laid out on the snow which is very dry. They dissipated
usually in the first few hundred meters of the balloon flight.

Are you actually measuring the air-earth current on the sounding or deriving it from conductivity and field?
Cobb:
No, I'm measuring the air-earth current directly.
Ryder:
Do you measure the field also?
Cobb:
No, not yet. We plan in the future to measure both, the conductivity and the field.
Vonnegut, Albany, New York, USA:

I am puzzled by the measurements of the conduction current because it varies with altitude. If this is true in
the long term, it means that there must be a destruction or creation of charge some place. The convection of charge
might account for this but it would seem that convection is not likely. What is your interpretation?
Cobb:
You are quite right. Any time, there is an increase or decrease in the current, there must be an accumulation of
space charge. No, I don't have an explanation. The area is very clean, but there may be an accumulation of
aerosols aloft. It's an area of subsidence, slowly descending air and a possible sink for aerosols introduced from
lower latitudes. I can only say that we have checked our instruments. My first thoughts were that temperature
changes were affecting the electrometers; these have been checked in cold boxes, and as far as we can determine
the instruments are stable and the measurements are real. I should also add that the data during descent, after
balloon burst, closely follows the ascent data.
165
Kikuchi, Sapporo, Japan:
I carried out some kind of observations of atmospheric electricity, for example the potential gradient on the
ground at Syowa Station, Antarctica, from February 1968 to January 1969. How many days did you get the
average of the potential gradient data? How many days did you stay at the South Pole?
Cobb:
The balloon data?
Kikuchi:
No, the surface measurement of potential gradient.
Cobb:
So far, about six months of fair weather data.
Kikuchi:
As you know, in Antarctica if the wind velocity is more than 3-4 m/sec, some kind of the hydrometeors
are in the atmosphere, for instance drifting snow or blown-up snow. In your case, did you consider any kind of
hydrometeors in your averaged data on ground?
Cobb:
I don't consider any data during blowing snow, because the instruments are left on a fair weather range and
snow with winds in excess of probably 5 meters per second will put the field and current records off scale.
Ruhnke, Reston, Virginia, USA:

I know two possible causes for the current density in your records to decrease with altitude. One would be
if the direction of the current density differs from the vertical, because your antenna only measures the vertical
component. Another possibility would be an error in your measurement technique. For instance, if your input
impedance of your electrometer is too high at these altitudes in relation to the resistance of your current sensor.
Cobb:
Thank you, I'm grateful for the information.
Miihleisen, Ravensburg, West-Germany:

One question - one remark. For such a very good measuring site as the South Pole, the diurnal variation of
the atmospheric-electric parameters is nearly 'global and this is an indication of no disturbance; one should
expect therefore a constant air-earth current density as function of the altitude. I would like to suggest to wait
for an explanation of this non-constancy of the air-earth current density until comparison measurements will
be made between these antenna measurements of the air-earth current density, and potential gradient and con-
ductivity measurements together. On Thursday you will hear a paper by my coworker Gringel and others. In this
paper and after the experience from our new measurements of air-earth current density (derived from potential
gradient and conductivity measurements over land and over the Atlantic Ocean) we believe up to now that the
air-earth current density is constant with height as expected.
Cobb:
I just want to say that I agree with you, and I think we should measure all three Ohm's law elements before we
make any conclusions. And I would also like to say briefly that when I make my balloon flights in 1975 I will
publish data on the balloon releases, and I would like anybody who wants to make measurements in other parts
of the world to help make this a world-wide effort.
Kasemir, Boulder, Colorado, USA:

I have heard these critical remarks before and I think they indicate that we are just closing our eyes on a new
result. I do not agree with Dr. Miihleisen's suggestion that we should wait. Hake, Pierce and Viezee published a
report "Stratospheric Electricity" which is delightful to read. The authors collected all the reliable measurements
of the potential gradient, as for instance those made by Dr. Miihleisen and coworkers and other scientists, and
166
conductivity measurements made all over the world. From the potential gradient and the conductivity the
authors calculated the current density as a function of altitude and arrived at a very similar average curve as
W. Cobb obtained at the South Pole. So there is a lot of back-up data that the current is not constant with altitude.
I myself have made several measurements on this and Olson has made also several measurements on this effect.
I think we are just blinding ourselves to some new effect.
Thank you, Dr. Cobb, for your most interesting paper.
Author's address:
W. E. Cobb
NOAA ERL APCL
Boulder, Colorado 80302
USA
167
Effect of Dust-Raising Winds on the Atmospheric Electric Field·)
A.K.Kamra
With 2 figures
Abstract
High wind speeds which often raise dust from the ground are known to deviate the atmospheric electric
potential gradient from its fair-weather value. One year data obtained at Roorkee (India) where on wind-disturbed
days, the potential gradient decreases and becomes negative, has been analysed. Mean percentage deviation in
potential gradient and the mean deviation per unit of average wind speed on such wind-disturbed days, have
been observed to undergo diurnal and seasonal variations parallel to those of average wind speed, with their
maxima in the afternoon. The effect is most pronounced during March-April. It has been found that as the average
wind speed exceeds 2.5 m/sec the mean percentage deviation in potential gradient increases, becomes almost
constant at 6 - 7 m/sec, and then again increases very rapidly.
The results have been compared to author's own measurements made at many different places in south-
western United States where potential gradients of many kV/m and space charge densities of 1011 -10 12 el/m 3
have been commonly observed during dust-blowing conditions. Some possible causes of the electrification pro-
duced by blowing dusts in the atmosphere are discussed.
Introduction
Strong and turbulent winds in the plains of northwest India raise huge quantities of dust into the
atmosphere during the period of February to July each year. The energetically lifted dust particles
which can sometimes be carried to many kilometers in height, make the sky dusty in the afternoons
and thus considerably reduce the visibility. The raising of the dust particles from the ground is known
to produce large electrical effects which considerably alter the fair-weather electrical state of the
atmosphere [Rudge (1914), Uchikawa (1951), Demon et al. (1953), Kamra (1969a, b, 1972), Ette (1971),
Harris (1971)].
On fair-weather days the atmospheric electric potential gradient at Roorkee (29 51' N, 77 53' E;
0 0
275 m above m.s.l) undergoes a typical continental double-periodic diurnal variation. However, on
days with high wind speeds which raise large quantities of dust into the atmosphere, the potential
gradient decreases from its fair-weather value and, if the winds are strong enough, becomes negative
[Kamra (1969a)]. Although the deviation of potential gradient from its fair weather value is known
to depend upon the intensity of the wind, no defmite quantitative correlation between the two para-
meters has been established as yet. Importance of such correlations between atmospheric electrical
and meteorological parameters has often been sp-essed for the interpretation of individual atmospheric
electrical phenomena and for synoptical studies of atmospheric electricity [e.g., Dolezalek (1958)].
With this problem in view it was decided to establish a quantitative correlation between the deviation
in fair-weather potential gradient caused by strong winds and the wind speed. To do this, one year
data obtained earlier at Roorkee has been analysed. This analysis is being reported and discussed in
this paper. Some characteristics of dust clouds which point to the cause of the origin of charge in them
are also discussed.
The atmospheric potential gradient has been measured with an agrimeter which is described else-
where [Kamra and Varshneya (1968)]. Its output is amplified with a d.c. amplifier and recorded on a
stripchart pen-recorder. The wind speed is measured with a four cup anemometer and fed into a separate
recorder. The agrimeter has been placed on the top third floor of the Physics Department building
(11.6 m above the ground) and the anemometer about 4 m higher than this. The recording apparatus
is kept in an electrically shielded cabin on the second floor of the building.
*) Paper was accepted by the Executive Panel, but could not be presented. It was, therefore, not considered
in any discussion.
168
Method of Analysis
Total number of days were divided into three categories, (i) fair-weather days, (ii) wind-disturbed
days, i.e., days with wind speeds higher than 4 mjsec at some time of the day, and (iii) disturbed days,
i.e., when thick clouds like cumulus, stratus, strato-cumulus etc. were present. The first category included
days with some fair-weather small cumuli and cirrus clouds also as they don't seem to have much etTect
on potential gradient at the ground. The monthly distribution of the three categories of days in one year
from May 1966 to April 1967 is given in Table 1. The data for the third category of days will not be
discussed here.
Table 1. Survey on Number of Measuring Days
Months
1966-67 May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.
Category
Fair-weather days 11 3 9 6 14 24 28 27 28 10 14 6
Wind-disturbed days 15 8 1 0 0 2 3 10 3 14
Disturbed days 5 19 21 24 16 6 2 2 0 8 14 10
To analyse the data, hourly mean values of the potential gradient for each individual fair-weather
and wind-disturbed day were calculated and denoted by F 1 and F 2 respectively. Then the monthly
average for each fair-weather hourly value were taken and denoted by F. Monthly averages ofthe hourly
mean values of the wind speed for each hour of wind-disturbed day were calculated and denoted by W.
From this, llF = F - F2 and then MjF in % and llFjW were calculated for each hour of each wind-
disturbed day and their monthly averages were taken. From now on we shall use the terms, mean
deviation for llF, average wind speed for W, mean percentage deviation for llFjF % and mean deviation
per unit of wind speed for llFjw.
In this paper we shall use the convention that the fair-weather potential gradient which brings positive
charge down and negative up, is positive.
Results
Fig. 1 a and b show the diurnal variations of llFjF %, llFjW and W for ditTerent months of the year.
The months of September and November had no wind-disturbed days. Wind speed data for May 1966
was not available. The negative values of MjF % and llFjW simply indicate that F 2 > F.
It is evident from Figs. 1a and b that from early evening to the early morning hours when the average
wind speeds are low, the mean percentage deviation in potential gradient and the mean deviation in
potential gradient per unit of wind speed have small values - mainly fluctuating around zero. However,
when W increases in the afternoon, llFjF %and llFjW attain high values. For example, in March 1967,
llFjF % and llFjW became as high as 2200% and 135, respectively, in the afternoon hours. On
individual days these values may still be higher. For example, during a dust storm on 13 April 1967,
llFjF % was found to be as high as 3300%, the corresponding value of llFjW being 69.
It should be noted here that although the variations in llFjF %and llFjW are nearly parallel to those
of W throughout the year, the afternoon increases in MjF % and llFjW are very much suppressed
from July to October. This apparently seems to be because of the onset ofthe monsoons in this area in
July each year. Until June the dust is loose and is easily stripped otT of the ground with strong winds.
However, when the rains start in July, the ground becomes wet and comparatively less dust is blown otT
into the atmosphere. Dust storms are usually followed in this season by thunderstorms and showers.
The rains continue until October. Thereafter, the ground becomes dry and the afternoon increase in
MjF % and llFjW again becomes noticeable from December onwards.
169
1600 160 8 1600
JAN 1967 APR 1967

C\I
1200 E 12 6
-...
u
41
til
~
> 4 800
800
~f~ 80
400 40 2 400
0 '- 0 0 0
1600 160 8 1600
FEB 1967 MAY 1966
1200 120 6 w 1200

f(o/o
JI---..lC AF
W
800 80 4 800
40 2 400
0
-
".. .... ~... ""-.
0 0 0
1500 160 8 1600
MAR 1967 JUN 1966
1200 12 6 1200
800 80 4 800
,
,,
l
, I
400 I
I 40 2 400
!
0 .. 0 0
~~
).
0
0 6
Local 12 Time
Fig. 1 a. Diurnal variations of the mean percentage deviation (AF/F %) in potential gradient, mean deviation
per unit of wind speed (AF/W) and the average wind speed (W) from January to June (Indian Standard Time =
GMT+ 5 1/ 2 hours)
To study the exact correlation of !iF/F % with W, all the values of !iF/F % within a range of
± 0.5 m/sec from the whole data of one year, were added for W = 0,1,2,3, ... ,10 separately, and their
averages taken. Fig. 2 shows the variation of !iF/ F %with W for the whole year. As W increases, !iF / F %
first shows a slight decrease but as soon as W exceeds 2.5 m/sec, !iF/F % starts increasing. At
170
1600 8 1600
J UL 1966
1200 N 6 1200
E.u
1\1
<II
~
800 lL.0 > 80 4 800
<3~ .&
~~
400 40 2 400
- ,'+"
0 0 0 0
1600 8 1600
AUG 1966 NOV 1966
1200 120 6
",ro,
w
lEo
1200
80 4 800
No wind -di5turbed day5
40 2 400
o 0 0 0
150 8 1600
SEP 1966 DEC 1966
1200 120 6
800 80 4
No wind-di5turbed daY5
400 40 2 400
0 0 ,,-,,' 0
6 12 18 '.' 6 12 18
Local Time Local Time
2.12.Flb Fig. Ib
Fig. 1 b, As in Fig. 1 a except from July to December
W = 6-7 m/sec, IlF/F % becomes almost constant but it again starts increasing rapidly for higher
values of W.
Fig, 2 depicts many interesting features. The initial slight decrease in IlF/F % at low values of W
seems to reflect the concentration of space charge in the lower atmosphere due to the electrode effect
171
in still conditions, and its consequent removal with the movement of the air. The increase in f1F /F ~Io
with W when it exceeds about 2.5 m/sec, is due to electrification produced by the dispersion of dust
into the atmosphere. Somewhat constant values of f1F/F %when W is around 6-7 m/sec may perhaps
be explained as due to production of the space charge of opposite polarity due to point discharge from
the trees and other objects. Thereafter, at high values of W up to about 10 m/sec, perhaps the rate of
production of space charge due to blowing dust far exceeds the rate of production of space charge due
to point discharge from the trees etc. and therefore f1F/F % increases rapidly with W. Although the
occurrance of point-discharge currents [Kamra (1968)] during dust storms tends to support the above
explanation, it should nevertheless be taken as tentative only until more measurements of point-dis-
charge current density and of the space charges at different altitudes during dust storm conditions
are available to support it.
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
AF"/
T
800
600
400
200
o~~~~~--~--~--~
2 4 6 8 10
w(m/sec)
Fig. 2. Variation ofthe mean percentage deviation (flF/F %) in potential gradient with the average wind speed (W)
It should be emphasized here that in this analysis, the parameters, viz f1F/F %, f1F/W and W have
been so chosen as to reflect the general behavior of the variation of potential gradient with wind
speed. Therefore, the deviations in potential gradient with wind speed on individual days may not be
in exact agreement with our results. Other meteorological variables may further contribute to this
difference. However, considering the synoptic behavior of some variables, it is natural to forgo its
special variations in some individual cases.
Discussion
A fair-weather day for atmospheric electrical purposes is generally defined as a day having no thick
clouds or precipitation. This analysis shows that even in the absence of thick clouds strong winds can
significantly deviate, by raising dust into the atmosphere, the electric potential gradient from its fair-
weather value. Such deviations in atmospheric electricity with wind speed have also been observed at
172
many different locations in southwestern United States [Kamra (1972)] and at many other places in the
world. It seems natural therefore that in defining a fair-weather day wind speed is an important
parameter which must be taken into account. According to the analysis presented here, as soon as the
average wind speed, W, at Roorkee, exceeds 2.5 m/sec, it starts deviating the fair-weather potential
gradient. This value of W should, however, depend upon the soil-condition, the soil-constituents, the
rainfall pattern in the region, the temperature and humidity of the soil and of the atmosphere etc., and
thus it may differ from place to place.
It should be mentioned here that the values of IlF/F %, IlF/W and W for the corresponding hours
on individual days varied over a wide range and had large variations from their monthly averages. Also,
the mean values of IlF/F % and IlF/W for the same value ofW, varied much from one day to another
and from their yearly averages. This may partially be due to ignoring the effects of other meteoroklgical
factors - such as amount and duration of rainfall, atmospheric temperature and humidity etc. - in
calculating the monthly and yearly averages of these quantities. However, a study of the variation of
these quantities averaged over a month or a year can help us in making atmospheric electric synoptic
investigations. For example, such a knowledge is important in the separation of the global, regional
and local contributions to the atmospheric electricity. Again, such analysis of atmospheric electric
parameters can further be used in interpreting some meteorological processes of the atmosphere.
With the increase in wind speed at Roorkee, the potential gradient invariably decreases and be-
comes negative. However, at many other places such as northern Sahara in Algeria [Demon et al. (1953)],
Yuma sand dunes and many other sandy areas in southwestern United States [Kamra(1972)] the fair-
weather positive potential gradient has been observed to increase to many kV/m. Associated with these
high values of positive and negative potential gradients in southwestern United States, space charge
densities of the order of 10 11 -10 12 el/m 3 of either polarity have been observed at 1.25 m above the
ground. The magnitude and polarity of atmospheric potential gradient and the space charge during
dust storms seem to be closely associated to the soil-constituents of the place. Field observations and
laboratory investigations of Kamra (1971-1973) strongly suggest that most of the dust storms whose
major constituents are clay minerals produce only negative potential gradients and negative space
charges. However, if the main constituent of the dust storm is silica, both polarities of space charge and
potential gradient are generated. In the latter case, the centre of the electric dipole formed by the
positive and negative space charges can fluctuate to varying heights depending upon the wind speed
and convective activity of the atmosphere. These facts clearly stress the importance of the correlations
such as presented here as a part of the foundation of electrical-climatology for each station to make
synoptic studies and to better understand the individual phenomena of atmospheric electricity.
Charge generation in dust storms is closely associated with the dispersion of dust from the ground
and it seems that a net amount of charge flows down to the ground during the process of dispersion
[Kamra (1973)]. The mode of charge distribution on dust particles, however, can be further modified
by the hopping and consequent impacts of dust particles with the ground and among themselves.
Electric charge seems to reside on very fine dust particles. However, the idea expressed sometimes to
explain the bi-polar nature of the dust cloud, that the larger and the smaller particles in a dust cloud
are oppositely charged, is not supported by the laboratory experiments of Kamra (1973) and Kunkel
(1950). These laboratory experiments clearly show the different modes of electrification in dust clouds
of different chemical compositions. In spite of the many important facts revealed by these laboratory
experiments, our knowledge of the charge generation in dust storms is far from being complete. The
significance of such a knowledge, however, can hardly be underestimated in interpreting several
phenomena in atmospheric electricity. Well-designed laboratory experiments which simulate dust-
storm conditions can certainly help to solve this problem.
References
1. Demon. L., P. DeFelici. H. Gondet, Y. Kast. and L. Pontier. 1. Rech. Cent. Nat. Rech. Sci. 24, 126 (1953). -
2. Dolezalek. H.. Problems in atmospheric electric synoptic investigations. Recent Advances in Atmospheric
Electricity, ed. by L. G. Smith, p. 195-212 (New York 1958). - 3. Ette, A. I. I., 1. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 33, 295
(1971). - 4. Harris, D. J., J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 33, 581 (1971). - 5. Kamra, A. K., 1. Geomagn. Geoelect. 20,111
173
(1968). - 6. Kamra, A. K., J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 31,1281 (1969a). - 7. Kamra, A. K., J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 31, 1273
(1969 b). - 8. Kamra. A. K.. Dust storm electrification. Final report to the National Science Foundation. Grant
No. GA-18667 (1971). - 9. Kamra. A. K.. J. Geophys. Res. 77, 5856 (1972). - 10. Kamra. A. K .. J. Appl. Phys.
44,125 (1973). - 11. Kamra. A. K. and N. C. Varshneya, Indian J. Pure & Appl. Phys. 6, 31 (1968). - 12. Kunkel.
W. B .• J. Appl. Phys. 21,820 (1950). - 13. Rudge. W. A. D .• Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 90, 571 (1914). - 14. Uchikawa.
K.. Tateno. J. Aero!' Obs. 5, 10 (1951).
Author's address:
A.K.Kamra
Physics Department
Indian Institute of
Tropical Meteorology
Poona 5
India
174
General Discussion
Chairman: R. Reiter

We shall now have the General Discussion. I have the impression that we are entering a complex problem.
The papers presented have shown relationships between concentrations and variations of small ion densities of
both conductivities on the one hand, and meteorological conditions and aerosol parameters on the other.
Reflecting on these relationships we have to conclude that variations of conductivities or of small-ion densities
are more or less unspecific reactions on variations of aerosol size distribution and aerosol concentration. We
must realize that other parameters, such as variation of ionization rate caused by radioactivity in the air and on
the earth's surface, and the frequency rate and density of fog must be taken into consideration. It will therefore
not be easy to deduce clear relationships between the atmospheric electric data stated, and air pollution, visibility,
atmospheric optics, radiation balance, which of course would be desirable. We should attempt to find during this
General Discussion common viewpoints under what conditions conductivity, small ion measurements and others
in the field of air pollution control and applied practical meteorology can be utilized. As you know, the question
has been discussed as to what results of such measurements refer to global air pollution and global changes of
climate in progress, all of which is important also with respect to the Mid-Range Plan Effort. Now, let me say
something with respect to the paper given by Lane-Smith. I think this is a very good example showing that we do
have deep influences of local meteorological conditions on atmospheric electric elements. And, on the other
hand, variations of some of them are used in regard to questions about global relationships. We have measure-
ments of small ions and measurements of conductivities. There is a danger of either misinterpreting, or over-
interpreting them. The question then is, in what manner can we interpret such measurements realistically?
Would we need more parameters? Some of the papers have shown that it is necessary to have data coming
from meteorology. Here I have to mention precipitation, fog density and fog probability but also the air radio-
activity which contributes to the ionization rate. On the other hand we have to include aerosol data, condensation
nuclei and last but not least we have to include aspects of aerosol chemistry. Consequently we must include
measurements of ion mobility, mass spectrum, and space charges. We carefully have to check Ohm's law etc.
This is the complex problem which confronts us. My suggestion is that we should try to find some kind of rules
during this basic discussion. One such rule could be: Would it be possible to interpret simple measurements of,
let's say, small-ion density measurements or conductivity measurements without having further parameters?
The second question is: If not, or if there are some open problems, with what other parameters should simple
measurements of small ions and conductivities be combined for a better interpretation? The third problem is:
Should we use more sophisticated measurements like mobility spectrum, mass spectrum, and others? Last but
not least I have to mention, we have some problems of definition, of instrumentation, of calibration, and compari-
son of different methods at the same site. However, we should try to concentrate in such a way that after this dis-
cussion we have a kind offeeling what we can do with simple atmospheric electric measurements. This is important
because we have the old Carnegie measurements, and it's extremely interesting to compare these and other old
measurements with new ones in regard to the question of climate changes within this century.
Dolezalek, Alexandria, Virginia, USA:
I think in addition to what Reiter just said one item might be pointed out: the difference between long-time
averages and short-time averages. By long-time averages I mean the average values e.g. of a diurnal variation
for a month, or for a season, or for a year; or the seasonal variation from one season to the other, averaged over
several years. By computing 'such long-time averages, some of the meteorological parameters can be disregarded
if we adhere to some reasonable although inaccurate definition of the fair-weather hour. And this is what has been
done in the past. Reiter mentioned the Carnegie measurements, they are (in the form we know them) long-time
averages. They are even annual averages, very often of the diurnal variation. This automatic cancellation of
random disturbances is not given when we go to hourly averages, or even to smaller periods as we have to e.g.
when the weather changes from fog to fair weather. With this reduction in the averaging period the demand on
additional parameters and on accuracy of the measurements, and the request that the measurements are done
with all parameters in the same height on the open plain etc., gain in importance. On the other hand, it seems to
be necessary to go to shorter averaging periods because there is not very much more to be gained from very long
time averages. Shorther averages, as have been applied e.g. by Anderson in his slide on 2 flights during two days
are what we need now. For example, the best way to check the global circuit would be to have for every individual
hour the thunderstorm activity and the atmospheric electric parameters at globally representative stations.
175
Reiter:
Let me come back: it should be in any way decided today, if possible, what we can do with "simple measure-
ments", or what has to be added in order to offer data to the other scientific community outside the atmospheric
electricity on a good and well-defined scientific basis.

The connection between conductivity, ion density, aerosol density, and ionization rate is as follows: Conduc-
tivity A. is a function of small ion density n and mobility of small ions K. The ion density n changes with time
according to the Schweidler equation:
Rrnax
dn/dt = q - ow 2 - n J p(r)f(r)dr. [1]

Rrnin
Here is: rt recombination coefficient for positive and negative small ions; p(r) attachment coefficient for small
ions onto aerosols;f(r) aerosol size distribution. The total aerosol concentration N is defined by
Rmall:
N = J f(r)dr. [2]
Rrnin
We see that a change in q, k, n, f(r) and N influences conductivity A.. There is no unique relationship between
A. and N. Conductivity is a parameter on its own in atmospheric electricity. However, if used for determining the
atmospheric aerosol concentration, we must look at the possible variation with time and location of all para-
meters that influence conductivity.
Lack of data for the atmospheric aerosol size distribution have lead to the following simplification of
eq. [1]
R=..
dn/dt = q - rtn 2 - n' p(r) J f(r) dr
ROlin
[1']
and, in conjunction with eq. [2]:

dn/dt = q - rtn 2 - n' p(r)· N . [1"]
Here p(r) represents the average attachment coefficient of ions to all aerosol particles present in the atmosphere.
From eq. [1"], one can determine the total ion density n(t). It becomes clear, however, that the ion density in
the atmosphere is not only influenced by the total number N of particles but also by their size distribution.
Eq. [1"] which is normally used for conductivity evaluation is an approximation only, and it assumes a constant
size distribution for particles. In equilibrium, i.e. dn/dt = 0, eq. [1"] leads to:
n= p(r) (
2rtN
1+ 4rtqN
p(r)2
2 - 1).
[3]
Reiter:
Thank you, Mr. Mohnen, for your very clear comment. We must obviously define under what conditions we can
interpret the conductivity measurements without secondary parameters. It is clear that on the one hand we must
know something about q. If your are working far away from the continents on the open ocean, then you may have
cosmic rays causing the ionization rate and not much natural radioactivity (forget the problem of krypton 85).
Under such conditions we can say q may be more or less constant. However, we have to make sure that in some
way the air pollution measured by the number of particles, condensation nuclei counters, or by other means is
on a scale which allows interpretation of conductivity itself without secondary parameters. The Misaki paper
points out clearly that we have the information required for such basic investigation and all the necessary para-
meters, the natural radioactivity, the ion mobility, mass spectrum, particle size spectrum, etc. I have the feeling
that some of these basic investigations are absolutely necessary, but for different parts of the world: on land,
on the ocean, in polar regions. My question with respect to fog has not been answered as yet. If you have a vessel
sailing on the ocean and you have a mean conductivity measured over weeks or months, it depends on the fog
probability and fog density; consequently, on the route of the ship. And do we have from Carnegie good observa-
tions on the ship with respect to fog, can we exclude its influence?
I have additional remarks to the comment of Mohnen. I think the problem is even more difficult because Mohnen
did not mention some further parameters in his picture. The negative ion concentration during fine weather is
dependent on the potential gradient because the electrode effect has some influence on the negative ion con-
176
centration. If we have a negative potential gradient, then the positive ion concentration is influenced. But another
influence is also important: the fine structure ofthe wind vector - in other words, the turbulence - which effects
also most of the measurements near the ground.
Reiter:
This has been shown by Lane-Smith. During a solar eclipse, there are heavy changes in the structure of the
lowermost part of the atmosphere, especially variations in the turbulence structure of the boundary layer. These
influence the interrelationship of the atmospheric electric elements so strongly that we have to take them into
account. However, if you take - if possible - mean values over long intervals, then most effects oflocal turbulence
may be balanced. From my point of view, I would propose that in any case, the main meteorological parameters
should be included.
I think I should point out that it has been a tacid assumption in all the papers given today that q is relatively
constant. This has certainly not been true from 1950 to 1972 for measurements in particular close to the surface
of the earth. This is, of course, because of fallout due to radioactivity from nuclear explosions. Typically we take
10 ion pairs per cm 3 per sec as a value at the surface of the earth under normal conditions. Because of radioactive
fallout, this steadily increased from 1952 to 1963 to reach a maximum of about 50 at places as widely separated
geographically as Britain and Japan. Following the nuclear test ban treaty there has been a recovery; and probably
about 1972 we got back to something like normal level. But if we are comparing data over a long period of years,
we must remember that the q factor has this kind of secular variation for measurements especially those close
to the earth's surface.
Reiter:
Of course we have to consider variations of q probably caused by fission products. However, in the case of
measurements over the land, we have also to take into account the influence of the natural radioactivity of the
air on q. Depending on the vertical exchange intensity, there are variations of the natural radioactivity over 2,3,
and probably 4 magnitudes in the lower troposphere and even near the ground. This has to be accounted for also
in the case of vertical profiles of conductivity without simultaneous measurements of q.
Anderson, R. v., Washington D.C., USA:
Just going back on the equations of Mohnen, I have a few points of disputation. I am objecting a little bit: in
the equation you have integral Jp(r) f(r) dr, and by implication you are taking out the f(r) dr and assuming
that p(r) is not a function of r by taking it out of the integral, and unless this can be demonstrated I don't
think this is really a valid procedure. The total number of aerosol particles is given by the bottom equation which,
since it does not include p(r) under the integral sign, is not necessarily any better than the simple conductivity
measurement unless p(r) is not a function of r.
Dolezalek:
I should like to answer the question about the fog. During the Carnegie measurements, all hours oflow visibility
have been excluded. And it's also worthwhile to remember that by a good coincidence the Carnegie people
excluded all hours with a Blanchard effect. They didn't know the effect yet, but they restricted their measurements
to such low sea state that the Blanchard effect on the open sea was not in existence; they placed the sensors in
such positions on the ship that the Blanchard effect occurring where the waves go against the ship could never
influence them.
Considering what conductivity measurements can really do for meteorologists: We can claim that con-
ductivity measurements in very clear air can detect air pollution or aerosol in such low amounts as no optical
measurement could do. I remember Ruhnke's measurements at Thule, where he could claim to detect one aerosol
particle per cm 3 by reduction in the conductivity. But is this really what the meteorologists need? Hit is not, then
again we do not have any possibility to help them.
As to the request to include more meteorological parameters, it is my opinion that there is little sense to print
tables month after month, station after station, of measurements made on the continent without including suf-
ficient meteorological parameters.
Reiter:
To sum up: First we have stated that for a good interpretation of conductivity or small ion measurements, it
has to be proved whether q is constant or not. Second, observations are necessary with respect to fog probability,
size of droplet etc. Third, we have to consider the main level or maximum level of the air pollution on the measuring
site. Conductivity as an indicator for air pollution doesn't work sufficiently in each level of air pollution, however,
177
more or less good in a region of a small or very low air pollution. And fourth, one has to include the main meteoro-
logical parameters. This is about our status now.
Mohnen:
I am sorry to introduce another factor which I think has been overlooked in the past. I do not believe at this
time that conductivity measurements can be used to monitor long-term aerosol trends. Conductivity depends
on aerosol concentration and size distribution. All the measurements that have been made so far indicate that
aerosol concentrations in the atmosphere (at least in the lower part of the troposphere) vary considerably and are
mainly influenced by meteorological parameters. We therefore have to follow Landsberg's suggestion from 1938
and talk about an aerosol climatology. I do not see under those circumstances, that conductivity measurements
where all days deviating from fair-weather conditions are excluded from consideration can be used as detector
for long-term changes of a climatological parameter. Therefore, the past measurements and all the references that
appear in literature in regard to long term trends of conductivity have to be evaluated with extreme caution.
Reiter:
Considering the relationship between air conductivity and air pollution or aerosols, we have to use clear defini-
tions. Comparisons should be based on size distribution, mass distribution, total mass concentration etc. If we use
only the number of condensation nuclei, we are wrong. The condensation nuclei in fog or heavy air pollution
show, more or less, the same variations as the conductivity. Only in a relatively clear atmosphere, you may find
the often mentioned relationship: the higher the conductivity, the lower the number of condensation nuclei.
Consequently, we have to go one step ahead: we have to include other aerosol measurements, which give us in-
formation on the total aerosol spectrum and aerosol content.
As I understand Reiter's proposal, we should make, in the real work of atmospheric electricity, the step from
qualitative to quantitative measurements. I agree that a set of equations or theories is very helpful, and I agree
with Mohnen's ionization balance equation. However, it is very expensive to add more parameters in field experi-
ments. Field work is already very expensive compared to laboratory or theoretical work. And we have to make,
in each individual case, a decision what to measure or what we don't have to measure. For instance, if we want
to explain the conductivity variations in the air, in a first approximation we could assume all parameters as constant
except, for instance, the number of airborne particles per unit volume, then plot both against each other. If all
data points for the measuring period are on one line within the scattering expected from the instrumentation,
we don't have to go further. If wide scatter occurs we do not have a valid set of data; we have to go further and
measure, for instance, the rate of ionization. If scatter still prevails, we might have to look at the size distribution.
But once we have a set of data confirmed within the limit of our instrumentation, then we don't have to go any
further and add parameters which do not add to our data base.
Reiter:
I agree. If you look at your own measurements made at the same site over a long period, your reasoning may
apply. But you can't compare simple measurements like air conductivity made on different sites, without knowl-
edge of any further parameters. If there is a difference in conductivity we cannot conclude that it is caused by a
difference in air pollution. My proposal is: we should learn under various typical conditions, such as on land in
differently polluted areas, on the open ocean, near the coast, on polar sites and so on, of what kind are the very
complex interrelations of all these parameters. Then we may be able to generalize and to simplify.
Muhleisen:
I would like to add some remarks to Mohnen's and Reiter's comments. First of all, nearly in all points I agree
with Mohnen's opinion. I would like to say only that some possibilities exist in which conductivity measurements
can say something. But this may occur only at very few occasions. Another remark: For a moment I would like
to forget to be an atmospheric electrician, and to speak as a physicist or meteorologist. I feel to be asked as such
a person: what do you think about conductivity measurements? What is the advantage of such measurements?
In fact, I did this many times. I asked many persons, physicists and meteorologists during the last months and
years. I got no answer, or I got the answer: At the moment I cannot say, what conductivity measurements can
help us. Scientists need more and more and more detailed information and data about air pollution, and not only
one parameter. Therefore, the tendency is to get more parameters for an information about air pollution. And if
you regard this t~ndency you may imagine that nobody except an atmospheric electrician will use conductivity
measurements in the near future. I would like to support M ohnen's warning strongly that we do consider realistic-
ally how we can solve the problems of air pollution in the future.
178
Reiter:
I agree: One can do something with air conductivity as air pollution indicator, especially combined with further
parameters - there is no doubt. But going this "simple" way, one has to be careful with overinterpretation or
misinterpretation, and we have to know where are the limitations. Now, my question is: If instrumentation can be
made available, should we not go ahead to another type of measurements with higher sophistication like ion
mobility and mass spectrometry? Then we have the combination of aerosol and conductivity measurements.
This is another - more expensive - possibility to work, but both ways should be gone.
Mohnen:
I believe that combined mobility and mass spectrometry measurements done with modern instrumentation
will give us a better overall answer on the atmospheric trace gas composition; they will also aid us in conjunction
with total ion density measurements defining conductivity.
Misaki, Suginami, Tokyo, Japan:
I think we have two indexes or indicators for air pollution: conductivity and optical turbidity. Conductivity
is mainly related to particles of sizes up to 100 nanometer while optical turbidity relates more to particles with
diameters greater than 1 micrometer. Thus, it is almost nonsense to only measure conductivity; we have to
look at both conductivity and turbidity.
Reiter:'
We may also mention that conductivity can only approach zero and that, the smaller it gets, the less accuracy
of measurement can be obtained. Already at medium pollution levels, conductivity is small. On the other hand,
with direct aerosol measurements the signal increases and with it the accuracy when the air pollution level in-
creases. Thus, conductivity is more advantageous for small amounts of air pollution.
Muhleisen:
I would like to add another remark to Mohnen's statement. I agree with him to use mobility measurements
for scientific purposes, but do not agree to use mobility measurements for applications. Mobility, too, is a complex
parameter which does not say anything exact about the chemical structure. It only gives a measure for the mass
or so but not a clear measure for an ion. It can be that two different ions have the same mobility, but you cannot
distinguish between them.
Reiter:
To sum up: We agree that what I called "more sophisticated measurements" like ion mobility measurements and
others should be used for research in the field of atmospheric electricity and - up to date - not for application
in the field of air pollution monitoring. Still we have to learn more and more and to gain necessary special
scientific information and training in this complex field. On the other hand, if the atmospheric electrical community
proposes atmospheric electric measurements for practical use in meteorology and air pollution monitoring then
the more simple methods should be used and even this with some restraint. At last they should be combined
with a minimum of other - for instance meteorological - measurements in order to guarantee that the simple
atmospheric electrical methods are used and evaluated appropriately, on a scientific basis.
Chairman's address:
R. Reiter
Institut fUr Atmospharische
Umweltforschung der
Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft
Kreuzeckbahnstral3e 19
D-8100 Garmisch- Partenkirchen
West-Germany
179
Session 2a
APPLICATION OF ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY CONCEPTS

AND METHODS TO OTHER PARTS OF METEOROLOGY I
FILM ON ELECTRIC FIELDS
AT THE GROUND UNDER A THUNDERSTORM
Chairman: R. D. Bojkov
Considerations on Practical Application of Atmospheric Electricity Concepts and Methods

(On the Drafting of a Technical Note Requested by the Commission of Atmospheric Science
of the World Meteorological Organization)
H. Dolezalek
With 1 table
Abstract
Expectations that they will be able to apply results from ongoing basic research for their operational purposes
is low among some persons attempting to solve practical problems. This is certainly true for the majority of
meteorologists with regard to results from atmospheric electricity theories and experiments. In addition to the
generation of false hopes in the past, this is a consequence of a narrowing of view angles forced on the operational
practioneers by the demands under which they are working; and of some attitudes of neglect which can hardly
be contested with regard to the investigators in the basic field. Both amount to a breakdown of communication;
but the proliferation of scientific as well as application-oriented journals and conferences has also created a void
in technical means of communication: nobody can read or attend them all.
A consideration of the potentials on both sides leads to the conclusion that additional efforts are required from
the researcher. If he wants to retain his freedom to define the scientific problems he intends to approach, he is
and will be more and more forced to add working hours for not only making his results better digestible but also
for generating communication means for the transfer of knowledge. The bulk of some of this work rests with
agencies which support research and in some countries with special organizations within the academic community,
but must be supported by the efforts of the researcher himself.
Preface
The Commission of Atmospheric Science of the World Meteorological Organization has asked its
Working Group on Atmospheric Electricity to write a Technical Note, as indicated in the title of this
paper.
After several years, a draft for this Technical Note has been made which is being announced to the
audience of the Fifth Conference with this paper. In this paper, some fundamental remarks have been
made on the relationship between basic research and application especially in the field of atmospheric
electricity.
The draft of the Technical Note has then been discussed by members and guests of the Working Group
on 8 September 1974, and the procedure of the final production was agreed upon. It is hoped that the
Note will be ready some time in 1976, and it should be available later on from the World Meteorological
Organization in Geneve.
181
We have been working with this endeavor for many years. At first, for a few years, practically nothing
happened. Then there was one large step and then again nothing. More and more some of us felt that the
situation borders on the ridiculous - after all, so many Weather Services had maintained full atmos-
pheric electricity observatories, laboratories, divisions for so many years - why should it be so
difficult to write all the wonderful and useful things down that they had achieved?
Now I am convinced that it was good that it took so long a time. Slowly it came to us that we were
wrangling with a task much larger than anticipated at the outset. Slowly it dawned that we had to
address ourselves very much to the atmospheric electricity community - not just to the meteorological
community. We were faced with the task of finding a bridge between research and application.
I think I speak here with a little bit of authority. I have some insight into the difficulties of getting
new methods, new results into the machine of a state-owned application agency in such a way that the
machine does not mill it to pieces but incorporates it. Such a task may be relatively easy in a situation
where this machine is small, where many people overlook and recognize the various responsibilities -
but in these countries the possibilities are also limited because in a way their machines, their weather
services are members of a worldwide organization and critically bound to it. My own insight and ex-
perience was gained in a situation where the machine is large, very large, the responsibilities multiply
overlapping - but I am convinced, also a machine which is well advanced in developing mechanisms
and tools for such transfer from research to application, more advanced probably than the situation
in any other country. In looking into the pains of creating such mechanisms we learn much what we
have to do - in our case, the application of atmospheric electricity concepts and methods to other
parts of meteorology.
Le me give you an example. Almost everybody you ask what atmospheric electricity can do for
meteorology answers, among other items: monitoring atmospheric pollution. This has been said in
1929 when the Carnegie people believed to have detected a reduction of atmospheric electric conduc-
tivity over the North Atlantic Ocean within the last fourteen years. This has been said in the last 1940's
or early 1950's when Coroniti in his airplane flying far out over the ocean detected with his Gerdien
the dirt trails of the large cities on the east coast of the United States. It has been said often before,
inbetween and since, and we have many wonderful publications on it, with numbers and tables and
curves. We have sent - the atmospheric electricity community has sent - delegations to the tsars of
the large environmental protection agencies in the 1960's to campaign for atmospheric electricity
methods. They were politely refused.
We have leafed through mountains of books on measuring methods for air pollution monitoring -
very very seldom was there a tiny marginal hint that atmospheric electricity could do something, mostly
there was no mentioning at all. Now here and there, very seldom if ever, some weather service has
done something - but on the worldwide basis it amounted to little. For some of us it looked as if we were
struggling against ignorance or even bad will, and anecdotes illustrating this could be heard.
But, what was the real situation?

The real question is whether atmospheric electricity can do something which is both necessary in
the sense of the task of the Pollution Monitoring Agency and can do something better or cheaper than
it is now done by other methods. That is so obvious a question that one is embarrassed to ask it. But it
has never been seriously tried to answer it, as far as I found out.
Atmospheric optics can do many things for air pollution. To quote a modern proposal as an example:
a lidar sends out two laser beams in the same direction, one in a frequency which is suffering from
Rayleigh scattering but not absorbed by one particular gas, the other beam has a wavelength which
suffers from such absorption. Both are observed as return signals reflected from the air molecules at
a distance beyond the range which one wants to monitor in the atmosphere. These return signals are then
expected to give information whether that particular gas is there polluting the air, where it is and even
how much.
Now, I do not know myself exactly how far the development of this method has proceeded. But there
are others, some involving fluorescence of certain materials, some trying to evaluate the Raman spectrum.
182
Bistatic laser is using side scatter criteria - and so on. The one or other method may turn out to
be too complicated or expensive or to be impossible for other reasons, but this short list illustrates the
scope of potentials with which any atmospheric electricity method has to compete.
I do not want to imply that there are no important things in air pollution monitoring that atmospheric
electric methods might do better than other methods. But I want to state that we have to seriously con-
sider this before we can expect to be heard.
Once I told this to a colleague, thinking that maybe he might start looking into that. He realized that
this is a task which needs more than a few hours in the evening at the kitchen table. He could not
responsibly do it in his working time which was dedicated to other tasks. Thus he made a proposal
to the Environment Protection Agency of his country, asking for a study contract to investigate these
potentials and to weigh them against each other. He did not get that contract - and probably he was
not even surprised by this rejection.
It is clear, that there must be either a considerable amount of such evening-at-the-kitchen-table work
or somebody who has more freedom to determine how he spends his working hours must do the work.
And I repeat, such work must include both a weighing of atmospheric electric possibilities against
others, and a well founded investigation of the needs of the agency which is supposed to benefit in the
long run and to shell-out the money for development now.
What is said here with regard to the monitoring of air pollution basically applies to all possibilities
of practical application of atmospheric electricity (and to other basic sciences as well).
It does not help much to ask the operational people what they need. You can try to ask their head-
quarters and you can try to ask their workers in the fields. In both cases the answers you get help very
little, for a number of reasons. Still, you will have to ask them, but you also should go out into the fields
and to observe them working; there you may get some good ideas. And then you will have to do a lot
of thinking of your own.
If you are successful in this, you have not yet won. You will have to investigate how to transfer the
knowledge you have, the results of your measurements, the potential for application you see. Sometimes
you will find that publication in a journal or at a conference will not help because the people you want
to reach have no time to read journals or to go to conferences, or they read journals which you do not
know. And even if they read the journal in which you publish, they may not understand you. When I
recently loo~ed into the work which was done by Kiihler, a leading atmospheric electricity physicist
before Israel, I was struck by the fact that all the information on atmospheric electricity which was
available to so many physics professors and so many meteorologists I had met in our days was just
what Kiihler had taught in the 1920's and 1930's.
What this all means is that the man in basic science - if he cares for practical application of his
results - must do some things he usually does not do; or he must find somebody who is capable and
willing to do them for him.
For that man in basic science - for nearly all present in this hall today - his work is determined by
scientific considerations. Which important gaps in our understanding of nature do we encounter, how
do we go about to fill them - these and similar questions are the ones to guide him. That is quite in order
and correct and must not be changed. He should never allow the application people to exclusively
determine his goals and his actions. But now and then he may have to stop the train of research for an
instant in order to switch off one car from that train into the land of application after he has made it
a certain knowledge that the rails for that car are laid, the switches positioned correctly and the signals
allow a proceeding without undue danger for the car being squashed by another train.
What I have said here is the result of working in an agency for which the finding of solutions to these
problems is a matter of life and death, and which has been somewhat successful in fulfilling this task.
I have seen similar developments in other agencies and in other countries. But you do not have to rely
on my statements. I have laid out in the lobby of this building two editorials (out of some more) which
seem to point into the same direction - both reproduced with the permission of the editors. *)
We then have to ask what all this means for the composition of our Technical Note.
*) Nature 246:5427: 1;2 (November 1973) - Physics Today 25: 12 :92; (December 1972).
183
It means, at first, that it is a vain effort to speak about the application of atmospheric electricity
concepts and methods to meteorology without investigating the methods for transfer of knowledge
which are in various degrees applicable to nearly all results if they are to be applied - and this leads
us quickly to the acknowledgement that we must address ourselves principally and at first to our own
colleague, to the scientist in atmospheric electricity, in order to discuss with him realistically what he
must do if he want!! the fruits of his efforts applied to the benefit of his fellow man.
I know that some of us will object; some will point to the traditional belief that publication of their
results is enough. Well, it is indeed, or it would, if we define the word "publication" correctly, that is if
we describe the public to which we direct ourselves in a paper or conference, and then ask whether
this is the public which will be able to make use of our results, to apply them. Let us look around who
sits wlth us in our symposia to listen to atmospheric electricity papers. To whom are we sending our
reprints? From which group of journal readers do we get a response on our papers printed there?
Generally, from our own people. And often, if an operational meteorologist finds occasion and time
to read an atmospheric electricity paper he fmds that it was not written for him.
Again, this is as it should be. Our most important discussion is with our own peers. That is where
we increase the depth of our understanding. However, it has nothing to do with "application".
We have therefore drafted the "Technical Note" in such a way that these general facts are the content
of one part, written with the intention that it will remain valid for a considerable time. In another part,
then, we discuss the many examples for application which have been suggested. None can be discussed
in full detail, but a bibliography will provide possibilities for further steps. For each one an appraisal
is given, discussing realistically the present actual potential for application.
This, of course, makes for a rather thick volume, in its final form probably between 100 and 250 pages.
This is good and bad at the same time.
Let's first consider the good points. If we think back on now 222 years of atmospheric electricity
research and remember what I have said here today, we see that serious, well-planned application
research has almost never been done. This additional effort, the necessity of which is emerging from
the heated debate on fundamental research versus development towards application, must be applied
before we can say with confidence which one of our results will provide the potential of being practically
useable. Because of this, we cannot cancel out any possibility which is seen as a candidate by our col-
leagues. We need a document in which these necessities are spelled out in detail and which may be used
as a guide towards such additional effort. And at the same time we should avoid giving the impression
to the outside world that the total practicable result of 222 years of work consists of three or four
relatively small items. We must avoid this impression because it would be wrong - the true conclusion
is that we did not really try. Thus, there is a fundamental reason for this relatively voluminous document.
I, for one, need it in my own activity because I do not want to write every time a twenty or forty page
letter whenever a colleague comes and asks for support for promoting an atmospheric electricity idea
into application - and I think everyone who will have to do with such promotion will need it in the same
sense.
But such a long document is bad, too - very bad because it is too long for many people who
should read it but won't. This is a very modem and urgent problem (which, by the way, comes up
in my professional work again and again, too). We need short documents, which will be read. We
have for years prepared such short documents, usually starting from longer ones and then pruning
back. Often, this gave a result which was either woefully incomplete or consisted of almost trivial
generalities.
Some of us have developed a method to overcome this difficulty. Instead of describing what this
is, I may now give an almost classical example: the new edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. It
consists of two parts, called Micropaedia and Macropaedia. The first one contains many short articles
which are matched to the detailed articles of the second one. Similarly, in this draft for the Technical
Note to be written, each chapter and each section is preceded by a paragraph, printed in a different
type, which at the same time is an abstract and an introduction. The quick reader may read only these -
and whenever he fmds his interest excited he may go on to the discussion of the details. We shall write
these abstracts in such a way that they also can be taken separately, and also selectively by emphasizing
184
developments which are the closest ones to applications. This will then form the first part of the
Technical Note, directed at the hurried reader.
I shall now quickly glance with you through the draft by projecting to the screen parts of the table
of contents of the Technical Note and adding remarks to some of its individual points.
(In the following, the contents of the draft for the Technical Note are reported with the help of a
number of slides depicting parts of the table of contents, and demonstrating two examples with slides:
the detection of atmospheric instability aloft and the tracing of tornadoes. In this text, only a copy from
the Table of Contents of the Draft is given, on the next two pages, not showing the division into the
main parts and not containing, as yet, the First Part for the hurried reader. Also, subsections in chapters
6, 7, and 8 are not always contained in this Table.
The two examples given are based on the following publications *): (atmospheric instability aloft)
R. Reiter, "Contribution on the problem of precipitation electricity", in: Archiv f. Meteorologie, Geo-
physik und Bioklimatologie (A) 21, 247 (1972), and (tracing of tornadoes): W. L. Taylor, "Evaluation
of an electromagnetic Tornado-Detection Technique", in: American Meteorological Society, Eighth
Conference on Severe Local Storms, 15 -17 October 1973, Denver, Colorado.
In both cases, valid examples for meteorological applications are demonstrated as they have resulted
from basic atmospheric electric research. However, the cases also demonstrate (in varying degrees)
that the results are not yet ready to be taken over by operational agencies; further development is
required, the first steps of which should be done by the original researcher. Unfortunately, his pressing
commitments seldom leave him time to do them.)
Table 1. Draft for the technical note on application etc.

Table of contents
1. Introduction ......................................................................... Page 7

2. Research and application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10
2.1. Historical introduction ............................................................. 11
2.2. The time-lag ...................................................................... 12
2.3. The communication gap ............................................................ 15
2.4. An atmospheric electricity peculiarity ................................................. 18
2.5. Meteorological parameters and tracers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3. Demonstration of an example ................................................................ 21
3.1. Description of the methods to trace instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2. Discussion on significance of findings ................................................. 23
3.2.1. Potential for development (page 23)
3.2.2. Comparison with other methods (26)
3.2.3. Assessment of present situation (27)
3.3. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4. Criteria for applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
4.1. Introductory remark ............................................................... 30
4.2. Criteria for applicability of electric meteorological parameters ............................ 31
4.2.1. Existence of such parameters (31)
4.2.2. Usefulness for certain meteorological purposes (32)
4.3. Criteria for applicability of tracers .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.3.1. Usefulness of indirect measurements (33)
4.3.2. Competition and mutual complementality of methods (34)
4.3.3. Other aspects of a "realistic" appraisal (35)
4.3.4. Applicability within certain meteorological tasks (36)
4.4. Criteria for applicability for research purposes ......................................... 37
4.4.1. Assistance for meteorology for atmospheric electricity research (37)
4.4.2. Contribution from atmospheric electricity to research in atmospheric physics (38)
*) Set: also H. Dolezalek, "On the applicability of atmospheric electricity"; Invited paper for session 8 of the
Eighth Annual Congress of the Canadian Meteorological Society, 24 pp. (Toronto, 1974).
185
5. Scope of examples .......................................................................... 39
Remarks on chapters 6, 7, 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42A
6. Examples of electric meteorological parameters ................................................. 43
6.1. Lightning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.1.1. Lightning climatology (44)
6.1.2. Operational forecast (56)
6.1.3. Tmmediate warning (60)
6.1.4. Lightning protection (61)
6.1.5. Lightning prevention (64)
6.1.6. Appraisal (67)
6.1.7. Additional references (68)
6.2. Rain gush and heavy rain ........................................................... 71
6.3. Droplet coalescence ................................................................ 71
6.4. Conductivity and thunderstorms ..................................................... 71
6.5. Cirrus cloud formation ............................................................. 71
6.6. Ions and atmospheric chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7. Examples of tracing possibilities, a) general and "fair-weather" situations ........................... 73
7.1. General remarks, remote sensing and in-situ tracing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.1.1. General remarks (74)
7.1.2. Fair-weather remote sensing (76)
7.1.3. Disturbed-weather remote sensing (77)
7.1.4. Fair-weather in-situ measurements (78)
7.1.5. Disturbed weather in-situ measurements (81)
7.1.6. Two special examples (81)
7.2. Assessment of atmospheric stability aloft, types of clouds ................................ 83
7.3. Prediction of onset and dissipation and modification of fog. .............................. 84
7.4. Potential for monitoring of aerosol and its vertical structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
7.5. Measuring of exchange coefficient, mass transfer .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.6. Observation of inversions ........................................................... 90
7.7. Air motion tracing, air mass determination ............................................ 91
7.8 Extra-terrestrial influences ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.9. Orographic wind systems ........................................................... 93
8. Examples of tracing possibilities, b) "disturbed-weather" situations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
8.1. Severe weather prediction, detection, and monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
8.2. Change of phase of precipitable water and change of type of precipitation .................. 95
8.3. Assessment of weather modification .................................................. 97
9. Criteria for measurement .................................................................... 98
9.1. Elements ......................................................................... 99
9.2. Stations .......................................................................... 102
9.3. Antennae and probes .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 105
9.4. Data handling .................................................................... 106
9.5. Development of special instruments ....... :.......................................... 107
References .................................................................................. .
For those of us who question the value or need for consideration of application, I may quote the intro-
ductory words of the famous Project Hindsight as they are found in the volume 156 of the journal Science
(23 June 1967, p. 1517):
"No matter how much science and technology may add to the quality of life, no matter how brilliant
and meritorious are its practitioneers, and no matter how many individual results that have been of
social and economic significance are pointed to with pride, the fact remains that public support of the
overall enterprise on the present scale eventually demands satisfactory economic measures of benefit.
The question is not whether such measures should be made, it is only how to make them."
A general discussion within the Working Group on Atmospheric Electricity ofWMO/CAS on this
draft and how to handle it in the near future will take place nect Sunday. I want to point out that we
186
are ready to accept further ideas on the practical application of atmospheric electricity for meteorolo-
gical purposes until the end or the month of October next year (1975); but after that date we shall have
to close up in order to do the final writing of the text. Copies of the Draft may be requested from the
author.
Author's address:
H. Dolezalek
1812 Drury Lane
Alexandria, Virginia 22307
USA
187
Film on Electric Fields Under Thunderstorms
E. M agaziner
E. M agaziner was invited to present a film based on measurements of the intensity of the electric field at
several points at the ground within the area of the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, USA, while thunderstorms
were overhead.
Contour lines of 1 kV1m field intensities each were shown for both positive and negative fields.
One impression was that of the large and quick variability of these thunderstorm fields at ground.
Author's address:
E. L. Magaziner
NOAA, ERL, APCL R 31
USA
188
Session 3
PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS OF INSTRUMENTATION,

METHODS OF CALIBRATION, DATA HANDLING
Chairman: L. Saxer
(acting chairman during part of session: H. Dolezalek)
Review of Instrumentation for Atmospheric Electricity *)
D. R. Lane-Smith
With 6 figures
Abstract
Some specific recent developments in instrumentation are described. The experiments chosen for discussion
include some by Winn and Moore, Few, Vonnegut, Brook, Seville Chapman,and Teer and Few.
General comments deal with some of the shortcomings of measurements made under less than ideal
conditions and suggest ways in which standard measurement techniques may be improved. Some areas in which
new instrumentation may be developed are explored.
The physics of the radioactive probe is analysed in some detail and an expression obtained for the voltage
error or driving potential. The minimum radioactivity for optimum performance is shown to be proportional
to the square of the wind speed with 10 microcurie being suitable for a wind speed of 1 metre per second. The
effect of excessive loading of the probe, incorrect shielding and the addition of displacement currents is discussed.
An extensive bibliography, divided into topics, attempts to provide a comprehensive reference source.
This paper attempts to do four things. One is to highlight those experiments which, in the opinion
of the author, exemplify the growth of knowledge through the development and use of novel instrumen-
tation. Another is to make general comments on standard measurement techniques, looking for short-
comings, and to explore some areas where new instrumentation may be developed. A third is an
analysis of the physics of the radioactive probe, leading to quantitative prediction of its performance
under all operating conditions. Finally, an extensive bibliography is intended to provide a compre-
hensive reference source.
While the opinions and choices are those of the author alone, much help was received from discus-
sions and correspondence with many colleagues including the members of Sub-Commission VIII,
Instrumentation, of the International Commission on Atmospheric Electricity and, in particular,
H. Dolezalek.
Thunderstorms
Thunderstorm theory continues to be a point of contention, after decades of study, because we have
been unable to make good measurements inside the cloud. In any cloud, the impact of particles on the
measuring device will generate spurious electrification, thus nullifying most measurements. In a
thunderstorm the problems are compounded by the high electric fields present. Any conductor in the
cloud will concentrate electric field lines causing impacts to occur in regions of very high stress and also
possibly generating corona. The result is a local perturbation in just about every parameter one may
*) Invited Paper.
189
wish to measure. Even the least disturbing shape for any orientation, a sphere, increases the local field
by a factor of 3. Furthermore, where ionization rate is a function of the potential gradient, and where
gravitational, aerodynamic and electrical forces may each become dominant in places or times close
together, it becomes difficult even to define some of the parameters that interest us. Measurements
made outside the cloud, on the other hand, may depend for their interpretation on a knowledge of the
cloud interior which at present we do not have.
A recent attempt to measure the potential gradient in a cloud is that of Winn and Moore (1971).
Their measurements were made with, as it were, a rotating rocket version of Kasemir's (e.g., 1972)
cylindrical field mill. The rocket was spun by offset fins. The sensors were two semi-cylinders on
opposite sides of the rocket. The signal was a sinusoide whose phase was determined by a coil in the
nose, rotating in the earth's magnetic field. The rate of rotation was fast enough to give good time
resolution except, perhaps, at the apogee. The main problem with the experiment (which Winn and
Moore acknowledge) lies in the effect of corona at the front of the rocket. The avalanche breakdown
produces a region of high ionization and net space charge in front of the rocket. The region will also
be polarized in the ambient transverse electric field. Flowing down past the sensors will be a net space
charge (zero effect), a separated space charge, screening the rocket from some of the ambient transverse
field, and a region of enhanced conductivity adding a spurious conduction current to the measured
"displacement" current. The second and third effect are different in phase. It is not difficult to show that
they are equal in magnitude, though not phase, ifthe rocket makes one revolution while traveling about
six times the distance from the sensors to the front of the rocket. At this or any faster rate of revolution,
the total effect must be to reduce the magnitude of the signal and alter its phase by less than 90°. We
may therefore conclude that the maximum fields measured by their rocket represent a lower limit to
the maximum fields existing in a thunderstorm which now must be of the order of 106 V m -1.
The balloon of A. A. Few (this conference) may also provide a comparable measure of thunderstorm
electric fields, but as it rotates so slowly it is much more difficult to discriminate against conduction
currents and in the presence of enhanced ionization due to concentration of the intense fields, conduc-
tion may vitiate the results.
Fields outside the cloud tend to be lower because ofthe screening layer. At the ground, the maximum
potential gradient is further limited by corona which supplies another screening layer. Chalmers (1967)
suggested that fields under maritime storms should be large because of the lack of discharge points.
Vonnegut (personal communication) has measured some maximum fields under storms at sea and
found them to be close to 5 x 104 V m -1. The instrument used was novel and effective, Fig. 1. An
elevated point was mounted on a raft. When point discharge started to flow, a motor started to lower
the point and continued until the discharge stopped. This process repeated whenever discharge
occurred. Rafts carrying such points were placed under maritime thunderstorms. Minimum heights
as low as 8 cm were observed, corresponding to ambient fields of 50 kV m -1.
RAFT
DETECTOR MOTOR
Fig. 1. Retractable point for determining maximum fields (e.g., on water), after Vonnegut
Remote Sensing
Because of the problems associated with measurements inside clouds, it is worth considerable effort
to develop remote sensing techniques. Vonnegut (personal communication) tried to sense electric field
changes in glaciated clouds by looking at the albedo of the ice crystals with polarized light using a colour
enhanced grey scale. The principle depends on the crystals aligning themselves parallel to the electric
field. So far, no satisfactory results have been obtained. Radar, the work horse of remote sensing, is
190
undergoing continuous development. Brook's (this conference) wide band, rapid sweep radar has so
pushed back the limitations of time and space resolution that it will surely finally settle the rain gush
question. There is the potential for polarization and doppler techniques to indicate drop size (Brook,
1968) and differentiate between ice and water (Barge, 1972). Lidar, the fastest growing remote sensing
technique, will provide information faster than it can be analysed. A simple monostatic, mono-
chromatic system can give a 3 dimensional map of pollution, locate plumes and thermals. Unfortunately,
I know no way that laser scattering may give information about electric parameters. Electric field
measurement itself may be used as a remote sensing tool. Boeck and Vonnegut (1974) have used such
measurements to trace plumes many kilometres downwind of space charge sources.
Another remote sensing instrument I want to mention is the microphone layout of Teer and Few
(1973). A network of microphones enabled them to locate the whole of the lightning channel. Dividing
the thunder signal into many portions, cross correlations for each portion between microphones gave
optimum time delays and hence incident wave directions. Knowledge of the vertical profiles of wind
velocity and temperature allows direct "ray tracing" of the sound to its source. Redundancy in the
microphone layout (since 73) adds to the confidence level and also to the cost and time for analysis.
Results suggest extensive horizontal development of the lightning channel within the cloud.
Ions
Two significant advances in instrumentation available for the study of atmospheric ions, I consider,
are 1. the development of the Franklin GNO plasma-chromatograph and 2. the mobility spectro-
meter being developed by Chapman (1973).
While the commercially made, Franklin GNO instrument is widely available and its applications
described in the literature (Cohen, 1973), Chapman's instrument has not been published, except for the
abstract in EOS. The resolution in mobility is probably the best we can presently obtain and I would
therefore like to describe it. Basically it is a simple one-dimensional drift tube (Fig.2a) with an ion
source, a gate, a region of uniform electric field and a detector. The drift region is over 1 m long. The point
is that by very careful design Chapman has achieved a resolution of about 1 % (Fig.2b). This is
better than any other I know of and must be close to the ultimate limit fixed by longitudinal diffusion
and avalanche breakdown. The gate is opened for a few microseconds and the detector output
monitored. The time of flight gives a direct measure of the ion mobilities. Beside the theoretical limits
to the resolution, other important factors are the stability of the electronics, especially the high voltage
supply, the design of the gate, the duration of the "open" condition, the effectiveness and position of
the screen in front of the detector, the sensitivity of the detector, the mechanical stability and tempera-
ture control of the apparatus, the uniformity of the electric field and the reduction of air convection
currents within the drift tube.
Changing conditions of the air (all at atmospheric pressure) produces peaks at different mobilities,
but the peaks apparently do not move, they only grow or shrink. Such observation suggests that the ions
are stable once formed and are not continuously changing their size as they drift down the tube. The
stability of atmospheric ions is one of the main questions at the moment. These measurements are
now accurate enough to resolve the problem for artificially produced, fast ions in a natural atmosphere.
Measurements at this resolution with natural ions have not yet been performed.
Ionosphere
Considerable interest has recently been generated in the question of ionospheric potential. We
want to know whether we can defme such a thing, whether it varies with thunderstorm frequency and
whether there are appreciable horizontal potential gradients. Again, the problem is lack of instrumen-
tation. Balloon and airplane soundings may give a reliable estimate of the vertical profile in fair
weather, over the sea, ifthe ascending and descending results are the same, otherwise local perturbations
may introduce large errors in the integrated potential even when the measurements themselves are
accurate. Furthermore, measurements of potential gradient or conduction current above the exchange
layer vary with changes occurring below possibly more than with changes occurring in the ionospheric
191
I
High
Voltage
I ~ Time of Flight
1 Ion Mobility
0 Apparatus
High
I Corona
Point
Voltage I
11 ----------i Screen
I
I
.......
.......
Filter
Electronics
Gate
Shield
Electrode
R
Camera
Oscilloscope
Fig. 2 a. Chapman's drift tube
30640 v
62 rings
984mm
I micra
0·5msec
500hz
19C
60re{ h
761. torr
• lOOms
119
115
112
Fig. 2b. Measurement of a mobility spectrum of negative ions, Chapman 1974
192
potential above. Examples of vertical sounding instruments are the airplane mounted field mills of
Anderson (1966), the radiosondes of Muhleisen (1961) and the airplane mounted probes of Markson
(1974). Markson's probes mounted above and below the wing tip, balanced to eliminate the effects of
charge on the aircraft, with wing tip amplifiers to give fast response, constitute a significant advance
in aircraft instrumentation for potential gradient measurements.
Vonnegut has raised a tethered balloon (Vonnegut, 1973) above the exchange layer, and with a high
voltage supply brought its voltage to the ambient potential of the balloon's environment, thus providing
a direct measurement of the electric potential at that height. There is some question ofthe effect oflocal
space charge produced by corona discharge from the conducting tether, but we hope this may be
solved.
International cooperation to make these measurements all over the globe at once may answer
some of our questions. Involving land-based observatories in my opinion, is of little value because
of the dominance of local effects. The cross correlation of the electric parameters at stations not far
apart (Bhartendu, 1971) is so poor as to make the results of simultaneous measurements of very limited
value. It seems that the main application of such observatories is in the study of local perturbations
and their relationships to meteorological phenomena, pollution, topographic irregularities and local
sources of ionization and space charge. A method that may be able to provide a measure of changes
in ionospheric potential is that of the area-integrated, total Maxwellian current (Ruhnke, 1969).
-Measurement of electric parameters in the ionosphere is such a vast subject that I can only deal
with it cursorily though it is of vital interest in the study of the "global circuit". First to confuse the issue,
may I refer to the discussion on methods in Planetary Electrodynamics 2, 437 (1969). The three methods
discussed are artificial ion clouds, probe measurements (on rockets) and balloon measurements. Doubt
is cast on the validity of all three. The possibility of remote sensing with radio techniques is not con-
sidered. Some of the many developments since that discussion are covered in the bibliography.
General Comments
Atmospheric Electricity suffers, perhaps more than most fields, from the ease with which phenomena
may be observed and simplistic measurements made, while the problem of understanding precisely
what is being measured and evaluating the perturbing influences is often difficult. Let us consider
some of the pitfalls that await the unwary.
1. Number of Parameters
We know that the quantities we can observe are interrelated in a complex manner. To understand
one, it is necessary to measure many. If measuring anyone of field, current or conductivity, we should
attempt at least to measure all three. In addition, important meteorological parameters, such as cloud
cover, humidity, visibility, turbulence, wind speed and direction, precipitation and insolation as well as
temperature and pressure, may be relevant. Specific investigations demand a further host of supporting
measurements including, perhaps, the vertical profile of some of the parameters listed above. This
statement is not intended to deter anyone from seizing the opportunity to measure even just one
parameter, but to encourage those making continuous measurements to enlarge their scope, and, in
particular, to make good recordings of the meteorological parameters. The implication also is that
automatic data processing is essential.
2. Distortion of Equipotential Surfaces

It is generally recognized that ideally measurements should be made without disturbing the positions
of equipotential surfaces and that ground-based measurements should be over an extensive open
plane, far away from sources of pollution or space charge unless these are the subject of the investigation.
The question is how far from the ideal we may depart before the measurements lose value. If the problem
were merely distortion of the equipotentials due to the induced charge on elevated conducting surfaces,
we could calculate a form factor and correct the measurements for any situation. Unfortunately, the
movement of space charge and the establishment of an electrode effect (Bent and Hutchinson, 1965),
modification of local air movements (Aspinall, 1972) as well as the probability of local generation of
193
aerosols, ions or space charge from an occupied building or an elevated point all contribute to reduce
the validity of measurements made in less than ideal conditions.
One specific class of error occurs when grounded surfaces or unshielded insulators are close to a
point of measurement. Induced or bound charge on the surfaces will alter any electrical parameter
being measured. Residual charge on radiosondes is similarly a problem.
3. Airborne Particles
Impacting particles generate electrification by induction, by tribo-electrification or by other proces-
ses, thus completely altering the electrical environment. Exposed insulators degrade by surface conta-
mination, radioactive surfaces cease to emit alpha particles when wet. Charged splash droplets may be
carried to or from a sensitive surface, but not necessarily in equal amounts.
All these effects occur in clouds and combine to make measurements inside them very difficult. The
difficulties are compounded if the cloud is electrified. If it can be shown that the errors act in only one
direction, then an upper or lower limiting value of a parameter may be obtained.
These comments are probably too disjointed, too general and too obvious. The author hopes that
they may, even so, be of value. It would be difficult to pick out specific examples without hurting
someone's feelings.
Future Developments
There are four areas of development; the improvement in understanding and practice of present
techniques, the applications of standard principles and techniques to new measurements, the discovery
of new principles and fourthly, improvement in data handling.
The general comments above and the radioactive probe paragraph below are addressed to the first
area, the improvement in our understanding and practice. Remote sensing will be one direction of
effort in the development of new techniques, another will be in applied topics such as air pollution.
For a source of ideas to develop new principles, one may recommend a systematic study of Ariadne's
friend Daedalus in the New Scientist. In data handling, demands for the interchange of data and
machine processing of the large quantities of information mean that the strip chart recorder is good
only as a display device and not as a recording and storage device.
To get away from strip charts, one has the options of "going digital" or analogue magnetic tape.
On-line digitizing has the advantage that the data is in a form suitable for directly feeding a computer.
The disadvantages are that, for a given sampling rate, it is the most expensive method, it requires a
small computer just to copy or display the data and the information packing density on digital magnetic
tape is much lower than in analogue form. Analogue magnetic tape is relatively much less espensive,
it has high information density, the data may be copied directly or displayed on a strip chart and
may still be digitized and computer analysed. The disadvantages are that it is difficult to maintain a
precision better than 1 % and this level requires the dedication of one reference channel on the tape,
and, to my knowledge, no one has yet built a suitable analogue magnetic tape substitute for the ubi-
quitus strip chart recorder. There is no fundamental difficulty to building a four channel cassette recorder
with a very low tape speed, providing it is played back only at normal speeds. For example, a C 120
cassette transported at a quarter millimeter per second would last nearly eight days. A pulse position
modulated signal would have a frequency response from about 0 to 1 hertz. On playback at normal
speed it would look like a phase modulated signal with a bandwidth of about 200 Hz. If, at this stage,
agreement can be reached on the specifications, standard cassette recorders could be produced more
cheaply than strip chart recorders. Data would be exchanged, or submitted to the World Data Centre,
on standard analogue cassettes and any processing, such as averaging for hourly means, would be done
electronically.
Radioactive Probes
It is evident that there is still uncertainty in the interpretation of radioactive probe behaviour and
much variation in standards of practice. It is my intention here to enquire into the physics of the device
and to consider some applications.
194
Consider a conducting sphere in stationary air in the presence of an electric field. There is a potential
at which the net charge on the sphere is zero. Let us call that the ambient potential. At some other
potential!!.. V volts different from the ambient potential which I will call the driving potential, there
will be a net charge on the sphere equal to 41tBor!!..V where r is the radius of the sphere, assuming the
ground is far ofT.
If the sphere is coated with an alpha-emitter, there will be a spherical shell of ionization around the
sphere with a peak about 3 cm from the surface. In the presence of a driving potential, charge will leak
ofT the sphere and into the region of ionization.
In the presence of a wind, the ionized volume, together with any charge it may carry, is swept to one
side while at the same time being continually replaced. In regions of small space charge, current is due
primarily to conduction. In regions of small electric field, current is due mainly to the movement of air
carrying space charge.
A simplistic model (Fig. 3) which is tractable and yet which gives useful results assumes that 1. Close
to the sphere, current is due entirely to conduction. 2. Conductivity and space charge are uniform
within the region up to 4 cm from the sphere. 3. The potential of the sphere is determined by the surface
charge on the sphere plus the charge within 4 cm of the sphere plus the charge in the downwind tail
and its image in the ground plane.
Fig. 3. Ionized regions round a radioactive probe
1. Conductivity
The rate of production of small ions per unit volume is given by
~~2·S·4 x 10 10 .5 x 106 /50·(b 3 -a 3 )·4

dt
where S is the source strength in curies, 4 x 10 10 is the number of disintegrations per second per curie,
5 x 106 is the energy in electron-volts of the alpha-particle itnd 50 eV is the average energy per ioniza-
tion of an air molecule. a is the radius of the sphere and b is the radius of the region of ionization
(b ~ (0.04 + a)m).
If a is small,
The life time of a small ion in the active region, r, will be of the order of b/u where u is the wind
velocity. The rate of loss of ions due to wind and due to probe current, then, is (n/r) + (1/4b 3 q)
where I is the probe current and q is the charge on an ion.
At equilibrium,
n ~ 3 x 1019 . S· r - I· r/4b 3 q
~ 3 x 10 19 ·(S - 10 3 ·/)·r
~ 10 18 ·(S - 10 3 ·I)/um- 3 .
195
Free electrons will exist in this region. Their life time is of the order 10- 6 seconds. Their number
density will be about 10 13 s.
The conductivity in the region is given by
y = E(qnw).
If
q = 1.6 x 10 - 19 C electronic charge
WI = 1.6 X 10- 4 m 2 V-I sec- 1 mobility offast ion
W2 = 1 m 2 V-I sec- 1 mobility of electron
then
y~ 3 X 10- 5 • (s - 10 3 • I)/u + 10- 6 • S [2]
If the "J" term becomes significant and the velocity is greater than 10 m sec- t, eq. [2] is complicated
by the significant loss of electrons or positive ions by conduction. The equation becomes
y~ 3 X 10- 5 [S - 3 X 10- 2 //(3 X 10- 5 + U .1O- 6 )]/u
+ 1O- 6 [S - u·10- 3 1/(3 x 10- 5 + u·10- 6 )].
2. Space Charge
If a uniform space charge density p exists around the probe, the current carried away by the wind will
be
I = ~nW - a3 )p/t.
~4b2pU if a<€b [3]
If the sphere carries a charge Q, its "driving" potential will be
L\V = _Q- + L(b2 - a2) + _1_In(h/b).

4nBoa Bo 4nBou
The third term is the potential due to the downwind column of charge and "h" is the height of the probe
above the ground plane.
The conduction current off the sphere will be
1= .!JL
Bo
= 4naL\Vy - 4npay(b 2 - a 2 )/Eo - lay·ln(h/b)/EoU.
This may be equated to the I in eq. [3] giving
I = 4nay L\ V - lay (In (h/b) + n(b 2 - a2)/b 2) [4]

BoU
ifa<€b
L\V=(_1
4nay
+~)I
BoU
[5]
where
M = [In (h/b) + n(b2 - a2)/b2]/4n .
If the probe is 1 m above the ground, M will have the value 0.5. For a 10 m probe, M = 0.7.
Thus at a given wind speed, a spherical, isolated radioactive probe may be expected to have a linear
relationship between driving potential and current with a resistance given by
R~_1_+~. [6]
4nay EoU
If the probe is not heavily loaded, so that 103 I <€ S, the conductivity is given by eq. [2],
y = 3 x 1O- 5 S/u + 1O- 6 S
196
and the resistance is of the form
u D
R= +- [7J
A + Bu u
where u = wind velocity [m sec -1 J
A = 4 x 1O- 4 ·aS[msec- 1 n- 1 J
B = 1O- s ·aS[n- 1 J
D= MIBo::::: 5 x 1O '0 [nmsec- ' J
a = radius of probe [m J
S = source strength [curie].
The probe resistance varies with wind speed in a complicated manner, reaching very high values (Diu)
at very low speeds, passing through a minimum and up to (liB) at very high speeds. The value at low
wind speeds is high because the space charge is not removed by the wind and screens the probe from the
ambient potential. At high wind speeds, the fast ions are removed too quickly and most of the con-
duction is provided by primitive ion-electron pairs. For a given probe, the minimum resistance occurs
at a velocity given by
u' = (BD + VDA)/(l - DB2IA)
[8J
:::::VDA.
At this wind velocity, the probe resistance has a stationary value. If, for a given application, the wind
velocity is known, a value of source strength chosen to satisfy eq. [8J would provide minimum
variation with wind velocity. Substituting for A and D,
S = 10- 7 u2 /2a
::::: 1O- 5 u2
if a is 10- 2 m and allowing for some loading of the probe.
Thus, by this criterion, the optimum source strength is proportional to the square of the wind velocity
and is equal to 1011 curie for a wind speed of 1 m sec-I. At airplane velocities, say 50 m sec- \ the
optimum strength is 25 m curie. However, the probe resistance may be made so low at these velocities
that 1 m curie is adequate. Fig.4 shows graphs of probe resistance against wind velocity for three
different source strengths.
13
12
/I
10 I mcurie
-2 -I a I 2
10910 v. m sec· 1
Fig. 4. Graph of log,o (Resistance) against IOg,O (Wind Speed) for probes of 1, 10, 100 and 1000 J.l curie
with negligible probe loading
197
3. Probe Loading
If appreciable current is drawn from the probe, the driving voltage is no longer proportional to the
current and the concept of "probe resistance" is no longer appropriate. Even for small currents, the
term "resistance" only describes the ratio of!!. VII and does not imply any equivalent circuit. The probe
may be considered a current generator whose current is a function of several parameters as described
by eq. [5]. If appreciable current is drawn, the conductivity, y, is reduced and becomes a function of I
itself. In these conditions, if all the parameters are known, the driving or error voltage, !!. V, may be
calculated and added to the probe reading. In normal use, it is best to arrange that I, in amperes, is at
least three orders of magnitude less than 10- 3 S, where S is in curies. Fig. 5 shows some preliminary
measurements of driving voltage, !!. V, against I at a wind speed of about 2 m sec - 1 using sources of
different strengths estimated by their age. These measurements were made by Markson and Lane-Smith
(private communication).
/
/
I / /
I / /
2 / /
I
~
~
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dl
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- - Experimental
-- - Theoretical
-/0 -9 -8
log1O 1. Amps.
Fig. 5. Theoretical and experimental graphs of loglo (Driving Voltage) against loglo (Probe Current) for
radioactive probes of nominally 0.5, 25 and 200 I! curie in a wind speed of 2 m sec-I
4. Probe Shielding
Zero driving potential occurs when the net induced charge on the probe is zero. This happens when
the probe is at the ambient potential provided it is symmetrically exposed to the field lines. Errors in
potential measurements will occur (1), if the ambient potential is perturbed by the presence of un-
wanted charges, for example those induced on a grounded conductor; or (2) if the probe is shielded from
lines of force of one sign, for example by a flat plate.
It is necessary that the probe has a symmetric, unperturbed exposure to reach the ambient potential
in the presence of a potential gradient. If the probe is protected against precipitation and condensation
(Dolezalek, 1972) so that the exposure is asymmetric, it will reach an equilibrium potential different
from the ambient by an error which is proportional to the potential gradient. This is manifested as a
position error and was corrected as such by Dolezalek (1972).
5. Response Time
The response of a probe to rapidly changing fields is determined by the current it can deliver under
high driving voltages, and the capacitance of the probe and input. The equations are non linear and
require numerical methods. Normal experimental limitations of the input and probe capacitances
restrict the minimum response time to a few seconds.
It is not necessary to rely on the probe alone for current when the field is changing. A flat plate antenna
will supply displacement current which may be added to the probe current to extend the frequency
range up to radiofrequencies (RF). The plate need not be at the same place as the probe and may even
198
be isolated from it by a capacitor. If the plate area is A and the total capacitance ofthe plate, probe and
input is C, the sensitivity at high frequencies will be A Bo/C volts per V m -1 which will be less than d,
the height of the probe, unless the plate is mounted higher than d or over a pit deeper than d. The
response curve of the probe system will therefore be two straight lines extending from D.C. to high
frequencies with a transition at some frequency when the displacement current is equal to the probe A.c.
A suggestion to capitalize on this analysis is shown in Fig. 6.
Large Diameter Screen
'3 Teflon Insulator

"" /0 52
L------------
501'-. Curie Probe \ __ - - I'-. Curie Probe
---50------"rl=~ \.
,
" Screened cable
""
"
"
at low impedance
Fig. 6. A wide band radioactive potential probe
6. Perturbation of Local Parameters

A radioactive probe sheds a plume of charged conducting air which drifts downwind. Except in
very disturbed conditions it will stay closely confined for many hundred feet constituting a line charge.
With a probe current I, a wind speed v and plume height h, the field perturbation beneath the plume
will be
dE = IlnBouh.
If I ~ E hlr where r is the probe loading resistor
dElE ~ 1lnBour.
Forr = lo n,u = 2msec-
12 1
dElE ~ 2%.
It may be concluded, therefore, that provided the plume does not enter a conductivity meter, or comes
down to ground over an air-earth current meter or passes by another probe, its effects on other measure-
ments will be negligible under normal operating conditions.
7. Passive Probe
Natural ionization will always allow some current to flow even in the absence of a radioactive source.
To calculate how much, an approach using ion trajectories, similar to Wagner (1955) is convenient. If the
probe, of radius a, is at a positive potential relative to the ambient potential at that point, it will carry
some positive surface charge, (J. This will attract negative charge to the sphere but in such a way as to
maintain a uniform negative ion density in the air. At the same time, positive ions are pushed away from
the sphere and not replaced by ions from the probe surface, thus there is a column of air carrying a
net negative charge downwind from the probe. This paradox occurs because in this case the current is
by conduction from all space and is driven by the potential whereas in the radioactive probe the con-
duction is only within the ionized region and the current is, in effect, wind driven.
The column of negative ions which is approaching the probe and all of which will be captured by the
e,
probe has a radius, given by
199
Similarly, the column depleted of positive ions, downwind of the probe will have a radius, 4>,
given by
This downwind column has a linear charge density, 1/1, given by

1/1 = 4na 2 uy+/ueo.
The driving potential for the probe current is that due to the surface charge on the sphere and the
line charge downwind. Its magnitude is then,
~v = au/eo - (I/I·ln (L/a»/eo. [9]
For an isolated probe above a ground plane, the effective length ofthe downwind column, L, is equal
to the height, h, of the probe above the ground plane. In all conceivable situations, the second term
in eq. [9] is negligible compared with the first, thus the probe current, I, is simply given by
1= 4na 2 uy_/eo
[10]
= 4na~Vy_.
For a probe at a negative potential compared with the ambient, the current will be proportional to
the positive conductivity. These currents should be added to that of eq. [5] when they become
significant. Only the conduction currents have been calculated, no "displacement" currents are con-
sidered. As for the radioactive probe, symmetric exposure is required. In a potential gradient, if part
ofthe probe is screened from the electric field, current may flow when the probe is at the ambient potential.
An extreme example is the air-earth current collector, a flat plate in the ground plane. This analysis
shows that for normal dimensions, the electrode effect cannot develop and the conduction current
measured is only that portion due to conductivity of the same sign as the electric field. These results
stand in contrast to those of Ogawa (1973) who assumes that ions of both sign conduct current to the
probe.
Ogawa points out, however, and as can be seen from eq. [10], that for a given current, I, the driving
potentia~ ~ V, can be made as small as desired by increasing the dimensions of the probe. To obtain
a "resistance" as low as 1011 ohm requires a spherical probe of radius 100 m! This sort of calculation
provides the motivation for using radioactive probes.
8. Probe Use
In practice, a probe is usually exposed in a position where its potential may rise to a value too high
to be measured directly with an electrometer. It is therefore necessary to use a potential divider or to
measure the current through a high resistor to the probe. This current, times the resistance value, gives
the potential of the probe. To this potential should be added the probe driving voltage, obtained from
eq. [5], to determine the ambient potential.
9. Probe Geometry
If the source strength, S, is small for the wind speed so that the A and B terms dominate in eq. [7],
the effective resistance may be reduced by increasing the dimensions of the probe or the area of metal
in contact with the ionized cloud. This is the principle behind the Wigand (1927) probe. The effort is
not required if the source strength is sufficient.
10. Originality
It has come to the author's attention that a paper submitted by Hill and Hoppel to this conference
also deals with the physics of the radioactive probe. The two approaches, though coincident, are
completely independent and, to date, unseen by the other party.
200
Conclusion
While choosing a few instruments and experiments to discuss, it has been necessary to omit many
fine examples of instrumentation development. The author wishes to thank the many scientists who
have given so much help in preparing this paper and to apologise for the omissions both from the paper
and from the bibliography.
Innovative development has been the strongest criterion for inclusion, but it is hoped that a balance
may be reached between innovation and standardized precision in our instrumentation. The Mid
Range Plan may help to establish such a balance. In particular, it may now be possible to agree on some
standards for radioactive probe measurements.
Finally, this is a plea for the development and standardization of an inexpensive, 4 channel cassette
recorder, recording at very slow speeds an analogue, D.C. to 1 Hz signal, to replace the ubiquitous
heavy, expensive, single channel chart recorder.
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Ions and Particles

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Discussion
R. V. Anderson, Washington D.C., USA:
Am I correct in assuming that in the equation for the sphere driving potential, the assumption was made
that the plume of ionized gas downwind was never broken up by turbulence? In other words, are you assuming
there that it just goes on to infinity?
Lane-Smith, London, Ontario, Canada:
Yes, and I further point out that it really does not matter because when you get far enough downwind, as
much as a distance equal to the height of the probe above the ground, or the height of the probe above its partner
below the wing tip if you have a double probe. The potential due to the far part of the plume and its image is
essentially zero.
We have made about 20 flights through thunderstorms with an airplane equipped with field mills. We
were hunting for areas with the highest fields and found fields in the range of 150 to 300 kV/m. However, we
have never encountered a field of 1W Vim.
Lane-Smith:
When I said 106 I meant just an order of magnitude, rather than an actual value. I understand that we
probably have 500 or 600 kV/m, which I would class in the order of magnitude of 1W.
Author's address:
D. R. Lane-Smith
23 Chapple Hill Road
London, Ontario N6G 2H2
Canada
203
A Technique for Continuous Recording of the Total Rate of Ion Formation in the Atmosphere
S. Mochizuki, Y. Namiki, T. Kato, S. Masuda, and T. Sekikawa
With 4 figures
Abstract
For the continuous measurement of the total rate of ion formation in the atmosphere, a device was developed
which consisted of five identical ionization chamber units.
Ionization was measured by using three sets of apparatus, two of which were composed of two chamber units
in order to compensate the residual ionization of the chamber, and the rest was a single chamber unit.
For obtaining the working characteristics of the newly constructed apparatus, long-duration observations
on some fields were done.
The newly constructed apparatus can give continuous recording and a fairly accurate evaluation of the
total rate of ion formation and its diurnal variation in the atmosphere.
Introduction
The ionization in the atmosphere near the ground due to radioactive and cosmic radiations is one
of the most important and fundamental factors for atmospheric electricity.
The rate of ion formation by alpha, beta, gamma and cosmic rays, and its variation within the lowest
few meters have been studied by V. F. Hess and G. A. O'Donnell (1951), V. F. Hess (1953), H. A.MirandaJr.
et al. (1958), M. Kawano and S. Nakatani (1959), Y. Ikebe (1970), and T. /ida and M. Kawano (1972).
The principal aim of the present work is to develop an apparatus which can instantaneously and
continuously measure the total rate of ion formation in the atmosphere by all types of this ionizing
radiation.
The total rate of ion formation can not be measured with a single chamber, because the absorption
coefficient of the measuring window of the ionization chamber is quite different for different kinds of
radiation. Therefore, the device which gives the total rate of ion formation is rather complex. We made
five ionization chamber units which were identical in size except that structure and matter used for the
windows of the chambers are different, and put them in adequate combinations which will be described
later. The total rate of ion formation was derived by simple calculation from the data recorded by con-
current operation of these sets of chamber units.
Measuring Method and Structure of the Ionization Chambers

As components of the total rate of ion formation in the atmosphere the following ones are
considered.
1. Rate of ion formation due to alpha rays from radon, thoron and their daughters. q(lX)
2. Rate of ion formation due to beta rays from the surface of the earth and from air borne daughters
of radon and thoron. q(fJ)
3. Rate of ion formation due to gamma rays from the same mentioned in 1. and 2. q(y)
4. Rate of ion formation due to cosmic rays. q(CR)
Then the total rate of ion formation qT (ion pairs/m 3 . sec.) is given by
qT = q(lX) + q(fJ) + q(y) + q(CR). [1]
In the measurement of these components with ionization chambers there are some problems to be
considered. First, the absorption coefficient of the chamber window is different for different kind of
radiation. Second, residual ionization current must be subtracted from observed values. Generally,
the determination of these values for each chamber is considerably difficult.
Therefore, five chamber units were assembled into three sets in order to measure the rates of ion for-
mation due to each kind of radiation in a form of linear combination.
The structures of each set and their objective components are described in followings.
204
Apparatus 1.
Two identical chamber units were set in operation in compensation as shown in a) in Fig. 1.
Double screens of brass meshes were used for the window so that objective air including radon and
thoron flows into the effective volume of chamber and small or large ions in the atmosphere are removed
by screens. In order to stop alpha and beta rays, the windows of one ofthe chambers were shielded with
Set
OJ
E : vibrating reed electrometer R : recorder
aluminium plate aluminium foil (window)
Set 2
/'. C R, B·G A"-+---I
bJ
v v
fJ. 'Y, CR. B·G

Set 3
CJ
aluminium foil 11.6 mg/cm 2
Fig. 1. Observing method and the components which were obtained from each set. a) Combination of chambers
for observing the ionization due to alpha and beta rays (set 1). b) The same, due to beta rays (set 2). c) The same,
due to beta, gamma and cosmic rays (set 3). - These three sets are set in operation simultaneously for obtaining
the total ionization. BG = background radiation
205
3 mm thick aluminium plates (8.3 kg m - 2). Then the ionization current of the un-shielded chamber ill
given by
ill = We{k'qR(a) + q(y) + q(CR)} + kl W.fr.eq(j3) + 101 [1]
where, k' is the correction coefficient for alpha rays, kl is the penetration coefficient of the double meshed
screens for beta rays, 101 is the residual ionization current of the chamber, W is the real volume of
the chamber, Wefr. is its effective volume for beta rays, e is the elementary charge.
The ionization current of the shielded chamber i12 is given by
i12 = We {q(y) + q(CR)} + 102
where, 102 is the residual ionization current of the shielded chamber.
In total, the electrode current of this set 11 is given as follows, assuming 101 to be equal to 1 02 :
[2]
Apparatus 2.
Two identical chamber units were set in operation in compensation as shown in b) in Fig. 1.
Aluminium foil (0.116 kg m - 2) is adopted for the window. The window completely absorbs all
alpha rays. Then the ionization current of the chamber i21 is given by
i21 = k2 Weff.eq(j3) + We {q(y) + q(CR) +} 103
where k2 is the penetration coefficient of the aluminium window for beta rays, 103 is residual ionization
current of the chamber.
The windows of one of the chambers were also shielded with 3 mm thick aluminium plates. All
beta rays would be absorbed by the plate, therefore, the ionization current of the chamber in is given
by
i22 = We{q(y) + q(CR)} + 104
where, 104 is the residual ionization current of the chamber.
Assuming 103 to be equal to 1 04, the total electrode current 12 is given by
l z = k z W.ff.eq(f3). [3]
Apparatus 3.
A single chamber unit was set in operation in an ordinary method as shown in c) in Fig. 1. Aluminium
foil (0.116 kg m - 2) was used for the windows. The ionization current of the chamber is the same as
that of the un-shielded chamber of apparatus 2. Therefore, the electrode current of this set 13 is given by
13 = k2 Weff.q(P} + We {q(y) + q(CR)} + 10 [4J
where, lois the residual ionization of the chamber.
If kl =: k2 = k in the above eqs. [2, 3] and [4], we derive from [2J and [3J,
1 1
qR(rx)=T' We (/1- 12) [5]
and
1 1
q(rx) = - - ( / 1 - 12), [5]'
ko We
From [3], we get
q(j3) = 1 12 [6]
k2 Werf.e
from [3] and [4],
1
q(y) + q(CR) = - ( 1 3 - 12 - 1 0)' [7]
We
206
Thus, the total rate of ion formation is obtained from [5]', [6] and [7], as,
qT = -1- [1
-- 11 1+
- {- -ko
-- 1 } 12 + 13 - 10] . [8]
We ko k k(w"fc.lW)
Construction and Working Characteristics of Ionization Chambers

Five rectangular frames 40 cm x 50 em were constructed by strips of aluminium, 10 em wide and
0.5 em thick. The collecting electrodes, aluminium rods OJ em and 0.8 em in diameter, are formed as shown
in Fig. 2, and centered in the chamber. They have two windows at the top and the bottom. For insulation
between the inner electrode and grounded guard rings, teflon was used. As the ionizing gas, aged air was
used and was connected to the outer air through an active carbon filter for stabilization and to keep the
chamber pressure the same as the atmospheric pressure.
in diameter
5cm
6.
carbon filter
to electrometer
( b)
vertical cross section
r- electrode
r-
br Q'l.S
acrylic plate
l
'II
11.1 f'J
./1 I
horizontal cross section
to electrometer
teflon
n:·~:\) "
.. ".~
'::~.::'::.~
~ :.
i"--heater
.1 (C)
guard ring
Fig. 2. The shape of collecting electrode and its position in the constructed flat ionization chamber. a) Horizontal
cross section. b) Vertical cross section; 1. wall (0.5 cm thick); 2. window area; 3. electrode; 4. frame for fastening
the aluminium foil or brass mesh; 5. cock; 6. guard ring. c) Structure of the guard ring which was used for
ionization chamber.
ApparatusJor the observation oj 11

Double screens made of brass meshes 45 cm x 55 cm, 0.2 mm in diameter and 1 mm mesh, were
used for the window.
The two sheets of brass meshes were spaced by 5 mm with acrylic resin insulators. High voltage was
supplied to the inner screen while the outer one was grounded. As the mean absorption coefficient of beta
rays by this double meshes screen, we obtained 33.9 percent for beta rays from RaD + E. Then kl
becomes 0.661. Plus and minus 490 volts were supplied from dry batteries to the inner screens of two
chambers. This voltage was sufficient to trap the large ions which would seep into the chamber when
observations are done in a condition where wind force is less than 2 (Beaufort Scale).
207
Apparatus for the observation of 12
Size and structure of the chamber were the same as with the apparatus for the observation of 1b
except for the windows.
Aluminium foil (0.116 kg m - 2) was fastened to on the lattice work frame, which is made of rectangular
acrylic resin (5 mm x 5 mm), this was used as the window of the chamber. Plus and minus 90 volts
were supplied from dry batteries between the chambers and the inner electrodes for the two chambers.
The mean absorption coefficient of beta rays (RaD + E) by this aluminium foil was found to be 34.1
percent. Then, k2 becomes 0.659. Now, we obtained nearly equal value for kl and k2. Therefore, it is
concluded that kl =: k2 = 0.66 in the eqs. [2J, [3J and [4]. Further, corrections for effective chamber
volume and disturbance by beta rays of various energies can be made by integrating over the local values
for which reasonable assumptions can be made.
Apparatus for the observation of 13
One ionization chamber unit with an aluminium foil window was operated in the ordinary method.
90 volts were supplied by dry batteries between the chamber and the inner electrode. The residual
ionization current 10 of the chamber was obtained by experiments and its value was 4.5 x to- 15 A.
On the Values k' andko . in the Equations 2 and 5

Using natural radon and its daughter aerosols, k' was determined by some detail experiments and
a value of 0.71 was obtained.
i .1.
I I
LRE', I '0 10" n
mY range
S e f. 3
V . R.E. 100 mV range
o o
o o o
'J ::J '"
'"
Fig. 3. An example of continuous recording of ionization currents obtained by the field survey at 1 m above
the ground.
V.R.E.: vibrating reed electrometer.
100 mV or 30 mV: potential range of the electrometer used.
1012 0 : input impedance of the electrometer used.
The time given is local standard time.
208
The fraction of ions, 1 - F, that escape columnar recombination is expressed by the equation;
where, q(lX) is the rate of ion formation in the atmosphere, qR(Il) is the rate of ion formation if it is
supposed that columnar recombination did not occur:
The eq. [5] can be written as follows;
1- F 1
q(lX) = -k-'- We (/1 - 12)·
Substituting k' = 0.71 and 1 - F = 0.69 into above equation, we obtained ko = k'/(l - F) = 1.03 ~ 1
and eq. [5]'.
Preliminary Observations and Discussion

An example of continuous recording of ionization currents obtained by the field survey is shown in
Fig. 3. From preliminary observations the following informations were obtained:
1. The newly constructed apparatus works stably and can give fairly accurate data of total ionization, if
the observations are done at a calm day and under the condition that the humidity is less than about 85 %.
2. By the observation at a calm day, clear diurnal variations were found as shown in Fig. 4. These
curves were obtained from three full days of measurement at calm days in summer (August). Generally, at
a calm day, the maximum value appeared from midnight to early morning, and the minimum value in
daytime. But, the amplitude of these curves is not so smal~ and the value on one day is considerably different
from that at the same time on the other day. As the main cause of this variation, it is considered that the
concentration of radon (Rn) and thoron (Tn) in the atmosphere is considerably varied every day.
3. Fine vertical profiles for the first few meters above the ground are obtained easily.
koruizowo Jopo
J ionpairs/ c~see.
30~------------~------------~----
--0- 22 em
c --.- I m
-
a
0 25
E
I...
....a
g20r-~----------~~------------~~------------+7'---------~
"f-
a
-
Q)15
oI...
101--------
24 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
ho u r (L.S.T.l
Fig. 4. An example of diurnal variation of total ionization obtained at 22 em and 1 m above the ground.
The time given is local standard time
209
Now, we are going to make a simple analog computer connected with a recorder to record the total
rate of ion formation, which were computed for three voltages obtained from three vibrating reed electro-
meters, one recording chart.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their thanks to Dr. M. Misaki, the Meteorological Research Institute, to Prof.
H. Ishikawa, the Research Institute of Atmospherics Nagoya University, for their kind supporting this work,
and to Dr. S. Nakatani, the Electrotechnical Laboratory, for his precise suggestions, and also to Mr. N. Ogawa,
Mr. S. Sugiyama and Mr. H. Kato, students of the Sekikawa Seminar, for their assistance to construction of the
chambers and measurements.
References
1. Hess, V. F. and R. A. Vancour, Phys. Rev. 76, 1205 (1949). - 2. Hess, V. F. and G. A. O'Donnell, J. Geophys.
Res. 56, 557 (1951). - 3. Hess, V. F., J. Geophys. Res. 58, 67 (1953). - 4. lida, T. and M. Kawano, Met.
Geophys. Biokl., Ser. A, 21, 195 (1972). - 5. Ikebe, Y., J. Earth Science, Nagoya University. 18, 85 (1970). -
6. Kawano, M. and S. Nakatani, J. Geomagnetism and Geoelectricity 10, 56 (1958). - 7. Miranda, Jr., H. A.,
J. Geophys. Res. _63, 147 (1958).
Authors' address:
S. Mochizuki, Y. Namiki, T. Kato, S. Masuda, and T. Sekikawa
Department of Physics
Science University of Tokyo
1 - 3 Kagurasaka, Shinjuku-Ku
Tokyo/Japan
210
Electric Charge Current Due to Drifting Snow
K.ltagaki
With 4 figures
Abstract
Observations of electric current caused by drifting snow made by a set of screen systems indicated that an
electric current of more than 10- 6 A passed the vertical cross-sectional area of 2 m height times 1 m width.
Introduction
Snow particles acquire considerable electric charge when they are grown in the atmosphere or
drifted on the accumulated snow layer by wind. The electric current that is originated in the former way
constitutes part of the atmospheric current in the vertical direction; the amount of this current has
been discussed by various authors (1, 2); the latter causes an electric current in the horizontal direction.
Though some more measurements have been reported (3, 4), no overall current measurement originated
by drifting snow is known to the present author.
The horizontal electric current generated by drifting snow and other meteorological elements may
cause various phenomena in atmospheric electricity and magnetism. Static noise has been reported in
relation to snowstorms (5) and electric discharge has been observed in sandstorms (6). Also, considerable
noise in earth-magnetism has been observed during drifting snowstorms (7), which may be attributed to
the current caused by the flow of these electrically charged particles.
The electric charge carried by drifting snow may be accumulated under favorable conditions in a
particular area. If this area has a low conductivity such as that of an ice cap, local electric potential
could rise to a considerable value and thereby affect various activities such as electromagnetic wave
propagation and noise generation.
Vertical electric current is limited to a layer 100 km thick, whereas horizontal current can be extended
along the entire earth's surface. Extensive studies must be made of the overall horizontal current, as a part
of the global circuit, as little seems to have been done in this area as yet.
Present investigations of the horizontal electric current due to drifting snow and other meteorological
elements constitute an initial part of an overall atmospheric electric current program which could be
expanded into meso, synoptic and global scale studies of the atmospheric electric current.
Data Collection
I. Preliminary study during the winter of 1972 - 1973
A set of four screens was used to collect the electric charge. The screens were connected to each pen
of two Westronics two-pen chart recorders through individual current amplifiers.
The lowest screen was 8.9 cm x 81 em and the other screens were 30 em x 81 em. The screens were
mounted between three poles by four insulators each with centers at heights: 12.5 em (no. 4), 35.5 em
(no. 1),96.5 em (no. 2) and 173 cm (no. 3), respectively.
An open field site in Nekoma, North Dakota, USA, was selected for the field study after a brief pre-
liminary observation at CRREL (the U.S. Army Cold Regions Research Laboratory, Hanover,
New Hampshire). The field was open to the north and west; State Highway 1 runs about 500 m west side
of the field.
The screens were erected to face in the direction of the prevailing winds of the particular snowstorm
and were connected to the electrometer by coaxial cables. The electrometer and recorder were housed
in a meteorological trailer placed about 100m from the screen system.
Three major snow storms were observed between 29 Feb and 6 Mar 1972. Very little drifting snow was
encountered between those snow storms and no noticeable electric current was detected.
211
The recorder chart indicated a wide range of variation in a short time interval. One important feature
noted here is that the sign of the charge collected by screen no. 4, which was placed very close to the
snow surface, generally showed a polarity opposite to that of the upper two screens (no. 2 and no. 3).
However, screen no. 1, which was located just above screen no. 4, showed the effect of both charges and it
was rather difficult to decide the sign.
The maximum and minimum in each 36 sec (1/100 hour) interval of the recorder chart of each channel
were read and punched on a paper tape by a GDDRS-3 B data reduction system. Wind speed was measured
by a Robinson anemometer. An electric signal produced by a contact point every 134 m of wind past the
anemometer was recorded on the edge of a chart. The intervals of the signal were also measured and
punched on the paper tape. The data recorded on the paper tape were analyzed by a DDP-24 computer.
The current collected by an individual screen sometimes exceeded 4 x 10- 7 A/m2 during the
29 Feb 1972 snowstorm with 15 m/s gusts.
The relationships between wind speed and electric current on the lowermost and uppermost screens
are shown in Fig. 1. The current across a 2.1-m-high times 1-m-wide vertical area immediately above the
snow surface, however, was only from +1 to -2 x to- 8 A (although frequently the lowermost screen
collected more than 2 x 10- 7 A/m2) because of the large reversed polarity of heavier negatively charged
particles which canceled part of all of the positive current reaching the upper screens.
One interesting observation, which should be noted here, is the early stage of a snowstorm of 6 March
1972. The no. 4 screen had collected small positive charge in the early stage of the storm, then switched to
the negative side, while the other screens collected negative charge all through the storm, unlike the ex-
perience of the other two storms.
4 , '
3
2
AIm 2
:,
, '
II t'; I ~" I' ;' :

o " "
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Wind, m/s
o No.4 ":311 ill' I,i, ;

: ... :
.',
-I J"
"
i
00, : 0
0
0
-3 00
0
0 ~
0
0 0
-4
---Saturation limit o 0
-7
-5 x10 Ok--"'--*2-<---;4c-~*6--L~8'--'-;1-:'0--L~12~'--;174--'--~16
Wind, m/s
Fig. 1. Wind speed v.s. current collected by lower most (No.4) and upper most screen (No.3) for the snow
storm 29 Feb. 1972. Open circle indicated that values may be larger negative than indicated due to saturation
in the system
212
A possible source of the difference is the relationship between the air temperature and the snow surface
temperature. During the snowstorm of 6 March, the temperature of the air was higher than that of the
snow surface, while during the other two snowstorms, the temperature of the air was always lower than
that of snow surface. Because no cancellations were made by the opposite current, the total current ex-
ceeded 1.5 x 10- 6 Aim for the same cross-sectional area as above.
2. Improvement of the data collecting system
The following difficulties encountered during analysis of data prompted the improvement of the
entire data collecting system:
1. Obtaining a readout of widely fluctuating data into a form acceptable by computer.
2. Inadequate arrangement of screens to derive height distribution.
3. Difficulty in keeping screen system facing the desired wind direction.
4. Insufficient number of channels to record all data required.
To eliminate those difficulties, a new system was built around a Dymec 2010 D Data Acquisition
System. The overall schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 2.
& - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 Wind Vane Indicator
Antenna Rotator
Control
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of new data collecting systeIp
Screens were mounted on a TV antenna pole with an antenna rotator oriented to face desired wind
direction. A Robinson anemometer was mounted on top ofthe antenna pole. The anemometer was modi-
fied to send two pulses per revolution by an opto-electrical chopper. Three thermistors were used to
measure temperatures ofthe air, snow and ground surface. An ll-conductor, individually shielded cable
was used to connect screens, anemometer and thermistors to the data logger.
Each screen was made of (2-mm-grid) aluminium gauze stretched on an aluminium frame 6 x 50 em
and supported by a Teflon insulator. The insulator was protected from direct impact of rain and snow
particles by a Lucite cover in an attempt to prevent electrical leakage and frictional charge generation on
the insulator surface.
Charges collected by the individual screens were stored on banks of l-micro-farad capacitors con-
nected to each screen. The voltages of each capacitor were measured at a preset interval by the data logger,
213
Volts
Volts
oC:~--~~r-~~~~~1
0.04
Volts
m/.J
0842 0850 0900 0910 0920 0930hrs
II April 1973
Fig. 3. Variation of voltage accumulated on 1 I!F capacitors by individual screens, total current and wind speed
by time; 11 April 1973. 1 volt ~ 5.74 x 10- 7 Alm 2
then were discharged for the next measurement. In this way, the voltages were proportional to the inte-
grated charge. Q. between the measurements:
Q=It=cv [1]
where t is the time interval, C is the capacitance of the system, and 1 is the mean current collected during
the measurement.
r
-8
4 4 xI03r--'-~--'--r--.--.--..--., B
~ ',l AIm" 6
2 4
," "
i···' .. ·· ...
, , 2
OL-' •••• .-. .... j" "'I, .....

'\
0'" .
o 2 4 6 B o 246 B o 2 4 6 B
Wind, mls Wind, m/s Wind, m/s
a. NO.92 b. No.97 c. Total current
Fig. 4. Wind speed v.s. current, 11 April 1923
214
The number of pulses generated by the optical chopper in the anemometer between measuring periods
were counted and recorded on the paper tape together with the other analog data which were converted
into digital form by a digital voltmeter.
To indicate any particular event or note for future reference, a manually selected five-decimal number
was recorded as a remark on the tape also.
Part of results obtained on 11 April 1973 at an open field in Bethel, Vermont, is shown in Fig. 3.
Extremely good correlation between the upper three screens can be observed, while the lower ones,
especially no. 93, located 0.18 m above the snow, show rather poor correlation. Most ofthe negative current
measurements appeared on thjs screen no. 93. Correlations between wind speed and charge current are
not very good, either, probably because of the delayed arrival of charged particles following gusts.
The total current was more regular, reflecting the improvement of the system and a difference between
snow conditions. Probably the snow surface had hardened prior to the snowstorm because the season was
late. Only newly fallen snow played a major role, few saltant heavier particles were involved. Because no
current reversal was observed, the total current reached an 10- 8 A/m2 level for a 1-m times 3-m-high
cross section even though the wind velocity remained below 8 m/s. Wind speed vs. current, collected by
the lowermost and uppermost screens, and total electric current flowing through a 1-m times 3-m cross
section area are shown in Fig. 4.
Discussion
Although these results were many orders of magnitude larger than the currents usually observed in
atmospheric electric phenomena, derivations from several previous observations indicated that the
values obtained were not unreasonable or unrealistic.
1. Barre (3) frequently observed more than 10- 5 A current collected by a 50 m length of wire supported
roughly 1.8 m above the snow surface during a blizzard in Terre Ad6lie, Antarctica.
Assuming that the effective collecting diameter of the wire is 1 cm = 10- 2 m, the total collecting
area is 0.5 m 2. Barre's results indicated that more than 2 x 10- 5 A/m2 of current flowed across 1.8 m
above the snow surface, more than 10 times larger than the present results.
2. Scott and Hobbs (8) measured individual frictional charging between falling snow particles and the ice
surface and obtained 6.6 x 10- 14 coulomb, while from Kojima's (9) measurements on particle size distri-
bution and mass flow during drifting snow, the number of drifting particle concentrations can be deduced
as on the order of 106 /m 2 sec. Combining these data yielded the current due to moderate drifting snow
as ~ 10- 8 A/m 2. These values seem to agree reasonably well with the present results.
The charge appearing on individual screens may not be equal to the accumulated current passing
through the cross section of the screen. The sources of errors are: 1. Smaller particles may pass through the
screen without leaving any charge other than induction; 2. Frictional electrification between particles
and mesh material may generate extra charges; and 3. Aerodynamic disturbances by the screen may
divert a portion of the particles.
These observations and discussions are preliminary. Observations require more information on
higher level measurements, particle size, distribution by height, charge by size, collection efficiencies of
particle charge, or a higher predictable charge collection method, etc.
Theoretical development ofthe eddy diffusion process of particles under the influence ofthe gravitational
and electric fields is also required. However, this study showed that the contributions of drifting snow
and other particles to atmospheric electrical phenomena may be considerable.
References
1. Israel, H., H. W. Kasemir, and K. Wienert, Arch. Met., Geoph., Bioklim. (A) 8, 72 (1955). - 2. Reiter, R.,
Arch. Met. Geoph. Biokl., Ser. A, 21,247 (1972). - 3. Barre, M., Annales de Geophysique 9,164 (1953). -
4. Dolezalek, H., Techn. Note No. 12. Contract No. AF 61,514 (1957). - 5. Herman, J. R.o J. Geomag. Geo-
e1ec. 18, (2), 152. - 6. Kamra, A. K., J. Geophys. Res. 77, 5856 (1972). - 7. Fukunishi, H., Antarctic Record
No. 47, 39 (1973). - 8. Scott, W. D. and P. V. Hobbs, Quart. 1. Roy. Met. Soc. 94, 510 (1968). - 9. Kojima, H.,
Low Temperature Science, Ser. A, 27, 115 (1969).
215
Discussion
Just for the record. Did I understand it correctly that negative current means impact of negatively charged
small particles to the antenna?
Itagaki, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA:
Yes.
Can you differentiate between the charge collected from the particle and the friction charge which will be
produced by snow hitting the screen?
Itagaki:
This is a really crude method and I'm not sure which is which. But I did collect certain kind of overall charge.
Gratzl, MUnchen, West-Germany:
Do you have two "hot" (i.e., not grounded) inputs to your DC-Amplifier to eliminate accidental disturbances
which are conphasical and/or conamplitudical?
Itagaki:
The voltage is measured between ground and screen. Thus, there this is no differential input.
Are your results quantitatively explicable in terms of the thermo-electric effect in ice?
Itagaki:
I do not know. What do you mean about the thermo-electric effect?
J. Latham:
You mentioned Magono's work.
Itagaki:
I believe it's not a simple thermo-electric process. I tend to think that this is a charge dislocation process.
Aufdermaur, Locamo-Monti, Switzerland:
In connection with the question of Kasemir, it would be interesting to know of what metal the screens were
constructed.
Itagaki:
The screens are constructed with aluminium, mesh and aluminium frame. That may cause some small potential
difference.
Author's address:
K. Itagaki
US Army Cold Regions Research and
Engineering Laboratory
Hanover, New Hampshire 03755/USA
216
Variation of Omega at Two Land Stations *)
Bhartendu
With 7 figures
Abstract
The coefficient Omega, a, defined as the ratio of measured air-earth current density to the calculated current density
has been calculated from the hourly means of one year data for 1969 for Toronto, Canada, and Dourbes, Belgium.
In order to study its variation, another coefficient, a %, has been defined as a % = (a/D) x too. The hourly varia-
tions for the whole year, and separately for each month, and the mean monthly variation were calculated and the
results for fair weather and all weather were compared. The hourly variations for a few fair-weather days were also
studied. In general, larger values of a and 0% were observed for Toronto as compared to Dourbes. The
Toronto large values of a were attributed to the placement of the air-earth current density antenna No similarity in
a % variation was observed. For Toronto, some evidence of lower a % in morning and higher in the afternoon
was indicated. No definite relationship could be established between a %and the local electrical and meteorological
variations at Toronto. The annual hourly variations for both stations indicated slightly lower values of a in fair
weather but the all-weather Toronto curve showed large fluctuations.
Introduction
The atmospheric electricity measurements at a station are affected by global and local generators,
according to the classical picture, and one of the important problems is to separate the contribution of
these two generators (2, 3, 15). Several studies comparing the results of various stations using different
techniques have been reported (e.g. 1, 3, 8, 9, 13, 17, 18, 20, 21). Recently correlation coefficients of the
atmospheric electricity parameters have been calculated (16, 5, 19,22). The interpretation of the results
is difficult (12) until the degree offulfilment ofthe Ohm's law is known for the stations.
A dimensionless quantity, D, dermed by D = liE)", where I is the air earth current density, E the
potential gradient, and)" the conductivity, gives an absolute measure of the fulfilment of Ohm's law (11).
A quantity, D %, dermed by D % = (DIQ) x 100, gives the relative deviation of Ohm's law (11). A few
measurements of D and D % have been made earlier and large variations have been observed (7, 11)
and theoretical implications ofthe results have been discussed (10).
This paper describes the results of D and D % computed for Dourbes, Belgium (50 6' N, 4 36' E) 0 0
and Toronto, Canada (43 0 48' N, 79 0 33' E). The data for 1969 were analysed and the annual hourly,
monthly hourly and monthly means were calculated. The results for the fair weather are compared with
those computed for all weather. The results obtained for Toronto are discussed.
The data for Dourbes were taken from the monthly publication titled "Results of Ground Observations
of Atmospheric Electricity" and published by the World Data Centre at the "Voeikov" Main Geophysical
Observatory, Leningrad, U.s.s.R. The Toronto measurements ofthe potential gradient, air earth current
density and conductivity have been made at the Station for Atmospheric Experiments of the Canadian
Atmospheric Environment Service. Details of this site and its measuring instruments have been published
earlier (4, 6, 7).
Annual Hourly Variation
Fig. 1 shows the hourly variation of D and D % for a whole year at Toronto and Dourhes. There is
no apparent similarity between Dourbes and Toronto curves. In general, lower daytime (in local time)
values and higher nighttime values are observed at Toronto. Larger values of D are obtained for
Toronto in comparison to Dourbes. The fair-weather Q is slightly lower than all weather Q for both
stations. Also, for both stations, D% variation is slightly larger in fair weather than in all weather. For
Dourbes, the fair-weather and all-weather curves are similar. For Toronto, in general behaviour of the
fair-weather and all-weather curves is similar with large fluctuations in the all-weather curve.
*) Paper was accepted by the Executive Panel, but could not be presented. It was, therefore, not considered in any
discussion.
217
n
1.3
TORONTO - 1969 DOURBES - 1969
4.0 1.25
1.2
3.5
II ~
,
I I II
1.15 J If I
3.0 \
~
II 'I
I
I I
I
\
.... ,
I
I
I
I
I
I
....o-i 1.1
1 I
o I
I
I r, 0
/1 \ I~ ,I
2.5 1:/1
,
I '.!"\ i
I V \ I
,II
~ \ ,
\t
1.05
'0' 10 \ I
.-J
\/ I I
1/
2.0 L.1._ _.....I._ _ _..I.-_ _---L_ _ _...L-_
¥
n% 1 6 12 18 24 12 18 24
123 GMT n% GMT
F.W. n= 2.70 F.W. n= 1.1
120
I I
,
A.W. n= 3.1 A.w. n= 1.2
I'
1\ I I 110
115
,I ~ I, p
(\
I
I ¥ \I
I
"0 !
105
100 r-~-~-~_t.-+--~r4~----
95
90
85
83 ~ __ ~ ___ ~_A_~ _ _ _..I.-_
85~~--~--~---~--~--
6 12 18 24 12 18 24
GMT GMT
Fig. 1. Annual hourly variation of Q and Q % at Toronto, Canada, and Dourbes, Belgium during 1969;
solid line: all weather, broken line: fair weather
218
Monthly Variation
TORONTO - 1969
160
15r
r
140 /
130
120
~'
0 __ - /
110 -e----e
90
80
70
65~~ ____ ~ ____ ~ ____ ~ ____L -__ ~L- __ ~ ____ ~L- __ ~ ____L-__ ~ ____ ~_
JAN. FEB. MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JUL Y AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC.
MONTH
DOURBES - 1969
135
125
115
105
95
~__
-_ ..........
/1
85 --~
75
65~~ ____ ~ ____-L____ ~ ____L-__ ~ ____ ~ ____- L____ ~ ____L -__ ~ ____ ~_
JAN. FEB. MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC.
MONTH
Fig. 2. Monthly variation of Q % at Toronto, Canada, and Dourbes, Belgium, during 1969;
Fig. 2 shows the monthly variation of Q %for each month for Toronto and Dourbes. The fair-weather
and all-weather curves are shown. No similarity is noted between Toronto and Dourbes curves. For
Toronto, larger Q % than 100% are 0 bserved during win ter and spring months and smaller Q % than 100%
for summer and autumn months. On the other hand, smaller Q %during winter and spring and larger Q %
during summer and autumn months are noted for Dourbes. Larger Q % variation is observed for
Toronto than Dourbes. The all-weather Q % variation is a little larger than the fair-weather Q %
variation at Toronto. For Dourbes, on the other hand, the fair-weather Q % variation is larger than
the all-weather Q %variation.
219
Monthly Hourly Variation
R% D% D% July D%
February August
180 January 175 155
160 155
·~--~--~--~~~~55~--~~~--~~~~
190 1 6 12 18GMT 24 6 12 18 GMT 24
185 April
135
March
165 165
September 180
160
~ I
October
! "
125 145 145 11.0 1\ ~ /\
I.
125
\ {\ 120i:'/\~\i\
• I' , f•
\ 11 100 \ '\ ,_
\1" \, 80 \
\ . (
65 1I, ! 60 \ !
.'
u---~6--~~~--1~8~G~M=T2~4-45~--~6--~~~~~77GM~T~2~~- 55'-':'~---::6--~'2:!----;'8~G:::-:M:::T::-:2::':4- 40 1 6 12 V 18 GMT 24
210
May June November December
260 190
230 185
155 200 165
170
55
6 12
\MJ
-
~GMT24 50~'~~6--~1~2---'ffl~GM~T~2~4-
....
6 12GMT 18 24
Fig. 3. The hourly variation of Q %for each month during 1969 at Toronto, Canada;
Figs. 3 and 4 illustrate the hourly variation of QI;; for each month for Toronto and Dourbes respectively.
The fair weather and all weather curves are exhibited. There is no similarity between the curves for two
stations and for each station the curves differ from month to month. The fair-weather and all-weather
curves are in general similar with larger Q % variation observed for all weather especially for Toronto.
The range of variation of Q % at Toronto is 60 % and 132 % during fair weather and all weather
respectively. At Dourbes the range of Q %variation is 58 %and 78 % respectively, for fair weather and
all weather. During fair weather the maximum Q % variation is observed in November and the
minimum in January at Toronto and the maximum in December and the minimum in January at
Dourbes. During all weather, the maximum in June and the minimum in September at Toronto and
the maximum in November and the minimum in July at Dourbes are observed.
As evident from Fig. 3 and 4, larger Q %values are observed for Toronto in comparison to Dourbes and
the Toronto all-weather curves, generally, exhibit large fluctuations. This is also observed in Fig. 1.
Hourly Variation for Fair-Weather Days

The Q % variation for all days, when continuous fair weather was observed for 24 hours, was also
computed for Toronto and Dourbes. Different criteria of fair weather were used for Toronto and
Dourbes. A fair-weather hour at Toronto was dermed as an hour when there were no hydrometeors,
cloudiness was less than 30 %and the wind speed was less than 4.4 m/sec. According to the monthly bul-
220
n% 12% 12% ..Q% .
January February July August
130 130
120
80 85
70 75 75
12 6 12 18GMT 24 6 12 18 GMT 24 6 12 18 GMT 24
March 130 Aprt( 135 September October
135 120 125 170
125 115
105
95
85
70 75
6 12 6 12 18 GMT 24 6 12 18 GMT 24
May November December
140 175
130 155 165
145
115 135
10
85
65
V
6 12 18GMT 24 6 12 18GMT 24 6 12
Fig. 4. The hourly variation of Q %for each month during 1969 at Dourbes, Belgium;
letins of the Voeikov Main Geophysical Observatory, Leningrad, an hour was considered a fair-weather
hour at Dourbes when there were no thunderstorms, falling precipitation and other factors which
considerably disturbed the elements of atmospheric electricity. In spite of these differences, it is assumed
that the results are comparable.
No single day was available for which fair weather was simultaneously observed at both stations. The
Q %hourly variation varied from day to day at both stations. On some days small variation in Q %was
observed, while on other days large variation was observed. Fig. 5 shows two typical examples for each
station. Such a large variation of Q % as observed at Dourbes on 28 December 1969 was never observed
at Toronto, where, generally, large Q % variation was shown. No meteorological data or instrumenta-
tion and station descriptions for Dourbes are available and it is impossible to assess the significance of
the results. This points out the necessity of publishing simultaneous meteorological data and detailed
description of the measurements and the site.
The meteorological and electrical data were analysed for all fair-weather days at Toronto. No
significant difference could be found between the days when large Q % was noted and the days when
small Q %was observed. Fig. 6 shows the variation of electrical and meteorological variables for 19 August
1969 and 14 February 1969 for which Q % variation is presented in Fig. 5.
Antenna Placement at Toronto
In the absence of evident meteorological effects and absence of substantial pollution at the station (7), the
mounting of the air-earth current density antenna (10, 11) was examined. As it was not possible to place
the antenna plate flush with the earth's surface on account of the interferences from rain and snow, the
221
12%
260 Toronto
2'0
220
Aug. 21,1969
210 Ii= 1.77
180
160
"0
120
100
80
60
'0
20
0 ,23 , 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 " 1516171819202122232'
EST
12%
600 Dourbes
560
520
'80
"0
'00
360 Dec. 28. 1969
320 n=I.62
280
2'0
200
March ~1969
---
160
....... - ....- .... -... --'. ......
11= 1.02
120
80
...- ..... - ........ ..... - ....
................... - -
'0
0~1~2~3~'~5~6~7~8~9~ro~1T-7.U-7.'3~"-1~5-'~6~1~7~'~8~1~9~2~0~2~'~2~2~n~U~
EST
Fig. 5. Typical examples of the variation of Q % for Toronto, Canada, and Dourbes, Belgium on two fair-weather
days (Note the unusual time scale, EST = GMT - 5 hrs. Local midnight at Dourbes is at about 19 EST. The Editor)
plate was mounted at a height of 0.19 m above the ground, To avoid distortion of field lines, a metallic
grounding frame was placed around the plate at this height. The values of the air-earth current density
used in this paper are from this set up.
Another grounding network was set up around an identical air-earth current density antenna plate. The
antenna plate, size 71 x 71 em, was placed flush in an opening of 72,5 cm square of an "artificial ground
plane", a metal screen of 4.27 m square 19 em above the natural surface of the earth. The air-earth current
densities from this antenna in the artificial surface, (/s), and the ones from the unprotected antenna (see pre-
vious paragraph), (/u1 were simultaneously recorded. Fig. 7 shows the 1. and lu values on a fair-weather
day on 2 May 1974. As evident from the figure, the magnitude of 1. decreased but both curves exhibit similar
fluctuations. From the comparison of Is and lu in the spring and summer of 1974 and using the fair weather
data for 302 hours, a reduction factor of 2.2 was found. The reduction factor is itself variable (14). If this
reduction factor is applied to the 1969 values, the mean Q for the fair-weather annual hourly means will be
1.2 instead of 2.7 as indicated in the Fig. 1. The all-weather Q will be 1.4 in Fig. 1. The corrected Q in
Fig. 5 will be 0.80 and 1.1 for 21 August 1969 and 14 February 1969 respectively.
222
220
February 14.1969
200 _.- E
-- I
780 ,.'_._ . . . \-.A
i
\.
c 120 100·1 100 160
'2
~ 100 140
§;. c
c: 80 99· 9 96 ~ 120
.'2
'"
~ \ ~
998 94 §;. 100

'"
Q. 90
\,./\ c:
40 99·7 92 80
\ ~ . / ...
\
'u"
~
,
20 \\!I 996 90 '"
Q. 60 ,
80 40
o 2 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 99· 5 88
hours lEST)
20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 202224
p Ws hours (EST)
w,; August 21. 1969 RH 180 180
T RH T 100·07 ,. ..,'.,
P 100.06 160 160
120 145 ii "i
1 i
.,' i
115 135 100.04 140 140 i
\
c"O 125 100.02 120 c 120
'2 '2
~ 105 115 1000 100 ~ 100~~----~-+---------i~~~
i\ §;.
§;. 100 105 1\ 9998 80
c: il
V
c:
'~" 95 95 9996 60 '~" 60
/\..
.i \.
I
,f
'"
Q. '"
Q. , .I
','
August 21. 1969
90 85 9994 40 40 E
I
9992 20 20 A.
85
9991
80 650~~2~-4~~6~~8~~1~0~~~~-'4~-1~6~'8~~2~0~2~2~2~4-" o o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
hours (EST) hours (EST)
Fig. 6. The variation of the potential gradient (E), air-earth current density (I~ conductivity (A.~ relative humidity
(R.H.), temperature (T), pressure (P~ wind speed (w,) and direction (W,J at Toronto, Canada, on two fair-weather days
Summary
Large variations are observed in Q % but no definite cause could be found for this. Several possible causes have
been discussed by Dolezalek [10, 11].
The large values of Q observed at Toronto were found to be due to the mounting of air earth current density
antenna. It is clear that all three Ohm's law parameters must be measured for determining such an effect.
References
1. Anderson, R. v., Monthly Weath. Rev. 95, 899 (1967). - 2. Anderson, R. V, Proceed Fifth International Con-
ference, Garmisch-Partenkirchen (West Germany, 1977). - 3. Bhartendu, Arch. Met. Geoph. Biokl., Ser. A, 18, 345
(1969). - 4. Bhartendu, CMRR, 5/69 (1969). - 5. Bhartendu, Pure Appl. Geophys. 84,13 (1971/1). - 6. Bhartendu,
Pure Appl. Geophys. 88, 210 (1971fV). - 7. Bhartendu, Atmosphere 9, 16 (1971). - 8. Bhartendu, J. Geophys. Res.
77,6487(1972). - 9. Brown, J. G., Terrest. Magn. Atmosph. Elect. 40, 413 (1935). - 10. Dolezalek, H., Geofisica pura
e applicata 45,273 (1960fI). - 11. Dolezalek, H., Geofisica pura e applicata 46, 125 (1960flI). - 12. Dolezalek, H.,
J. Appl. Meteorol. 8, 462 (1969). - 13. Hatakeyama, H. and M. Kawano, Pap. Meteorol. Geophys. 4, 55 (1953). -
14. Israel, H., J. Atmos. Terrest. Phys. 24, 65 (1962). - 15. Israe~ H., Polar Forschung 6,86 (1968). - 16. Israel, H.
and P. de Bruijn, Arch. Meteorol. Geophys., A, 8, 281 (1967). - 17. Israe~ H, H. Dolezalek, and G. Fries, Tech. Note
No. 13 Contract AF 61, 514 (1957). - 18. Imyanitov, I. M. and K. S. Shifrin, Soviet Phys. USPEKHI 5, 292
223
Fig. 7. Records of the air-earth current density on a fair-weather day at Toronto, Canada. Is = current from a
horizontal air-earth current antenna flush in an artificial ground plane of about 5 m square; Iu = current from a
similar antenna without the artificial ground plane, only a thin grounded frame around it. Both antennas 19 em
above natural surface of the earth
(1962). - 19. Koenigsfeld,L., Pure App!. Geophys. 84, 27 (1971/1). - 20. Mauchly, S. J., Terrest. Magn. Atmosph. Elect.
28,61 (1923). - 21. Paramonov, N. A., Dokl. Akad. Nauk-USSR 70, 37 (1950). - 22. Takagi, M. and M. Kanada,
Proceed. Res. Inst. Atmospherics Nagoya Univ. 18, 1 (1971).
Author's address:
Bhartendu
Atmospheric Environment Service
4905 Dufferin Street
Downsview, Ontario M3H 5T4
Canada
224
Atmospheric Electrical Mechanical Transfer Currents to Plate Antennas
L. H. Dayaratna and W. C. A. Hutchinson
With 4 figures
Abstract
As measured in fair weather by the direct method the air-earth current appeared to depend on the antenna as if
convection was affecting the result. A circular plate of 1 m' area, the "open antenna", was set horizontal and 0.5 m
above the ground. A similar but "shielded antenna" was inside an earthed wire cage which reduced the potential
gradient by 90 per cent. On 10 summer days the ratio of open antenna average current to shielded antenna
average current ranged from 1.1 to 26.0. With conduction alone this ratio should remain near 10. In a wind tunnel
two horizontal plates were set one above the other. With the upper at some positive potential V the positive current
to the lower was measured when air carrying positive space charge flowed between them at speeds u between
5 and 10m s - 1. The current depended little on V but increased rapidly with u. Both the field and laboratory experiments
suggest that current to conventional antennas is due considerably to wind-borne space charge. This "mechanical
transfer current" probably contributes nothing to the overall vertical flow of charge and its sign is opposite to that
of the conventional eddy diffusion current. It may result in wrong estimates of the air-earth current.
Introduction
The measurement of air-earth current density by the direct and indirect methods and the complicating
effect of convection are discussed by Israel (1970, 1973) and by Chalmers (1967). Within the austausch
layer, especially near the ground surface, convection may sometimes transfer as much charge vertically
as does conduction, and a plate antenna lying in the plane of the surface has been considered to receive the
aggregated conduction and convection currents. With this antenna it should therefore be possible to find
the contribution of convection. (We consider an atmospheric vertical current to be positive if it carries
positive charge to ground).
Preliminary Field Experiment

Following Kasemir (1958) and Dolezalek (19561 two horizontal plate antennas were set up, each of area
1 m 2, one in the plane ofthe ground and the other at the height of 0.50m. The currents to the two antennas
showed similar variations with time, but the raised antenna received about twice as much current as
that in the surface. With a 1 m 2 plate in the ground surface and a horizontal wire 3.5 m long, 1 mm in
diameter and 0.70 m high the wire collected a current of about 1 pA and the plate about 3 pA. Yet the
effective area (see Kasemir, 1958) of the wire was roughly double that ofthe plate. This suggests that ionic
conduction was responsible for only one sixth of the total current received by the flush plate. Typical
values of current for a plate and wire appear in Fig. 1, showing spectacular differences over a period of
7 hours.
Next, two circular plates each of 1 m 2 area were set horizontal and 0.50 m above the ground. One, the
"open antenna", was left exposed to the prevailing potential gradient, whilst the other, the "shielded
antenna", was covered over by an earthed cage 2m long, 2m wide and 1.5 m high of wire netting of mesh
diameter 25 mm. The effect of this screening was to reduce the potential gradient over the shielded
antenna by 90 per cent. Air movement, however, was much less restricted. On 10 separate summer days
currents to the antennas were measured simultaneously in fair weather. The open air potential gradient
averages ranged from 80 to 170 V m -1. Space charge densities were measured at 0.50 en, and were
negative, but other measurements indicated that space charge was usually positive at 0.75 m. The average
currents 11 to the open antenna were from 0.58 to 4.49 pA, and those 12 into the shielded antenna from
0.06 to 0.55 pA. The ratio 11/12 ranged during the 10 periods from 1.1 to 26.0. This ratio would have
remained nearly constant if conduction only had been operative. We infer that air movement plays an
important part in transferring space charge to the antennas.
225
20
Wire current
density 10
in pAm-'
0
10
Plate current
density 0
in pAm-a
-10
-20
Space charge
density
in pCm- a
-"I
-25
200
Potential
gradient
in Vm-' 50
1000 1400 1800
Local time
Fig. 1. Current to a raised wire antenna and to a 1 m 2 plate antenna. The wire effective area is about 6 times that
of the plate, but the plate receives much more current. Space charge as measured at 0.15 m was negative, but it was
positive at 0.75 m
Laboratory Experiment
The matter was further investigated with apparatus in a wind tunnel. This was of cross-section 0.45 m 2
and had a working length of 1.2 m. Air flow speeds between 4 and 30 ms - I were attainable. Two
parallel metal plates were set horizontal, one above the other, as in Fig. 2. The upper plate B was
held at some positive potential V, and the lower plate A was at earth potential and surrounded by a guard
ring C. Current to A could then be measured for various values of potential gradient between the plates.
This system was set inside the wind tunnel, and it was possible to inject positive space charge upstream of
the apparatus. The space charge density was monitored with a fIltration-type collector as described by
Bent (1964). The length of B was 0.65 m and its width 0.28 m. Set below B was a similar metal plate C with a
central opening 0.53 m x 0.18 m to form the guard ring, and the collector plate A lay within the
opening and flush with C. The potential gradient above A was taken to be Vjd where d is the separation
A B, which was 0.20 m. With these dimensions, with air speeds up to 10 ms - I, and taking the positive ion
mobility to be 10- 4 ms- I per V m- I the conduction current to A would always be less than the saturation
value provided that V was below 700 V, i.e. for potential gradients not exceeding 3500 V m -I.
C
- A C
-
-5
Fig. 2. The wind tunnel experiment. A positive potential V is applied to plate B. An electrometer measures current
to the collecting plate A which is surrounded by a guard ring C. Space charge is monitored by collector S
226
The space charge was produced by a system of discharging points consisting of6 brass rods of size OBA,
0.25 m long, and sharpened at both ends. These lay in and parallel to the air stream and were held at a
potential of 10 kV with respect to their earthed surroundings. This system was chosen somewhat
arbitrarily but it served its purpose. The air speed was measured with a pitot-static tube and micromano-
meter. A 4-pen chart recorder was used for the observations.
The current to plate A was measured for various values of applied potential V and different wind speeds
u with the point discharger producing the space charge. Although only relative rather than precise values
of space charge density are known, the range of the instrument corresponds to some 100 pC m - 3, so that
the density was about 5 times typical ambient values in the atmosphere 1 m above ground surfaces. Near
the ground, of course, the electrode effect can give much higher densities. For each value of V the
apparatus was run for 15 min, during which time there was no significant fluctuation in space charge
density. The time constant of the filtration apparatus was lOs. Measurements were made with wind
speeds both increasing and decreasing step by step.
Laboratory Results
Fig. 3 shows typical records of current for three different wind speeds, and no systematic dependence
on time is apparent. But it is clear that the current is practically independent of potential gradient, a re-
markable finding. All the results are displayed in Fig. 4. In Fig. 4a the potential gradient is zero, and
we find current increasing rapidly with air speed u. There is a kind of hysteresis effect dependent on whether
u is being increased or decreased. This has not been explained; it seems more likely to be related to air speed
measurement than to the electrical conditions. The corresponding curves for 100 V m -1 and 1000 V m- 1
are shown in Fig. 4 band 4 c. These three pairs of curves closely resemble one another and for a given space
charge density the current depends almost entirely on u and hardly at all on V, even for potential
gradients as high as 1000 V m - 1. If the air speed is zero the current falls by at least 3 orders of magnitude.
!3
6
_100V --= 4
2
o
-.a
I/)
c:
::J u = 6·4m"
6
~80V
4
2
100V
o
.!:
I ! _
....c: =-r 100V
...~
::J
U
2
o
o 5 10 15
Time in min
Fig. 3. Some pen recorder traces of current to plate A in the wind tunnel for three different air speeds u. The
voltages applied to plate B are shown
227
~ OJ
I
8
III
c: 0
CII
"0 X
C "i 4
E
~ «
:::J
u c:
4 6 8 4 6 8
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 4. The marked dependence of current to plate A on air speed, with potential gradient (a) zero, (b) 100 V m -1,
(c) 1000 V m -1. In each case curve I is for air speed decreasing and curve II for speed increasing
The principal results are summarized as follows. With constant space charge density p and for potential
gradient F between 0 and 1000 V m -1 and air speeds u between 5 and 10m s -1 the current to the lower
plate increases rapidly with u but depends little on F. For current density i, then, it seems reasonable to
write
i=AF+pf(u)
where Ais the conductivity of the air and flu) depends on the shape and size of antenna as well as on u.
Moreover
AF ~ pf(u).
Discussion
From both the field and the laboratory experiments we can expect that the current measured by a
conventional antenna will contain a considerable and sometimes main component due to airborne
space charge being carried horizontally. We describe this as the "mechanical transfer current". And
we are dealing with certain aspects of convection. In the case of the field experiments it is not possible to
say whether or not the convective effect is one of vertical eddy diffusion with an upward-directed gradient
of positive space charge, since there was evidence that positive space charge overlay negative. In the
laboratory experiment, however, there was in effect only positive space charge, and it is demonstrated
clearly that in horizontal flow this can be conveyed to the lower surface and registered as a current.
There seems no reason why this should not occur in the atmosphere if a layer of space charge lies above the
surface and is being carried by the wind horizontally. It is as if the air in its swirling movements is being
wiped, so to speak, against the surface where electrical forces remove some of the charge. Here the charge
movement is downwards, whereas vertical eddy diffusion would transfer the charge generally up-
wards. The horizontal flow of charge is "advection", but the part transferred to the plate, since it
moves vertically, can hardly be described as an advection current. We therefore refer to it as a
mechanical transfer current.
It remains to consider the significance of these mechanical transfer currents. Perhaps they contribute
nothing to the overall transfer of charge between air and ground. Yet they may result in wrong estimates
of the air-earth current density. At a site downwind of a local source of space charge produced by the
electrode effect, for example, a current-measuring plate could well receive some of this charge over a con-
siderable period, perhaps several hours at a time. Surely the indicated current would not then fairly re-
present the air-earth current. In fact Aspinall (1972), also working at Durham, found the diurnal
variation of total air-earth current density estimated by the direct method over two years, and also the
conduction current by the indirect method, and the difference between these two he took to be the
mechanical transfer current. Between it and the measured space charge density he found a correlation
coefficient of +0.82 significant at the 99.5 per cent level of confidence. The mean value of the conduction
component of current was 1.07 pA m - 2 and of mechanical transfer current 0.95 pA m - 2. Aspinall
emphasised the difficulties in interpreting measurements made with current-collecting antennas.
228
Acknowledgments
H. Dolezalek is thanked for the interest he has shown in this problem and for stimulating discussion. The wind
tunnel facilities were kindly made available by the Department of Engineering Science, Durham University.
One of us (L.H.D.) gratefully acknowledges a Scholarship from the Government of Sri Lanka.
References.
1. Aspinall, W. P., J. Geophys. Res. 77, 3196 (1972). - 2. Bent, R. B., J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 26, 313 (1964). - 3. Chalmers,
J. A., J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 24, 297 (1962). - 4. Chalmers, J. A., Atmospheric Electricity, 2nd Edition (Oxford
1967). - 5. Dolezalek, H., On antennas of atmospheric electric measurements, Technical Note No.4, Contract
No. AF 61(514)-640, AFCRC, U.S. Air Force, European Office, ARDC, 14 -19 (Aachen 1956). - 6. Israel, H.,
Atmospheric Electricity, Vol. I (1970). - 7. Israel, H., Atmospheric Electricity, Vol. II, Israel Program for Scientific
Translation (Jerusalem 1973). - 8. Kasemir, H. W. and L. H. Ruhnke, Antenna problems of measuring the air-earth
current, in: Recent advances in Atmospheric Electricity, 137 (London 1958).
Discussion
I certainly wish to congratulate you and your colleague on this interesting piece of work. Ijust have an observation;
and this is, when you make such an observation in a wind tunnel, you have what, in effect, is an unlimited source of
space charge. Extrapolation of such results out into the actual atmosphere must be done with great care. In the actual
atmosphere, if there actually is this wiping of charge, is it not possible that as it occurs, the electrode effect is weakened
because of the loss of space charge; and so you have a self-limiting mechanism in the real atmosphere, which
would not occur in the wind tunnel.
Hutchinson, Durham, England:

I do quite agree. In fact, I did speak of a local electrode effect source and I was not thinking particularly of the
very thin layer near the surface, but rather of, perhaps, an electrode effect produced by a tower or something like
that, which would produce electrode effect charge continuously.

Further to this discussion of the wind tunnel experiments: I wonder what the space charge density in the
tunnel was, what effect that had on the electric field at the surface of your antenna and would that not provide
the grossly increased current that you observed ?
Hutchinson:
No, the space charge density was about 100 pC m - 3. This is about five times the typical value that we are used
to in Durham, for instance, and which R. B. Bent, who is with us, measured a few years ago. And near the surface,
I think, often the space charge density will be much closer to the value of 100 pC per m 3• We monitored it with the
space charge collector, in this experiment.

In the 1950's we started a similar set of experiments in the observatory in Aachen. We soon broke it off, because we
didn't find the convection currents. We had the antenna-flush with the ground and had chicken wire over the antenna,
removed the chicken wire and put it on again; always when the chicken wire was over it the current went nearly to
zero. That seemed to confirm the assumption of H. Israel that convection currents do not playa great role. More
importantly, we are stressing that the degree of fulfillment of Ohm's law should be continuously calculated. If
Ohm's law is nearly fulfilled, i.e. the factor omega is close to 1, convection effects are unlikely.
Hutchinson:
Thank you. When we had our chicken wire over, we found that it did not seem to make very much difference to
what I believe is the convection current, although it did reduce the wind speed by perhaps 20 %.
Kraakevik, Wheaton, Illinois, USA:

I would like to ask about the relationship between the current and the space charge. I noticed negative space
charge on one of the slides. Was there a relationship between the sign and the magnitude of the space charge density
and the convection current results?
229
Hutchinson:
This was not investigated at the time. The field experiment was to a large extent incidental to another experiment.
The laboratory experiment was done only in a very limited time because the wind tunne~ which belonged to
another department, was excessively noisy. Dayaratna was not popular if he kept it on for very long at a time. So
we were not able to do as much as we would have liked.
Authors' address:
L. H. Dayaratna w C. A. Hutchinson
University of Ceylon Physics Dept., Science Labs.
Peradeniya Campus University of Durham
Sri-Lanka South Road
Durham DR 1,3 LE, England
230
The Measurement of Atmospheric Electric Fields
Using a Newly Developed Balloon Borne Sensor
H. J. Christian and A. A. Few
With 3 figures
Abstract
A balloon-borne instrument has been developed which has the capability of making absolute measurements of the
vector electric field inside thunderstorms and under fair-weather conditions. Known as the Balloon Electric Field
Sensor (BEFS), this device consists of a superpressure spherical balloon and the associated electronics package
which is mounted inside the balloon. The balloon, which has its surface divided into four conducting regions (in the
shape of a lune), serves as both the measuring platform and the sensing element. Because of spherical symmetry and
the absence of protrusions, calibration procedures are simplified, unknown field distortion factors are eliminated
and corona problems are minimized.
The BEFS measures the vertical and horizontal components of the ambient field in a total of three independent
modes. By correlating these modes it is possible to separate the true field from various distorting effects.
Preliminary examination of the data from a recent fair-weather flight indicates proper performance of the system.
The next flight will test the system in the thunderstorm environment.
Introduction
The Balloon Electric Field Sensor (BEFS) is a balloon borne instrument that has the capability of
making absolute measurements of the vector electric field inside thunderstorms and under fair-weather
conditions. The total package consists of a superpressure spherical balloon, with a metal coating on the
outer surface, and the associated electronics package which is mounted inside the ballon. The metalized
surface of the balloon is divided into four conducting regions that are electrically isolated from one
another on the balloon surface (see Fig. 1). Two of these lunal regions are symmetric about the vertical
spin axis. The other two are symmetric about the horizontal axis.
Fig. 1. Drawing of the physical configuration of the Balloon Electric Field Sensor
231
These conducting quadrants serve as the sensing elements of the instrument. As the balloon changes its
orientation with respect to an external electric field, the induced charge on the surface of the balloon is
redistributed. A resulting induction current is measured as it flows through the wires connecting each sym-
metric pair with electrometer circuits. Since the orientation of the balloon can be determined from
the on-board triaxial magnetometer, this induction current can be related to the external vector electric
field.
Physical Description
Again referring to Fig. 1, the spin paddles are mounted, one on each side, near the intersections of the
quadrant separators. Their position, together with the location of the electronics package, determines
the spin axis. Spin is caused by the torque imparted on the spin paddles as the balloon rises. While the
rotational period of the balloon varies during its flight, it is on the order of 10 seconds.
The quadrant separators serve both to maintain the electrical isolation of the individual quadrants
and to reduce rain shorting between quadrants.
A total of four relief valves are mounted on the balloon. Since the balloon is superpressurized on the
ground, the relief valves are necessary in order to allow for sufficient out-gassing during flight. The
valves are set to maintain a positive differential pressure of 4 kPa (= 4 x 10 3 N m - 2) inside the balloon.
This pressure maintains the spherical shape of the balloon.
In the present design the balloon is 3.05 m in diameter, displaces 14.8 m 3 and consequently can lift a
2.73 kg payload to 9.75 km. With smaller payloads on future flights, higher altitudes will be attained.
Detector Operation
As stated previously, the conducting quadrants serve as the j:lectric field sensing elements for the
instrument. The balloon appears to be a conducting sphere in a uniform electric field. The electrostatic
problem has been treated in numerous texts (e.g. Jackson, 1962). One may easily show that the induced
surface charge density of the sphere is given by
[1]
where (j = surface charge density
eo = permitivity of free space
o = angle between the ambient field and surface point of the sphere.
H the electric field vector Eo is perpendicular to the tangent at the center of a conducting quadrant,
then integrating over that surface yields a total induced surface charge of
Q = 3 V2/2neor2 Eo [2J
where r = balloon radius.
Now, if the particular quadrant is rotated to arbitrary angles 0,4> (0 = polar angle, 4> = azimuth) with
respect to the field vector, then the induced surface charge in that quadrant becomes
Q(O,4» = 3 0/2neor2 Eo cos 0 cos 4>. [3]
When the orientation of the balloon with respect to Eo changes, the magnitude of the induced charge
Q on the quadrant will change. That is, for any 80/8t or 84>/8t, there will result a dQ/dt = 1. This induced
current I is measured, and, since OCt) and 4>(t) can be determined from magnetometer data, Eo can be
calculated.
Eq. [3] shows that charge will flow between quadrants, not only when 0 and 4> change, but also when
Eo changes. In the fair weather case, since IEo Ivaries with altitude, the simple fact that the balloon rises will
cause an induced charge to flow. In the thunderstorm, changes in Edue to lightning discharges and charge
generation will cause currents between quadrants. Additional external sources of current flow will be
discussed in a later section.
The various modes of balloon motion can be used as separate measurement modes in order to
calculate values of Eo. The principal modes for the verticallunes are as follows:
232
1. I ex: (dE/dt) = (8E/8z)(8z/8t) = v(8E/8z) - produced by a rising balloon in a gradient electric field.
The resulting induced current appears mainly as a D. C. component of the output.
2. Precessional motion - caused by the weight distribution, torque points and self induced motion of
the balloon. This motion tends to have a period on the order of a few seconds and produces an A. C.
current of the same period.
3. Forced motion - caused by eddies and turbulence in the wind. The motion is similar to the pre-
cessional motion but is of lower amplitude and higher frequency.
The modes for horizontallunes are:
1. Rotational motion - produced by the rising motion of the balloon acting on the spin paddle, has a
period on the order of 10 seconds.
2. Precessional motion - same as for the verticallunes.
3. Forced motion - same as for the verticallunes.
Electronic System
BEFS BLOCK DIAGRAM
ELECTRIC FIELD DATA E FIELD SIGNAL CONDITIONING

r--
I.) HORIZONTAL SENSING LUNES I--- I.) PREAMPLIFIERS
2,) DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIERS
r-- A
N DIGITIZATION
A
2.)VERTICAL SENSING LUNES t-- 3.1COMPRESSION AMPLIFIERS t--
L I,) SAMPLE/HOLD AMP
0
r-
G r- 2.) A/D CONVERTER
M
3.) DIGITAL CONTROL LOGIC
r---" U
L
r T
AUXILIARY DATA I
r" P
I.l TRI-AXIAL MAGNETOMETER L
~
2.lPRESSURE TRANSDUCER DATA TRANSMISSION
E
3.1 EXTERNAL TEMPERATURE AUXILIARY DATA X
f- E I.) F.M. MODULATOR
4.11NTERNAL TEMPERATURE SIGNAL CONDITIONING
5.) HOUSEKEEPING ~ R
~
2.11680 MHz. TRANSMITTER
3.1SPIRAL ANTENNA
Fig. 2. Block diagram of the Balloon Electric Field Sensor data acquisition system
As the induced current flows between quadrants it is measured and sampled by the on-board
electronics. Fig. 2 is a block diagram of the electronics system. From each of the quadrant pairs, the
induced current flows through a R. C. network, which converts the signal to the voltage mode and acts as
a low pass filter. The signal is then amplified, compressed in order to increase dynamic range, and sampled
every 2 msec by a 16 channel analog multiplexer. At the same time, auxiliary data channels from a
pressure sensor, magnetometers, and thermistors are fed to the multiplexer and each are sampled every
8 msec. From the multiplexer the data is fed through a sample/hold amplifier to a 12 bit analog to digital
converter. The digitized data then frequency modulates a 1680 MHz transmitter and drives a surface
mounted, cavity backed, spiral antenna.
Advantages
Several of the BEFS design innovations help to eliminate problems encountered by other field measuring
instruments. For example, when field mills are mounted on aircraft, they see a very distorted version of the
ambient field. Accurate measurements are possible only after very elaborate and difficult calibration
233
(see Clark, 1957). As shown previously, the spherical geometry of BEFS allows the field enhancement
factor to be calculated from theory. Detector calibration is eliminated.
Measurement of electric fields inside thunderstorms has proven to be a most difficult task. Two of the
most successful experiments have been Simpson and Scrase's "Altielectrograph", (Simpson, 1937) and
Winn and Moore's Rocket (W inn, 1971 ). The altielectrograph could make only rather qualitative measure-
ments of the vertical field. Winn and Moore's instrument can measure only the field component per-
pendicular to the rocket's trajectory and is subject to corona discharge problems when pentrating intense
fields. The BEFS is capable of measuring the full vector field through a very large dynamic range (> 104 ),
including the very intense field region. Intense fields can be measured because corona discharge is mini-
mized by BEFS' spherical shape and lack of field distorting protrusions. The entire instrument presents
the minimum possible enhancement factor (= 3) in electric fields.
When static charge builds up on the surface of the balloon, it becomes evenly distributed because
the surface is conducting, and consequently, the resultant field lies in the rest frame of the balloon. For
this reason field measurements using either the precessional or forced modes are not effected by the static
charge build-up and full vertical profiles can be measured. The metalized surface also reduces system
weight in that no external electrodes are needed, and it acts as an electric shield protecting the internal
electronics from the noise spikes of lightning discharges.
Problem Areas
Dispite its obvious advantages, the BEFS does possess certain design limitations. A major area of
difficulty is encountered in analysing the data. Every measurement represents a possible function of Eo,
8,ifJ, d8/dt, and difJ/dt. Separating the contributions from each of these factors is a complex problem, but,
especially since the variables tend to fall into separate frequency ranges, the task is solvable. As
mentioned previously, once separated, these variables can be used to give redundant solutions of E.
The slow spin rate of the balloon also is an unfortunate consequence of the design. Since the spin mode
generates a modulated signal on the order of 0.1 Hz, it may be difficult to see rapidly changing horizontal
field structure (any change slower than 2.5 sec will be detected). Fortunately the forced and precessional
modes, which are of higher frequencies, improved this time resolution.
Other potential problem areas are:
1. While rising through a thundercloud, the balloon surfaces will become wet. The rain water can reduce
the resistance between individual quadrants, to some extent, even across the inflated rings. But since the
shunt resistors are 2 x 10 5 Q, the resulting errors should be only about 1 percent, except in the heaviest
precipitation regions.
2. Motion of the balloon through charged cloud droplets will cause a D. C. "Contact Current" that will
appear similar to the induction current produced by the balloon rising through dE(z)/dz. We estimate
that in the most intensely charged regions, this contact current will be two orders of magnitude lower than
the induction current. Even here the precessional and forced modes should yield accurate results that are
independent of the "Contact Current".
3. True conduction current (current caused by ions) also presents a potential error source. If the conduc-
tion current is assumed to be ohmic the ratio of conduction (Ie) to induction currents (Ii) on the balloon is:
Ie/Ii = }.. T/eo [4]
where}.. = conductivity of the air in the region of the balloon,
T = period of one of the measurement modes.
This again indicates an error of only a few percent except for very high altitude situations (> 10 km).
Once the balloon reaches altitude, its relative motion stops and the instrument may be used to measure
the conduction current.
Comment on the Initial Flight
Originally we planned for BEFS to enter a thunderstorm on the initial flight. The Federal Aviations
Agency promptly quashed these plans even though BEFS was designed to comply with existing regula-
234
Fig. 3. Picture of the balloon launch for fair-weather field measurements
tions. After months of negotiation the FAA finally agreed to a fair-weather flight. Following a rapid
electrometer redesign, BEFS was launched at 16: 29 on 17 May 1974 from the Balloon Facility of
NCAR (National Center for Atmospheric Research) near Palestine in Texas, USA (see Fig. 3·.
There were scattered cumulus during the flight, but radar indicated no thunderstorm activity within
200 km. The balloon reached its maximum altitude of9.1 km approximately 40 minutes after launch and
the total flight duration was 1 hour and 35 min.
While the system w'orked properly during the entire flight, a number offactors have conspired to retard
data reduction. The most serious problem has been that the forced motion mode strongly dominated the
other modes. This mode, which is caused by small, rapid changes in the balloon orientation, is very complex
and requires computer analysis, whereas the other modes can be analyzed by hand. Unfortunately, we
have encountered untimely computer breakdown this summer which has prevented analysis using this
mode. Because the forced mode so dominated the output, initial calculations using the other modes can be
made only after digital filtering; this, of course, requires the computer.
A full vertical profile will be forthcoming in the near future. The scattered values that have been deter-
mined at selected times in the flight by hand calculations are in excellent agreement with accepted values
of the fair weather field.
A modification to reduce the output of the forced motion mode will be made prior to the next flight in
order to facilitate the rapid analysis of the data. The next BEFS flight will be scheduled for the thunderstorm
environment when the analysis of the initial flight has been completed.
235
Acknowledgments
We greatfully acknowledge the support of the Atmospheric Sciences Program of the Office of Naval Research,
contract number N 000114-67-A-0145-0004.
References
1. Clark, J. F., 1. Geophys. Res. 62, 617 (1957). - 2. Jackson, J. D., Classical Electrodynamics (London-New York
1967). - 3. Simpson, G. and F. J. Scrase, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) 161, 309 (1937). - 4. Winn, W P. and C. B. Moore,
1. Geophys. Res. 76, 5003 (1971).
Discussion
How can you derive the vertical component of the field from a rotation around the vertical axis?
Christian, Houston, Texas, USA:

The balloon orientation changes continually, like in a pendulum motion as it spins. It goes back and forth around
its axis as well as spinning horizontally. The amount of surface area that the balloon shows to the vertical field
component will change with time; thus, the amount of induced charge on the upper lune must change. Conse-
quently, since the charge redistributes itself, current must flow between the upper and lower lunes.
Moore, Socorro, New Mexico, USA:

What is the conductivity and what is the composition of the spin fins?
Christian:
They are made out of a foam-like material.

Do I understand it right that you are measuring while the balloon is rising, not floating at a constant height?
Christian:
That's right, we measure the electric field only during its rise.
Brook, Socorro, New Mexico, USA:

I wondered about the fact that your vertical sensing lunes don't change position by 180°. The horizontal ones do,
that is, they look first in one direction and eventually rotate around so that you do get a nice measurement that way.
But in the vertical you can suffer an offset of a considerable amount which you can't estimate.
Christian:
No, because the vertical sensing lunes do change positions actually, in a small angular amount. They can change
positions with respect to the vertical component because the balloon vibrates back and forth. Although the angle
is smaller than the spinning angle (it's not 360 degrees, it's only 10 or 15 degrees) it changes faster. Since the output
is proportional to the rate of change, as well as the angular change, you get an A C component on both the vertical
and horizontal elements.

We know that a field mill, of which this is a variety, does respond both to conduction currents as well as to, if
you like, displacement current; that is, the variation of the bound charge on the plate. And the relation between the
sensitivity to these two quantities is a function primarily of the speed of the mill or the frequency. I wonder whether
you really are measuring electric fields or whether you are measuring conduction currents.
Christian:
The displacement current is determined by the total charge induced on each lune. This charge is determined by the
integral over the totallune of the dot product (scalar product) of the vector electric field and the surface solid angle.
236
The conduction current is proportional to the cross sectional area of each lune - not the surface area. The ratio
of the conduction current to the displacement current is directly proportional to the conductivity of the air and
the vibrational period of the balloon and inversely proportional to the permittivity of free space, see eq. [4] of the
paper. We find that until we get up to the higher altitudes, we have a favorable ratio.
Authors' address:
H. J. Christian and A. A. Few
Dept. of Space Physics
and Astronomy
Rice University
Houston, Texas 77001
USA
237
Effects of Velocity and Other Physical Variables on the Currents and Potentials Generated
by Radioactive Collectors in Electric Field Measurements
M. L. Hill and W. A. Hoppel
With 6 figures
Abstract
Research dealing with the use of the radioactive collector as applied to electrostatic stabilization of remotely
piloted aircraft described by Hill (1972) has lead to an improved analysis of the radioactive collector. An
expression for the current generated per unit width of ionizer as a function of the radioactive source strength, the
wind velocity, and the electric field intensity is derived and experimentally verified. The analysis of the radioactive
probe used in the potential mode and the resulting equivalent circuit show that the probe attains the correct potential
and is independent of the source strength and air velocity provided the geometry of the collector is symmetric and
meandering of the conductive plume does not occur.
Introduction
The use of radioactive collectors to enhance the ionic current which can be drawn from the atmosphere
during measurement of the atmospheric electric field has been employed at least since Witkowski (1902).
A review of the current understanding of radioactive collectors and bibliography containing most relevant
papers can be found in Chalmers (1967) and Israel (1973). An adequate theoretical description of the radio-
active collector has not been given'. The need to understand the use of the collector as applied to the
electrostatic stabilization of remotely piloted aircraft described by Hill (1972) has led to a better physical
understanding and a more quantitative description of the collector. In this paper a theoretical analysis
which accounts for the effects of wind velocity, external electric field, and strength ofthe radioactive source
on the current derived from radioactive ionizers is presented. The theory has been verified experimentally
and can be used to explain most observations recorded in the literature.
The basic mechanism of current generation by a radioactive source can be visualized as follows. In
the ionized region above the ionizer an externally imposed electric field will act to separate ions. Ions of
one polarity flow into the circuit connected to the ionizer and ions of the other polarity flow outward
and form a "Shielding layer" of charge which greatly reduces the field in the ionized region. This shielding
layer is completely analogous to the surface charge which forms at a boundary between high and low
conducting regions and produces a discontinuity in the electric field across the boundary. If the air is
stationary, then a small steady-state current will flow. The primary source of current when the ionizer is
exposed in the atmosphere is caused by the partial removal of the shielding charge by natural ventilation.
The stronger the wind the more effective is the removal of charge which in turn allows deeper penetration
of the electric field. The net result is that wind energy is converted into electrical energy. The ionization
energy is, of course, a prerequisite.
Current Characteristics of an Ionizer

The current per unit width of ionizer can be calculated from the two-dimensional model shown in Fig. 1.
Air flowing with velocity v" ventilates a radioactive source with the activity uniformly distributed between
the leading edge at x = 0 and the point x = L. A vertical electric field E z is externally imposed on the region.
Alpha particles from the radioactive source have a well defined range of about 3 em as given by the Bragg
ionization curve and produce a highly ionized and hence highly conductive sheath above the radioactive
source. Positive and negative ions move in opposite directions along the electric field lines with a velocity
given by the product of the field Ez times the mobility k. In this manner the electric field separates positive
and negative ions and in the steady state the current carried to the "collector" by one polarity of ions
must be the same as the current carried away from the collector by oppositely charged ions. The ions
moving away from the collector are carried downstream, away from the vicinity of the collector.
238
z
t
•
v,
•
Fig. 1. Two-dimensional model of a grounded radioactive probe in a vertical electric field and ventilated by a
uniform wind velocity V.
The system of coupled equations which govern the motion of positive and negative ions and the
electric field does not yield an analytical solution even for the simple model under consideration. For our
purposes a good semiquantitative description of the physical process can be obtained by representing
the ionized sheath as a region of high conductivity. The steady-state ion density n (of both positive and
negative ions) is approximated by the following equation
an
Vx-=q-lXn - - -
2 i
[1]
ax etP
where q is the ionization rate, IX the recombination coefficient, i is the ionic current extracted from the
sheath, and tP is the volume of the ionized sheath above the ionizer. The solution to [1] is
n= p
-e~ exp[2V(q-~)IX-t J-1 [2]
IX
exp [2 V( q- e~ ) ;x J+ 1
IX
The term i/(etP) must, of course, always be less than q and has the same effect as reducing q. In our
experiments i/(etP) was always at least 300 times smaller than q and could therefore be neglected. The
velocity dependence of the conductivity can then be written as
[exp(2~f)J ~ t
A = 2nek = 2ek~ [3]
[exp(2~ ~)J + l '
If the radioactive source is large and the wind velocity sufficiently low, the number of ions lost through
recombination is much greater than removed by the wind and the conductivity simplifies to 2ek(q/IX)1 /2.
The model is described by Poisson's equation and the equation of charge continuity for steady state:
J7. E = pIe [4]
239
V·J = V·(AE + Vxp) = 0 [5]
where p is the space charge and J the current density.
Eqs. [4] and [5] can be combined to yield
+ A(Z) p(z,x) = _ _
op(z,x) 1 (~)E.(Z'X) [6]
ax e v" v" OZ
where the only assumptions are that the velocity v" is in the x direction, and the conductivity varies only
in the Z direction.
The integration of [6] can be written formally as
p(x,Z) = exp (- A(Z)X)[_

e v"
f-1 ~Ez(Z'X)exp(A(Z)X)dx
v" dz e v"
+ C(Z)J [7]
where C(z) is an integration constant with respect to x. The integration cannot be carried out because
Ez(z,x) itself depends upon p (z, x). In order to permit an integration, the assumption that the vertical field
varies primarily in the vertical direction and not in the horizontal direction is made. Physically, this means
that the vertical component of the field along any horizontal plane is constant or some suitably chosen
average value. Integration of [7] yields
p(z,x) = eEz..!.~[exp(- A(Z)X) - 1J [8]

A dz e v"
where the function of C(z) was evaluated by using the boundary condition that the space charge in the
air which aspirates the collector is negligible p(z,O) = O.
Eq. [8] as it stands is not an explicit equation for the space charge because E. depends upon the
space charge. An explicit expression can be found for E. in terms ofthe far field Eoo under the reasonable
assumption that the variation of the x component of the field as a function of x is small compared to the
variation of the z component of the field in the z direction. For the purpose of evaluating Ez
oE.
OZ
= p(z,x)
e
= E...!.~[exp(-
A dz
A(Z)X) - 1J
eV x
[9]
which integrates to
[10]
In the steady-state case, the current removed in the flow field through the surface x = L just equals
the current collected In the limit as v" goes to zero the current will not flow through the surface x = L but
will flow vertically upward. For any finite value of v" all the current will flow through the semi-infmite
surface x = L and the current per unit width W is
-
W
iff
=
00
v"pdz = ----
00
eE. dA Vx [ exp ( -
A(Z) dz
A(Z)X)
- - - 1 dz
e v"
J [11]
o 0
where Ez is given by [10].

The fact that IX-praticles have a well defined range of about 3 em and ionize rather uniformly throughout
this layer as indicated by the Bragg ionization curve suggests that the conductivity can be represented as
a step function with a high value inside of Zo and low value outside. For this case
~= (iU)o(z - zo)
oz
240
where 8(z - zo) is the Dirac 8-function and Al is the change in 1 at Zo. Now [10] and [11] can be
integrated using properties of the 8-function and combine to give
_i = e~ v"E", [exp ( - l(Zo)X) - IJexp{p~[exp(- l(Zo)X) - 1J} (12)

W A(zo) e v" A(zo) e v"
t
where p = -21n = 0.34. Pis determined by the convention that ,1.(zo) and E(zo) are the mean values
between inside and outside the sheath, here taken to be ,1./2 and Eoo/2 respectively. Eq. [12] should
predict the general behavior of the current even though we would not expect it to hold rigorously
quantitatively.
Experimental Verification
Fig. 2 shows a schematic of the experimental arrangement where the current to the electrometer is
measured as a function of the voltage and velocity. The radioactive source is a POZIU, 500 !lei "Static-
master". Fig. 3 shows the results where the current is plotted as a function of velocity for several values
of the electric field. The field E is just the average field determined by dividing the chamber voltage by its
height. The total number of ions produced per rx disintegration was taken to be 3 x 10 5 . This number was
then reduced by a factor of 10 to account for columnar recombination which occurs along the rx-particle
track, before the ions can disperse to the extent that the volume recombination coefficient rx is applicable.
The reduced number was used to calculate the ionization rate q and the ion density was taken to be (q/rx)l/Z.
INSULATOR
-~----j
--
Vx- -
FLOW f
----
VARIABLE
METER
SPEED BLOWER
RADIOACTIVE
SOURCE
Fig. 2. Experimental arrangement for measuring the current derived from a radioactive source
The circled points in Fig. 3 are for the current from the standard configuration of the "Staticmaster"
with the protective grill work which extends about 4 mm above the radioactive strip. The squares are for
the case in which the superstructure has been removed. The larger current in the former case arises
from the augmentation of the electric field by the superstructure. The current was measured through
a 10 8 ohm input resistor. Fig. 4 shows a comparison between measurement and theory when the length
of exposed radioactivity is reduced. This is represented in the theory by decreasing the value of x, the
length of source, by the given fraction. The excellent quantitative agreement shown in Fig. 3 must be some-
what fortuitous considering the assumptions required for evaluation, but the qualitative agreement of the
experiment and theory with regard to the velocity and field dependence is certainly valid.
The representation of the conductivity as a step function whose derivative is a 8-function results in a
layer of space charge along the discontinuity. This sharp spatial definition of the space-charge layer is
destroyed by the vertical movement of the ions under the electric field. For example, when v" = 0, the
positive ions will flow directly upward and will not be carried through the x = L surface and the theory is
not valid for this case. The vertical displacement of the ions by the electric field as they are carried
horizontally a distance x by the velocity is given by
241
Thus, for a field of 200 V m -1 and a velocity of 10 m sec -1, the dispersion is only 0.2 mm; at 1 m sec - 1
the dispersion is 2 mm. For lower velocities (depending on the field) the ion dispersion becomes significant
and quantitative agreement with the theory cannot be expected.
If the velocity dependent conductivity eq. [3] is inserted into eq. [12] (for our experimental case), it
is found that the velocity dependence of the conductivity becomes significant for velocities above about
10m sec -1 and the current should be a maximum at about 20 m sec -1 and slowly decrease for larger
1.0 o STATICMASTER
o RADIOACTIVE STRIP
- THEORY
0.8
...... 0.6
<'
Ol
I
o
t-
Z
w
cc I I
/ " _ _0
a:
::) 1'1 _0- E = 200 'I)rr,
U 0.4 I I _0"'"
p-
/J
II
II
1/
_0- - _ --0 _ - 0
E = l00V/m
-
0
..... ...,...0--- __ 0 _ _ _ 0 - - 0 - -
_C--
28
Fig. 3. Current as a function of velocity for electric fields of 100, 200, and 500 volts per m. Solid lines are calculated
from eq. [12]
242
0.5,--------------------------------,
_ _ LINES ARE THEORY
___ EXPERIMENTAL POINTS

E=200V/m
0.4
4/5
Ii
~ 0.3
Cl
__ ---::::::;:;-=:::~-
I
o
3/5
I- --<>
-0- 3/5
Z ~-
w
~ 0.2
:J 2/5
u
_ - - _ - -& - - 0- 1/5
~1 1~
28
vELuCITY (m/sec)
Fig. 4. Current versus velocity for a field of 200 volts per meter as the length of the source is reduced by the given
fraction. Solid lines are calculated from eq. [12]
velocities. That this decrease is not observed in Figs. 3 and 4 is possibly due to the fact that the residence
time of the ions over the ionizer is so short that the average mobility of the negative ion increases. This
increase results because the time spent as a free electron before attachment to a neutral molecule becomes
a significant fraction of the total time the ion spends above the ionizer.
If the current i drawn from the ionizer is great enough to become an important factor in determining
the ion balance then the conductivity as determined from eq. [2] depends upon i, and eq. [12] for i is
no longer an explicit expression. This should present no difficulty since numerical solutions to implicit
equations are not difficult.
It is immediately obvious that the results of this section are applicable to ionizers used in the current
source mode. If the ionizer is located on an elevated point or body with small radius of curvature, then
the electric field used in the formulation must be the field as augmented by the geometry of its location.
The Potential Probe

In the ideal potential probe the voltage of the probe is measured by a perfect voltmeter which draws no
current. In practice, this condition is met when the effective impedance of the radioactive collector is small
compared to the input impedance of the voltmeter. By the use of Gauss's law and the fact that current
flow to the voltmeter input is negligible, it can be shown that for a symmetric radioactive collector the
net charge is zero and that any initial or deposited charge will be dissipated from the probe to the outer
boundary of the highly ionized sheath with a time constant determined by the conductivity in the highly
conducting sheath. This charge will then be removed by the wind.
For the nonsymmetric probe there will be some distortion of the equipotential lines. For instance,
consider a cylindrical probe geometry with axis aligned with the wind and radioactivity placed only on the
top half of the cylinder. Again applying Gauss's law and the fact that negligible current flows to the
input we arrive at the condition that
243
itT = _..&. [13]
itB AT
where itT and itB are the average fields over the top and bottom respectively, and AB and AT are constant
within their half cylinders. That the two fields are not equal implies a net charge on the conductor which
will give rise to a distortion of the field in the vicinity of the collector, possibly as shown in Fig. 5. The
distortion of the electric field must be such that the resulting space-charge distribution causes zero net
current to flow when acted upon by the wind; i.e., the net charge carried off by the wind must be essentially
zero. For the nonsymmetric potential probe some care must be taken to evaluate the degree of error caused
by the asymmetry, and hopefully is small for the typical small collector in the atmosphere. In the non-
symmetric probe a change in wind velocity would change the rate of charge removal which in turn could
require a new charge and potential distribution to maintain zero net current flow. This would lead to
fluctuations in the potential measurement unrelated to real potential changes.
Fig. 5. Schematic of equipotentials and electric fields around the nonsymmetric probe
Equivalent circuit of the potential probe in the atmosphere

The interaction of the potential probe with the atmosphere and input resistance of the associated
electronics is illustrated by the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 6. The voltage V is the potential
difference between two equipotential planes which are at equal distances on either side of the probe.
R. is the input resistance of the electronics whose reference is taken to be one of the equipotential
surfaces. R. represents the resistance of the atmosphere between the probe and equipotential planes.
For example, a sphere of radius r in a medium of conductivity A stressed by a uniform electric field
Eo will collect a current on the top hemisphere of (3j2)nr2 AEo. An equal and opposite current will
flow to the bottom hemisphere giving an effective resistance to either hemisphere of
R=~=~ [14]
• 1 3nr2A
where A is the conductivity of the free atmosphere. 1" and 11 represent currents blown off the source
by the wind. The field and wind acting on the top of the radioactive source will remove ions of one
244
sign while charge of the opposite sign is removed from the lower region of the collector in a manner
previously described. The currents I. and I, are given by eq. [12] which for our purposes can be
written simply as
[15J
where the functional dependence of the current on the velocity and ionization q is represented by
f •. ,(q, v,,). I..,(q, v,,) is very nearly the reciprocal of the effective source impedance and has dimensions
of meter per ohm. The net current removed by the wind is therefore
iu Ra
t!
H
-
V
-
Vi lu
..- .......
..... ..-J
I~
H
lin Rin i~ Ra
Fig. 6. Equivalent circuit of the potential probe in the atmosphere
(V-V)
M = I. - I, = !u(q, v,,) ~ - fi(q, v,,) (V)
~ [16J
where we have made the assumption that the field at the top or bottom of the ionizer is the average
field between the probe and the (top or bottom) equipotential plane. The geometrical augmentation
resulting from the probe geometry can also be included in I. and f,.
From simple circuit analysis we find that the voltage at the input is
[17J
For the passive antenna (no radioactivity) tlI = 0, and a correct measurement will be made only if
Rin ~ Ra'
For the radioactive probe the expression for the wind-driven current from the ionizer must be
included. To simplify the analysis, consider the case of a symmetric probe (f. = f, = f) so that
eq. [16] becomes
M = f(q, vJ (V - 2 Vi) = _1_ (V - 2 Vi) [18]
H Reff
where we have defined the effective impedance of the ionizer as
Reff = - -H - . [19J
f(q,v x )
The effective impedance is thus a function of q and Vx as determined by f(q, vx ). Substituting eq. [18] into
eq. [17J yields
245
( -1- + 1-) V
Reff Ra
V; =---------------
1 2 2
[20]
-+-+--
R in Ra Reff
Since V; is a function of Reff the potential will in general be a function of velocity and activity. For even
a small amount of radioactivity, Reff ~ Ra. Eq. [20] then simplifies to
v
V; = -------- [21]
2 + Reff
R in
The potential will give the correct potential (V/2) independent of Reff only if Reff is much less than R in .
The effective impedance of an ionizer is defined as the voltage divided by output. Since the voltage
depends upon the distance H from the reference plane the effective resistance also depends on the
distance H as in eq. [19]' Since an ionizer responds to electric field (not voltage) a more natural quantity
in describing.the radioactive collector is the ratio of the electric field to the output current here defined as
R* =.!i=_1_ [22]
I f(q,v x }
wheref(q, vx ) is obtained either from the theory or experimental data. For example if the data contained
in Fig. 3 were plotted as current vs. voltage for various velocities then the slope ofthe curve would be the
reciprocal of R*. For the ionizer used in the experiment R* is approximately 1.2 x 10 12 ohm m for wind
speed of4m per sec and 5.5 x lOll ohm m for 20 m per sec. These values may seem somewhat large when
compared to a value of 5 x 10 10 ohm often cited. The explanation of the apparent discrepancy is probably
that the measurement here is with the source on a flat surface whereas most other measurements have
been with the source mounted on a probe or wire where the electric field may be augmented by possibly a
factor of 100.
Discussion
The above analysis accounts for the dominant features exhibited by the radioactive collector. It is
especially successful in explaining the influence of the wind on the collector current when operating in the
current-source mode (low input impedance) and the decreased dependence on wind as the input
impedance is increased through the transition region to values greater than the effective source
impedance. This effect has been observed by Pfleiderer (Israel, 1973) and others and is reviewed in
detail by Israel (1973) and Chalmers (1967). It is also clear that equivalent circuits which represent the
collector as a "transition resistance" (Israel, 1955), or quadrupole (Dolezalek, 1960) without taking
into account the physical mechanisms which cause the wind dependence cannot produce a physically
satisfying result.
We again reiterate the weaknesses of the analysis: 1. The analysis is not valid for extremely low
wind velocities where the shielding layer is not removed by the wind but continues to move outward in
the direction of the field with a velocity determined by the ionic mobility. The potential in the region
of the probe is therefore modified by the shielding charge. In this case the approach taken by Wagner
(1955) or the numerical solutions to the ion balance equations given by Hoppel and Gathman (1970)
may be more applicable. 2. In the analysis we have assumed a horizontal wind. The effect of turbulent
eddies and meandering of the highly conducting plume which may modify the field in the vicinity of the
probe is not included in the analysis. This type of fluctuation is especially pronounced at low wind speeds
and can produce a wind dependent fluctuation evident not only in the current-source mode but also in
measurements of potential. This error can be reduced by reducing the amount of radioactivity on the
probe. 3. There may be errors which result from the warping of equipotential surfaces because of non-
symmetry in the probe design (or distribution of radioactivity) as discussed earlier. These errors may
246
also be dependent on wind velocity. Since to our knowledge all previous potential probe measurements
have been made with highly asymmetric probes it is difficult to determine whether the observed
fluctuations arise primarily from the asymmetry or turbulent meandering of the ionized plume. Wind
related fluctuations of potential measurements have been reported by Miihleisen (1951) and others.
The observation attributed by Israel (1973) to Wigand (1924) and Wigand and Kirchner (1927) that
the response time (adjustment speed) is reduced with increasing wind speed is contrary to our experience
with radioactive probes. A possible resolution of this discrepancy may be as follows: As stated earlier
the theory predicts that at some high wind speed (depending on the ionization rate) the current will
pass through a maximum and then slowly decrease. In our experiment the radioactivity was large
enough and the wind velocity low enough so that the current never decreased with wind speed.
Since Wigand was interested in measurements from aircraft, it is possible that for the geometry and
strength of his radioactive source the velocities employed were high enough to be in the range where the
current decreased with increasing speed.
References
1. Chalmers, J. A., Atmospheric Electricity, 2nd Ed., 515 (Oxford 1967). - 2. Dolezalek, H., Ger!. Beitr. Geophys.
69,175 (1960). - 3. Hill, M. L., Astronaut. and Aeronaut., November, 22 (1972). - 4. Hoppel, w. A. and S. G. Gathman,
J. Applied Phys. 41,1971 (1970). - 5. Israel, H., Arch. Techn. Messen 656-3,125 (1955). - 6. Israel, H., Atmospheric
Electricity, Vol. II, Israel Program for Scientific Translations (Jerusalem 1973). - 7. Muhleisen, R., Z. Natur-
forschung 6 A, 667 (1951). - 8. Wagner, R., Arch. Met. Geophys. Bioklim. (A) 8, 427 (1955). - 9. Witkowski, A., Bull.
Acad. Sci. Cracovai 7, 13 (1902). - 10. Wigand, A., Ann. der Physik 85, 333 (1928). - 11. Wigand, A. and
H. Kirchner, Gerl. Beitr. Geophys. 17, 379 (1927).
Discussion
Remark: At the end of his talk M. L. Hill showed a short movie film that demonstrated stabilization ofa model
airplane by sensing the direction of the fair weather electric field.
Markson, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA:

I think some may have not noticed that in H ilfs airplane the measurement was not the typical one that we make in
quantitative measurements of atmospheric electricity where a high impedance circuit is used. In Hill's experiment
it's really a current measurement, and this has nice advantages. Perhaps it is the best way to make the measurement
for electrostatic stabilization because of the fast time response. But there may be a problem if the probes get wet,
that is, one ofthe probes compared to the other. Ifyou'remeasuringcurrent, you could run into the problem of upsetting
the electrical balance of the system which could cause the electrostatic autopilot to tilt the aircraft. I just wanted to
point out that this is a different approach than is used in the quantitative measurements where we don't want to load
the source. Then, input resistances on the order of 10 12 ohms are used so that changes in the effective resistances
of the ion clouds made by the polonium elements (about 10 10 ohms) will not upset the balance.
M. L. Hill, Laurel, Maryland, USA:
Yes, thank you. We have become aware of this. However, the airplane you just saw flying in the movie film was
flying with a circuit of about 1000 ohms input impedance. The paper discusses the range of impedance all the
way up to the potential mode measurement. We have been operating a full scale airplane which has flown with in-
struments ranging from this 1000 ohm impedance up to a new instrument which has a 10 14 ohm impedance (with
a high enough response time to make these measurements). The present conclusions are that the current measuring
mode can be developed into a method of measuring the atmospheric potential with a very fast response. The current
measurement gives nearly identical results to those that are measured with the very high impedance circuit.
I would, first of all, like to congratulate you for the very nice idea of using the atmospheric electric field to stabilize
an airplane and for the very nice interpretation and demonstration ofthe field check of your idea. I have two questions:
the first is, what is the reason for using a plate for the sensor of the electric field? The second question: How does
the sensor feel whether the airplane is in the correct position or in the inverse position? A third question: What does
the airplane do when the field is inverse in the neighborhood of a thunderstorm or other negative charges?
247
M.L.HilI:
The answer to the first question for using the plate is simply that there is a commercially available ionizer called the
"Staticmaster" in the United States which is cheap and readily available and we use that. We have used other confi-
gurations and it is not very critical. The answer to the other question is, the airplane flies upright because there is a
positive polarity going upwards. If the airplane is inverted the control functions feel it because: Automatically the
feedback system, i.e. the servomechanism system, is 180 degrees out of phase. For a very little bank angle from inverted
position, the airplane automatically senses a full signal that makes it want to fly upright. The answer to the
third question is: we have flown directly under a thunderstorm in an inverted field. It is a hazardous thing to do with
an antenna. The fields that we see, at least up to about 300 to 500 m, are inverted. The aircraft rolls over and
stabilizes inverted. The evidence is that the field is also vertical under that condition. We are very curious now to
learn what is the boundary between the inverted and the upright field. We do hope that we will be able to do some
atmospheric electric work with these kind of aircraft as tools.
Have you flown your aircraft, or can you fly your aircraft through clouds? I'm thinking in particular of
developing cumulus, for example. You may then possibly see what happens to the equi-potentials as you approach a
cloud.
M. L. Hill:
We have had models penetrate into clouds, but we have no data to say exactly what the model did in the cloud other
than that it has flown into the base of some clouds and come out where we would expect it to come out, based on
the path of entry. So, it did not do anything violent flying into the base of the cloud. But we have no data yet.
Ryder:
You didn't, for example, see the aircraft dip as it went into the base of the cloud?
M. L. Hill:
No, we have penetrated into the base of the cloud and been able to see the model in the haze. It normally has stayed
fairly level in the base of clouds. Certainly there will be some clouds where there will be charge separation and there
will be effects. We have not had that experience yet, but we do anticipate that it will be there.
Ryder:
I ask because we have, in fact, flown a Varsity aircraft, which is a two engine bomber-trainer, into small convective
clouds and at a fairly early stage in their development detect a bi-polar charge, or something that can be inferred
as a bi-polar charge distribution, with the top of the cloud being positively and the base of the cloud negatively.
M. L. Hill:
We look at this stabilization system as something that may be most useful in the cloud-free space or below cloud
base in the fair weather field. Its applications may be limited to that region.
Authors' addresses:
M. L. Hill W.A. Hoppel
RPV Flight Research Code 8326
The Johns Hopkins University Naval Research Laboratory
Applied Physics Laboratory Washington D.C. 20375
Johns Hopkins Road USA
Laurel, Maryland 20810
USA
248
Investigation of the Temporal Structure of the Electric Field Intensity
Near the Earth's Surface in Application to the Task of Determination of Mean Valoes *)
L. L. Braginskaya and Ya. M. Shvarts
Summary
1. Transition to the automatic system of measurement of atmospheric-electric parameters is associated with
transition to discrete readings of parameters.
2. Determination of an error in calculation of parameters' means can be accomplished when the parameter's
temporal structure is known.
3. Correlation functions of the electric field intensity are rather accurately approximated by exponents.
4. Correlation scales depend on meteorological conditions and change from 0.1 min - 1 (non-raining cloudiness)
to 0.4 min -1 (thunderstorm).
5. An error in determination by hourly means depends non-linearily on the number of readings and rapidly
increases with diminition of reading number below ten.
6. With the number of readings equal to 12 and the change of relation between the dispersion and the quadrangle
of the intensity hourly mean from 0.25 to 1, the relative calculation error of the hourly mean will be equal to
10 - 20 %for an inertialess measuring equipment.
7. The error may be reduced by 2 - 3 times using an inertia equipment the temporal constant of which is commen-
surable with the interval between the readings.
Authors' address:
L. L. Braginskaya and Ya. M. Shvarts
Karbysheva 7
Leningrad 194018
USSR
*) Paper was accepted by the Executive Panel, but it was not presented. Full Text of paper not available.
249
Direct Determination of the
Individual Concentrations of Radon Daughter Products in the Atmosphere
by the Means of Delayed Coincidence Technique·)
s. Nakatani
With 5 figures
Abstract
The apparatus consists of a sampling head to hold an air filter mounted directly over a CsI(TI) scintillation counter.
The radioactivity on the air-filter is measured throughout the sampling period. By means of a pulse shape discrim-
ination technique, the alpha pulses are discriminated against beta pulses. The count rate of 214Bi - 214pO pair is
determined by the beta-alpha delayed coincidence method, and the contribution of 218pO and 214Pb to the total
activity can be determined by subtracting a constant ratio of this coincidence rate. Finally, the growth curves of
the individual activities of the daughters are recorded by a multichannel counting rate meter. The degree of equili-
brium between radon and its daughters in the atmosphere is determined accurately in short time intervals.
Introduction
Many methods have been developed for determining the amount of radon daughter activity contained
in the air, such as the graphical methods (1Sivoglou et ai., 1953; M alakhov et ai., 1966) and the spectroscopic
methods (Martz et ai., 1969; Lindeken, 1968). On the other hand, a beta-alpha coincidence counting
technique was developed for determining the low level plutonium airborne concentration (Rankin, 1963;
Tanaka et ai., 1968).
RaA(218 pO )
al
RaB(214 pb ) 1L RaC(214 Bi ) .1L RaC,(214Po )
-4
a 1 a 1 1.64.10 sec
RClC"(210 Tl ) 1L RaD(21Opb) .
0.04%
Fig. 1. The decay chain of radon daughters
The decay chain for radon, as shown in Fig. 1, indicates that the decay rate of 214Bi can be obtained by
using a coincidence counting technique since the beta emissions from 214Bi are followed by alpha emissions
from 214pO in the short time interval of164 IlS. In this case, the branch product 2lOTI is not of importance
with respect to the analytical technique described here, because the production of 214pO is much greater
than that of 21 0Tl. By using this method, Assaf and Gat (1967) determined the concentrations of radon
daughters using a liquid scintillation counter. However, in many cases, the methods consist in a mathe-
matical analysis of the observed decay curves from the collecting activities on air filters. In our case, the
activity is detected throughout the sampling period, and the growth-curve of the activity is used for the
analysis of the extent of daughter equilibrium.
Description of the Apparatus

Airborne radon daughters are collected on a 55 mm diameter Millipore AA filter. The filter was
reported to retain more than 99 percent of the radioactive aerosols (Megaw and Wiffen, 1963). The alpha
and beta activities on the filter are continuously detected with a 50 mm diameter scintillation detector
(CsI(Tl» during the sampling period. The CsI(Tl) crysta~ 2 mm in thickness, was mounted on a photo-
multiplier tube (Toshiba, 7696) with a Lucite light guide 8 mm thick. The distance between the crystal and
the filter is only a few millimeters, which ensures optimum counting efficiency. Fig. 2 is a block diagram
of various units. After amplification, the signals from the detector are fed to a pulse-shape discriminator,
any discussion.
250
where the alpha pulses are discriminated against beta pulses by virtue of the difference in their pulse
rise-time (Varga, 1961), and the alpha decay events from the collecting activity are obtained at terminals
11 and T4 through a delay circuit. The signals from the detector are also fed to the usual pulse-height dis-
criminator, and the pulses caused by the alpha and beta decay events are obtained at terminal T2 • There-
fore, the anti-coincidence gate facing terminals 11 and T2 produces the beta pulses at terminal Ts. A delay
circuit is provided to ensure anti-coincidence operation. The beta pulses appearing on terminal 15 are
also used for, in effect, opening a gate for 600 IlS. If an alpha-caused pulse appears while the gate is open,
it is counted as a coincidence event, and is obtained at terminal T6 • The count rate of this coincidence
event is proportional to the amount of 214Bi (and 214PO), because the beta-alpha successive decays from
214Bi - 214pO occur sufficiently within a gate time interval of 600 Ils. Since 214pO is an alpha emitter with
a half-life of only 1641ls, the activity of 214 po is taken at all times as equal to the activity ofits parent 214Bi.
Because of the [mite resolving time, two independent signals of alpha and beta events may give rise to
the output signal at terminal T6 due to chance coincidences. These chance coincidences need to be mini-
mized relative to the true coincidences. The rate of occurrence of chance coincidences was calculated for
activity levels of naturally occurring radioactive substances. In many cases, however, this effect can be
neglected.
rat~ T4
m~tl2r T5
• f1 T6
T7
.f2 Ta
Fig. 2. Simplified block diagram of measuring system
If three events, alpha, beta and coincidence, are obtained with equal counting efficiency, the difference
of count rates between the alpha and the coincidence events is proportional to the activity of 21SpO, and
the difference between the beta and the coincidence events is also proportional to the 214Pb activity (see
Fig. 1). In practice, the counting efficiencies of them do not coincide with one another. Therefore, the
efficiencies between them are arranged ~~temally to an equal value by multiplying the constant factors.
Namely, the alpha, beta and coincidence events drive a three-channel rate meter circuit. The counting rates
appearing on terminals Ts and 16 are multiplied by appropriate factors!t and!2 respectively, and the count
rate multiplied by f2 is subtracted from the count rate appearing on terminal T4. The difference of them
is obtained at terminal T7 (= 21SPO). In the same way, the count rate multiplied by f2 is also subtracted
from the count rate multiplied by flo and the difference is obtained at terminal Ts (= 214Pb).
Determination ofthe FactorsJi. and/2

The decay of activity after completion of sampling is expressed by the equations
i = 1,2,3, ... [1]
where the subscripts 1,2, ... refer to succeeding members of the radon series such as 21SpO, 214pO, ... , and
Ai is the decay constant of the i-th isotope. With initial conditionNi = Nt ,at T = 0, this set of equations
is solved for N i. Where Ni is the number of atoms of the i-th isotope remaining on the filter at any time T,
after cessation of sampling, and N: is the number of atoms of the i-th isotope at the end of sampling
period. The time t refers to the duration of sampling collection in hours. This N; is calculated from time
integrals of collection functions, which express the relative growth of the daughter activities on the filter
as a function of sampling time. With these solutions, the ratio between the beta and the alpha activities
during the decay is given by (Spaa, 1958)
R(T,t) = (A2N2 + A3N3)/(A1Nl + A4N4). [2]
251
Calculations, for example, are made for R (T, 1) with various sets of equilibrium ratios, and are
graphically represented in Fig. 3 *). Figure was calculated with the equilibrium ratio of
1/1/1, 1/0.75/0.50, 1/0.48/0.18, 1/0.25/0.06.
In spite of various equilibrium sets, the ratios R are closed on a constant value with time. The value of
this ratio was obtained with actual measurement during the time of decay, and was found in the lower
side compared with the theoretical-value. The result is also represented in Fig. 3. This is owing to the
difference of the counting efficiencies between the alpha and beta events. Hence, the experimental ratio
is adjusted to the theoretical ratio by multipling an appropriate factor 11 to the total beta count rate, by
means of an operational amplifier constructed into the three input differential rate meter.
(Bfa)
2D R(T.l)
~
-===--___
1:0211:006
:0.48:0:18
:0111 :0.110
1.11 ~:1 :1
1.0
-:------..----~g----~----~O~__-A9
0.5
60 120 180 mIn.

Fig. 3. Ratio of beta/alpha activity of radon daughters after an accumulation period of 1 hr
After these corrections, the factor 12 is determined as follows; Suppose the alpha decay curve after
sampling collection is stopped. The activity of 21SpO decreases relatively fast with time T, and at
T = 10 '" 15 min, it is practically equal to zero. Then, the remaining part of alpha activity will be mainly
caused by the activity of 214 po, and also proportional to the count rate of the beta-alpha coincidence events
appearing on terminal T6 • Therefore, the factorI2 is so adjusted that the output reading of the differential
rate meter at terminal T7 becomes zero. With these corrections, fmally. the activity of 218pO is obtained at
terminal T7 , and that of 214 Pb is obtained at terminal Ts. Further, the difference of the count rates between
the total alpha activity (at terminal T4 ) and the activity of 21SpO (at terminal T7 ) is given the activity of
214Bi (and 214pO). In the above considerations, it was assumed that the alpha radiations emitted from
21SpO and 214pO are detected in approximately the same efficiency, and besides, the beta ones from 214Pb
and 214Bi are also counted in the same efficiency.
Data Analysis
Suppose that the radon daughters in the atmosphere have been supplied on the filter at a constant
rate for any time t. As is well known, the number of radon daughter atoms collected on the fIlter obeys the
time relation obtained from the following set of differential equations
i=1,2, ... [3]
where ni is the atmospheric concentration of the i-th isotope. Ni is the number of atoms of the i-th isotope
on the fIlter paper after a time t of sampling, " is the collecting efficiency of the fIlter, and cf> is the flow rate of
air drawn through the fIlter. With the initial conditions at t = 0, Ni = 0, the solutions of this collection
functions are given successively (Kawano and Nakatani, 1964). With these solutions, the relative activities
of radon daughters on the filter can be written graphically as shown in Fig. 4a. The figure was calculated
*) The degree of equilibrium is represented by the equilibrium ratio. The ratio, 218poj214Pb/214B~ is given as a
decimal fraction of possible equilibrium concentrations in the atmosphere based on radon as parent. The ratio
1/0.6/0.4 indicates that 214Pb and 214Bi are present at 60% and 40% oftheir possible equilibrium concentrations,
under the assumption of equilibrium for radon and 218PO.
252
with the equilibrium ratio of 1/1/1. The ordinate of the curves represents the relative activities of 218pO,
214Pb and 214Bi existing on the filter at any time, and the saturated activity of 218pO deposited is taken
as 1.0. If the activities accumulated on the filter are indicated at any time by A (= Al Ni), B (= A2 N~) and
C (= A3 N~) corresponding to the activities of 218pO, 214Pb and 214Bi, the atmospheric concentrations
of the daughters can be calculated from the solutions of eq. [3].
When t = 30 minutes,
Alnl = (1.001 APdl'/cP [4J

A2n2 = (1.853B - 0.894 AP2/l'/cP [5J
A3 n3 = (1.534 C - 0.660 B + 0.039 AP3/1'/ cP ; [6J
for t = 15 minutes,
Al nl = (1.034 A) AJlI'/cP [7J
A2n2 = (3.109 B - 0.765 AP2/l'/cP [8J
A3 n3 = (2.439 C - 0.588 B + 0.028 A) A311'/ cP . [9J
The constant factors 11 and cP are known and can be inserted in the above equations. However, the
factors cancel out and need not be known if only the equilibrium ratios are desired. Thus, if the count rates
of each daughter activity are obtained with equal efficiency, the equilibrium ratios are given immediately
from these equations.
ADI.12
decay accumulation
Act.
10
5
214Pb
(8)
:,
.~ 1
\\~
120
218po (A) r
~t
4a.
4b.
Fig. 4. Buildup of daughters activities during accumulation. 4a) was calculated theoretically with the equilibrium
ratio of 1/1/1. 4 b) shows the experimental result. The equilibrium ratio was computed as 1/0.8/0.7
Experimental Results
For laboratory work, the air in the room built oflight-weight concrete was sampled continuously during
the first 60 min. The time constant for the counting rate meter circuit has been taken as 100 seconds. This
time is sufficiently short compared with the time required for the saturated activities on the filter to
reach their half-value. Therefore, it may be said that the measurement shows a reasonable response to the
change in activity during sampling. Fig. 4b represents graphically the growth curves of the individual
activity ofthe daughters, and also correspond to Fig. 4a. In this case, the factors!1 and!2 are taken as 1.22
and 4.00. The growth curve of 218Po-activity reaches a steady maximum value during the first few
253
minutes and remains constant as long as the air flow is maintained constant. The growth curves of the 214Pb
and 214Bi activities are also given by the output reading appearing on terminals of Ts and by the dif-
ference between the output reading at T7 and at T4 . In this case, the zero level of the beta channels are shifted
somewhat higher than the level ofthe alpha channels, because the background counting rate of beta rays
is greater than that of alpha ones. In the case of the data shown in Fig. 4 b, the equilibrium ratio of the
c t. l
!
< 60 mit'. c 60mi Q. ;t 60 miQ.
/\
/~
\.
~
"!
j. ....,.
,
/ ~~
\..
~
~..;:
A
1:069:061 1:082:074 1:092:083
Fig. 5. Growth curves of radon daughters activities obtained from air samples taken at some point of time during
the day
daughters is computed as 1.0/0.8/0.7. Fig. 5 presents typical growth curves from samples taken at some
point of time during the day, except for the curves of total beta and coincidence events. To find the steady
maximum value of 218Po-activity, the accumulation curves of the daughters are observed during the first
30 min, and the observed activities for the time t = 15 min are substituted into eqs. [7], [8] and [9]. The
degree of equilibrium was calculated from these curves as 1.00/0.92/0.83, 1.00/0.82/0.74 and 1.00/0.69/0.61.
As is seen from the figures, non-equilibrium exists between radon and its short-lived decay products in the
lower atmosphere. The percentage of equilibrium can vary between the limits of20 and 100, depending upon
the meteorological conditions. In this case, the degree of equilibrium of 214 Pb was higher than that of 214Bi.
In many cases, the measurements show the low degrees of equilibrium. However, the concentration of
daughters is rarely comparable to that of radon during a day.
Conclusions
1. A new method for obtaining the degree of equilibrium between radon and its daughters in the atmos-
phere was developed, such that it is possible to measure the relative concentrations of the daughters
during the first 15 minute of the sampling period.
2. The apparatus consists of a sampling head to hold the air filter mounted directly over a CsI(TI)
scintillation counter. By means of a beta-alpha delayed coincidence method and an operational counting
rate meter, the individual activities of the daughters can be determined during the sampling.
3. The first measurement was made to test the validity of this method for room air and the second one
was made for air samples outside the building. In both cases, the degree of equilibrium was obtained
successfully from the method described here. The results show that the percentage of equilibrium can
vary between the limits of 20 and 100, depending upon the meteorological conditions, and the degree
of equilibrium of 214Pb was higher than that of 214Bi.
References
1. Assaf, G. and J. R. Gat, Nucl. Instr. Methods 49, 29 (1967). - 2. Kawano, M. and S. Nakatan~ Natural Radiation
Environment, edited by Adams, Univ. of Chicago Press (1964). - 3. Lindeken, C. L., 1. Geophys. Res. 73, 2823 (1968). -
254
4. Malakhov, S. G., V. N. Bakulin, G. V. Dmitrieva, L. V. Kirichenko, T. 1. Ssissigina, and B. G. Starikov, Tellus 18, 643
(1966). - 5. Martz, D. E., D. F. Holleman, D. E. McCurdy, and K. J. Schiager, Health Physicsl7, 131 (1969). -
6. Megaw, W. J. and D. D. Wiffen, AERE-R 4211, 401 (1963). - 7. Raabe, O. G. and M. E. »Tenn, Health Physics 17,
593 (1969). - 8. Rankin, M. 0., Nucl.Instr. Methods 24, 221 (1963). - 9. Spaa, J. H., Proceedings of the second United
Nations international conference on the peaceful uses of atomic energy, United Nations Publication 2,169 (1958). -
10. Tanaka, Y., S. Iwadate, and H. Miwa, Health Physics 14, 473 (1968). - 11. Tsivoglou,E. C.,H. E. Ayer, and D. A.
Holaday, Nucleonics 11, No.9, 40 (1953). - 12. Varga, L., Nucl. Instr. Methods 14, 24 (1961).
Author's address:
S. Nakatani
Electrotechnical Laboratory
5-4-1 Mukodai-Machi, Tanashi-Shi
Tokyo, Japan
255
General Discussion
Chairman: L. Saxer and H. Dolezalek

Some remarks to the paper by Lane-Smith, regarding the radioactive collector: the first one is with regard to
his neglect of recombination. Strong recombination will take place in the space surrounding the radioactive
sphere. Also, the ion concentration depends on the wind velocity which is variable. Neglecting ion recombination
in the shell around the sphere of about 4 em thickness means that the ion concentration there cannot be determined
when wind speed is low. - The second remark is related to the fact that the potential of the radioactive probe differs
from that of its surroundings and thus an electric field does exist there. This field drives the current. According to
my experience, the radioactive probe works better if that field is rather large. Therefore, we are selecting a point as the
best form for the radioactive probe. - I missed a discussion both of recombination and on this field influence in Lane-
Smith's paper.
First, recombination. By adding this factor, our equation for the equilibrium becomes complicated. However,
we can write it:
where ex is the recombination coefficient, n is the number density of small ions, -r is the time spent by an ion in the
vicinity of the probe (= blu), S is the radioactive intensity in curies, I is the current drawn from the probe in amperes;
b is the thickness of the ionization shell (about 4 cm), and u is the wind velocity. The solution for this quadratic
equation in n is
n = {_-r- 1 + [-r- 2 + 4ex3 x 1019(S - 103J)]1/2} (2ex)-1 ;
if ex has the value 10- 12 m 3 s-1, n is given by
n = {[J + 108 S-r 2 ]1/ 2 - 1}(2 x 1O- 12 -r)-1.

As stated by Muhleisen, the effect of recombination on the value of n is important at low wind speeds. However,
at low wind speeds, the probe resistance is independent of the density of ions around the probe (straight line portion
of Fig. 1 in Lane-Smith's paper). This is so because most of the charge has already leaked off the surface ofthe conductor
and remains in the ionized region around it, screening it from the effect of the different ambient potential. Under
conditions oflow wind speed und high conductivity round the probe, the current capability of the probe is determined
by the rate at which the charge can be removed by the wind - not by the rate at which it can be conducted offthe probe
surface. - If the more complete equation, above, is used to determine the probe resistance, the recombination term
is found to have no effect at high and low wind speeds. Near the minimum of each curve, the resistance is
increased slightly above that calculated from the simpler equation in the original paper. At the worst point, the dif-
ference amounts to 10 %. Your second .remark was related to the shape ofthe collector and the field at its surface. Are
you referring to the influence producing conduction outside the region or conduction at the surface of the conductor?
Muhleisen:
The very near surroundings ofthe collector.
Lane-Smith:
In this analysis, I have ignored the effect of an outside potential gradient. I have assumed that the probe itself is at
a potential different from the ambient potential; this difference I called the driving potential. For simplicity in the
analysis, I have assumed a spherical object. I could have taken a plate as wel~ but this would be more difficult. It does
not make too much of a difference, though, because the probes one uses are of very different shapes anyway. Using
the bound charge on the probe, I have calculated the electric field. In this way, I arrive at the expression for the current
where I is the current drawn from the probe; q is the bound charge, y the conductivity at the surface, and &0 the
permittivity of free space. The bound charge q determines the field at the probe. Wigand produced an interesting
device in which he had the radioactive collector at the tip of an arrowshaped device which always pointed into the
wind, so that the stream ofionized air flowed over the plates ofthe arrow. This increased the total area.' That increases
the effective value of "a" in my equation
256
LlV (_1_ + ~)I
=
41tay SoU
where Ll V is the driving potential, a the radius of the probe, y conductivity at the probe, M is a constant depending on
probe height or separation, and u the wind speed. The increased "a" has the same effect as a stronger radioactive source.
To conclude, the shape of the probe will determine the effective value of "a" (the radius ofthe idealized probe) in the
equations. This will affect the performance of the collector at high wind speeds. Probe resistance is reduced if "a"
is increased.
Muhleisen:
First of all, I think you agree with my remark that the wind speed is important. However, in your equation you
had the wind speed in the denominator, and this is the reason for my objection. Furthermore: you are using in
your calculation a space charge density near the probe. Therefore, I cannot believe that this assumption and the
application of the space charge density in the surroundings would give good results if the electric field there is
neglected.
Lane-Smith:
You are right, of course. The analysis becomes rather difficult if the actual position of the space charge in the ionized
region is considered, and I realized that the error is small if one assumed that the space charge was uniform. Perhaps,
we do not agree on this. The point of my whole analysis is to create something tractable so that it can be analysed for
the first time. That may be simplistic - but it provides answers which agreed with my experiments. - The assump-
tion that the space charge distribution was uniform reflects to only one of three terms which influence the potential,
and its influence is only half of the influence from the trail downwind. Thus, I consider the space charge location
in the ionized region as a second order effect.
Hoppel, Washington D.C., USA:

It might be instructive to point out a few of the differences in Lane-Smith's analysis compared to ours. The first
point bears on the comment made by Muhleisen. We do find that recombination is very important, its importance
depending on the strength of the radioactive source. In our case, the loss of ions because of recombination was always
the dominant process. A solution of the equation by Lane-Smith provided during this discussion is to be found in
eq. [2] of the paper by Hill and Hoppel. In most of our analysis we neglect every term but the recombination term.
However, this may not be the same case as Lane-Smith's since we used a much weaker radioactive source. It is
certainly true in any case in a limit oflower velocities that recombination can not be neglected. - One ofthe major
differences in our analysis and Lane-Smith's concerns the distribution of space charge in the region of high con-
ductivity. Lane-Smith's treatment relates the net space charge which is blown off to the input current. The resultant
space charge is then distributed uniformly. In our treatment we assume that the space charge develops in the
conductivity gradient, and then we give an expression for the current per unit width. In this case, the space charge
pockets are developing on the top and bottom of our potential probe. When no current will be drawn, the net
space charge is zero. The requirement that no current can be drawn in a potential measurement and that equal
and opposite amounts of charge are removed by the wind has a significant consequence. If a probe is not symmetric,
a deformation of the equal potential surfaces will occur. In many cases, this may be negligible but it should be
remembered.
Saxer, Aarau, Switzerland:

According to the statements made by Lane-Smith, Hill and Hoppel, and others, the resistance of the radio-
active probe, with a source strength of some micro curies, lies between 1011 and 1012 ohms. My own measurements
confirm these values. My conclusions are: First, in order to measure the electric potential correctly, the input
resistance of the instrument must be much higher than 10 12 ohms; I would say, at least 10 14 ohms. Secondly,
with a radioactive probe we can only measure variations that are much longer than the time constant of the
probe. If these two conditions are respected, the results are correct. We have made simultaneous measurements
over a long period with a radioactive collector of about 5 microcuries, input resistance higher than 10 14 ohms,
and a field mill with a time constant about the same as for the radioactive probe. The results have not shown any
significant differences.

I suggest that interested colleagues meet Saxer afterwards for a discussion; I have seen his experiments, and
he indeed got a very clear parallelism.
257
Polk, Kingston, Rhode Island, U~A:
A brief question addressed to Lane-Smith. You indicated the effect of a metallic arrow attached to the probe.
Under these conditions, how do you calculate the field? Did you use some kind of perturbation method? You
indicated some change in the performance of the probe if that metal arrow was added.
Lane-Smith:
I was stating that if the surface area in contact with the ionized region is increased, one can get for the same
radioactivity a higher conduction current into the ionized region. Therefore, the effective resistance of the probe
is reduced.
Polk:
Yes, but the spherical symmetry is destroyed and, unless it is a minor perturbation, the calculation is not
simple anymore.
Lane-Smith:
You are right, it is not that simple anymore then.

I have just a couple of comments which I think might be illustrative. Muhleisen raised the question of the field
in the neighborhood of the collector. Hill reported that one can either operate the collector in a potential mode
or in a current mode. Some years ago, Crozier presented observations in which he measured the potential of a
wire antenna by using feedback type electronics such that no radioactivity was needed. Dolezalek then pointed out
that if electrified particles or insects strike the antenna the recovery is very slow because one has only the relaxation
time ofthe atmosphere with which to effect the draining of that charge. In the same line, I tend to echo with regard
to what Saxer just said about the required high impedance. In Africa, we had an array of two radioactive collector
antennae using electronic servos so that the potential of the antenna was always maintained in electrostatic equi-
librium with its surroundings. Thus, there was no perturbation and hence no extraneous extra field. The antennae
consisted of metallic rods protruding from a wooden post, in order to again minimize perturbations. Two of
them, each one meter long, were installed one above the other. Because of Dolezalek's comments I had decided
that we would need the radioactivity. However, when we hooked them up, I turned on the meter and got a reason-
ably looking value for the potentials at 1 and 2 meters without any radioactivity. So, I quickly went out and put
the polonium sources on and turned back on; the values were essentially unchanged. Thus, I believe that in all
these measurements if one uses active feedback one accomplishes the fact that no current is drawn from the source,
that there is no distortion of the natural field, and the time response is minimized because the effective capacitance
is reduced, too.
Dolezalek:
Before I give the floor to Lane-Smith again, I should like to venture a few words of my own. The situation we
are facing here may be a bit unique in physics developments because we are trying to explain an instrument which
has been used since may decades. Thus, we have much experience with it even if we did not understand in detail
how it works. That poses an obligation on anyone who now comes with a theory because he must be able to ex-
plain all these experiences. To just give a few examples: It seems to be necessary that the theory covers the whole
range from Crozier's passive antenna to probes with very high activity and verifies the observations made with
those. Also, the theory should be able to explain the whole current circuit from the high atmosphere through and
around the collector into the ground, in this way involving the antenna into the global circuit. To specify an
example from this latter task. We have been using the radioactive antenna to measure the atmospheric potential
with a set-up in which a current of 100 pA was flowing through the electrometer input. Looking at this naively,
we conclude that the antenna was collecting all the air-earth current from an area of about a hundred square
meters. However, if we put a second antenna a few meters away, it again measures values of the same order, thus,
the air-earth current seems still to be there. - Another example is the fact of experience that one should never
draw a current which is larger than a few percent ofthe saturation current of the radioactive material - we should
like to understand, why this is so. Or, the linearity of the probe seems to get lost if the potential becomes very large.
On the other hand, the fact that in long-extended simultaneous measurements of atmospheric potentials with one
or more radioactive antennae and air-earth current densities with one or more air-earth current antennae at the
same site you generally observe an extremely good parallelism in the medium-period variations of both potential
and current (periods of a few minutes to some tens of minutes~ seems to indicate that both the potential antennae
and the current antennae were working well under these large varieties of conditions. Again, this should be in-
vestigated and explained by a new theory to be accepted.
258
After this remark, I now should like to ask Lane-Smith to respond to the high-impedance requirement stated
by Saxer.
Lane-Smith:
If I may, I would first like to respond on one of the points raised just now by Dolezalek, namely the closed cir-
cuit that we have to deal with. In Hilfs and Hoppel's paper the statement was quite clear. The two probes were
producing plumes of opposite signs and where they join the current circuit is closed. If one has the probe above
ground with a plume extending downwind, one gets all the way under the plume a distortion of the natural electric
field and the current thus generated closes the circuit. The point is, however, that this is not driven by the iono-
spheric potential, it is a wind-driven current; the energy being taken from the wind.
Dolezalek:
I do not think that this answers my question, but above all I did not intend to ask for responses to my points within
the present discussion. Judged from former experience, we would spend hours in discussion before we could
arrive at some satisfying conclusion.
Lane-Smith:
I did not catch on Hilfs and Hoppefs paper the units, but I think it was something like this. They had a graph
of current versus wind speed for different driving voltages (Fig. 3 of the paper by Hill and Hoppel). This is basic-
ally not in contradiction with my own results. I had only plotted them in a different way - but this is only half
the point. If one plots driving voltage versus current I, for different wind speeds, one gets a figure like Fig. 5 of
the paper by Lane-Smith. Actually, this figure which is from early measurements made by Markson and myself,
is for one wind speed and different source strengths. The slope may be interpreted as a resistance. Hilfs and
Hoppel's results show the straight part of Fig.4 from Lane-Smith's paper, namely that the resistance is a
function of the wind speed, reducing if speed increases. They did not show that, depending on the strength of
radioactivity, the slope changes and eventually becomes opposite in sign. The r.esistance goes through a minimum
and then rises towards higher values at higher wind speeds. This is because the wind is then moving the ions
away much faster than anything else.
Dolezalek:
At this point we close the discussion on the radioactive collector in order to have some time for the
discussion of other papers, especially on the air-earth current measurements.
I'd like to comment on Hutchinson's presentation which I thought was quite significant for the following
reasons. I think we should pay more attention to measurements over the ocean. Measurements evidently are
being made of air-earth current density over the ocean. Evidence exists indicating that there is a fairly dense layer
of space charge within 100 to 150 m of the ocean surface. The highest density is close to the sea were shipboard
measurements would be obtained. There is also considerable turbulent mixing. Thus, the very mechanism
Hutchinson describes would be quite important, I believe, in masking a conduction current in a measurement over
the sea. There are the proper ingredients for the effect he has described.
Ette, Ib'l.dan, Nigeria:
I want to find out from Hutchinson whether there was any investigation on the uniformity of the space charge
density over the direction of flow. It has been shown theoretically that in an arrangement in which there is ad-
vection of space charge, you can have vertical currents of advection, jointly proportional to the wind speed, and
the horizontal gradient of the potential gradient over the plate. So, if in fact there was' a gradient of space charge
density over the plate during the charge flow, it might well be possible that what Hutchinson calls mechanical
transfer current is, in fact, a result from this effect.
In reply to Ette, we did not make a survey of space charge density in the horizontal either in the field or the
laboratory experiments. I can't say certainly that Ette's analysis would apply to this situation. He was concerned
with non-turbulent conditions. Whether or not his analysis does apply in this situation, the same kind of results
were obtained by us both in the field and in the laboratory. So, even if our interpretation is wrong, I think
that there is something which we need to look at in the field experiments.
Stringfellow, Llanferres, Mold, United Kingdom:
I first of all have a comment with regard to the paper by Hutchinson and then a question. Several people, includ-
ing myself, have attempted to shield plate antennas from the electric field using wire mesh, and we have had
259
similar effects to those reported by Hutchinson; that is, you do measure currents which perhaps originate from
space charges. But, I also have a question regarding the experimental technique used in the laboratory and
that is: when you apply a sufficiently high voltage across two plates, you'll not measure a conduction current
because you will be in the saturation region. You'll only be removing the ions as fast as they are produced; and,
when you introduce space charge, you're also introducing ionization. So perhaps, what· Dayaratna measured
in the laboratory was only a conduction current produced by the introduction of space charge ionization and not
the space charge convection current. Could the currents measured have been due to conduction as a result of the
increased conductivity?
Hutchinson:
I must acknowledge my indebtedness to Stringfellow for giving me warning of this question. The usual con-
centration of positive and negative ions at our particular field station corresponded to about 200 pC m - 3 for
positive and roughly 200 pC m - 3 for negative ions. These are typical values. The difference between these two
quantities is what we call "space charge concentration" and it is typically about 1/10 of either of those, in other
words about 20 pC m- 3 • The conduction current, therefore, which we observed, even if it were due to what
Stringfellow suggests, would not be greater than the typical value in the atmosphere. Mr. Chairman, I wonder
if I might show one slide which, perhaps, I should have shown before.
Remark: Hutchinson then showed a slide and commented. Measuring results were represented o~ the slide,
and he said:
Hutchinson:
At the top you have current plotted against air speed. The units are in terms of 10- 8 A m - 2. The maximum
value is ten times that, 10- 7, which is 4 or 5 orders of magnitude greater than the usual current density in the
atmosphere. The two curves I and II refer to air flow decreasing and air flow increasing respectively. These, I
think, are due to air flow measurement complications. The top curves are for zero potential gradient. The
middle set of curves are for potential gradient of 100 V1m. The last set are for potential gradient of 1000 Vim.
You see that there is no difference when we have a low potential gradient. The dependence is always entirely on
wind speed.
Markson:
In wanted to comment on the implication of one of Maynard Hill's statements that horizontal fields did not
exist I think that perhaps this was due to the lack of sensitivity of the measuring system. If one can get down to
measurements in the range of fraction of one to a few V1m, one can measure horizontal fields due to convection
within the exchange layer. We have been attempting to use these for detection of thermals to improve soaring
efficiency. They have been measured from an airplane and a sail plane in the thermal detection research. Manfred
Reinhardt should be mentioned, also, for having made similar measurements from a sail plane. By such a vehicle
horizontal field measurements maybe easier to obtain. Because of the lack of engine-produced charge on the
airframe it is easier to detect the signal. The problem in picking up the vertical field and the limitation of the
signal-to-noise ratio is how smoothly the vehicle can be flown so that variations of the vertical distance between
the probes is minimized.
Few:
I just wanted to comment that we have developed a new method of directly measuring air-earth current at
Rice University. I do not want to go into detail on it. It is a direct method using a hemisphere pair suspended above
the surface of the earth working on a similar principle to the balloon program that we described earlier. Here
the system is maintained nearly stationary so that the displacement current due to movements is very small.
Thereby, we get readings of the air-earth current that flow into the top of the hemisphere and out the bottom
hemisphere to the ground underneath. The system attains the local atmospheric potential. We have operated this
instrument in the field for 3 months and have data that is consistent with the measurements of other people.
We are anxious now, to do comparison tests of this type of an instrument with grounded plates. Many of the
problems encountered with other devices used to measure the air-earth current, for instance the convection
current problem, are overcome by this instrument. The diameter of the hemisphere pair is 30 cm, the eddy cells
that were described earlier as wiping positive current on the surface of the grounded plate will in this case be
wiping positive current on both sides of the hemisphere. On the average, or with the time constant of 2,000 seconds
or of this order, the convection current should be zero, in this type of instrument.
260
Dolezalek:
We should not forget that we are still plagued with the problem that has plagued Alan Chalmers in his last
years very much, the simple fact that as soon as we apply metallic electrodes we cannot expect that any ions
can escape. To the upper part of your antenna only positive ions and to the lower part only negative ions are
intercepted.
Muhleisen:
Thank you very much for the opportunity to make some remarks to the shielded antenna net, in order to check
measurements of convection or conduction currents or the zero point of this device. During the check of our
net with which we measured the vertical current over the ocean, we detected once again the effect of the Volta
potential of nets of different kinds of metal. The Volta potential can be measured - I think after an idea of
Dolezalek himsel[ I would like to draw your attention to this·Vo-l(a potential because, in any case, if you shield
a net for measuring the air-earth current density by a metal of different kind you have to take in account the
Volta potential. It can disturb your measurement accuracy very strongly.
Dolezalek:
Even more dangerous is the fact that one ofthe metal plates may be covered by a little bit of water. The difference
in work function between most metals and that of water is in the order of 3 volts.
Chairmen's addresses:
L. Saxer H. Dolezalek
Luftelektrische Station 1812 Drury Lane
FeerstraBe 3 Alexandria, Virginia 22307
CH-5000 Aarau USA
Switzerland
261
Session 4
CLOUD PHYSICS,
NON-CONVECTIVE CLOUDS AND PRECIPITATION
Some Electrical Effects in Clouds *)
J. Latham
With 4 tables
Abstract
A discussion is presented of various ways in which electric forces may modify microphysical processes occurring
in natural clouds. These include: electrofreezing, possibly induced by cavitation; changes in terminal velocity
resulting from the deformation of drops in electric fields; the influence of electric fields or charges on the vibra-
tional frequencies of drops; the production of condensation nuclei by. the Rayleigh bursting of solution droplets;
and the influence of electric forces on collision, coalescence and aggregation efficiencies. It is concluded that none
of these processes are likely to be of significance in the development of precipitation.
The comprehensive field researches of Reiter and Imyanitov and their colleagues on the electrical properties
of clouds which do not produce lightning are reviewed. Several relationships between electrical and other mete-
orological characteristics have been identified and it seems feasible that electrical measurements may serve as
sensitive indicators of cloud properties and behaviour in some circumstances.
Introduction
This article has two rather distinct objectives. First, to discuss the various ways in which basic micro-
physical processes occurring within clouds may be modified by electrical forces. Second, to review
current knowledge of the electrical properties of clouds which do not produce lightning.
The first topic has been discussed in detail by Latham (1968) and Saunders (1971) and, in fact, has
yielded rather little new information in the past few years. Consequently, it has been decided to con-
centrate upon problems which have developed significantly since the last conference was held and
which may exercise a significant influence upon the properties of clouds. Consideration is omitted,
therefore, of effects such as: the rapid growth of ice crystals by vapour diffusion in the presence of strong
electric fields; electrically-driven air motions; and the influence of charges on the nucleating behaviour
of small particles. Other effects are excluded from discussion on the grounds that they will be treated
in detail in other sections of the present conference. These include: mechanical or electrical deformation
of raindrops, which may trigger lightning strokes; the modifications to the terminal fall velocities of
hydrometeors - and associated precipitation currents - resulting from the interactions of their charges
with the ambient electric field; advertent modification of cloud properties by electrical means; and the
feedback processes in which the existence of electrical forces affects charge separation processes within
clouds.
The second topic is one in which it has been traditional to make detailed measurements of a very
small number of parameters, often one or two. For example, numerous workers have recorded the
*) Invited Paper.
263
charges carried by hydrometeors, or perhaps the charge-size relationship exhibited by cloud particles.
In this way a substantial body of useful knowledge has been built up. However, it has become increasingly
apparent that such studies have possessed the severe limitation of being insufficiently comprehensive.
It is now recognised that in order to understand fully the electrical behaviour and development of
clouds and precipitation we require knowledge of the dynamical motions and the microphysical and
electrical properties throughout the volume and duration of the cloud. Accordingly, the rather sweeping
decision was taken to concentrate attention on those field studies which have been sufficiently compre-
hensive to provide information on the interlinking of these important cloud properties. An exception
to this rule is that discussion is presented of some more limited studies designed to answer a specific
question or to test a particular hypothesis. Recently proposed charging mechanisms which may be
important in clouds which do not produce lightning are also discussed, but instrumental developments
are excluded, as being of more relevance to a separate session of this conference.
The Influence of Electrical Effects on Cloud Microphysical Processes
The possibility that the freezing of supercooled water drops can be nucleated by electric forces in
conditions which occur within clouds has been investigated by many workers and discussed by
Pruppacher (1963, 1973). The contradictory evidence resulting from a series of studies, most of which
were highly rudimentary, was apparently clarified by a detailed series of experiments conducted by
Smith et al. (1971). In this work supercooled drops of radius around 2 mm and temperature ranging
from 0 to - 12 °C were detached from a support and could be disrupted as they fell subsequently into
a region of intense electric field. Photographs showed that whereas no freezing occurred if the drops
were not disrupted the fraction of drops that froze increased steadily from 0 at about - 5 °C to around
0.6 at - 10 C if they were disrupted. The passage of a spark to the drops during disruption did not
0
affect the freezing probability. A further series of experiments on bulk supercooled water and drops
suspended from mechanical supports indicated that nucleation was initiated by means of cavitation.
This conclusion was reinforced by high speed photographs showing the production and collapse of
cavity bubbles when disruption occurred and indicating strongly that freezing was initiated from the
sites of these bubbles at the time oftheir collapse. However, Dawson and Cardell (1973) performed some
careful experiments in which supercooled water drops of about 1.5 mm radius were suspended aero-
dynamically in a vertical wind tunnel at temperatures between - 8 °C and - 15 °C. Drops were stressed
electrically by the application of a steady uniform vertical field of magnitude up to and including that
causing instability. The collision of supercooled drops, charged and uncharged, with and without
external fields was also studied, as was the effect of the age of the corona products from a metal point
at high potential. In no case was an increase in freezing probability observed. The results of these two
series of carefully conducted and comprehensive experiments are therefore seriously in conflict. Sub-
sidiary studies showed that the results of Smith et al. were not attributable to such spurious effects as the
increased capture probability of charged freezing nuclei present in the surrounding air, or nucleation
by solid surfaces or other means prior to detachment from the support. However, it is possible that their
drops contained particulate matter, not present in the experiments of Dawson and Cardell, which
acted as cavitation sites to promote freezing when the drop was violently disrupted by the electric
field; this effect may have been accentuated by the facts that in the experiments of Smith et al. the drops
fell, while still accelerating, from a region of zero field into one in which the field strength was somewhat
in excess of the electrohydrodynamical disruption value. Although these discrepancies are not fully
resolved the fact that the experiments of Dawson and Cardell were performed in conditions which
more closely resembled the natural situation suggests that electrofreezing does not occur inside clouds
in any commonly prevailing situations. One may safely conclude that electrofreezing, if it occurs in
clouds at all, requires immense fields that exist only when the cloud has reached full maturity and large
hydrometeors, both solid and liquid, have already been produced. One cannot conceive, therefore, of
any situation in which electrofreezing could modify a cloud in any significant manner, except to trans-
form raindrops into hailstones in the immediate vicinity of a lightning stroke; which seems remotely
264
possible, and could give rise to a 'hail gush' of the type reported by Vonnegut and Moore (1960) and
Moore et al. (1962, 1964).
An interesting series of experiments has been conducted by Richards and Dawson (1971, 1973) and
Dawson and Warrender (1973) in which the terminal velocities of large water drops suspended in an air
stream has been measured as a function of the strength of the vertical electric field in which they are
situated. Clearly, if a drop is elongated by the electric forces in the direction of the field vector its cross-
sectional area perpendicular to the air flow will be reduced, with a corresponding decrease of drag
coefficient and increase of terminal velocity. In their experiments with uncharged drops Dawson and
Warrender found a change in terminal velocity of about 0.1 m sec- 1 per 100 kV/m increment in field,
with indications of changes of similar magnitude in oblique electric fields. If the drops had carried
appreciable charges, as would generally be the case in thunderclouds the changes would probably be
even smaller. These changes in velocity are considerably less than those resulting from altitude varia-
tions or the electrostatic forces on charged raindrops in high fields, and Dawson and Warrender con-
cluded that a vertically pointing pulsed Doppler radar could not therefore be used, on this velocity-
change principle, to locate regions of high vertical electric field in thunderclouds. It is perhaps worth
remarking at this point that recent calculations of Griffiths (private communication) demonstrate
convincingly that the conventional use of Doppler radar to determine precipitation rates will be grossly
inaccurate in strongly electrified clouds where some highly charged raindrops or hailstones will be
drastically slowed down, levitated or even driven upwards by the strong electric forces.
A more promising technique for the remote sensing of regions of strong electric field in thunderclouds
is possibly provided by the vibration of raindrops, which produces fluctuations in the radar return
signal. Brook and Latham (1968) have shown that, in principle, size distributions of raindrops can be
determined from a study of these fluctuations, and it may therefore, also be possible to locate regions
of strong field in clouds since the vibrational frequencies of drops depend on their charges and the
field-strength. Pressure was used by Brazier-Smith et al. (1971) as the principal parameter in calculations
of the fundamental vibrational frequencies of spherical drops of radius R, density p, and surface tension
T carrying a charge Q, or uncharged spheriodal drops of axial ratio alb situated in a uniform electric
field of strength E. Freely vibrating charged drops have a frequency
f=fo(1 - Q2/167tR3T)1/2,
as shown previously by Rayleigh using energy considerations; fo is the vibrational frequency of non-
electrified drops. The fundamental frequency of an uncharged drop in an electric field will decrease
with increasing field strength and deformation alb and will equal zero when E(RIT)1/2 = 1.625 and
alb = 1.86; these critical values correspond to the disintegration conditions derived by Taylor (1964).
An interferometric technique involving a laser confirmed the accuracy of the calculations concerned
with charged drops. The vibration of water drops of radius around 2 mm was studied over a wide range
oftemperatures as they fell through electric fields either by suspending them in a vertical wind tunnel or
allowing them to fall between a pair of vertical electrodes. Photographic analysis of the vibrations
revealed good agreement between theory and experiment over the entire range of conditions studied
even though the larger drops were not accurately spheroidal and the amplitude of the vibrations was
large. Further confirmation of the charged-drop predictions was provided by the wind-tunnel experi-
ments of Saunders and Wong (1974). Even in the highest fields expected to occur within thunderclouds
the predicted changes in the vibrational frequency of large raindrops do not exceed about 20 per cent.
The employment of such an effect in the remote sensing of high fields in thunderclouds will therefore
pose some severe technological problems.
Doyle, Moffet and Vonnegut (1964) and others have studied the behaviour of small charged drops
which evaporate down to the Rayleigh limit and then catastrophically eject mass and charge. In some
recent experiments, Crabb and Latham (1972) investigated the possibility that the Rayleigh bursting
of droplets of NaCI solution may introduce into the atmosphere significant quantities of condensation
nuclei in the form of very small solution droplets. Drops of NaCl solution produced by the bursting of
bubbles at a liquid surface were suspended electrically until they had evaporated to the Rayleigh thresh-
old, and specially coated strips were employed to detect any ejected material. Despite the lack of
265
definitive evidence the experiments and supporting calculations indicated that, on average, between
10 and 20 droplets of radius around 1 Ilm were ejected at each disintegration. Further calculations
suggested that although the Rayleigh bursting of charged sea-water droplets produced by bubble-burst-
ing at the ocean surface will be a very rare event, disintegration of solution droplets at the edges of or
during the dissipation of strongly electrified clouds will occur much more frequently. However, it must
be concluded that although Rayleigh disruption may provide additional NaCI condensation nuclei in
certain unusual circumstances it will not be of major significance in cloud formation in any situations
occurring in the atmosphere.
Subsequent to the detailed reviews by Latham (1968, 1969a) of the extensive information on the
collision efficiencies of cloud droplets in the presence of electric forces little work has been performed
which relates to the possibility that the coalescence process may be promoted electrically. However,
some 'best estimates' of collision efficiencies, including the influence of charges and fields ranging from
zero to those found in mature thunderclouds, have been made by Sartor (1970) and incorporated into
calculations of instantaneous mass accretion rates of the full range of cloud drop and raindrop sizes, an
embryonic hailstone, and two larger hailstones. The implication drawn from these calculations is that
instantaneous particle mass growth rate in the continued quasi steady-state phase of precipitation
growth in mature thunderstorms or electric fields of several tens of thousand volts per meter can be
speeded up by more than an order of magnitude by electrical forces when all particles involved are less
than 100 Ilm. The effect decreases with increasing particle size. It seems reasonable to conclude that
although the electric fields are too weak in the early stages of cloud development to promote the coales-
cence process they may well be sufficiently intense in the mature stage of highly electrified clouds to
increase appreciably the rate at which large precipitation particles are being formed.
A stimulus to some studies of the effect of electric forces on the coalescence process has been the radar
reflectivity observations of Moore and Vonnegut (1960). They estimate that the collision efficiencies of
raindrops in highly electrified clouds are four to ten times those normally observed and computed in
the absence of electrical forces. However, their interpretation of the radar data has been challenged by
Brazier-Smith et al. (1973) who argue that it can be explained entirely in terms of non-electrical cloud
microphysics. Further discussion of this question by Moore and Vonnegut (1973) has resulted in a rather
fluid situation in which it is possible neither to confirm nor deny categorically that there exists observa-
tional evidence demonstrating that the rate of rainfall development can be significantly affected by
electric forces.
Brazier-Smith et al. (1972), as a subsidiary part of investigations into the coalescence of colliding drops
in the radius range 150-750 Ilm, studied the influence of charge carried by the drops on their coales-
cence efficiencies. In some circumstances appreciable increases were found, as had also been reported
by earlier workers in less controlled conditions. For example, the coalescence efficiency of equally
sized drops of radius 500 Ilm colliding with a relative velocity of 1.5 m sec -1 was 0.2 when their charge
was zero, increased steadily to about 0.45 as their equal and opposite charges were raised to 3 pC and
then remained constant as the charge was increased further. As expected, the effect of the charges was
found to be greater for lower velocity interactions. A real but minor effect of electric forces in enhancing
the coalescence efficiencies of raindrops will be therefore to reduce the rate of increase of precipitation
intensity within clouds and the loss of water by evaporation as a rainshaft falls from cloud-base to the
ground.
Latham (1969b) conducted some field studies in Yellowstone Park of the effect of electric forces on
the growth of liquid and solid cloud particles by coalescence, accretion and aggregation. It was found
that electric fields could exercise a marked influence upon the growth rates of ice particles exposed to
ice crystals, ice spheres exposed to supercooled droplets and water drops exposed to cloud droplets
at temperatures warmer than 0 C. In all cases where the measured growth in the presence of a field was
0
significantly different from that in the absence of a field the function of the field was to accelerate the
growth rate. The aggregation of ice crystals was found to be unaffected by fields F below about 50 kV m- 1
but the growth rate increased rapidly as F was increased above this value and attained about twice the
field-free value at 150 kV m -1. In view of the large size of the ice crystals, the primary effect of the field
was probably to increase the aggregation efficiency, not the collision cross-section. The most significant
266
effect of electric forces on the growth of solid or liquid particles by the collection of droplets was to
produce a rapid increase in the growth rates as F increased above a threshold value of about 100 kV m -1.
The growth rate at F = 160 kV m- 1 was typically about twice the field-free value. The observed en-
hancement of the growth rate in these high fields was probably a consequence of increased collision
efficiencies.
Latham and Saunders (1970) have made detailed laboratory studies of the aggregation of ice crystals
of mean diameter about 5 11m upon an ice sphere of diameter 0.2 cm at the same temperature. The
growth rate was found to be roughly independent of temperature over the range - 7 ° C to - 27 °C
and increased with electric field strength E to exceed the field-free value by about 15 per cent, 40 per
cent, 80 per cent, in fields of 50, 100 and 150 kV m -1, respectively. At higher values of E the growth-
rate was reduced because of the ejection of clusters of ice crystals from the aggregate, probably under
the influence of the intense electric forces. An appreciable amount of aggregation was observed at
temperatures as low as - 37°C, in the presence or in the absence of electric fields. Absolute values of
collection efficiencies at a velocity of 3 m s - 1 were determined at the temperatures - 7 °C, - 11 C , 0
- 17°C and - 27 0c. In the absence of an electric field collection efficiencies of about 0.3 were deter-
mined at all temperatures studied. Experiments with charged ice crystals indicated that electric fields
increase the growth rate by increasing the adhesion efficiency and not the collision efficiency.
The foregoing discussion has revealed a variety of mechanisms by which electric forces may influence
the microphysical properties of clouds, particularly those in which strong electric fields exist. However,
we are forced to the rather disappointing conclusion that there is no known process by which electric
forces can exercise a crucial influence on the formation and growth of hydrometeors.
Electrical Properties of Clouds Which do Not Produce Lightning
As mentioned in the introduction the somewhat arbitrary decision was taken to restrict discussion
of observational work to those few studies in which a considerable number of the electrical properties
of clouds have been measured simultaneously. This means that many worthwhile experiments, such as
those of Takahashi (1972), Takahashi, Uchida and Fullerton (1969), Takahashi and Fullerton (1972) and
Takahashi and Craig (1973) have been omitted from consideration. It is fortunate that some compensa-
tion for the incompleteness of this review is afforded by the very comprehensive assessment by Imyanitov,
Chubarina and Shvartz (1972) of the existing state of knowledge in the entire field of cloud electrification.
The two papers describing recent field research into clouds which do not produce lightning, which
have been selected for the present discussion are those of Reiter (1972) and Imyanitov (1972).
Reiter has made a series of extremely thorough and extensive field investigations of many electrical
problems during the past 25 years or so. Much of this work has been summarised in the paper referenced
(Reiter, 1972). He has made simultaneous observations of various electrical parameters from up to four
stations located at different altitudes; the valley floor at Garmisch-Partenkirchen, 740 a.s.l.; Wank
Peak (1780 a.s.l.), the laboratory being situated on the slightly rounded top of a relatively isolated
mountain exposed to winds from all directions; the summit of the Zugspitze (3000 m): and from a cable
car running between 1000 m and 3000 m. His studies have been characterised by advantageous features
such as meticulous attention to detail, uniformity of measuring technique at all stations, careful calibra-
tion and re-checking of information and centralised processing of all data obtained. His studies may
therefore be regarded not only as more comprehensive but also more trustworthy than the great majority
of field investigations.
Reiter described studies of the atmospheric electrical conditions and processes existing from 700 to
3000 m a. s.l. during various types of precipitation. The relation between potential gradient E or point
discharge current i, and precipitation current density I, could be represented by regression lines whose
character during steady precipitations is independent of the kind of precipitation or altitude a. s.l. The
precipitation rate played only a subordinate part and did not control the character of the above men-
tioned relations. During steady precipitations the polarities of E, I and i were determined by the physical
state of the precipitations. During snowfall E and i were positive and I negative; during rainfall, the
opposite signs applied. A sign reversal took place when snow particles melted in free fall, which as an
267
average, occurred at + 1.1 °e. The well-known mirror image effect applied as a rule rather than an
exact law. A number of observations regarding deviations from the strict mirroring of the values in-
dicated that the theory can not be valid which claims that high primary values of E would trigger point
discharges which, in turn, generate ions that are captured by precipitation, with the result that E and I
proceed in a mirror-inverted manner. The truth is that by processes of precipitation electricity, E is
primarily influenced, and i secondarily. The charge on cloud bases, except in thunderstorms, was found
to be irrelevant to precipitation electrical processes. In precipitation, the behaviour of the atmospheric
electrical quantities was governed by the precipitation physical processes in the most immediate vicinity
of the observation site. The above mentioned polarities of the atmospheric electric quantities during
precipitation were found to be applicable only to steady precipitation. If the atmospheric stability
decreased below a certain threshold value polarity changes of the atmospheric electrical quantities
occurred which had nothing to do with the physical state nor with the electric charge on the cloud base
(except in thunderstorms). It was discovered that the frequency of the polarity changes may be presented
as a function of the exchange intensity above the station, as shown in Table 1. Reiter points out that
this relation affords a useful practical technique for determining the degree of turbulence in the air
overhead; thereby permitting early recognition, for example, of the likelihood of shower formation or
thunderstorm development.
Table 1. The relation between the frequency f of polarity changes of field strength during precipitation, and the
vertical exchange coefficient A between 1800 and 3000 m a.s.l. (from Reiter, 1972)
A (kg m- I sec-I)
f 100% of 90% of 70% of

(hour-I) cases cases cases
< 0.5 < 1.9 < 1.5 < 1.0

<1 < 2.9 < 1.9 <1.1
1 --> 1.5 1.0 --> 9.0 1.3 --> 7.0 1.7 --> 5.0
1.5 --> 2 2.5 --> 20.0 3.5 --> 15.0 4.0 --> 12.0
2 --> 2.5 4.0 --> 34.0 5.0 --> 26.0 7.0 --> 20.0
2.5 --> 3 9.0 --> 50.0 10.0 --> 50.0 20.0 --> 50.0
3 -->4 10.0 --> 50.0 20.0 --> 50.0 36.0 --> 50.0
Imyanitov et al. (1972) have summarised the results of many airborne studies of the electrical char-
acteristics of stratiform and non-precipitating convective clouds performed in the USSR; a particularly
detailed investigation was made by Imyanitov and Chubarina (1970). Measurements of the vertical
component E of the electric field were made using an aircraft which spiralled upwards at between 4
and 5 m sec-I. The horizontal velocity was such that their averaging of E over vertical displacements
of 100 m (giving values of E) corresponded to simultaneous averaging in the horizontal of about 3 to
4 km. The values E were found to follow a log-normal distribution for all types of cloud studied, but it
can be seen from Table 2 that the average, median and maximum values of E varied according to cloud-
type and average cloud thickness AZ.
Imyanitov et al. emphasise the point, apparent in Table 2, that whereas the average values of field
show only a slight variation with cloud-type and AZ, the dispersion and, particularly, the maximum
fields encountered increase rapidly with increasing cloud thickness. Individual clouds of a particular
type could have values of Eav' Emed and E max which differed greatly from the average values for that
type presented in Table 2. The sensitivity of the field strength to the cloud thickness was found to be
more marked in lower latitudes, flights being made around Kiev and Tashkent, as well as Leningrad.
The fields were also larger in summer than in winter. Analysis of 140 flights through warm stratocumulus
clouds around Leningrad revealed four types of charge distribution: positively polarised ( ± ) (72 cases);
negatively polarised (+) (20 cases); unipolar ( + ) (38 cases); unipolar ( - ) (10 cases). When clouds of all
268
Table 2. The variations of the arithmetic average EaV' median Emed and maximum Emax values of electric field
encountered in clouds of various types in the vicinity of Leningrad; (J is the dispersion; [(from Imyanitov and
Chubarina, (1970)]
Cloud LIz Eav Emed E max (J
Type (m) (V/m) (V/m) (kV/m) (dB)
St 450 + 60 100 2-3 8

Sc 500 130 80 2-3 9
Ac 500 100 40 5 11
As 1300 200 100 20 13
Ns 2700 300 150 40 13
Cb 5000 280 17
Table 3. The average thickness (in metres) of clouds of different types possessing various electrical structures
(from Imyanitov and Chubarina, 1965)
Cloud Unipolar clouds Bipolar clouds Multipolar

type clouds
+ - ± =+=
St 200 200 450 450 700

Sc 260 250 400 450 700
As 650 700 800 900 1500
Ns 650 700 950 1600 2000
types were studied it was found that, in general, they changed successively from a unipolar to a bipolar
to a mUltipolar structure as their thickness increased. This point is illustrated in Table 3.
Imyanitovet al. report that the largest values offield strength are found in clouds which contain both
ice and water, the fields being particularly intense in the region lying between the - 10 0 C and 0 0 C
isotherms. Regions of positive charge associated with precipitation are found in the lower parts of the
clouds, or beneath them. These clouds are usually bipolar and can be of either sign.
Imyanitov et al. have provided some interesting information on electrical inhomogeneities in clouds,
which must bear some relation to the parameter 'frequency of polarity changes' used by Reiter (1972),
as discussed earlier, as an indicator of atmospheric stability. They define the inhomogeneity tJEjE as
the ratio of the maximum deviation of the field on a selected vertical path, tJE, to the average value,
E; inhomogeneities in the horizontal were found to be small in comparison with those in the vertical.
They present values of the median degree of inhomogeneity (tJEjE)med and the maximum degree
(tJEjE)max - a calculated value, determined on the basis of the observed log-normal distribution of
inhomogeneities, which corresponds to an encountering probability of less than 0.1 /;;. Values of
(tJEjE)med and (tJEjE)max are displayed in Table 4. We see that the median values of the inhomogeneities
Table 4. Values of the median and maximum degrees of

electrical inhomogeneity, (L1E/E)mcd and (L1E/E)max for
various cloud types (from Imyanitov et aI., 1972)
Cloud (L1E/E)med (.1 EjE) max

type % %
Sc 25 350
Ns 22 300
Cb 17 1500
269
in the various clouds are fairly similar, having a value of about 20%. However, the maximum inhomo-
geneities existing in the much deeper and electrically active cumulonimbus clouds are seen to be con-
siderably greater than in nimbostratus or stratocumulus clouds. Imyanitov et al. have also studied the
size distributions of zones of inhomogeneity - defined as the vertical distance between adjacent ex-
trema - in various types of cloud. They find an inverse relation between the degree of electrical intensity
and Zm' size of the most frequently encountered zones. For example, in clear weather Zm lay between
100 and 500 m, in stratocumulus between 50 and 400 m and in nimbostratus between 50 and 200 m.
The variability of E observed by Imyanitov et al. was appreciably greater than that observed from
mountain stations by Pudovkina and Sedimov (1963) and Reiter (1968).
Imyanitov et al. have also reviewed current knowledge of the electrical properties of both non-pre-
cipitating cumulus clouds and of cumulonimbus clouds. However, the former topic will not be discussed
herein because the great majority of the work described was conducted prior to the preceding conference,
and the latter is excluded on the grounds that it will be treated in another session ofthe present meeting.
There is no doubt that recent research on clouds which do not produce lightning, particularly by
Reiter and Imyanitov et aI., has revealed novel and important characteristics. Nevertheless, we are
forced to conclude that we lack a detailed description of the overall electrical behaviour of such clouds,
and that our knowledge of the basic charging mechanisms operative within them is extremely rudiment-
ary. A complete understanding of these clouds, which may be important in connection with the electrical
budget of the atmosphere, must wait on the performance of even more comprehensive studies than
have so far been conducted.
Finally we mention recent research on two forms of the general inductive mechanism of cloud electri-
fication, formulated in detail by Sartor (1967), which throw light on the possible processes by which
fields may develop or be dissipated within clouds which do not produce lightning.
Jennings (private communication) has conducted experiments in which water drops of precipitation
dimensions fall through a fairly monodisperse cloud of much smaller droplets in the presence of a
polarizing vertical electrical field E. The charge Q acquired by the drops as a result of the collision with
and separation from droplets was measured over a range of values of E. It was found that Q increased
steadily with increasing E up to a value of 15 or 20 kV m -1 but then started to decrease reaching a value
of zero at E ~ 30 kV m -1. At this point it was assumed that the separation probability f - which was
about 1% when E = 5 kV m -1 and about 4 % when E = 22 kV m -1 - had fallen to zero as a result of
the increased ease of coalescence in strong electric fields. This charging process, operating through the
collisions of raindrops and cloud droplets, could therefore be responsible for producing fields of moderate
strength in some clouds, but field-growth would cease when the self-limiting value of about 30 kV m- 1
had been achieved.
Studies were made by Jennings and Latham (1972) of the charge transfer resulting from the collision
and separation of water drops falling in an electric field. The charge transfer q was measured for a range
of values of field strength E, impact velocity V, drop radii R, r, radius ratio Rlr, and angle () between
the field and the line of centres of the drops at the moment of separation. Two uniformly sized drop-
streams were ejected from hypodermic needles by modulating the flow of water through them and then
collided between a pair of electrodes across which a potential difference existed. The drops coalesced
temporarily, swung around each other and separated, each resulting stream being collected ina vessel
connected to an electrometer in order to measure the charge. The measured values of q were generally
in good agreement with basic induction theory. Calculations based on this work, the Marshall-Palmer
drop-size distribution, and established values of separation probabilities of colliding drops showed
that collisions between raindrops within electrified clouds will act powerfully to dissipate the existing
fields.
References
1. Brazier-Smith, P. R., M. Brook, J. Latham, C. P. R. Saunders, and M. H. Smith, Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 322, 523
(1971). - 2. Brazier-Smith, P. R., S. G. Jennings, and J. Latham, Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 326, 393 (1972). - 3. Brazier-
Smith P. R., S. G. Jennings, and J. Latham, Quart.J. R.Met.Soc. 99,776 (1973). - 4. Brook, M., and D. J. Latham,
J. Geophys. Res. 73, 7137 (1968). - 5. Crabb, J. A., and J. Latham, J. Rech. Atmos. 36, 79 (1972). - 6. Dawson, G. A.,
270
and G. R. Cardell, J. Geophys. Res. 78, 8864 (1973). - 7. Dawson, G. A., and R. A. Warrender, J. Geophys. Res.
78, 3619 (1973). - 8. Doyle, A., D. R. Moffet, and B. Vonnegut, J. Coil. Sci. 19, 136 (1964). - 9. lmyanitov, I. M., and
Yeo V. Chubarina, "Electricity of the free atmosphere", Leningrad Gidrometeoizdat Press (1965); English transla-
tion: Israel Program for Scientific Translations, TT 67-51374 (Jerusalem, 1967). - 10. Imyanitov, I. M., and Yeo V.
Chubarina, "Integral electrical characteristics of stratiform clouds", Trudy GGO, No. 252 (1970). -11. Imyanitov,
I. M., Yeo V. Chubarina, and Ya. Shvartz, "Electricity of clouds", NASA Technical Translation NASA TT F-718
(1972). - 12. Jennings, S. G., and J. Latham, Arch. Met. BiokJ., A, 21, 299 (1972). - 13. Latham, J., "Influence of
electrical forces on cloud physical phenomena", 'Planetary electrodynamics', Vol. 1,359 (Gordon and Breach,
1968). - 14. Latham, J., Rep. Prog. Phys. 32, 69 (1969a). - 15. Latham, J., Quart.1. R. Met. Soc. 95. 349 (1969b). -
16. Latham, J., and C. P. R. Saunders, Quart. J. R. Met. Soc. 96, 257 (1970). - 17. Moore, C. B., and B. Vonnegut,
"Estimates of raindrop collection efficiencies in electrified clouds". 'Physics of Precipitation' Monograph 5,
AGU, Wash. D.C. 291 (1960). -18. Moore, C. B., B. Vonnegut, J. A. Machado, and J. J. Survilas, J. Geophys. Res.
67,207 (1962). - 19. Moore, C. B., B. Vonnegut, E. A. Vrablik, and D. A. McCaig, J. Atmos. Sci. 21, 646 (1964).-
20. Moore, C. B., and B. Vonnegut, Quart. J. R. Met. Soc. 99, 779 (1973). - 21. Pruppacher, H. R., J. Geophys. Res.
68, 4463 (1963). - 22. Pruppacher, H. R., Pure. Appl. Geophys. 104, 623 (1973). - 23. Pudovkina, P. B., and Yu.S.
Sedimov, "The initial mechanism of charging an aerosol layer and subinversional stratocumulus space clouds';
Izvestiya, AN SSSR, Ser. geofiz. No.6 (1963). - 24. Reiter, R., Arch. f. Met. Geoph. u. Biokl., A 17,17 (1968). -
25. Reiter, R., Arch. Met. Geoph. BiokJ., A, 21, 247 (1972). - 26 Richards, C. N., and G. A. Dawson, J. Geophys.
Res. 76, 3445 (1971). - 27. Richards, C. N., and G. A. Dawson, Phys. fluids 16, 796 (1973). - 28. Sartor, J. D., J. Atmos.
Sci. 24, 601 (1967). - 29. Sartor, J. D., J. Geophys. Res. 75, 7547 (1970). - 30. Saunders, C. P. R., Z. Glets. u. Glazial.
7, 133 (1971). - 31. Saunders, C. P. R., and B. S. Wong, J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 36, 707 (1974). - 32. Smith, M. H.,
R. F. Griffiths, and J. Latham, Quart. J. R. Met. Soc. 97,495 (1971). - 33. Takahashi, T., J. Geophys. Res. 77, 3869
(1972). - 34. Takahashi, T., R. Uchida, and C. M. Fullerton, Nature 224,1013 (1969). - 35. Takahashi, T., and C. M.
Fullerton, J. Geophys. Res. 77, 1630 (1972). - 36. Takahashi, T., and T. Craig, J. Met. Soc. Japan 51, 191 (1973).-
37. Taylor, G. I., Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 280, 383 (1964). - 38. Vonnegut, B., and C. B. Moore, Geophys. Monogr. 5,
287 (1960).
Discussion
Volland, Bonn, West-Germany:

If you have satellite pictures of clouds, do you think it's possible to decide whether these are thunderstorm
clouds or not?
May I refer this question to the audience?
I think it unlikely that you could unequivocally say that. You might determine the extent to which an air mass
contained convective elements which could give rise to thunderstorms.
Mr. Latham, when you are talking about the electric effects on coalescence, I was unclear about exactly what
you meant. Did you mean the anticipated increase in coalescence frequency upon collision or was there some-
thing else involved?
J. Latham:
I was referring to the predicted increases in collection efficiency and interaction rates of drops which occurs
in fields in excess of about 100 kV/m.
I was very intrigued by the last remarks about the effect of the field on the coalescence. In our research we fly
close to the base underneath the cloud and look for fields of 60 kilovolts per meter and above. Light precipitation
may come out of the cloud, but you really never know if the cloud is growing into a thunderstorm or not. So,
quite often it happens that we monitor fields of 10 to 20 kVlm, and it appears as if the cloud kind of sits and
sulks. The field doesn't grow any more. And all of a sudden the field may grow up to 60-80 kV1m indicating that
some new charging effect comes into play. Then there are lightnings and you will have a thunderstorm. On the
other hand, sometimes the field does not increase and finally the cloud dissolves.
271
J. Latham:
Was ice present inside those clouds?
Kasemir:
If you fly underneath a cloud you can't really see the top. However, the clouds with higher fields and lightnings
usually have more or less pronounced anvils.
J. Latham:
I think that Jennings' experiments show quite conclusively that an inductive process cannot generate break-
down fields in warm clouds.
Levin, Ramat-Aviv, Israel:
I would like to know whether Jennings' experiments were carried over large-range sizes.
J. Latham:
May I ask Jennings' briefly to answer this question?
Jennings, Durham, England:
In the case of the large water drops interacting with the small cloud droplets, the large drop radius was about
750 micrometers in radius, which is of typical raindrop size. The limitation to this size range was due to experi-
mental constraints. In the case of large raindrop drop interactions, the size was varied over quite a large range
from about 200 to 800 micrometers in radius.
Author's address:
J. Latham
Physics Department UMIST
P.O. Box 88, Sackville Street
Manchester M 60 1 Q D
England
272
Study of Warm Cloud Electricity
T. Takahashi
Abstract
1. In this study of electricity in warm clouds various types of radiosondes were developed and more than
ninety of these radiosondes were launched into warm clouds; special care was taken to identify the life stage of
the clouds being studied. It was found that two charge generation processes occur in warm clouds: the generation
of a negative charge on cloud droplets and raindrops in the cloud during its developing and mature stages and
the generation of a positive charge on raindrops at the cloud top. Electrical activity is maximum at the mature
stage, and in-cloud negative charge is accumulated throughout cloud development.
2. Laboratory work paralleled observations, focusing on the charge interaction between small ions and droplets.
It was found that droplets have a tendency to become electrified negatively because of the positive surface potential
on liquid drops. The positive surface potential is favorable to the attachment of negative ions. It was found that
droplets are electrified negatively, during condensation and positively during evaporation.
3. Wilson's induction theory and Gunn's diffusion theory were included in a one-dimensional cylindrical cloud
model with numerical results that were very similat to the observed charge distribution. It was found that droplets
are electrified negatively by the surface potential effect and by Gunn's effect in the developing stage, and that
raindrops are electrified positively at the upper part of the cloud due to evaporation. It was also shown that
Wilson's effect is only important at a later, dissipating stage where the electric charge is separated by the gravita-
tional force.
Observations
The study was aimed at determining how an electric charge is separated on drops and how the electric
charge transfers to large drops during their growth, and to examine the distribution of the electric
charge in space during cloud development. The particles were divided into three size ranges: raindrops,
cloud droplets, and particles having diameters less than 2 ~ (Table 1).
Particle size (D)

---1---1 1--1--->
1 I'm 10 I'm 100 I'm 1 mm
1 l
1. Raindrop charge radiosonde
1 1
3. Cloud droplet charge
radiosonde
, 1
4. Spac~ charge
radiosonde
1 l
2. Raindrop charge-size
radiosonde
5. Electric potential radiosonde
Table 1. The five different radiosondes used to observe the charge on particles in the three size regions.
Special radiosondes were developed to measure the electric charge distribution across each size
range: a raindrop charge radiosonde, a cloud droplet charge radiosonde, and a space charge radiosonde.
A raindrop charge-size radiosonde was also developed to enable us to investigate the relationship
between electric charge and the raindrop growth mechanism. The contribution of each particle size
273
range to the net space charge was examined by an electric potential gradient radiosonde (Takahashi,
1975).
Results
More than ninety radiosondes were launched into various life stages of warm clouds in Hawaii. The
observational data can be summarized as follows (Fig. 1):
w
······2
(~.C.>
+
¢ +
Kiwi \ i
:3 - ++ /7777777
e+6 S - M
2 - I (.-t-..et
" ...
.,. . ~..
~
.... ····.2
rEB -;
.....
I
I -
o -
77777777
DEVELOPING
STAGE ION +
~k2¥~LE +
RAINDROP E9
77777777 //'(f)$e/ 7
0- M
0-0
MATURE DISSIPATING
STAGE
STAGE
Fig. 1. A model of warm cloud electricity. In the developing stage (E), both positive and negative ions are carried
into the cloud. In·cloud, the negative cloud droplets are formed first (charge generation process 1) and then cohere
and form the negative raindrops. Excess positive ions attach to the small cloud droplets and are thrown out
from the cloud top.
In the mature stage, charge generation process 2 is held at the cloud top. Large drops acquire positive charge
during evaporation. The large drops which grow by coalescence reenter the cloud, and this reentering is accel-
erated by the downdraft at cloud top caused by the cooling of air. The negative raindrops which are formed in
the developing stage are seen near the ground and negative cloud droplets and positive raindrops in the cloud
(S-M). However, when the cloud is deep (taller than 3 km), the large-drop growth process is held near the cloud
top because of the high liquid water content and high vertical velocity; thus, large positive raindrops can fall
among the negative cloud droplets and raindrops in-cloud. At the later stage when the cloud is deep, strong
downdraft is produced by the drag force and the negative particle group from the cloud top is carried toward the
ground. A high negative potential gradient is expected in this period at the ground.
At the dissipating stage, positive raindrops and positive cloud droplets are predominant in the whole area (S-D
and D- D). However, those positive charges are almost cancelled out by negative particles near the ground which
originated from negative cloud droplets and negative space charge near the cloud top.
I. At the developing stage

1. The space charge due to cloud droplets and raindrops is small, and negatively charged drops are
predominant.
274
2. The space charge due to small particles and ions becomes small in-cloud, especially in the upper
part of the cloud.
II. At the mature stage
3. Negatively charged raindrops are formed earlier in-cloud and fall earlier than positively charged
raindrops. Raindrops with high positive charge appear at the cloud top.
4. Negative space charge due to small particles (smaller than 2 Jlm in diameter) occurs in the upper
part of the cloud at the earlier maturation stage and descends toward the ground at the later
stages.
III. At the dissipating stage
5. Positively charged cloud droplets and raindrops are predominant in the whole area, but the
space charge due to small particles is negative.
The gradual increase in negative charge (during the transition) from cloud droplets to raindrops and
the appearance of a strongly positive charge on raindrops near the cloud top suggest the existence of
two different charge generation processes in warm clouds. One is the generation of a negative charge
on drops in-cloud, mainly occurring in the developing stage; the other is the generation of a positive
charge on raindrops near the cloud top, mainly occurring in the mature stage. The counterpart particles
involved in raindrop charge are probably not in the cloud-droplet size range but are rather small par-
ticles in the ion size range. This observation suggests that raindrops are electrified through drop-ion
interaction.
Theory
The electric charge generation mechanism in warm clouds was discussed in the cloud model (Taka-
hashi, 1974) as a possible charge generation mechanism. Four mechanisms might be considered (Fig. 2).
+ + +
I. I NDUCTION EFFECT
2. DIFFUSION EFFECT
3. SURFACE POTENTIAL EFFECT
4. VAPOR PRESSURE EFFECT
Fig. 2. Charge generation mechanisms in warm clouds. 1. induction effect, 2. diffusion effect, 3. surface potential
effect, 4. vapor pressure effect.
One is »Uson's induction effect (Whipple and Chalmers, 1944) and the second is the Gunn diffusion
effect (Gunn, 1954). Takahashi (1973) further proposed the importance of the interaction between small
ions and liquid droplets, specifically the surface potential effect (which tends to generate negative drops)
and the vapor pressure effect (which tends to generate positive drops during evaporation and negative
drops during condensation). Those four mechanisms were included in the cloud model to simulate the
drop charge distribution in clouds (Takahashi, 1974).
Fig. 3 shows the total drop charge density in the cloud model, including cloud droplets and raindrops.
The overall drop charge density is negative in the cloud during the developing stage; positive drop
275
SPACE CHARGE (esu/cc)
4
.............
3
..
.:'
0,
~~~::~;;:~~.;;.: :....;;;;,;..~••:.=:~~'~. __ - -:'r-fo·)

"~"''''
'., ,'
•
0~____~~______L -______~,'~'~__L -______~______~____~
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
TIME (MIN)
Fig. 3. Total space charge density and drop charge density (cloud droplets, drizzle, and raindrops). Thin solid
lines show total positive space charge and thin dashed lines show total negative space charge. Thick solid lines
show positive drop charge and thick dashed lines show the negative drop charge. The unit used is esu/cc (see text)
or esu/cm 3 ; 1 esu/cm 3 = 1/3 X 10- 3 e/m 3 .
charge density becomes predominant during the dissipating stage. However, the total space charge is
positive in-cloud and has a higher value near the cloud top until the model has been running 40 min;
the high space charge region then decreases in height during the dissipating stage. A negative space
charge is seen near the ground when rainfall is strong at the ground. The magnitude of the positive
space charge in·c1oud is on the order of 10 - 4 C m - 3 and the negative space charge at the cloud top is
also of the same order. The excess positive space charge in-cloud during the developing and mature
stages is due to the following process. Negative small ions are preferentially attached to drops and
those negative drops fall. The excess positive charge density therefore increases at the upper part of the
cloud, while the small ion density decreases. The negative space charge near the cloud top is the counter-
part of the positive drop charge. After the model has been running for 30 min, several space charge
layers above the cloud top are created by the electric force due to the pre-existing charge layers. The
negative space charge layer occurring near the ground between 30 and 50 min is created by the negative
drop charge and by the advection of negative ions due to the positive potential gradient. Drop charge
distribution was well simulated. The complicated structure of total space charge distribution might be
due to the simplicity of the one-dimensional cloud model. In actual cloud, positive ions in cloud will
be carried away by horizontal wind. Downdraft will be much stronger if we include the dry air created
outside of cloud. Then negative particles will be carried down with rain. The reason for the good simil-
arity of drop charge distribution of model and observation might be due to the relative insensitivity of
drop distribution with airflow pattern. Because of close similarity for drop charge distribution, four
charge separation mechanisms will be enough and we might be able to discuss the effectiveness of each
charging process in-cloud.
In order to determine which of the four charging mechanisms has the most effect on the electric
charge prollies, additional separate runs were made, each with one of three mechanisms eliminated
artificially. When the induction mechanism is eliminated from the modeL the general profile of drop
276
charge density is the same as when all mechanisms are induced, except during the late dissipating stage,
when negative drops reoccur after 50 minutes at the height of around 1 km. The existence of this negative
vertical potential gradient tends to induce a positive charge on drops at this stage. When the surface
potential effect is omitted, negative electrification occurs very slowly as the drops ascend with the up-
draft. These drops then acquire positive charge readily, because their negative charge is quite weak.
When the vapor pressure effect is eliminated, no positive drops are observed at all.
It is concluded that the diffusion effect and the surface potential effect are important in inducing
negative charge on drops in warm clouds during the developing stage, while the vapor pressure effect
is important in inducing positive charge on drops near the cloud top at the mature stage. The induction
effect becomes most effective at the late dissipating stage.
Conclusion
Warm cloud electricity was simulated in a cloud model by including the charge generation mech-
anisms of warm rain. The diffusion effect and surface potential effect contribute to negative charging
on drops; the vapor pressure effect contributes to the positive charging on drops near the cloud top
during the mature stage and throughout the entire cloud during the dissipating stage. The induction
effect is operative in the late stages of dissipation.
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgment is made to the National Center for Atmospheric Research, sponsored by the National
Science Foundation, for computer time used in this research. Preliminary computer work was supported by an
Intramural Research Grant from the University of Hawaii Research Council.
This work was sponsored by the National Science Foundation (contract GA-30977) and the Office of Naval
Research (contract NOOO-14-67-A-0387-0015).
References
1. Gunn, R., 1. Meteor. 11, 339 (1954). - 2. Takahashi, T.,1. Atmos. Sci. 30, 249 (1973). - 3. Takahashi, T., 1. Atmos.
Sci. 31. 2160 (1974). - 4. Takahashi, T., 1. Atmos. Sci. 32. (1975). - 5. Whipple, F. J. w., and J. A. Chalmers, Quart.
1. Roy. Meteor. Soc. 70. 103 (1944).
Discussion
I do not understand how a significant charge can be separated during the evaporation of drops of pure water.
An immense amount of work is required in order to remove a charged molecule from a liquid surface. The pro-
bability of this event is about 10- 40 of that of the removal of a neutral molecule. In view of this point, please
would you explain how charge transfer can occur during evaporation.
Charge generation is occurring by interaction between ion and drop. If you include thermophoresis and
Brownian motion, you will understand that drops can catch ions even when they are in the evaporating stage.
I was not quite clear if you measured the polarity of the electric fields in your measurements in the clouds.
If so, did you find a correlation between the direction of field and the raindrop charge?
Takahashi:
When the cloud is shallow, we observe negative raindrops under negative potential gradient.
I would like to ask again a question concerning the contact potential or the charging due to the contact potential
of small water drops. What is the sign of that potential, and does it depend on whether the drop grows, or whether
it evaporates?
Takahashi:
During condensation the surface potential is positive.
277
Your results, based on measurements in the free atmosphere, are in a very good agreement with data from our
measurements carried out at mountain observatories.
I have a last question. Takahashi has shown his experimental results, and he also has shown computer modeling
results. I would like to know from him how closely these two efforts are connected with each other.
Takahashi:
Detailed cloud physical processes have successfully been included in a two-dimensional cloud model as long
as warm rain is considered. I think there is no difficulty to include the electrical terms, too.
Author's address:
T. Takahashi
National Center for
Atmospheric Research
P.O. Box 1470
USA
278
Electrification Measurements from a Dropsonde and their Interpretation
G. Beesley, A. J. Illingworth and J. Latham
With 4 figures
(The paper was presented by A. J. Illingworth)
Abstract
A theoretical model has been developed of the electrification of convective clouds of moderate size under the
influence of a precipitative charging mechanism, which may be inductive or non-inductive. It differs from previous
models in that the cloud is of finite dimensions, the vertical distribution of field and charge is calculated, the role
of the updraught in transporting charge is considered, and account is taken of the loss of charge carried by pre-
cipitation reaching the- ground.
The calculations show that the rate of field growth is very much less than predicted by previous workers. The
field strength is a maximum near cloud base, where the interactions between precipitation and cloud particles
occur at the highest rates.
Deficiencies of previous models are discussed and an outline is given of ways in which these calculations may
enable field experiments to discriminate between different types of charging mechanism.
In order to obtain more information on the mechanism or mechanisms responsible for the initial
stages of cumulus cloud electrification, a dropsonde has been developed which is ejected from an air-
craft and telemeters nine channels of information to ground as it descends on a parachute through
convective clouds. The first results are now being analysed.
Each sonde provides a vertical distribution of electric field and other parameters within and below
the cloud, and by using these instruments in succession it is possible to obtain information on the time
evolution and spatial distribution of the electrical properties. In order to interpret the results so obtained
an examination of current models of cloud electrification was undertaken.
With the exception of the models developed by Pringle (1971), which has many unrealistic features,
all precipitative models of electrical field growth are functions of time only, and give only one value of
the vertical field. Essentially these models visualise the cloud as an infmite parallel plate capacitor, the
two plates being at the top and bottom of the charging zone within the cloud.
These plates are charged by a downward current due to the flux of charged precipitation particles
and an equal upward current on the cloud particles. So the field wiJI grow as:
[1]
where J p is the charge flux due to hydrometeors and J D is the dissipation current. The vertical distribu-
tion of field is a top-hat function, being zero outside the condenser plates and a constant value within
them.
The falling precipitation elements are assumed to become charged by interacting with the rising
cloud particles. In the non-inductive charging process the charge separated per interaction is inde-
pendent of the field. A typical example would be the ice-crystal hailstone collision process of Reynolds,
Brook and Gourley (1957). In the inductive mechanisms, account is taken of the polarisation of the
hydrometeors in the electric field E. The rebounding collision of a small particle from the underside of
a larger one results in charge transfer of magnitude proportional to E and of such a sign as to augment
the existing field. Sartor (1967), Mason (1968) and others have treated various types of inductive mech-
anism in several papers.
Recent refinements to the model outlined have been made by Mason (1972), Paluch and Sartor (1973),
Kamra (1970) and Levin and Ziv (1974). Additional features include account of the effect of E on the
terminal velocities of the hydrometeors; the time dependence of precipitation rate; and stochastic
growth of precipitation. However, such improvements are perhaps unwarranted because of the basic
defects of the parallel plate models. These include:
279
1. The assumed infinite width of the cloud.
2. The flux downward of charged precipitation will not accumulate indermitely on the lower capacitor
plate, but at some later time as precipitation hits the ground its charge will disappear.
3. The absence of any structure to the field.
Also, these workers have tended to assume possibly rather suspect expressions for the ionic leakage
effects, which have recently been shown to provide considerable over-estimates of the dissipative effect.
This paper describes a model of the electrical development of a cloud which, although simple, is more
realistic; in particular, vertical distributions of E and charge are predicted. The cloud (or more precisely,
the charging volume within the cloud) is assumed to be cylindrical, of radius R and vertical depth Z.
A steady updraught U flows through the cloud and ice particles formed at the top reside there and grow
until they achieve a size at which their terminal velocity Vequals U and they then start to fall towards
cloud base. At this point they begin to separate charge by interacting with small cloud particles carried
by the updraught. The growth of the pellets by accretion can be described fairly accurately by an ex-
ponentiallaw. Eventually the precipitation falls out of the cloud and ceases to make charging encounters.
Subsequently it reaches the surface of the earth, and its charge is then assumed to leak away. Meanwhile,
the cloudy air carrying small particles with charges opposite in sign to that on the pellets moves up-
wards through the precipitation shaft, becoming increasingly highly charged as a consequence of
interactions with the pellets. When this air reaches the top of the cloud it is assumed that its charge
I
becomes stored at this level.
t·900s
+ + ..
~
8t.1.1OO5
2km' •
.. +
+ .. R'0'5m
I
r 'nteraction
Zoo. 7.2km
R'3mm T rain
2km
1 falt,ng
Surface of the ground
Fig. 1. Development of the cloud with time; R is the radius of the hail pellet.
Fig. 1 illustrates the main features of this model and shows typical values of the important para-
meters.
At a height above the ground of 5.2 km small hail particles of radius R = 0.5 mm start to fall against
an updraught of 2 m s - 1. The pellets have a density p, of 500 kg m - 3 and their velocity and radius are
related by the expression V = kR, where k = 4000 S-I. If the cloud water concentration C = 1 g/m 3
and the collection efficiency is unity the pellets reach the base of the cloud having fallen 3.2 km, with
a radius of 3 mm after 900 s or 15 minutes of fall. Three minutes later the precipitation hits the ground.
The air moves upwards and after time, f = 2580 s = 43 minutes, a steady state is reached in which the
air rising from the interaction zone has passed through a fully developed precipitation shaft.
To perform the computations, the cloud is split up into a series of discs of thickness fJ. For each step
in time each disc moves upwards a distance fJ and the precipitation falls a distance given by its terminal
velocity. The number of interactions is calculated, and the new values of charge density of the cloud
and precipitation are found. From these charge densities within, above and below the cloud the field
at any height can be derived.
We now outline specimen calculations, performed for both inductive and non-inductive mech-
anisms, which illustrate the large differences in field growth which exist between the predictions of the
classical, infinite disc model and that of our finite cloud with vertical structure.
a. On the infinite disc approach the rate of field growth (for t > f) for a non-inductive process is given
by the equation
aE = -
at nqVF/eo [2]
280
where Vis the total volume swept out by a pellet during its growth, F is the flux of hail pellets and n the
concentration of small particles involved in the charge transfer, each event resulting in a separation of
charge q. The field increases linearly with time. (The prediction by Mason of exponential field growth
for a non-inductive process results from his assumed exponential equation for F.)
For an inductive process the corresponding equation (Latham and Mason 1962) is
oE = (nFVyr
at - 2 cos 8/eo)E = AE [3]
and the field increases exponentially; y is a geometrical term and 8 the average angle of separation
between the pellets and the rebounding small particles, which are assumed to have a radius r.
E
kV/m
100
30
10
1000 2000 3000

t (sec)
Fig. 2. Development of the maximum value of the vertical field E from the inductive mechanism for a cloud of
infinite diameter (A in arbitrary units).
Equation [3] is only approximate because the interactions occur as the hail pellet traverses the inter-
action zone and E is varying with height and time. Fig. 2 shows the solution using the full model for
various values of the parameter A starting with an initial field of 900 V m -1. It is reassuring to note
that the computed value of the maximum vertical field variation with time agree closely with those
predicted by equation [2] for t > T. The value of the exponent is proportional to A.
b. If we consider the finite horizontal dimensions of the cloud the expression for the field, E, due to a
horizontal disc of diameter D and charge density (J at an axial distance H is
E= 2~0 (1 -1) where L= VH2 + D2/4
This reduces to E = -2(J for the infinite disc as R ~ w.

eo
Fig. 3 shows results predicted for the maximum value of the vertical field with a particular value of
A for the inductive mechanism.
281
E
kV/m
100
30
10
o 1000 2000 3000

t (sec)
Fig. 3. Development of the maximum value of the vertical field E for a cloud of finite diameter D for an inductive
mechanism.
if the diameter of the updraught is 800 meters, then the time constant for the exponential growth
rate is decreased by a factor of70 from that for the infinite disc. Consequently, the initial field is increased
by only 20% instead of reaching breakdown. Even a diameter of 3.2 km (equal to the height of the
interaction zone) results in the exponent being decreased six-fold.
Fig. 4 shows the growth of the maximum field for linear mechanisms with various radii of the interac-
tion cylinder. The gradient, eElet, is reduced by similar ratios to the reduction of the exponent in the
inductive case.
Only the maximum value of the vertical field has been mentioned so far. In all cases, when the rain
shaft is fully developed, this maximum occurs about 500 meters above cloud base. This is because the
interaction rate varies with R3. Because the negatively charged precipitation is allowed to fall some
distance before hitting the earth, the field reversal from the inverse square law always occurs below
cloud base. Consequently in the inductive process no 'discharging' of the precipitation occurs at the
bottom of the interaction zone. However, with cloud radii less than 1 km field reversal can occur in the
upper km or so of the interaction zone. Because the number of interactions is low in this part of the
cloud and the magnitude of the field is never greater than 10% of the maximum positive field, the
positive charge acquired by the precipitation is very low and is soon neutralised.
So far in this paper dissipation currents have been neglected although for the very much lower growth
rates predicted here such terms may be less significant. Previous workers have assumed the time constant
of the cloudy air to be long and, as a result, conduction losses to be low, but they have introduced a
non-linear dissipation term to account for point discharge currents. Mason (1968, 1972) and Levin
and Ziv (1974) use a term of the form 10- 3 (eO. 2E - 1) and we see that as E (in e.s.u. cm- 1 ) becomes
larger than about 5 such a term increases very rapidly. Sartor (1967) uses a more complicated polynomial
expression of similar behaviour. If we include this term in our introductory treatment of the inductive
mechanism it is simple to show the form of the solutions. Equation [3] becomes
~7 = AE + 4n 10- 3 (eO. 2E - 1) (in e.s.u.) [4]
282
4
E
Arbitrary
Units
D'1-6km
[}800m
o 1000 2000 3000
t (sec)
Fig. 4. Development of the maximum value of the vertical field E for a cloud of finite diameter D for a linear
mechanism.
for small values of E the solution is E = Eo exp(At), and for the maximum field Emax> ~7= 0, and
AE max = 4n: 10- 3 (eO.ZEmax - 1) [5]
We see, therefore, that Emax, having specified A, depends upon the constant in the exponential term in
equation [5]. This equation has been solved for a typical value of A and 3 different values ofthis constant
(0.1, 0.2 and 0.3). The corresponding values of E max are 49 esu cm -1 (1,500 kV m -1), 20 esu cm- 1
(600 kV m -1) and 11.5 esu cm -1 (345 kV m -1). We see that the choice of expression for the point
discharge current exercises a prodigious influence on Emax. One must therefore be extremely suspicious
of all field growth curves produced by previous workers who have considered the influence of point
discharge currents.
Consideration of the finite horizontal dimensions of the clouds leads to a drastic reduction in field
growth rates from that previously calculated. To attain the growth rates predicted by the parallel plate
capacitor model then the flux of precipitation particles, or the concentration of cloud particles which
interact to give separation events, must be increased markedly. Non-inductive mechanisms should
give a more linear field growth, whereas an inductive mechanism should give exponential growth
rates. Further, the inductive process becomes immensely more powerful as the interaction zone in-
creases its horizontal extent.
The two most pronounced differences between our predicted electrical properties of clouds under
the influence of an inductive or a non-inductive process are that (1) in the former case the field growth
is exponential and in the latter is linear, and (2) the region of high field is much more localised in the
former case. It is hoped that these differences may permit the sonde experiments to reveal the type of
mechanism responsible for the observed electrification.
This research was conducted with the aid of a grant from te Natural Environment Research Council.
References
1. Kamra, A. K., J. Geophys. Res. 27, 1182 (1970). - 2. Latham, J., and B. J. Mason,Proc. Roy. Soc. A 266, 387
(1962). - 3. Levin, Z., and A. Ziv, J. Geophys. Res. 79, 2699 (1974). - 4. Mason, B. J., Proc. Intern. Conf. Cloud
283
Physics 657 (Toronto 1968). - 5. Mason, B. J., Proc. Roy. Soc. A 327,433 (1972). - 6. Paluch, I. R., and J. D. Sartor,
J. Atmos. Sci. 30, 1166 (1973). - 7. Pringle, J. E., M. S. Thesis, South Dakota School of Mines and Technology
(U.S.A. 1971).- 8. Reynolds, S. E., M. Brook, and M. F. Gourley, J. Met 14,426 (1957).-9. Sartor, J. D., J. Geophys.
Res. 24, 601 (1967).
Discussion
It seems that the one-dimensional model predicts a fairly slow growth of field. Were any measurements made
to confirm or to negate the one-dimensional model predictions?
Illingworth, Manchester, England:

We have had problems with the British equivalent to the FAA ("Federal Aviation Agency" of the United States),
so we have only made a few applications of dropsondes so far. Thus, we could not confirm or deny this. But if
I could reiterate, the previous models using the inductive process by Levin have used a cloud of infinite horizontal
dimension. To get to the same field growth, they previously had then, for this sort of dimension of cloud, either
to increase n, the concentration charge separation interactions, or the flux of precipitation particles by some
rather large factor.

Evidently everything is pointing back to me. I have not done a finite dimension of cloud that you are talking
about; however, I would like to find out whether you can speculate what will happen if you don't use single-size
drops in your precipitation rate but rather a full distribution of cloud droplets where the interactions are completely
different between various drop sizes.
Illingworth:
For the reason that I mentioned, you must have the factor (1 - V/L) which is not included in the field with the
parallel plate capacitor method once you have a cloud of finite dimensions. I don't think this would be affected
by your stochastic approach.
Levin:
I do not talk about the stochastic model, but about the size distribution. It seems to me that you have tested
it for one cloud element size only. I would like to know what happens if you use the full distribution where the
fall velocities are different, the concentrations are different, and they all change as a function of time.
Illingworth:
My feeling is that this geometric factor is dominant since it appears in the exponents.
I hoped you would present the observational result by dropsondes. Did you obtain the observational data?
Illingworth:
Jennings had the same question. That is, we have no reliable measurements where we can test this as yet.
Varshneya, Roorkee, India:
You have a term A in the equation ~~ = AE. Do you think that the term A should also include processes
within the cloud? With this, I mean interaction among droplets, turbulence, or things like that. What do you
think would be the result if you include those terms?
Illingworth:
The effect of turbulence, you are asking?
Varshneya:
Yes.
284
Illingworth:
Our structure of the updraft is obviously a very crude approximation. But I am rather hard put to see how
one would include turbulence.
Authors' address:
C. Beuley, A. J. Illingworth and J. Latham
Physics Department
UMIST
P.O. Box 88, Sack ville Street
Manchester M 60 1 Q D
England
285
On the Convective Electrification of Warm Stratified Clouds *)
R. F. D. Perret
Summary
Convective transport of atmospheric space charge has been proposed as a primary mechanism of thunderstorm
electrification. Indeed, field experiments have shown that the electrical structure of small fair-weather cumulus
clouds can be partially controlled by the polarity of artificial space charge released near the surface. Although
the convective electrification hypothesis has not met with wide-spread acceptance, it has formed the tOpIC 01
several extensive studies published in the literature and has been suggested as a preliminary electrification mech-
anism necessary for the initiation of field-dependent charge-separating processes in warm clouds. Because of the
complexity of the independent dynamical motions accompanying cumulus clouds and their three-dimensional
unsteady electric structure, quantitative assessment of the convective electrification scheme has not been possible.
However, the very much simpler geometry and longer time scales of stratified clouds makes these types amenable
to analysis.
We have developed a one-dimensional steady-state model of a simplified non-precipitating cloud with the
objective of investigating its vertical electric structure as controlled by the convective transport of sub-cloud
space charge. The one-dimensional, steady-state assumptions allow a model structure similar to that used in the
slice-method analysis of atmospheric stability. In our approach, three separate regions of the cloud and its en-
vironment (the sub-cloud region of vertical motion, the region of updraft in the cloud, and the clear, stationary
cloud surroundings) are analyzed and coupled at their common boundaries. Conservation of charge and con-
tinuity of vertical electric field across boundaries within the model allow determination ofthe steady-state operat-
ing point of the system in terms of the model parameters of updraft speed, boundary net space charge density,
conductivity, cloud droplet size and number density, and the relative length scales of the three regions of the
model. Charge conservation is modelled as a bipolar ionic population subject to transport by the convection and
electric field, and includes ionization, recombination and ion-scavenging by the droplets through ionic diffusion
and conduction currents according to Wilson's model. The system of equations is scaled according to the model
parameters and non-dimensional parameters are identified which relate the model behavior to the ratio of con-
vection current to conduction current and to the relative rates of ion generation and destruction by the combined
processes of recombination and droplet scavenging.
Numerical integration of the coupled set of ordinary differential equations gives the system operating point,
the profile of the vertical electric field and conductivity, and the variation of the space charge and droplet charge
with height above cloud base. On a more general level, the operating mode of convective electrification is estab-
lished in terms of the geometric relationship of the clear environment (the electric load) to the convecting region
(the electric generator) by analogy to the analysis of the characteristics of electrogaskinematic generators. Ap-
parently, the action of convective electrification in the atmosphere can be classified as either that of an electro-
hydrodynamic pump, brake or generator, depending on the model parameters. Although real clouds do not
satisfy the constraints of one-dimensionality and time-independence, the parameters and operating modes are
certainly relevant to all convective electrification theories.
Author's address:
R. F. D. Perret
Dept. Meteorology
Florida State University
404 Love Building
Tallahassee, Florida 32306
USA
*) Paper was accepted by the Executive Panel, but it was not presented. Full text of paper not available.
286
The Influence of Electric Forces Upon Droplet Collection Efficiencies
M. H. Smith
Abstract
Laboratory experiments have been conducted which demonstrate that highly charged drops are very effective
collectors of relatively uncharged droplets. Collection efficiencies in the range of 20 to 30 have been measured for
drops of from 65 to 120 f.lm radius collecting droplets of about 20 f.lm radius.
A simple computer model, capable of providing a reasonably quantitative explanation, shows that these results
are not explicable by simple Coulomb attraction but suggests that the attractive force arising between the charged
drop and the dipole induced within the droplet by this charge is sufficient to account for the observations.
Introduction
Considerable interest from two points of view still centres around the question of whether electric
forces are capable of significantly modifying the growth rate of precipitation within clouds. Firstly,
the idea of Vonnegut and Moore (1960), that highly charged drops produced close to the lightning
discharge may generate a subsequent "rain-gush" by becoming extremely efficient collectors of cloud
droplets, is still the subject of lively debate. Secondly, there is a great deal of interest in the possibility
that the artificial introduction of electrically charged particles may provide a means of enhancing the
development of clouds and the dissipation of fogs, particularly at ambient temperatures above the
freezing level where satisfactory alternative techniques do not exist. Calculations by Sartor (1970)
imply that the instantaneous particle mass growth rate may be increased by more than an order of
magnitude by electric forces for particles less than about 100 f.lm in radius. Accordingly, laboratory
experiments were planned to investigate the efficacy of electric forces in promoting drop coalescence
and to delineate the conditions under which charged particles might be useful in stimulating the devel-
opment of clouds and the dissipation of warm fogs. The first of these studies was aimed at investigating
the interactions of highly charged drops and neutral cloud droplets.
Experimental Arrangement and Procedure

The apparatus utilized for these studies is shown schematically in Fig. 1. In these experiments, a
stream of highly-charged pure water drops was introduced into a cloud of droplets produced by the
atomization of a sodium chloride solution by means of an air-driven 'spinning-top', similar to that
devised by May (1966). This system is capable of generating almost monodisperse droplets in the size
range 5 to 30 Ilm radius. The use of saline solution droplets permitted their dimensions to be stabilized
at equilibrium relative humidities of around 80% to 90% within which range small changes in humidity
do not appreciably influence the equilibrium droplet sizes. The drops and droplets were contained
within a vertical column comprising a number of sections of aluminium tube with welded flanges which
are bolted together. In order to maintain the relative humidity within this column at the desired level,
the walls of these tube sections were lined with moistened blotting paper.
The streams of charged drops were produced by means of a technique described by Vonnegut and
Neubauer (1952) for generating monodisperse highly charged drops of pure water or salt solutions.
The equipment consisted basically of a fine capillary needle connected to a reservoir of liquid arranged
so that the head of liquid was sufficient to give a very slow flow from the capillary tip. A wire connected
to a high voltage supply was inserted in the liquid so that potentials up to 30 kV may be applied. Above
a critical voltage a fine stream of drops all carrying charges approaching the limiting charge were
ejected from the needle tip. A Faraday cage system was employed so that, once the drops have passed
through the mesh, neither the drops nor the droplets were influenced by the high potentials applied to
the needle. Using this arrangement, it proved possible to generate steady streams of essentially mono-
287
SPINNING TOP - 1 t - - - - - l
ELECTRICAL
ATOMISER
PAPER
LINING
CLOUD
UPDRAUGHT
INDUCTION
~-+--tr RING
COLLECTION
VESSEL
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental apparatus.
disperse drops with radii from about 50 11m to 150 11m and carrying positive charges of between 70
and 80 per cent of their Rayleigh limit values at rates of one to two hundred per second.
The conductivity of a salt solution is an extremely sensitive measure of the concentration of salt
within that solution: a single grain of salt added to a beaker of distilled water will change its conductivity
by a factor of 4 or 5. Thus an experimental technique based upon this relationship was devised.
A number of drops were collected in a clean beaker after they have passed through the droplet cloud
and the beaker was then carefully rinsed out with distilled water and the electrical conductivity, and
mass, of these washings measured. The concentration of salt in the washings was found from the con-
ductivity by means of a graph drawn from the results of a separate experiment in which the conductiv-
ities of solutions of known salt concentration were measured. The total number of droplets collected
by the drops may be calculated from the concentration of salt in, and mass of, the washings from the
collection vessel once the droplet radii were known. The radii of both drops and droplets were established
during the course of an experiment by replicating samples of them on short sections of PV A coated
film.
The drops entering the collector were counted by means of an induction ring coupled to an electro-
meter. The high charges upon the drops provided, on passing through the induction ring, clear pulses
which were amplified by the electrometer and recorded upon a U. V. recorder and a pulse counter.
The drops passed through a short tube prior to entering the collection vessel and an updraught was
passed through this tube of sufficient velocity to prevent the droplets from reaching the collector solely
under the influence of gravity. The efficacy of this system was established in separate experiments
which demonstrated that negligible numbers of droplets were collected in the absence of the stream of
drops.
288
Results and Calculations
The results of the experiments carried out are shown in Table 1. The total number of droplets collected
and hence the mean number of droplets per drop was established using the known relationship be-
tween conductivity and salt concentration. The number, N, of droplets of radius r which each drop of
radius R might be expected to collect in falling a distance L assuming a collection efficiency, E, of unity
was calculated from the equation
N = n(R + r)2 (VR V~ v,) nLE [1]
where n is the concentration of droplets per unit volume, VR and V,

being respectively the drop and
droplet fall velocities. The dperimental collection efficiency value is thus the mean number of droplets
per drop divided by N. However, this value will only be true if the drop radius R has not increased
significantly in passing through the cloud, whereas, in each of the experiments, the mass of droplets
collected exceeds the drop mass. A corrected collection efficiency was therefore calculated by using
the mean value of the collection kernel
(R + r)2 (VR ~ V,) in equation[lJ,

Table 1: Results of measurement.
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5
R Initial drop, radius (J.lm) 116 66 72 85 85
r Droplet, radius (J.lm) 22 20 22 18 23
Final drop, radius (J.lm) 144 114 115 132 118
No. of drops 850 601 215 776 551
Conductivity of water (J.lS) 136 87 39 145 68
No. Droplets per drop 131.7 148.5 106.8 291.7 83.7
No. Collected for E = 1 5.6 3.3 2.4 8.5 2.1
Corrected experimental collection efficiency 19.1 25.1 27.1 21.4 28.1
Calculated collection efficiency 18.3 28.0 28.8 21.7 25.4
r/R mean 0.169 0.222 0.234 0.165 0.225
It is apparent from the high values of collection efficiencies found in these experiments that the
electric forces have little difficulty in ensuring the coalescence of closely approaching drops and droplets.
In an attempt to estimate the distances over which the trajectories of droplets may be influenced by
highly charged drops, a simple model of the interaction of a drop and droplet was devised.
The droplet experiences forces due to its small but finite charge q and also due to the charges induced
in the droplet by the presence of the much larger charge Q in the drop. The simple Coulomb force be-
tween drop and droplet, a distance I apart, is given by the equation
Q
FC=~4 I· [2]
nEo
289
It was assumed that the charges induced in the droplet by the drop could be approximated to a simple
dipole consisting of an image charge Q' situated a distance a from a droplet centre and a compensating
charge Q" at the centre where
Q
I
= Tr Q, a=
,2
T "
and Q = - Q .
,
The attractive force between the drop and droplet due to this dipole is given by the equation
F
D
Q2r (1
= 4n801 (I _ a)2 -
1)
yr [3]
This equation agrees with more exact solutions which take multiple images into account such as
that of Davis (1964) for separations of drop and droplet > T. For separations < r, equation [3] in-
creasingly underestimates the attractive force but this factor is compensated to some extent by the fact
that the model does not take into account the compression of the air film between the drop and droplet
surfaces. The net attractive force on the droplet is thus the sum of equations [2] and [3].
The model assumes that the droplets velocity is related to the electrical force by Stokes law and does
not allow for the droplet inertia. The droplet velocity relative to the drop is thus simply the algebraic
sum of the terminal velocities of the drop and droplet and the velocity component arising from the
electrical attraction. Trajectories of droplets approaching the drop may therefore be calculated using
a numerical approach for a variety of initial conditions.
Clearly, the charges upon the droplets could have an influence upon the observed collection efficiencies
and, accordingly, subsidiary experiments were conducted in which the droplet charge distribution was
measured by a technique involving the deflection of the droplets fall paths by a horizontal electrostatic
field. It was found that the droplets were predominantly negatively charged with a mean charge of
Xinpm
600
Yin ",m
Fig. 2. Trajectories for droplet (r = 20 !lm, q = - 0.17 fC) interacting with drop (R = 66 !lm, Q = 8.0 pC)
290
0.17 fC*) and an upper quartile mean charge of 0.27 fC per droplet. A few charges as high as 0.5fC were
also recorded. Taking droplet charges within the observed range, it was calculated that the force of
attraction due to the induced dipole exceeds that resulting from simple Coulomb attraction for all
drop/droplet separations less than about 1000 micrometers.
The results of the computations of droplet trajectories for one drop and droplet combination are
illustrated in Fig. 2. It may be noted that there is a critical droplet trajectory and droplets situated within
the region described by this trajectory will be captured whilst those outside it will not. The mean value
of droplet charge was taken in this case: using the maximum observed value only increased the radial
dimension of this critical trajectory by about 10 /lm with uncharged droplets giving a reduction of
similar magnitude.
The assumption that the inertia of the droplet is unimportant is sufficiently accurate until the droplet
is within a few tens of micrometers of the drop at which point the capture of the droplet is assured and
its inertia only serves to delay coalescence.
30
THEORETICAL
(X)
25
>-
U
z
':!!
~
lJ..
lJ..
W
z
Q
I-
U
W
...J
...J
0
U
15
0·15 0-20 025
RADIUS RATIO (r/Rrrea.n)
Fig. 3. Graph of collection efficiency plotted against the ratio of droplet radius to the mean drop radius
In order to give a comparison of the experimental and theoretical values of the collection efficiencies
of highly charged drops, a graph was plotted of collection efficiency against the ratio of the droplet
radius to the mean drop radius. This graph is shown in Fig. 3 together with lines of least squares fit
to the experimental and theoretical results. The excellent agreement between the experimental and
theoretical curves is largely fortuitous but does serve to demonstrate that the simple model discussed
earlier is adequate to explain the experimentally observed values of collection efficiency. It may be
noted that the collection efficiency increases for increasing values of the radius ratio, as might be ex-
pected, since drops and droplets of more nearly equal sizes are more susceptible to the influence of
electric forces.
Conclusion
It has been demonstrated both experimentally and with a simple theoretical model that the presence
of high charges on drops can have a profound influence upon the drop capture cross-section for relatively
uncharged cloud droplets. For drop charges approaching Rayleigh limit values, this influence extends
to several drop radii giving collection efficiencies over 20 times greater than the values pertaining to
*) 1 fC = to- 15 C.
291
uncharged drops. Thus, in principle, the introduction of highly charged drops should be capable of
significantly modifying the development of warm clouds and fogs.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the U.S. Europ~an Research Office under Contract Number DAJA 37-72-
C-1117.
References
1. Davis, M. H., Q. J. Mech. Appl. Maths. XVII, 499 (1964). - 2. May, K. R., J. Sci. Instrum. 33, 841 (1966). -
3. Sartor, J. D., 1. Geophys. Res. 75, (36), 7547 (1970). - 4. Vonnegut, B., and R. L., Neubauer, J. Colloid Sci. 7,
616 (1952). - 5. Vonnegut, B., and C. B. Moore, Amer. Geophys. Union, Mono. 5, 287 (1960).
Discussion
Griffiths, Cheshire, England:
In your last slide you have theoretical lines and theoretical points which you mark on your graph. Can you
explain why they don't coincide?
Smith, Manchester, England:
There was such a large scatter in the points, that I drew lines at least squares fit to the five data points for each
case. I calculated theoretical values for each of the experimental situations.
I didn't fully understand how you calculated the trajectories. Is that a full 3-dimensional computer program?
Secondly, in the application of this process to a real life situation of fog modification, I expect that ion collection
would have to be taken into account, and that would decrease the charge on the charged drops.
Smith:
In answer to your first question, the model is 2-dimensional. I agree that the near approach of drop and droplet
is very complex, but I feel that I can model the interactions at greater distances and I am not too worried about
the close approaches. In answer to the second point, I do appreciate the engineering difficulties in extending
these processes to field situations. We have not tackled these yet.
Collection efficiency values crucially depend on the final drop radius measured by the conductivity measure-
ments. I would like to know if you made a check of this final drop size directly.
Smith:
No. I did not make a check of the final drop size.
Unidentified Party:
Can you give us some idea of the relative values of the forces due to the net charge of your drop versus that
due to the polarization.
Smith:
At distances of about 800 or 1000 micrometers, which varies in each experimental situation, the forces would
be roughly comparable; but, as the droplet approaches the drop the dipole force, which obeys something like
an r 4 law, very rapidly exceeds the Coulomb force.
Did you do such an experiment as yours but as a function of the electric charge of the droplet? The other lite-
rature shows that the increase of the coalescence process is done only for the droplets which have a very large
electrical charge.
Smith:
I tried in all cases to minimize the droplet charge. The drop charge was essentially fixed by the technique by
which they are produced. We hope to extend these experiments with a different drop producer where we can
292
vary the drop charge. About 1 % of the droplets had charges of around 0.6 femtocoulombs. Thus, there were in-
sufficient droplets with high charges to account for the high collection efficiencies.
Phelps, Johannesburg, South Africa:
Did you study the so-called resonance case where the two droplets are very nearly or equal in size? I see your
size range for the droplets extended up to 30 micrometers and for the drop down to 30. But I didn't see it in the
data.
Smith:
Although each producer will produce drops in those size ranges, I found the particular drop producer operat-
ing best within the 50 to 150 micrometer range. In those situations where the radius ratio approaches unity, I
expect the collection efficiencies to be even higher than the ones I recorded.
Author's address:
M. H.Smith
Physics Department
UMIST
Manchester M 60 1 QD
England
293
Electrification by Collisions of Ice Particles on Ice or Metal Targets
O. Buser and A. N. Aufdermaur*)
With 3 figures
Abstract
To clarify the problem of charge separation from colliding ice particles, experiments have been carried out in
a wind tunnel at Weisslluhjoch (Switzerland) with frozen droplets of 20 11m diameter impinging on various targets.
Ice impacting on ice at 10m/s and at a temperature of - 45°C produced a charge separation of the oder of 2 fC
(= 2 X 10- 15 C) per collision. The sign of the charging could be reproducibly positive or negative, depending
on the preparation of the target and the course of the experiment. Thermal effects were important only insofar
as an ice target after sublimation tended to acquire negative charge through the collisions, whereas after deposition
positive charging was favoured.
A clue to the mechanism of charge separation was obtained from collisions between ice particles and metal
targets. Metals characterized by a large workfunction (C, Pt, Au) became negatively charged, whereas metals
of smaller workfunction (Ba, L~ Mg, Pb, Zn, Cd, Cu, N~ AI) acquired positive charge from impinging ice particles.
Measurements using rotating cylinders composed of two different metals confirmed that the two charge separa-
tion currents as well as the measured surface potential difference of the metal pair corresponded to the work-
functions involved. A linear correlation between charge separation and surface potential difference was obtained,
with a slope of 15 fC/V per collision.
It was inferred from these results that the ice surface is able to exchange electrons from surface states. The
workfunction of ice was determined to be around 4.4eV. It can be modified within a few tenths of an eV by doping
or surface treatments such as scratching, ageing, sublimation, deposition. It is concluded that charge separation
occurring between colliding ice particles is due to such surface effects, which may be still difficult to predict from
natural situations.
Applied electric fields changed the charging in a nonlinear manner, especially when a metal target was used
whose workfunction was much different from that of ice.
Introduction
An impact between ice particles most probably separates more electric charge than any other inter-
action of cloud particles. It is quite possible then, if sufficient such collisions occur, that they playa
role in the electrification of clouds. Consequently, charge separation in such collisions has been studied
in various experiments during the last twenty years. A quantitative formulation of the thermoelectric
effect in ice was put forward by Latham and Mason (1961 a) but while some experimental results would
be explained by this theory (Latham and Mason, 1961 b, Latham and Stow, 1965) others showed charge
separation several orders of magnitude greater (Reynolds et aL 1957, Latham and Miller, 1965, Hobbs
and Burrows, 1966). In yet other experiments the polarity of the charge separated did not appear to be
consistent with the thermoelectric theory (Shio and Magono, 1969, Scott and Hobbs, 1968, Magono and
Takahashi, 1963 a, b). We suggest that there is no reason to doubt the validity of the theory, which was
formulated rigorously by Jaccard (1963). It is rather a question of whether the thermoelectric effect
governs the charge transfer during a collision of different ice particles. Therefore experiments were
carried out in the wind tunnel on Weissfluhjoch (Switzerland) in order to investigate the mechanism
of charge separation.
Experimental
The experiments were performed at an air speed of 10 mls and a temperature of - 45°C (228 K).
Water droplets with diameters distributed between 10 and 40 11m were injected into the tunnel, where
they froze spontaneously. Distilled water of 3 knm resistivity was usually used for the droplets, although
in some cases noted later controlled impurities were added. The frozen droplets struck a target in the
form of a cylinder, 10 mm long and either 5 or 10 mm in diameter. The droplet injection was automatic-
ally controlled to provide a water content of about 1 g m -3 at the target. For the calculations we have
*) The paper was presented by A. N. Aufdermaur.
294
made the assumption that depending on the target diameter 1 x 105 or 1.5 x 10 5 frozen droplets per
second of uniformly 20 Ilm diameter were hitting the target. It was also estimated that the actual collision
had a duration of the order of 0.1 IlS and covered a contact area of 5 Ilm diameter (for consideration of
the impact see Tabor, 1951).
The target consisted of either a metal, graphite, or highly purified large crystalline ice. The axis of
the cylindrical target was normal to the droplet stream, and the target could be rotated about this axis.
The target supports were shielded mechanically and electrically, and the target itself was connected to
the negative input of a FET operational amplifier so that it was maintained virtually at earth potential.
The amplifier had a sensitivity of 1 V per nA (with a 10 9 Q feedback resistor) and covered easily the
dynamic range of the charge separation currents to be measured (50 pA to 3 nA).
q in IC
20
15
10
0
2 3
o 8a-C •
{!. Mg-C •
-5 o Zn - C •
x Ag -C •
.& Mg-Ni.
-10
Fig. 1. Measurement of surface potential difference and charge separation current on half cylinder pairs. For the
calculation of the absolute value of the workfunction W, graphite with 4.8 eV was taken as a reference, q is the
charge acquired per collision by the surface under consideration (1 fC = 10 - 15 C).
295
The working section of the wind tunnel was surrounded by a cylinder connected to a high voltage
supply. It was estimated that the mean electric field resulting on the surface of a target of 5 mm diameter
was 250 U Vim, where U is the applied high voltage. Breakdown occurred between 15 and 18 kV with
the droplet injection turned on.
In an alternative experimental setup (shown in Fig. 1) the targets consisted of two half cylinders of
different material, so that rotation exposed alternatively the two materials to the flux of frozen droplets,
while charge separation was measured. Simultaneously, the difference in the surface potentials of the
two materials under consideration was measured by means of an electrode placed 0.1 mm downstream
of the target. The electrode formed a capacitance alternately with the two halves of the cylinder and
as the cylinder was rotated at several Hz the variation in the charge induced on the electrode could be
measured and the potential difference calculated knowing the capacitance (typically 10 pF).
Results
Ice impacting on ice
The charging from frozen droplets impinging on an ice target showed great variability, with the
magnitude and sign of the charge separation changing during the course of the experiment and ageing
effects being observed, similar to those obtained by Shio and Magono (1969) and Magono and Takahashi
(1963 b). Some reproducible patterns emerged: when a surface layer of ice was shaved off the target
the charging occurring immediately afterwards was consistently negative (on the target), about - 1 fC
per collision, drifting within half an hour of continuous collisions to a constant rate of - 0.3 fC. After
the particle injection was interrupted for some minutes, the same target charged positively, about 3 fC
per collision. The charging dropped to half this rate within 1 minute and changed sign after about
10 minutes, reaching finally a constant rate of again - OJ fC per collision.
Probably the most valuable result was obtained in an experiment during which the target was
mounted on a Peltier cooling (or heating) element. As the air in the wind tunnel was saturated with
respect to ice at the tunnel temperature, cooling or heating of the target resulted in deposition or
sublimation of water vapour. A surface formed by deposition charged initially positively ( + 203 fC per
collision), similar to the charging of an aged surface. After sublimation, however, the charging was
initially negative (- 2.0 fC). This initial value was not much dependent on whether the charging ex-
periment was started immediately after the heating was turned off or whether some minutes were
allowed to elapse so that the target, after sublimation, returned to the tunnel temperature. Therefore it
was concluded that the condition of the surface was again controlling charge separation and not a
thermal gradient.
Ice impacting on metals

After experiments with some twenty different metals as targets it became obvious that the charge
separation was correlated with the workfunction of the metal. Some materials such as C, Pt and Au
acquired negative charge from collisions with ice, whereas other metals which more easily release
surface electrons, such as Ba, Li, Mg, Pb, Zn, Cd, Cu, Ni, Ai charged positively. As available data on
the workfunctions show a rather large scatter (within 1 eV) and because of the problem of oxide layers
on the metals we also measured simultaneously the charge separation and the surface potential dif-
ference on some cylinders composed of two materials. Surface and contact potentials are directly related
to the workfunctions involved. Pure graphite with a workfunction of 4.8 eV was used as a reference.
Fig. 1 shows the measurements, which yielded reasonable values for the workfunctions and a good
correlation between the latter and the charge separation. It is found that charging changes with work-
function by - 15 fC/eV and that no charging could be expected for a material with a workfunction
of 4.4 eV. If we assume that ice and a metal in contact can exchange electrons across their common
surface, it is reasonable to attribute also to the ice a value of the workfunction, which from these results
must be about 4.4 eV.
The pair graphite-ice was also used as a target and the measurement of the surface potential difference
confirmed that the workfunction of ice was at least about 0.2 eV smaller than that of graphite. However,
296
charge separation and surface potential could not be measured simultaneously because of a very in-
teresting phenomenon: The ice surface was charging up to several volts due to the charge separation
current not leaking away as would be expected from consideration of the bulk conductivity of ice. When
droplet injection was stopped, this rather high potential decayed quasi-exponentially, with, after the
initial faster decay, a time constant of some 50 to 100 sec. As the time constant for conduction in the
bulk at - 45°C is of the order of 100 ms (see Flechter, 1970), that slow decay must be due to charge
trapped in the surface of the ice.
• •
• •
• '---.~-"""Ba
•
• Mg
• • • •
Cd
r lC E
2
PI
C
Fig. 2. Charge q acquired by different materials from each collision with a frozen droplet. Sign of the electric
field E on the target surface is taken to be the same as the sign of the applied voltage on the surrounding cylinder.
For polarization charging in electrostatic equilibrium 18 fC per MV/m would be expected.
Charge transfer in an electric field
Fig. 2 shows that very strong electric fields are needed to compete with the charging due to work-
function differences under the present conditions. The obvious non-linearities must be attributed to
the barrier nature of the semiconducting junction at the metal-ice interface. The rectifying property is
most pronounced for Ba which has the largest workfunction difference with respect to ice. It may be
noted that a stationary contact between ice and a metal point, in which equilibrium could be reached,
also showed rectifying properties, but in the opposite direction (Buser and Aufdermaur, 1971).
The bars in Fig. 2 show the range of values obtained for charge separation from ice impacting on an
ice target. Unfortunately, the time dependence of charging became even more complicated when electric
fields were applied. As a Pt target showed a similar behaviour in the electric field as an ice target (but
without the drift problems of the latter) it was further investigated.
297
Fig. 3 shows the charge separation between a Pt target and frozen drops containing different impurity
concentrations. For an increase of the electric field by 1 MV1m charge separation increases by 2 to 5 fC.
This is a considerable fraction of the polarization charge calculated for a conducting sphere (18 fC). It
may be mentioned that there is some similarity between the non-linearities of these curves and the one
obtained by Scott and Levin (1970).
Fig. 3. Charge q acquired by a Pt target from each colJision with a doped frozen droplet versus electric field on
the target surface. The number of moles per litre of added impurities is indicated.
Discussion
The present work implicitly suggests that during a collision between ice particles charge is separated
at the surface in order to establish the contact potential which is a consequence of differences in the
workfunctions of the surfaces involved. These differences also result in the different surface potentials
measured by Takahashi. Takahashi (1969) showed that shaving an ice surface by a planer changed the
surface potential by - 0.2 V. The present results indicated that a mechanically cleaned ice surface
changed charging by - 4 fC per collision with respect to an aged surface. This corresponds (from Fig. 1)
to an increase in workfunction by 0.27 eV or a change of surface potential by - 0.27 V. Takahashi (1973)
measured also the potential difference between surfaces formed by sublimation and by deposition and
obtained a value of 0.2 V, with the sublimated surface being more negative. In agreement with this, the
present experiments showed negative charging of an ice surface after sublimation and positive charging
after deposition, with the difference of 4.3 fC per collision corresponding to a workfunction difference
of 0.29 eV. Finally, Brownscombe and Mason (1966) calculated a potential difference of 0.25 V and
measured 0.30 V between ice doped by favourable concentrations of HF and NH 3 . The experiments
shown in Fig. 3 reveal a change of charge separation by 6 fC, when the frozen droplets contain 10- 5 mol
HF instead of 10- 3 mol NH 3 . Therefore these impurities should change the workfunctions, so they
differ by 0.40 eV. All these comparisons show agreement in sign and magnitude, although it must be
admitted that the potential differences observed by other workers in doped or otherwise treated ice are
consistently some 30% smaller than we would expect on the basis of the present concept. However,
these differences are within the experimental uncertainties, and the present concept is successful in
treating charge separation of ice particles colliding with different ice as well as different metal surfaces.
298
The powerful charge separation during collision is attributed to electrons moving from one surface
into the other under the action of an energy difference which is described by the workfunction difference.
Theoretical work is still under way to find a model which would also explain the charging observed in
the more complicated case when an electric field is present.
To compare the present work with results obtained under different conditions we used geometrical
considerations from a study of impacts by Tabor (1951), who notes the contact area to be proportional
to the square of the particle diameter and proportional to the impact velocity. As a first approximation
it is assumed that workfunction differences give rise to a charge transfer proportional to the contact
area. In the present experiment, frozen drops of 20 11m diameter colliding at 10 mls with an ice target
separated about 2 fe per collision. In an apparatus described by Aujdermaur and Johnson (1972) in-
dividual frozen drops of 100 11m diameter colliding at the same speed with an ice surface separated
50 fe, in good agreement. For crystals of similar size and for the same impact velocity Reynolds et al.
(1957) estimated 170 fe per collision. Latham and Miller (1965) calculated from their measurements in
natural snowfall a charge separation of 300 fe per collision for 1 mm crystals, which is an order of
magnitude too small to fit this simple model, whereas Hobbs and Burrows (1966) and Scott and Hobbs
(1968) obtained larger as well as smaller values. Experiments with better control by Scott and Levin
(1970) are difficult to compare as the impact was determined by the terminal velocity of the snow crystals.
The charging in this case was primarily due to the polarization in the electric field and charging due
to differences in the workfunction could have been only of the order of 10 fe, which is very small for
1 mm crystals. This shows that geometrical considerations alone are an oversimplification. The contact
time is neglected, which is proportional to the particle diameter and inversely proportional to the
fifth root of the impact velocity (Tabor, 1951). It may well be that during a long contact some of the
separated charge penetrates so deep that it would cause too high a contact potential unless some charge
near the interface returns. From a similar consideration charge could also leak back when the particle,
after collision, separates at a low speed (lmyanitov, 1969). On the other hand, long contact times and
small velocities are favourable to polarization charging in an electric field. Some additional experiments
carried out at wind speeds from 2 to 20 mls showed that charge separation due to a given work function
difference increased quadratically with velocity, whereas charging due to polarization remained un-
changed within a factor of 2. It is therefore not contradictory that workfunction differences were the
dominating factors in the present experiments, whereas Scott and Levin (1970) found at low impact
velocities and probably excessively long contact times mainly polarization charging.
In conclusion it may be emphasized that the present investigation serves to provide an experimental
basis for a new theory to replace the thermoelectric effect in explaining charge separation of colliding
ice particles. It is suggested that the ice surface be attributed a workfunction with a value around
4.4 eV, the exact value depending on impurities as well as physical changes of the surface. Workfunction
differences cause charge transfer during a short collision as well as being responsible for contact and
surface potentials. Superimposed electric fields influence charge separation in a rather complicated
manner, which may require the use of semi-conductor concepts for further theoretical considerations.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Swiss National Fund under grant No.2 377.70. The authors wish to
acknowledge the assistance of Dr. K. Philberth as well as the technical assistance from Mr. R. Luthi and J. von N ieder-
hiiusern. The interest of Dr. M. de Quervain, director of the Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research was also
appreciated.
References
1. Aufdermaur, A. N. and D. Johnson, Quart. J. R. Met. Soc. 98, 369 (1972). - 2. Brownscombe, J. L. and B. J. Mason,
Phil. Mag. 14, 1037 (1966). - 3. Buser, 0., and A. N. Aufdermaur, Verhandl. Schweiz. Naturf. Ges., 138 (1971). -
4. Flechter, N. H., The chemical physics of ice (Cambridge 1970). - 5. Hobbs, P. v., and D. A. Burrows, J. Atmos.
Sci. 23, 757 (1966). - 6. Imyanitov, I. M., On cloud particles electrification secondary to breaking of their contacts.
Planetary Electrodynamics, Vol. I, 385 (New York 1969). -7. Jaccard, c., Phys. kondens. Materie t, 143 (1963).-
8. Latham, J., and B. J. Mason, Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 260, 523 (1961 a). - 9. Latham, J., and B. J. Mason, Proc.
299
R. Soc. Lond. A 260, 537 (1961 b). - 10. Latham, J, and A. H. Miller, 1. Atmos. Sci. 5, 505 (1965). - 11. Latham, J.,
and C. D. Stow, Quart. J. R. Met. Soc. 91, 462 (1965). - 12. Magono, c., and T. Takahashi, 1. Met. Soc. Japan 41,
71 (1963 a). - 13. Magono, C., and T. Takahashi, Ibid. 197 (1963 b). - 14. Reynolds, S. E., M. Brook, and M. F.
Gourley, J. Met. 14,426 (1957). - 15. Scott, W. D., and P. V. Hobbs, The charging of ice surfaces exposed to natural
ice particles. Proc. Int. Conf. Cloud Phys. 609 (Toronto 1968). - 16. Scott, W. D., and Z. Levin, J. Atmos. Sci.
27,463 (1970). - 17. Shio, H., and C. Magono, Frictional electrification of ice above and below - 10°C. Planetary
Electrodynamics, Vol. I, 309 (New York 1969). - 18. Tabor, P., The hardness of metals, Clarendon press (Oxford
1951). - 19. Takahashi, T., J. Atmos. Sci. 26, 1259 (1969). - 20. Takahashi, T.,1. Atmos. Sci. 30,1220 (1973).
Discussion
We have also made measurements of charge separation when ice crystals of 30 to 40 micrometer collide on an
ice surface at - 10°C at about 10 meter/second. We found values of the order of 0.1 fC which depend on the
nature of the ice surface in agreement with the observations of Aufdermaur. In our case the crystals were subli-
mated ice, but the target was ice grown from distilled water or from solutions of sodium chloride or ammonium
sulphate. Ice doped with sodium chloride would give negative charge on the target and ammonium sulphate
would give positive charge. This compares well with Aufdermaur's results (Fig. 3) where droplets doped with HF
give positive charge to the Pt target and droplets doped with NH3 give it negative charge. I want to ask Dr. Auf
dermaur why he chose - 45°C - such a low temperature - for his experiments.
When we found out that the charge separation was so much dependent on the surface of the ice, we thought
it would be a good idea if at least one of the ice surfaces involved would be always the same during the experi-
ments. We could achieve this by always injecting the same amount of droplets from the same water source into the
wind tunnel at minus 45°C so that they froze spontaneously. It was rather an experimental reason, but it proved
successful in so far as we had at least the surface properties of the frozen droplets more or less constant during
our experiments.
Do you feel that at this stage you can apply your results directly to the problem of charge separation in clouds?
Aufdermaur:
I think this is a further step which has to be done in the future. As soon as liquid drops are also involved,
the surface of a growing hailstone, for instance, is always renewed. There is always a fresh surface and we cannot
actually make predictions how this one would react. From the experiments of Reynolds, Brook and Gourley, we
would conclude that such a surface would charge negatively. Also, their experiments tie up in order of magnitude
with an extrapolation of our results.
Pursuing this - 45°C point, do you think that some of the problems regarding reproducibility could be the
result of that very low temperature, in view of the well-known extremely rapid decrease of conductivity with
temperature of ice?
Aufdermaur:
We have just tried some runs at higher temperatures, but then we had to introduce silver iodide. We found
that the general behavior should not be just given by the low temperature we chose. So we don't think this was
a specific reason for the particular behavior.
Dawson:
I was thinking about the charge built-up effects, which you specifically mentioned.
Aufdermaur:
The charge built-up effect naturally produces an electric field. And we have an idea how large this could have
been. But one needs a tremendous electric field in order to change charge separation, in our experiments. This
is the reason why we don't think that charge built-up was changing charge separation in this way. It could have
changed in another way, for instance, because electrons were filling up the available states. We also tried some
experiments with teflon targets and they fit into the present picture, which is very interesting.
300
Itagaki, Hanover, New Hampshire, England:
I would like to know what liquid droplets arrived at your target. Were the droplets completely frozj:n on
arrival and was the target completely dry? If the target was covered by some thin layers of liquid, you may have
an electric double layer problem.
Aufdermaur:
Well, we think that the droplets were completely frozen, because they were very small, only 20 !lm in diameter.
Furthermore, we started to use metal targets because we also first thought that some charged surface layer may
be transported. But from these experiments, we concluded it was not the case. Visual observation of the target
made it clear that they were absolutely dry.
Authors' addresses:
o. Buser A. N. Aufdermaur
Eidgenossisches Institut fiir Osservatorio Ticinese
Schnee- und Lawinenforschung Ch-6605 Locarno-Monti
CH-7260 Davos-Weissfluhjoch Switzerland
Switzerland
301
Melting Electrification of Single Ice Particles in Simulated Free Fall
P. F. Martin and W. C. A. Hutchinson*)
With 4 figures
Abstract
Ice spheres of diameter 3 mm were allowed to melt while supported by horizontal fine wires in the vertical
flow of a wind tunnel. The air speed and hence the drop ventilation were held close to the natural free fall values.
The meltwater charge was positive, reaching 1.1 pC mg -1 (= 1.1 I!C kg - 1). The lower the previous freezing
environment temperature, the higher was the melting charge. But for corresponding freezing temperatures the
drops frozen in an airstream gave about seven times the charge of those frozen in still air, suggesting that the
earlier freezing rate largely controls the charge of a ventilated ice particle on melting. As freezing temperatures
were lowered the proportion of larger bubbles in the ice decreased (as reported by other workers), but at any
one temperature those frozen in an airstream had mainly smaller bubbles than those frozen in still air. This
association of smaller bubble diameter with large charge is in general agreement with the theory of Iribarne and
Mason. We would expect these results to apply to the freezing and later melting of precipitation water in the
atmosphere, especially in strongly convective conditions, the effect contributing significantly to the lower positive
charge in the base of the thundercloud.
Experimental Arrangements
a) Introduction
Dinger (1946) found that when ice containing air is melted in an airstream the meltwater acquires a
positive charge. Scientists have related this result to the electrification of thunderstorms. Chalmers
(1967) and Mason (1971, 1972) give extensive bibliographies. Dinger and Gunn (1946) suggested that
the charge separation was related to the escape of air bubbles trapped in the ice; it became less with
increasing dissolved impurity. Drake (1968) investigated the melting electrification of frozen water
drops over a wide range of melting conditions. The ice particles, frozen onto a 1-mm diameter loop of
constantan wire, were melted in a controlled airstream. He found that when convection currents
developed in the meltwater the charging, which was positive, increased by an order of magnitude. The
amount of charging depended on the rate of heat flow to the melting ice and on the earlier freezing
temperature and purity of the water. Drake found good qualitative agreement between his results and
the predictions of the theory of Iribarne (1967), the separation of charge apparently arising from the
disruption of an electric double layer at the interface between liquid and gas. In our experiments we
aimed at having the melting drops as far as possible free to move, corresponding to free fall at terminal
speed.
b) Preparation of the ice particles

Water drops of 3 to 4 mm diameter were frozen onto a 120 11m diameter platinum wire. Alternatively
the water drop was suspended from a 1 mm diameter horizontal loop of the thin platinum wire and
frozen. In both methods the drop was given time to reach the ambient temperature of the refrigerator
before being nucleated with ice crystals formed by the action of liquid nitrogen.
c) Water purification
The water was prepared by distilling from alkaline permanganate and passing the distillate through
anion and cation deionising columns before finally running through a mixed bed resin. The chief im-
purity was CO 2 dissolved from the atmosphere, corresponding to a concentration of dissolved salts of
about 0.1 mg 1-1 (= 100 mg m- 3 ). Artificial cloudwater was then prepared by dissolving sodium
chloride at 4.5 mg I-I (= 4.5 g m- 3 ; 0.8 x 10- 4 N).
*) The Paper was presented by W. C. A. Hutchinson.
302
A
t
I!!H--L
p M
I--<._--E
,,
,,,
,
~----
F ~'2m
HO scale
Fig. 1. The wind tunnel in which the ice particles were melted.
A airflow TP thermocouple probe L lamp
P perspex F Faraday cage HA hatch
window HO honeycomb flow straightner E electrometer
insulator
IP ice particle M mirror
d) The wind tunnel

The ice particles were melted in the working section of the wind tunnel (Fig. 1). Air was sucked
through the tunnel and recirculated over the cooling coils of the cold room. Unfortunately the use of
a heater upstream affected evaporation considerably more than the rate of melting of the ice particle
by lowering the relative humidity. The aluminium double cone, which acted as a Faraday cylinder,
enabled the rate of accumulation of charge on the melting ice particles to be measured. If the airspeed
was adjusted to be approximately the terminal speed of the resultant water drop the molten particle
would remain on the straight horizontal wire support with the wire tangent to the surface. The drop
would vibrate or revolve round the wire and finally float off, and an idea of the airspeed could be ob-
tained by watching this process. The advantage of this support was that the drops were free to revolve,
whereas those suspended from loops were not so free and remained supported even when the airspeed
was very different from the terminal value. The water drops were studied under a stereo microscope
before melting. The sizes of air bubbles present and details of general appearance were noted and the
particle diameter estimated. Fig. 2 is a typical record of charging current accompanying melting, and
yields the total charge separated.
«a.
F
.S
..-
<:
0·1
•
t 0·05
u'"
'"
.5
;;;'" 3 4 5 6 7
..r:
U
Time in min
Fig. 2. A record of melting electrification. At first the horizontal wire passes through the ice particle centre.
Water is seen to ripple on the surface at R. The melting particle begins to hang on the wire at H and it falls off
at F.
303
Observations and Their Analysis
a) Introduction
Some preliminary observations were made with frozen drops of deionised water floating freely on
the vertical airstream. Although an ice particle could be supported like that for up to 30 min it proved
impossible to keep it in position throughout the whole of the melting process. The experiments with
supported drops included four batches. There were 60 drops frozen in still air from artificial cloud water
and melted on the straight fine platinum wires. Using drops of deionised water frozen in still air, 15 were
melted on straight platinum wires and 9 on platinum loops. Here charges on the loops were slightly
higher, but not enough to establish any r(!al difference in support behaviour. Finally 15 drops of deionised
water were frozen in an airstream at 11 ms -1 (approximately terminal fall speed) and then melted on
platinum loops. The maximum rate of performing the melting experiments was three per day. This
limitation was accepted, for it was considered important to support the drops with the least possible
artificial restraint.
b) Heat transfer during melting

The rate of heat flow to a ventilated ice sphere was calculated following Mason (1956, 1971). When
melting has begun, the consumption of latent heat is equal to the transfer into the core by conduction
through the liquid surface layer, and so to the sum of the heat conducted in from the surrounding air
together with the latent heat transfer between liquid and vapour at the surface. For a particle of overall
radius b the inward heat flow H is then given by
[1]
where Ka is the the thermal conductivity of air, D the diffusion coefficient of water vapour in air, Ch
and Cm are ventilation coefficients depending on Reynolds number Re, Lv is the latent heat of evaporation,
1'. the temperature of the environment and T, that of the water surface, Pv, Pv(s) respectively are the
water vapour concentrations in the remote environment and close to the particle surface; Ch = 1.6
+ OJ Re 1 / 2 and Cm = 1.0 + 0.23 Re 1 / 2 . Now Pv is the saturation density Ps(1d) at the environment
dewpoint Yd, and the surface saturation density Ps(T,) corresponds closely to 1; = 0 if temperatures are
in dc. The heat inflow rate is then 4nbK aCh (T. - T,) + Lv4nbDCm(Ps(Yd) - Ps(T,» and with
1'" = 0 this becomes 4nb(KaCh T.) + LvDCm(Ps (Yd) - Ps(O)). From this expression the heat flow
rate into the drop was calculated, with Ka=2.5 x 1O- 2 Wm- 1 K- 1 , Lv=2.6 x 10 6 Jkg- 1 ,
D = 2.4 X 10- 5 m 2 S-I. IfRe = 2400, Ch = 16.3 and Cm = 12.2.
At low heat flow rates the error was mainly because dewpoint could be found only to ± 1/2 deg C;
at 30 mW it was about 15 per cent. At high heat flow rates the error was due mainly to that in measuring
particle size, and at 100 mW it was 10 per cent. A correction for evaporation was also applied.
c) Artificial cloudwater frozen in still air

Initial masses of the frozen particles lay between 24 and 64 mg, average 41 ± 1 mg. The observed
melting charges, all positive, ranged from 0 to 4.5 pC, average 1.3 ± 0.1 pC, and the melting charges per
unit mass from 0 to 0.129 pC mg-I, average 0.036 ± 0.004 pC mg- 1 (1 pC mg- 1 = 11lC kg-I). The
errors in estimating the volume of the particle before melting and in charge measurement led to overall
errors in specific charge of the order of 30 per cent. The data were arranged in groups according to
previous freezing temperature, and for each group the average specific charge was plotted against the
midpoint of the temperature range (Fig. 3). We see an overall tendency to increasing melting electrifica-
tion as freezing temperature is lowered. (The average value for - 10.25 °C has been much affected by
one abnormally high value of 0.129 pC mg- 1 ).
These results agree qualitatively with those of Drake (1968), but specific charges are an order of
magnitude less. That his specific charges were so much greater could be because his drops had been
frozen in an airstream rather than still air (cf. page 306, e».
304
80
I",
k,t
.:.t.
u
t:
..:;;
c::
60
en
.r;
u
\
-
en
.E
40
\
"ii \
E
\ A
~
'u
<II
..
Q. 20
\.. . . . .y /
-14 -12 -10
Freezing temperature in ·C
Fig. 3. Average melting charges per unit mass for the 60 drops of artificial cloudwater grouped according to
previous freezing temperature (lpCg- 1 = 1 nC kg-I).
d) Heat flow during freezing

That the melting electrification is more intense when the drops have been frozen in a colder environ-
ment is already clear from the work of Drake (1968). Moreover, in the present work if freezing temperatures
were below - 12 °c the ice particles usually had a central region which looked milky and appeared to
contain an unusually high amount of trapped air which when released in melting would probably give
increased charging. The behaviour of the deionised water drops during freezing was studied with a fine
copper-constantan thermocouple junction in contact with the surface of the water drop. After the
temperature of the supercooled drop had fallen to the ambient value for the refrigerator the drop was
nucleated and the surface temperature rose rapidly to - 3 °C due to the release of latent heat as ice
appeared and a shell formed. The surface temperature remained steady until the slow growth of ice
was complete, and the particle then cooled to the ambient temperature.
Since most of the ice freezes after the initial rapid change, the air bubble structure will probably be
greatly influenced by the rate of heat loss during the slow growth stage. To estimate this heat loss rate,
let /)T be the supercooling in degrees of the drop of mass M. If the specific heat of water is s and the
latent heat of fusion L, the mass of water frozen in the rapid growth period is given by MsbT= mL,
;-
'1 1200 x x
u
t:
t:
(I)
800
'"
co
.s:
u xX
·z'"
"ii 400
E
.g • •
'u
(I)
c.
<II 0_ 20
-15 -10 -5
Freezing temperature in ·C
Fig. 4. Dependence of specific melting charge on earlier freezing temperature for deionised water drops, frozen
in an airstream at 11 ms -1 (top) and in still air (bottom).
305
so the fractionf ofthe mass then frozen is sfJT/L. Then the rate of heat loss during the slow growth of
duration t is M(l - f)L/t. For a 3 mm diameter drop this gives a heat loss rate of 15 mW. The contrasting
rates of heat loss for 3 mm diameter particles freezing in an airstream at 11 ms - I were calculated from
Equation 1 above. We found that for an environment temperature of - 12°C a 3 mm drop freezing in
an airstream moving at 11 ms - I dissipates heat 7 times as fast as a similar particle freezing in still air.
e) Drops frozen in an airstream

The last batch, 15 drops of deionised water frozen in an airstream at 11 ms - I, were studied in melting.
The specific charge is plotted against earlier freezing temperature in Fig. 4 (top). Also plotted (bottom)
are all the values for drops of deionised water frozen in still air. The airstream charges are about 6 times
those for still air. The melting electrification rises from about 0.1 pC mg - 1 (= 0.1 !-lC kg - I) when frozen
in still air at -lOoC to about 0.7 pC mg- I when frozen at the same temperature in an airstream at
11 ms - 1. These results suggest strongly that it is the rate of freezing during its formation which mainly
controls the charge acquired afterwards by the ventilated ice particle as it melts.
f) Air bubbles in the frozen drops

The water drops frozen in an airstream at the lower temperatures were white and completely opaque
whereas drops frozen in still air near O°C were clear except for bubbles at the centre, so the effect of
freezing rate on the electrification may be due to differences in the air bubble structure of the particles.
The total amount of air trapped is probably greater in ice formed at lower temperatures since the
solubility of air is then higher. Provided that none escapes during freezing, the amount released at the
surface of a melting ice sphere is proportional to the difference between the solubility at the initial
supercooling temperature and that at O°c. Extrapolating known solubility values to temperatures
below O°C we estimate that the volumes of air released in melting from ice frozen at - 15, - 10 and
- 5°C are in ratio 2.9: 1.8: 1.0. This 3: 1 variation is appreciably less than that in melting electrification
over the same temperature range, and the difference could be associated with the different bubble size
spectra.
For drops frozen in still air, the volume of the opaque central region increased as the freezing temper-
ature was lowered from - 5 to - 15°C, and the predominant bubble size changed progressively from
above 40 to less than 10 !-lm. On the other hand water drops frozen in an airstream at 11 ms - 1 and
below - 9°C were completely opaque even when viewed with the microscope. They contained a large
number of bubbles of the maximum diameter, in this case in the range 25 to 40 !-lm. There were also
many smaller bubbles of all sizes down to the resolution limit of about 5 !-lm. These are the drops as-
sociated with high rates of electrification, and the results suggest that air bubbles of diameter below
50 !-lm produce appreciably more charge separation than larger bubbles, and that the effect will be
greater if a significant proportion of the bubbles is smaller than 10 !-lm. This is in general agreement
with the findings of Iribarne (1967).
g) The effect of CO 2
Dinger (1946) found that using water frozen in an atmosphere of CO 2 there was nQ melting electri-
fication. The presence of CO 2 in the environment is also thought to have inhibited electrification in
the similar experiments of Matthews (1963, 1964). Drake (1968), however, found this only in non-con-
vective melting conditions; otherwise the CO 2 seemed actually to raise the electrification. In the present
work melting measurements were performed on 15 drops of diameter 4 mm made of extremely weak
solutions of CO 2 between 10- 6 N and an upper limit of 7 x 10- 6 N which corresponds to a typical
atmospheric CO 2 concentration of 0.03 per cent. The melting charges, ranging between 1 and 8 pC,
showed no dependence on CO 2 concentration. This does not confirm Drake's results for CO 2 •
Lewis (1924) shows that the chief caUSe of resistance by water drop to absorbing CO 2 is a thin (3 !-lm)
film of liquid at the surface, within which the limiting factor is diffusion of CO 2 through a relatively
highly concentrated solution of the gas. The absorption rate is governed by the concentration gradient
across the film which depends on the rate of mixing inside the drop, and this is much enhanced by
306
convection, when transfer of CO 2 may be very rapid, being effectively complete within a few seconds.
In our experiment on drops containing CO 2 , the convection could conceivably transfer the gas into
the drops, so that they were always in equilibrium with the atmospheric CO 2 and so no dependence on
apparent concentration would be found. In the Dinger experiment the comparatively large sample
(2 ml) was not well exposed to the airstream, and convection could have been too low to remove the
CO 2 , The rapid transfer from Drake's water drops may have occurred, however, in the vigorous con-
vection. In that case for most of the bubbling and measuring period the CO 2 content of the meltwater
will have been insignificantly small. This CO 2 -diffusion explanation would thus account qualitatively
for the apparent discrepancies. The further finding of Drake, that on first drawing the environment
air over blocks of solid CO 2 he observed even greater charges (with drops already containing CO 2 ,
remains unexplained.
Discussion
The specific melting charges found under the different conditions ranged up to 1pCmg - 1(= IIlCk g - I),
compared with Drake's maximum of 2.7 pC mg- I. The specific charge depended on the earlier freezing
temperature, but it increased by almost an order of magnitude for drops frozen in an airstream. The
rate of previous freezing is as important as the actual melting rate. With fast freezing we also find that the
ice is opaque with a high proportion of very small bubbles. Extending our results to solid precipitation
we see that the earlier history of the particle, and especially its manner and rate of growth, will affect
the charge produced as successive layers melt. This will extend the range of specific charges even for the
same melting conditions, blurring our picture of the charge produced by melting.
Although we have not reconciled Drake's (1968) results for drops containing CO 2 with earlier findings,
it is possible to go part of the way by considering the rapid diffusion of gas through the drop surface
when there is an appreciable airflow, perhaps enough to alter substantially the effective concentration
of CO 2 in solution.
Our results are relevant to all atmospheric ice melting electrification, but perhaps especially to the
lower positive charge in thunderstorms.
According to Mason (1972) the charge is likely to be due more to the capture by raindrops of positive
ions, produced by point discharge and drop splashing at the ground, than to the melting of small and
soft hail pellets. He estimates a melting contribution of about 1 C km - 3 (= 1 nC m - 3). Our results call
for no change in this calculation. From lightning flash data considered by Williams (1958) this charge
centre seems to occur mostly between the - 3 and + 8°C temperature levels. For a 4 mm ice particle
falling in a saturated atmosphere from the O°C level Mason's (1956) analysis indicates that it takes
3 min to melt and that 50 per cent of the mass melts during the last minute. For a comparable particle
in our wind tunnel experiments (where melting took 4 or 5 min), during the final minute about 40 per
cent of the mass melts and between 50 and 90 per cent of the melting charge appears. This is for melting
rates between 7 and 18 mg min-I compared with Mason's 14 mg min-I. Hence the melting charge of
a falling particle during the first minute is likely to be negligible. This means that the second half of the
mass is likely to be melted below the + 6.5 DC level and we might expect the melting charge centre to be
somewhere near + 8 DC, roughly 1 km below the freezing level, which is consistent with such knowledge
of the location as we have.
Acknowledgments
One of us (P. F. M.) thanks the U. K. Natural Environment Research Council for a Research Studentship.
References
1. Chalmers, J. A., Atmospheric Electricity, 2nd Edition (Oxford 1967). - 2. Dinger, J. E., and R. Gunn, Terr.
Magn. Atmos. Elect. 51, 477 (1946). - 3. Drake, J. c., Quart. 1. R. Met. Soc. 94, 176 (1968). - 4. Iribarne, J. V. and
B. J. Mason, Trans. Faraday Soc. 163,2234 (1967). - 5. Lewis, W, and W Ifhitman, Indust. Chern. Eng. 16, 1215
(1924). - 6. Mason, B. J., Quart. 1. R. Met. Soc. 82, 209 (1956). -7. Mason, B. J., The Physics of Clouds, 2nd Edition
(Oxford 1971). - 8. Mason, B. J., Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 327, 433 (1972). - 9. Matthews, J. B., and B. J. Mason, Quart.
1. R. Met. Soc. 89, 376 (1973). - 10. Matthews, J. B., and B. J. Mason, Quart. 1. R. Met. Soc. 90, 208 (1964). -
307
11. Williams, J. c., Some properties ofthe lower positive charge in thunderclouds, in Recent Advances in Atmos-
pheric Electricity (Ed. L. G. Smith), 425 (London 1958).
Discussion
In your abstract you speculate as to the possible applicability of these measurements to the purported exist-
ence of positive space charge in the bottom of highly electrified clouds. I was wondering to what extend you feel
that this fairly weak charging process may, in fact, be overwhelmed by the existence of an external field, which
could perhaps control the sign of the charging if there was some preferred, non-equatorial region of the melting
particle from which the bubbles were lost.
Perhaps there would be no preferred direction of orientation of the particle. If there were, I would expect the
charge to be modified by the field.
Alagono,Sapporo,Japan:
About ten years ago, Kikuchi made laboratory and field experiments on the positive electrification of falling
due to melting of snow crystals. In this case the snow crystals were artificially melted, but the melting rate was
very high. Therefore, I was wondering whether the result of his experiment is applicable to the melting of natural
snow. So, I have a question about the melting rate. Do you think the melting rate is very effective or not so
effective?
Hutchinson:
I think the melting rate is very important. I think sometimes the melting rate in the atmosphere will be less
than the melting rate which we used. So, one probably can expect a wide range of resulting charges in the atmos-
phere depending on the size of the particle and how fast it falls.
I don't know if I uriderstood right. Did you use both pure ice and ice made from artificial cloud water?
Hutchinson:
For the greater part ofthe results we used what I called artificial cloud water, which was deionized water with
sodium chloride added to give a 10- 4 molar solution, and it was left long enough exposed to the atmosphere for
equilibrium with carbon dioxide.
Iribarne:
The question was just because the effect is very critical to the concentration, i. e. to the conductivity. But you
have done the right thing in this respect.
Hutchinson:
I think this concentration was consistent with what you might expect in rain.
I would like to ask about the charge generating process in this melting case. I think now there are two different
ideas on this melting effect. One is the difference of activation energy of hydrogen-oxide water, and of the ice
surface. How do you explain your experiment?
Hutchinson:
I'm sure that Iribarne is much more competent to deal with this question than I am. As I see it and according
to the theory of lribarne and Alason, there is the water surface with negative charge near the surface, for these
concentrations. It is this negative surface charge which is carried away when the bubble bursts.
Authors' addresses:
P. F. Alartin w. C. A. Hutchinson
College of Technology Physics Dept., Science Labs.
Oldham, Lancs. The University of Durham, South Road
England Durham DH 1, 3 LE, England
308
The Interactions of Freely-Falling Ice Crystals*)
c. P. R. Saunders
Abstract
A laboratory study of ice crystals of typical size 50 J.lm interacting during free fall in an electric field of thunder-
storm and snowstorm magnitude reveals that aggregates of crystals are formed. Under certain conditions of field
strength and concentration the crystals break up to produce fragments and individual crystals collect smaller
particles at their corners where the electrical stress is greatest. The result of a particular interaction is a sensitive
function of temperature, crystal concentration and electric field. An indication of the electric charge on the
crystals has been obtained.
Introduction
Ice crystal interactions in glaciated clouds are important inside snowstorms where the crystals may
aggregate to form large snowflakes or they may cause each other to fragment. Inside thunderstorms
their interactions can lead to aggregation with other crystals or to collection by falling hailstones or in
some cases to the separation of charge within the existing electric field in such a manner as to increase
the electric field. Their interactions are severely modified by the presence of the high electric fields
which exist inside thunderstorms up to values of 4 x 10 5 V m -1 and which have been noted inside
snowstorms. The present work was performed with the intention of learning more about the ways in
which individual ice crystals falling in a cloud of ice crystals will interact with each other.
Apparatus
Fig. 1 represents the ice crystal growth and interaction apparatus drawn to scale. The upper chamber
was used to grow the ice crystals by introducing water vapour which was allowed to supercool and was
then nucleated by a steel rod which had been dipped into liquid nitrogen. By careful control of the
quantity of vapour, the nucleation- time and the growth time, reproducible ice crystal clouds could be
generated. The crystals were then allowed to fall through the middle chamber where they reached
equilibrium states of temperature and terminal velocity. Within the lower chamber, which was divided
into two halves, half ofthe crystals fell through a horizontal electric field while the remainder experienced
zero field. At the bottom the crystals were replicated on a glass slide using forrnvar solution. Analysis
of these slides permitted comparisons to be made of the effect of the electric field on the crystal inter-
actions.
Results
When the number of crystals which reached the bottom of the field chamber was determined it was
found to be a function of electric field strength and ice crystal concentration (by comparison with the
field-free chamber). For low concentrations of between 50 and 100 crystals per litre (50000 and 100 000
per m 3 ) in the size range 35 to 60 /lm at - 10 °C there was no measurable reduction in the concentration
even in high electric fields of '" 10 5 V m -1. In a field of 10 5 V m -1 with a concentration of 500 crystals
per litre 20% of the crystals were deflected sufficiently horizontally to miss the formvar replicator slide.
For a higher concentration of 800 per litre, 55% were deflected. Thus, during their fall many of the
crystals were interacting with other crystals and were separating again having transferred electric
charge due to the induction effect of the electric field; with higher concentrations more interactions were
able to take place in the electric field. The critical electric field below which no discernible crystal deflec-
tion occurred was 0.6 x 10 5 V m - 1. At this field strength 2 and 4 % of the crystals were deflected in
*) Paper was accepted by the Executive Panel, but could not be presented. It was, therefore, not considered
in any discussion.
309
UPPER CHAMBER
~-~--Water
Vapour
~-It-_ _ Nucleating Rod
Trapdoor
MIDDLE
CHAMBER
20 em
=--:=::;::==--==:j- Shutter
Electrodes
LOWER CHAMBER
L=============::;-Replitator Slide
Fig. 1. The ice crystal growth and interaction apparatus.
concentrations of 500 and 800 per litre respectively. Thus the maximum charges on the crystals at that
field strength could be estimated by assuming that the crystals were driven across the same percentage
of the length of the glass slide as the percentage of crystals removed from the target for that particular
concentration. This is true for a uniform crystal distribution. An order of magnitude estimate of the
average charge on the crystals was made at a field strength in which 50% of the crystals were deflected
by assuming the crystals were deflected through half the length of the glass slide. The minimum charge
was estimated at a field strength sufficient to drive all the crystals away from the glass slide, the deflection
distance being the length of the slide. These results are shown in Table l.
The most noticeable features of the ice crystal replicas were the long chains of aggregated crystals
and the crystals which had been "modified" by the field. These modified crystals often had extensive
needle-like protuberances from their corners or had collected or grown several small ice fragments
which adhered to their corners. Isolated fragmented crystals were also observed occasionally. Fig. 2
shows some of the crystals which were observed. In order to verify that these modified crystals were not
310
Table I. The ice crystal charges.
Charge on crystal in coulombs
Impressed electric The amount Concentration Concentration

field in V m- I of charge 800 per litre 500 per litre
0.6 x 10 5 Qmax 0.21 X 10- 15 0.10 X 10- 15

1 X 10 5 QAv 1.1 X 10- 15 0.4 X 10- 15
3.6 X 10 5 Qmin 0.62 X 10- 15 Not possible to detect
an artifact of the formvar replication technique, which was developed by Saunders and Wahab (1973),
some observations were made of the crystals after they had fallen directly onto clean glass slides. These
observations were more tedious than using formvar and they revealed similarly modified crystals.
An efficiency of modification was defined as the ratio of the number of crystals which had experienced
modification as a percentage of the total number of crystals on the same area of the slide under ex-
B
A
o
o
D
c
Fig. 2. Typical modified ice crystals.
311
amination. Determinations were made from over 100 experiments in which the ice crystal concentration
was maintained in the range from 100 to 400 per litre in the size range 50 to 70 ).lm. Fig. 3 shows that
the modification efficiency increases with field strength and temperature. The field strengths are as
follows: Curve 1: 0.4 x 10 5 V m -1; Curve 2: 0.8 x 10 5 V m -1; Curve 3: 1.2 x 10 5 V m -1; and
Curve 4: 2 x 10 5 V m - 1. The concentration decreases, due to the deflection of charged crystals, from
100% for curve 1 to 60% for curve 4 and this will lead to some distortion of curves 2, 3 and 4. Curve 1
is effectively the zero-field result. Modification was not pronounced in the concentration range 100 to
400 per litre. Modification appears to cease below a temperature of - - 18°C independent of the field-
strength and as the temperature increases lower field strengths are required to produce the same degree
of modification.
70
60
(3
~50
>.
u
c
.!!!40
u
.:.=
tti
c 30
0
:;:;
ro
.....
.~20
'5
0
210
0
-5 -10 -15
Temperature °c
Fig. 3. The modification efficiency as a function of temperature and electric field strength.
Curve 1: E = 0.4 X 10 5 V m - I; curve 2: E = 0.8 X 10 5 V m - I ;
curve 3: E = 1.2 X 10 5 V m-I; curve 4: E = 2.0 X 10 5 V m-I.
Discussion
The order of magnitude determination of crystal charge reveals that it is dependent on both the field-
strength and crystal concentration. The values obtained are of the same order as those of Magana and
Iwabuchi (1972) who used a horizontal deflection technique and a similar crystal growth method to
that used presently. The concentration dependence is simply that during the fall-time available in the
electric field, more interactions occur in a higher concentration. In real clouds the fall time and inter-
action time is longer which offsets the effect of reduced concentration. However, the question remains
as to what is the charge on a crystal which has experienced no interactions.
The observed modification of the crystals is significant in that it leads to crystal fragmentation and
the growth of fine structures on the ice crystals which may easily break off. Thus in electrified clouds
with field strengths over - 0.4 x 10 5 V m -1, ice multiplication may readily occur with the production
of many new sites for growth and collection following crystal and aggregate break-up. The mechanism
of modification is associated with the orientation of the crystals in the electric field due to their polarisa-
tion charges and the considerable enhancement of this field between the near surfaces of two interacting
crystals. This near-surface field may be powerful enough to fragment the crystals or to lead to rapid
312
ice needle growth as observed by Crowther and Saunders (1973). The concentration dependence of the
modification (100 to 400 crystals per litre) is due partly to the limited interaction time of ,.., 10 secs. in
the apparatus. At higher concentrations (atmospherically unrealistic) the crystals aggregated more
readily into long chains and clumps; any products of modification were rapidly collected by other
crystals. At smaller concentrations, more time is required for a given number of crystals to experience
interactions. The limit of - 18°C below which modification did not occur is comparable with the
result of Griffiths and Latham (1974) who noted that discharge currents, associated with corona break-
down, through the surface of ice crystals in high electric fields ceased as the temperature decreased
through - 18 0c. This suggests that the mechanism of modification may well be associated with corona
discharge between the two highly curved portions of two ice crystals close together in an electric field.
Conclusions
Ice crystals interacting in electric fields become charged, aggregate, fragment, and collect material
preferentially at their comers. The present study is limited by the deflection of the charged crystals in
the horizontal electric field thus making complete numerical analyses of the interactions impossible.
Studies are now under way to examine ice crystal interactions in electric fields in a more realistic environ-
ment so that all the effects of concentration, temperature and crystal properties may be elucidated.
References
1. Crowther, A. G., and C. P. R. Saunders, J. Met. Soc. Japan 51, 318 (1973). - 2. Magana, c., and T. Iwabuchi,
Arch. Met. Geoph. Biokl. Ser. A 21, 287 (1972). - 3. Griffiths, R. F., and J. Latham, Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc. 100,
163 (1974). - 4. Saunders, C. P. R., and N. M. A. Wahab, 1. Appl. Met. 12, 1035 (1973).
Author's address:
C. P. R. Saunders
Physics Department
UMIST
Manchester M 60 1 QD
England
313
Electric Fields in the Vicinity of Clouds *)
Ya. M. Shvarts and Yu. P. Sumin
Summary
1. There have been carried out measurements of the electric potential gradient in the vicinity of convective
cloud tops of different thicknesses, mainly within the region of East Siberia.
2. The potential gradient in the vicinity of the tops of convective clouds which never yielded precipitation did
not differ from the potential gradient within the environment.
3. The potential gradient in the vicinity of the tops of convective clouds, which yielded··precipitation, changed
appreciably and regularly in space.
4. The potential gradient in the vicinity of cloud tops can be used for indicating the beginning of the process
of precipitation formation in a cloud.
5. It is of interest to compare the given results of measurements with those of similar measurements in other geo-
graphical regions.
Authors' address:
Ya. M. Shvarts and Yu. P. Sumin
Karbysheva 7
Leningrad 194018
USSR
314
Charging Mechanism of Snowflakes and Soft Hail
K . Kikuchi
With 5 figures
Abstract
Simultaneous observations of the surface electric field, shape and charge of snow crystals and melted diameters
of the crystals were carried out at the seashore of Ishikari near Sapporo. As a result, it was confirmed that dendritic
crystals were negatively charged under a positive field; and large dendritic snowflakes, densely rimed crystals
and soft hail were positively charged under a negative field. Furthermore, it was found that when positive snow
particles fell, the mode value of the size distribution of melted diameter at that moment shifted to smaller values
as compared with that when negative snow crystals fell alone.
Introduction
It has been generally accepted that the charge on snow crystals is negative. Recently, the author
carried out some observations of charges on natural falling snow crystals at Syowa Station, Antarctica
from February 1968 to January 1969 (1, 2). As a result, the shapes of negatively charged snow crystals
are restricted to "dendrite" and "plate". But "column", "bullet" and "side plane" are charged positively.
On the other hand, there are some observational results by Magana and Orikasa (6) at Sapporo in which
the charges on soft hail and large snowflakes seemed to be positive. This paper describes the charging
mechanisms of snowflakes and soft hail based on the simultaneous observation of electric field, shape
and charge of snow crystal and melted diameter of the crystal.
Observation Site and Equipments

The seashore of Ishikari approximately 20 km to the north of Sapporo was selected as observation
site. In general, snow clouds invading over the Bay of Ishikari of the Sea of Japan provide some snowfall
which at times causes violent snow storms around Sapporo. Especially, some snowfalls and snow storms
give densely rimed crystals or soft hail, and snowflakes or single crystals periodically along the seashore
from developing convective clouds (5). The observation of the shapes of snow crystals was done by
microscopic photography and the replica solution method, and melted diameters of particles were
recorded on filter papers at approximately 5 to 10 minutes intervals. The charges on snow particles
were measured by causing the current flow through a high resistance for each particle. At the same
time, a "field mill" was used for the electric fields.
Fig. 1. Snow cloud progressing from sea to Ishikari Plain.
315
Observational Results
Fig. 1 shows a typical example of snow clouds invading from over the bay to the Ishikari Plain. As
seen in this picture, the cloud form belongs to "Cumulus congestus". The top of the clouds, however,
is not very high because of a steep stable layer over the area. Further, the cloud has a band shape with
from several to 20 km of the width and from several tens to 100 km or more of the length. Accompanied
with the change of the cloud shape when the cloud arrives at the seashore, the electric field on the ground
shows also characteristic changes. Fig. 2 shows a typical example of the electric field change. The letters
(L), (M), (S) and (D) in this figure indicate large disturbance of 20 to 30 fold over the undisturbed field,
a medium of 10 fold, a small of a few fold and the field during drifting snow, respectively.
30 ( l 1 (Ll l) l)
20
~ (M)
Z
::J
f
ai
c:
<! 10
Cl
....I
W
L.L.
- __ I
u 16
c:
I-
U TIM E
W
....I
W -10 (M)
(M)
30 JAN. 1972
-20
-30 (Ll (Ll (Ll (ll (Ll (Ll
Fig. 2. Typical example of the electric field change by snowfall.
Fig. 3 shows the case of the large disturbance of the electric field. For practical purposes, although
a 30 cm 2 collector plate was used, the figure of 1 on the left ordinate indicates 30 snow particles per
minute. It seems that the mirror image relation is formed in this case. Clarifying this relation, the follow-
ing treatment was carried out. At first, it was formed (N + - N _) at each observation time. And next,
for comparison with the time changes of the electric field and of this (N + - N _), the values of 2 cm - 2 +
X min -1 (= +
3.33 X 10 2 m - 2 S - ') were fixed on the scales of the field of :t 30 arb. unit. The results
of these treatments are shown on the same figure 3 (together with the field curve F) by circles connected
by solid lines and marked (N + - N _). The reason for the fixation of + 2 and ± 30 is that in general
an ofT-scale value of the field (in this amplification range of the sets of the equipment) is recorded when
Fig. 3. Time changes of electric field and (N + - N _) (upper) and concentration of charged particles, N + and
N _, and average charges, Q + and Q _, of snow crystals (lower).
Units of concentration and charge are in cgs. For conversion into SI apply the following factors : 1 cm -2 min-'
= 1.66 X 102 m- 2 s-'; 1 charge unit esu = '/3 x 10- 9 C.
316
30 2
I-
z
:J
20 Iz
F ::i
ai I
0::
<t 10
'"'::i
0
0 Z
...J 0
IIJ
il: ~
0 I-
<t
0::
0 I-
0:: N..-NJ z
I- IIJ
0-10 0
IIJ 27 JAN. 1971 z
...J 0
IIJ 0
-20
-30 2
'z 10-'
::i
'"'::i 10- 2 :J
C/)
0 .Q+ Icr5 IIJ
z 0 :t10·
IIJ
(!)
0
t 0::
i=
<t ..
R·24.
.. . .. Q- -105
<t
.....
J:
0:: 0
l-
Z
IIJ
... -10 2
0
Z -10'
0
0 N_
317
::£
::£
;::
~
0
z
~!/)
CD t$J 0
0;- W
(
Lo- Lo- .....
..J
~
Lo-
~o
0:
UJ
.....
W
~
5
0 ;; 0
0 0 (;
-
0
"-
3 0 j 0
'Z
~
N·
'~ 0
u
...,
(F-NO.) 2 8 9 10 11 12
Z
0 1 1 1 1 1 J
~
<t
0::: 07 10
~
Z T I ME
IJJ ( R-NO.)
U
- -
Z II -.:::r u u .0
0 0 0 0
~
0
U N N N N N
Li: Lo- Li: Lo- Lo-
30 JAN. 1972 .ci .0 IS D
0 0 ~ ....
0
....
0
'"
u. '" '"
Li: '"
L0- '"r.;:
2
Fig. 4. Time changes of concentration of charged particles, N + and N _, and (N + - N _), and size distributions
of melted snow particles. Units in cgs. For conversion into SI see Fig. 3.
the charged particles were measured as 2 particles per cm 2 x min or more. As shown in the figure, the
curve of (N + - N _) shows a very good coincidence with that of the field .
Fig. 4 shows the time change of the concentration of the snow particles, N + and N _, microscopic
photographs of replicated particles and the size distributions of melted particles. In this case, of course,
the mirror image relation was settled between both elements. In the figure, (F-NO.) means the filter
paper number and small downward arrows indicate the observation time. The size distributions of the
diameters of melted snow particles of each filter paper are shown in the upper row. Similarly (R-NO.)
means the replicated slide glass number. The classification of the shape of snow crystals is based on the
classification by the International Commission on Snow and Ice in 1949 (7). In this case, especially, it
is recognized that there is a distinct characteristic relation between the sign of charge, shape and
318
~
~
~
x 0
z
""~
CD c$J
. ~(/)
0
UJ
(
lL. I-
...J
~
lL.
~o
a:
UJ
I-
UJ
~
i5
0
ti 0
0 0
"-
(; ~ , d
-
0
\
3
·OJ
-;
( IN I"" i~:» NOI1~lN3:>NO:>
'z
~
"'. [
-
'~ 0
u
(F- NO.) 2 8 9 10 II 12
Z I
0 I I j I I
r
<{
a::: 07 10
r
Z T I ME
w
.
( R-NO.)
u
-
Z
-""r;:
"t:J u .0
0 !2 0
<)
0
U
0
N !2
IJ: ""LL N
lL.
N
lL.
30 JAN. 1972 .ri .D .r5 .0
0 0 0 0
N N to-
N
r;: LL IJ:
N
lL.
Fig. 5. Another example of the same kind as in Fig. 4.
distribution of melted diameter of the snow particles. Notwithstanding the fact, the charge was pre-
dominantly negative just before 08: 00 JST (Japanese Standard Time); after that time, positive charges
predominated till 08 :40. The polarity of the field was opposite to that ofthe charge. After 08 :40, negative
charges predominated again. Noticeable difference of the size of the crystals was recognized before and
after 08: 40. Namely, before the time, the sizes of the main crystals were large, De and Dd, on the other
hand, after the time the sizes were relatively small, Db and Dc. In the distribution F-4, although the main
crystals were large, the maximum peak is located in smaller sized crystals. In contrast, in F-6, the
maximum peak is located in larger sized crystals. These facts indicate that there is a coexistence of the
large main crystals and the small particles when the positive charge predominates.
319
Another example is shown in Fig. 5. The same shape of stellar snow crystals as in F-2 was recorded
during the observation period. Particularly, around 11 :00, 11 :30 and 11:40 JST, the crystals became
flakes, J, and further rimed, r, on the flakes. The sizes of the crystals were larger than 4 mm, e, and the
charge was predominantly positive. Around 11: 10, however, the crystals were still snowflakes but the
sizes were relatively smaller, between 1 to 2 mm, c, and further the sign was negative. From the size
distributions, the maximum ,peak of F-60 was at 0.5 rom and at this time the negative charge predom-
inated. From these examples and others, single and simple stellar and dendritic crystals generally show
negative charges predominantly. However, it is expected that when the crystals formed relatively large
snowflakes, or when the crystals became soft hail-like crystals or soft hail, they obtained positive charges.
Simultaneously, it was recognized that a number of small snow particles and fragments existed with
the previous relatively large snow crystals as seen in the size distributions.
Considerations and Conclusions

Regarding the charge in the case of heavy snowfall from clouds such as the cumulus type, the author
arrived at the conclusion that relatively large snowflakes, densely rimed crystals and soft hail were
charged positively by friction with small snow particles or by disintegration of fragments from fragile
snowflakes or soft hail. At this time, small fragments acquired negative charges. A negative electric field
on the ground is formed by the movement of large positive charged particles. The coexistence of large
snowflakes and densely rimed crystals, and small particles, was understood from the size distributions
in which, when the positive large crystals predominated, the mode value of the size distribution of melted
diameter at the time shifted to smaller values as compared with when negative snow crystals predomin-
ated in a series of snowfalls.
It was surmized that small particles carry away negative charges by a thermoelectric effect (4) or by
temporary contact between both particles and crystals with different temperatures. According to
Sartor (8), charge transfer between both particles in a certain electric field occurs by collision or near
collision. Therefore, if l/z x 10 -10 C m - 2 S - 1; 0.2 cm, + 1/3 X 10 - 11 C and 1000 m were adopted
as the charging rate (3), the mean diameter and the amount of charge on snowflakes and the falling
path of the flakes, respectively, the number of times of collision and/or near-collision of 5 x 10 5 is
sufficient for large particles to become positive. This is not especially large.
References
1. Kikuchi, K., J. Meteor. Soc. Japan 48, 452 (1970). - 2. Kikuchi, K., J. Meteor. Soc. Japan 51, 337 (1973). -
3. Latham, J., Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc. 89, 265 (1963). - 4. Latham, J. and B. J. Mason, Proc. Roy. Soc. A 260,
523 (1961). - 5. Magono, c., K. Kikuchi, T. Kimura, S. Tazawa, and T. Kasa~ J. Fac. Sci., Hokkaido Univ., Ser.
VII, Vol. II, 287 (1966). - 6. Magono, c., and K. Orikasa, 1. Meteor. Soc. Japan 44, 260 (1966). - 7. Mason, B. J.,
The Physics of Cloud. Clarendon Press, 232 (1971). - 8. Sartor, J. D., J. Atmos. Sci. 24, 601 (1967).
Discussion
To what extent is the direction of the charging in your experiments explicable in terms of the inductive process?
Recently the induction mechanisms by Sartor and Mason became important. But I don't think the mechanism
is perfect because the time change of the electric field and the number of concentration of net charged particles
coincides strictly in this experiment. In that case, the electric field is influenced by the number concentration of
charged particles. So, this coincidence is important considering charging mechanism.
I noticed that you used the inductive charging theory to explain the positive charging of the large snow flakes.
What separation efficiency values did you use in the charge-transfer equation? Did you use a constant value over
the whole size distribution or a range of values?
320
Kikuchi:
In this case, when a positive charge predominated, the mode value of the size distribution is about 0.2 mm.
However, in this experiment, I carried out the measurement by filter paper, thus, on the smaller particles, we
could not get any data. But, when a negative charge predominated, the mode value shifted to larger sizes, that
is 0.5 mm. Thus, the difference of the mode values of melted diameter explains the coexistence of a main group
of large crystals and small snow particles. According to Sartor, separation efficiency between snow crystals is
0.8 to 0.9; moreover, the charge separation between both particles and crystals was generated not only by direct
collision but also by near collision.
Author's address:
K. Kikuchi
Dept. of Geophysics
Faculty of Science
Hokkaido University
Kita 10, Niski 8
Sapporo 060
Japan
321
Airborne Measurements of Electric Charging of Marine Fog·)
P. B. Wagner and J. W. Telford
With 2 figures
Abstract
Measurements of electric field strength in the vicinity of a straight and distinct edge of an extensive 60 m marine
fog show a region of enhanced field over the clear area adjacent to the edge. Also discussed is the new airborne
field mill used for these measurements. This instrument, a rotating capacitive plate type is particularly small
and light for aircraft nose boom mounting. Use of modern microelectronic circuitry allows the signal processing
to be done beneath the 0.15 m long by 0.05 m diameter capacitive plates. Output from the processor. rotating
with the plates. is digital and is transmitted optically to the stationary frame.
Data processing methods to reduce the field data to satisfactory conceptual models is discussed. The problem
is to evaluate the confidence with which the measurements outside the fog provide a measure of the fields and
conductivity within the fog.
Introduction
Advective marine fog is often quite uniform. stable and slowly moving and so provides the simplest
configuration of any cloud form for field study. However fog investigation is still complicated due to
its environment. frequently a low overriding inversion trapping haze. both natural and man made. in
close vicinity of the fog. Even the slowly moving fog exhibits time variations such as the electrical pre-
cursor effect (Dolezalek. 1963) at any geographical point, which are not completely understood.
The mobility in an airborne measurement presents two important advantages over fixed base study.
First, the fog environment can be investigated over a large area in a short time; and second, and perhaps
equally important, the aircraft can be maneuvered so its measuring patterns move with the fog. Thus
the fog, stable but moving over an unchanging sea, can be viewed in essential detail for long periods as
a steady-state phenomenon.
This paper presents the mitial efforts of a continuing airborne study of natural fog charging. Included
are a brief description of a new, airborne, electric field mill, and one approach to analysis of data ob-
tained from a particularly ideal example of marine fog.
New Electric Field Mill

A new electric field mill for aircraft use was developed for this study. It is a rotating plate type, light,
1.22 kilograms, and small, 0.05 m diameter by 0.45 m in length. for mounting on a long aircraft nose
boom.
The principal electronics, all of monolithic circuitry, lie beneath and rotate with a split cylinder pair
of capacitive plates. Two field components are measured and digitized on the rotating frame. The digital
output signals are passed serial to the aircraft frame via a pulsed infrared light beam. Power is supplied
through brushes, but is filtered and precisely regulated on the rotating frame. Extreme care was exercised
in both physical and electrical design to gain maximum noise rejection. The capacitive plates held
electrically at virtual ground potential lie on the interior of a glass dielectric cylinder. Thereby no
leakage paths are exposed. Dry air is to be pumped through the mill to preclude condensation and
leakage. However, the drying feature was not implemented for the measurements described below.
Fog Measurements
As already stressed, the ideal fog for initial airborne study is slowly moving, uniform and stable in
time. Such an example was found on 24 October 1973 off the Cape Cod coast of the eastern United
States. This extensive fog grew from a rather patchy fog in vicinity of Nantucket Island earlier in the
any discussion.
322
day to a quite extensive fog moving northwest at about 5 kmfbr. The fog, about 60 m deep, had a rather
straight, well-defined edge extending 150 km or more northeasterly from the southern Cape Cod land-
fall. Measurements were taken about 80 km from the cape by traversing the fog edge at various altitudes
as shown in Fig. 1. The fog lay in a stable, hazy and near saturated boundary layer some 120 meters in
depth. An appreciable decrease in measured field strength was observed beneath the boundary layer.
Some uncertainty has resulted from a measured horizontal field component which may be due to the
measuring system or platform configuration. Since the field mill was compensated for general aircraft
charging this does not seem to be a likely source of trouble and so this aspect of the measurements is
not yet understood. Consequently, care should be taken in interpreting fields measured observed below
120 m. Still relative magnitudes along each track are consistent with measurements above the inversion.
1200 ~--~r---~-----r----~----~----r---~kfr
4
1100
.... 1000
a.
::.
~ gOO
c:. 3
a. 800
II)
a.
::. 700
Q
<:>
c:.
12 600
2
~
a. 500
e:
.!:: 400
a.
"t:J
::. 300 1
~
t;
"<t 200 Start-
End.
100
03
2 a 1 2 3
~ flight time (min)
Fig. 1. Flight pattern 24 Oct 1973, 13 :42 to 14.56 EST (Eastern Standard Time) marine fog, Cape Cod, Massa-
chusetts, USA.
Fig. 2 shows the fields observed at various altitudes during straight and level flight. There generally
appears to be an increase in field strength (more negative)*) over the clear region adjacent to the fog at
lower altitudes. At the same time, there appears to be considerable noise in the data at altitudes below
3.2 km. The source of noise was not determined but is not believed to be instrumental. Its presence,
however, requires considerable care in the data analysis discussed below.
A Model of the Electric Field Near a Sea Fog

In the analysis of electric field measurements taken in an aircraft over a fog the aim is to deduce
information about what conditions exist within the fog and how does the fog modify the atmosphere
in its immediate vicinity.
As in all these measurements there are many variations in the measured field which are probably
irrelevant, and even if the charge distribution was generated which exactly simulated the measured field
we would have little confidence that the many peculiar details could be generalized as part of the
description of the essential features of fogs.
*) Field vector pointing downwards is termed "negative" here.
323
E
-180 ~~------+p'-..,oL----¥----I ~
..,
2 1 a 1 2
clear -+-+ fog a
Fig.2a. Electrical field strength (Ez ) plots at various altitudes over edge of marine fog bank, 24 Oct 1973, 13 :42
to 14:56 EST, Cape Cod, Massachusetts.
Fig.2b. Low altitude plots of E z continued from Fig. 2a.
A common practice in removing the apparently irrelevant variations in measured data is to smooth
the data. This is usually accomplished by fitting a polynomial to the data points using least mean square
methods. However when the phenomenon is a physical one such as with electric fields about which we
have a knowledge of general laws, it would seem much better to fit the data to simply configured charge
distributions. Thus, although it is certainly true that the measured electric fields could be interpreted,
through the vertical from one flight level to another, and then integrated down from the top to give
equipotential surfaces we would probably find many detailed variations, due to noise in the measure-
ments, time variation throughout the flight, etc. Space charge and relative conductivity can of course
then be generated from the full vector field between the equipotential surfaces obtained, by integrating
only the vertical field component in the vertical.
This paper describes work aimed at providing a better conceptual approach to this problem as well
as an arithmetically tractable method in the case where the field is essentially two-dimensional. The
first step was to generate a two-dimensional field giving some of the features we would expect from a
fog over the sea. Thus the sea surface should be an equipotential as well as the atmosphere some ten or
more fog depths above the fog. There is a well-known analytic solution for two conducting planes
separated by an intermediate semi-finite conducting plane with different voltages on each surface. The
324
intermediate plane has the property that there is a discontinuity in electric field passing through it and
a net charge on the surface. This is a condition which it is reasonable to expect near the top of a fog.
Thus, although the intermediate plane has the equivalent of infinite conductivity parallel to its surface
with a concentrated field at its edge it is possible to superimpose a number of such configurations. If
the top and bottom planes are conducting they will remain parallel equipotentials while the collection of
intermediate planes will be equivalent to fixed parallel sheets of space charge each with the charge
distribution of the original separate solution. These intermediate planes will no longer be equipotential
surfaces but by superimposing a number of these field solutions the net result can be fitted to any
desired field pattern.
In addition to simulating the area near the fog it is necessary to recognize that the field changes with
distance are partly due to space charge throughout the field. Hence although integrating a field will
give equipotentials and the electric field direction will be perpendicular to these surfaces, the field will
change even when the field lines are parallel, because of the charge in the air.
Thus, the model we intend to test with the field measurements envisages fitting two field features at the
same time. Field lines and equipotentials will be fitted from the simple two-dimensional model with a
space charge postulated and determined which keeps the shape of the equipotential surfaces.
This procedure thus postulates parallel equipotential surfaces well away from the edge of the fog and
on the sea surface and at some height well above the fog. A charge distribution is thus found by distribut-
ing charge on parallel planes near or in the fog. In addition the potential between these resulting equi-
potentials is adjusted to best fit the field. It is intended to experiment numerically on a computer to find
the best fitting model by this means. It is hoped that systematic departures from such a simple model
will confirm or disprove its utility. If the discrepancies are small, the model will immediately provide
a model of the field within the fog and a means of relating clear air measurements near a fog to what
is happening within the fog.
The Analytic Model

The analytic model with the semi-infinite conducting plane between two parallel infinite plumes
has been programmed on a computer. The formulae are as follows (see Korn and Korn, p. 7.9-5):
z = kIn 1~ k + In 2 (1- k) + in - kIn (z' + 1) - (1- k)ln (z' -1)
z' = - coth (w/z).
The otential of the intermediate plane when the infinite planes are both at zero potential is v in the
relation
w = u + iv
z is the coordinate between the two planes. The height of the intermediate plane is k times the height
of the top plane from the bottom plane.
In this transformation the top and bottom planes are both at the same potential.
Since an arrangement which has a top plane at a higher potential relative to the zero potential of the
bottom plane, will contain intermediate plane parallel equipotential surfaces, we have an additional
solution when the intermediate semi-infinite plane has a potential of k times that of the top plane.
By writing a program in Fortran using complex arithmetic and a simple Newtonian approximation
loop we can find the w for a given coordinate position z.
When z = x + iy we then add the potential v and y VT to give the final potential at x, y
where VT is the potential on the top plane and v;,y is the potential at x and y. v can be scaled to provide
any desired potential on the intermediate plane.
325
By modifying the iteration loop we can find the y for a specified x and VXY ' This gives us points on
an equipotential surface at successive values of x. The vertical component of the electric field is of
course simply the real part of the complex differential,
du av .av
dz = ay + I ax
Some initial equipotential surfaces have been generated and they give reasonable field strength
changes in terms of a simple physical picture for comparing to the data.
The Fitting Procedure

With a relatively simple function such as this to evaluate, the field can be set up for a particular com-
bination of voltages and planes at several hundred points, and the mean square error of the measure-
ments, evaluated. The partial derivative of this quantity with each of the 10 to 20 adjustable parameters
is then determined by reevaluating the error with a small change in each parameter. This gives the best
change to reduce the error. Repeating the process gives the least possible error which the number of
parameters and the model allows. The departures of the measured field from the model obtained are
then mapped to look for systematic changes which will be used to improve the formulation.
The model immediately gives equipotentials and field lines throughout the field, including in the
fog.
Conclusion
Work is proceeding to systematically examine data collected by an aircraft near a sea fog bank with
a view to determine how simple a numerical model can be constructed to display the essential features
of the field in a simple form. The aim is to use the data to make useful deductions about conditions
throughout and near the fog itself.
Acknowledgments
The authors are most appreciative of support for this study from the U. S. Office of Naval Research, Contract
number NOOOI4-71-A-0135-0003, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research whose aircraft and flight
staff was involved. In addition, we thank the U. S. Air Force for base support and the Otis U. S. Coast Guard
station, particularly Commander F. F. Silvia, for splendid cooperation in locating fog for the duration of our
field operations.
References
1. Dolezalek, H., Reviews of Geophysics 1, 231 (1963). - 2. Korn, G. A., and T. M. Korn, Mathematical Hand-
book for Scientists and Engineers, 943 (New York 1961).
Authors' addresses:
P. B. Wagner J. W. Telford
Desert Res. Inst. Desert Res. Inst.
University of Nevada System University of Nevada System
Sage Bldg. Stead Campus Lab. of Atmospheric Physics
Reno, Nevada 89507 Reno, Nevada 89507
USA USA
326
General Discussion
I would like to make a few comments of my own to start with. I feel that there is a discrepancy in the research
philosophy of this morning. Namely an improper balance between field experiments, laboratory experiments,
and theories. In Manchester, for instance, the emphasis is put very much on laboratory experimentation with
some attempt to model these experiments. However, there is not yet a proper interaction between modeling and
experiment. On the other hand, for instance, in Hawaii an enormous effort is spent on field experimentation.
And, although the experiments look very fine, I feel this work is not related very much to laboratory experiments,
or to a model. I hope that this conference will bring more insight into the need to interrelate these different disci-
plines. And now I would like to open the floor to any comments you might have.
I had in mind to say exactly the same as you just said. But, I would like, however, to add some additional
remarks; may I ask the speakers of this morning's session to say something, first, about the progress in the field
of charge generation in the last four or five years. The second question is again to all speakers of this morning's
session: How do you feel about the need for further research to fill this gap between laboratory measurements,
field measurements, and modeling?
We have dropped ten dropsondes through convective clouds but my feeling is that 10 sections from 10 dif-
ferent clouds are perhaps rather difficult to interpret. Before we can make any definite conclusions, we need
some sondes to go through the same cloud. When you are looking at different clouds, it is difficult to generalize.
I think there are one or two points that I did not make clear in my talk. The fields I plotted out were, of course,
the maximum fields in the vertical and generally occurred on this model about five hundred meters above cloud
base. The cloud was cut into many discs and the charge density calculated for each disc; then a numerical
integration was performed, and the vertical field calculated at different heights. The equations I drew on the board
were just to demonstrate the general trend of the results one would expect. I did not, of course, use the simple
model of two parallel plates.
I wish to return to the point raised by Muhleisen, concerning the imbalance between overemphasis on labora-
tory experiments and the paucity of good field information; and also your point about whether or not good
progress has been made in the past few years in connection with charging processes. I feel that the priority should
definitely be to acquire good field information. There is very little point in continuing exclusively to conduct
oversimplified laboratory experiments with little prospect of realistically extrapolating those to clouds, until we
possess adequate knowledge of the relevant properties of electrified clouds. However, very good and compre-
hensive field studies are currently being made at Socorro in New Mexico by several people. Also, Japanese
scientists are planning to initiate a large scale field study of thundercloud electrification. I think that only when
good field evidence exists can we introduce into our theoretical models results from laboratory work, which is
nevertheless required. I will now reply to your question as to which charging processes are becoming identified
as important. I do not feel that very great progress has been made in the past few years. I think we have heard
this morning of some good studies by Aufdermaur which are starting to throw light upon the physics involved
in the charging processes. I cannot think of any detailed experiments conducted in the past few years (with the
possible exception of some by Iribarne) which help us to understand field growth in real clouds. Our group at
Manchester is collaborating with the British Meteorological Office in airborne studies of the electrical properties
of convective clouds. The major research tools are an instrumented airplane and dropsondes which telemeter
electrical information to ground as they fall through a cloud. We are concentrating our attention on clouds, in
the early stages of their electrical development. We feel that it will be much more rewarding to study developing
clouds rather than highly complex thunderclouds whose electrical properties could not be interpreted.
I think Muhleisen's question is very good. My opinion is that if you do laboratory work you can find many
evidences for charging. But, in the cloud model we can include all of the theories quantitatively, and we can say
which theory is most efficient. So we can remove, separate, and classify our theories in order to compare them with
experiments. We need more complete observations.
327
Few, Houston, Texas, USA:
With respect to the last two questions that were asked I can, in the words of Latham, throw some light. On
Friday I will be giving a paper in which we have, using acoustic techniques, located the origin of lightning flashes
inside the cloud. And in one such study we have been able to do this and compare it with the 10 centimeter radar
reflectivity contours of that cloud. We find that 90% of the lightning originates in the regions of low reflectivity
and very small particles. Also, we find that the region of intense activity is confined to a layer between the zero-
degree and the minus-ten-degree region in the cloud. We are making advances right now, to the point where
we can designate where in the cloud the intense electrification is taking place, where the lightning is coming from.
This should hopefully shed some light on these problems. In addition to this, I would like to comment that it
seemed to me that too much of the laboratory work has been heavily orientated toward the larger particle inter-
actions, and it seems to me now that we need to concentrate some effort on the small droplet interactions.

I am tempted to make some comments, especially after what both Latham and Few have said. The situation is,
to emphasize the confusion, as follows: Few announces that he finds the lightning discharges to originate in the
low reflectivity zones. If you look at some of Proctor's South African data, which are beautiful and which he
will talk about, you will find that out of eighteen discharges, he finds that many of them originate right on the
edge of the very intense precipitation zone. This would imply that the strong fields are produced by precipitation.
So, it is again a confusing situation and again it is like the proverbial sausage: You think you have got it, and
you squeeze it in one place and it pops out in the other. To follow up what Latham has said: about 5 or 10 years
ago, I made a proposal, in which I wanted to call a moratorium on laboratory experiments on new or old charge
separation mechanisms. I think we have had enough. At that time I was joined by Mason because he felt that
the Latham-Mason theory of charge separation in clouds was the obvious answer. Since that time, somehow, he
has become disillusioned with that theory and has been in favor of an induction mechanism. I will join him again
and say: "good luck"! There is absolutely no evidence at present that any of us can really put together a good
consistent theory that says we know how a thunderstorm works, a theory without hand waving. I saw some things
on the screen today, and if Takahashi will pardon me, I will use him as an example. If you send up a radiosonde
and you measure positive charge here and you measure negative charge there, these are results of what we
hope are good measurements. But we have been given no license to speculate (or, more consistent with what is
done, to conclude) with no other evidence on how the charges were transported to that position. Yet I saw
Takahashi drawing the trajectories and having, for example, negative charge going through some regions of
positive charge and still coming out negative! I hope he does not take offense at this. I am looking at the state
of affairs as I see them, which requires an investigator to go on flightS of fancy from his data to a mechanism.
And it is not much different in other areas of our field. What we need to measure in the thunderstorm itself, in
the number of variables, appears to be too big a task for anyone principal investigator to do with his own group.
I think we need among us to cooperate, to take advantage of our common interest in order to make the kind of
simultaneous measurements that need to be done. They must be simultaneous! When you balance the budget
you balance it at every instant, not on the average. Newton's second law cannot be disqualified for the time being
and then brought in later. The momentum balance has to be observed, and the charge balance, etc. Thus, this
becomes a very large problem. Some of my colleagues at New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology are
trying very hard: a 26 hour day is what it takes during the summer to surround the thunderstorm, but we still
can not surround it well enough. I would say, for example, that we need to take advantage of the Lhermitte techni-
que, for example, using dual-doppler radar which can yield the wind field inside a cloud system while we are
making our electrical measurements. And I think this is the way in which we should go and I would, again, say
I would like to see, at least for people who have the choice, that we declare a moratorium on discovering more
charge separation mechanisms in the microphysical sense and try to evolve a set of constraints. We need more
equations of constraint that will reduce the number of degrees of freedom, so that we can zero in on a solution
to the problem.
I think if we would seriously attack the problems confronting us about charge generation and charge separation
in the cloud, we have to make many field observations and we also have to measure some meteorological
parameters which may not seem to be closely associated with what we are measuring at the moment. Apart from
that we have to make a good number of visual observations, because electronic equipment cannot completely
solve the problem, as I see it. For instance, we have observed at Ibadan (Nigeria) that our storms come at certain
periods of the year. These periods happen to coincide with the beginning of our wet season, and the end. In be-
tween there is a lot of rainfall without much lightning activity. We have also noticed that on days when we have
328
these intense lightning activities we have intense sunshine, during the day, and towards evening we have the
intense thunderstorm. This indicates that there must be some connection between the intense sunshine and the
process of charge generation and separation. I do not know if there is anybody here who can throw some light
on that.

Just to say that I, too, have lived in Africa and I have made the same observation that we get these thunder-
storms at the change-over of the seasons. I would add another point, that it is only at this time of the year that
you have heavy rainfall and also a lot of dust in the air. During the rainy season the air is clear, and during the
dry season the air is hazy and dusty. But only at the change-over of the seasons storms are forming in a dusty
atmosphere which subsequently, of course, clean it.

Well, under the circumstance, I find myself in a strange situation. I am well prepared to become a minority
of one, because I do not think that there should be any moratorium on any laboratory experiments of any sort.
And, I, for one, intend to continue. That is not to say that I do not feel that here should be some large scale pro-
ject, such as Brook has talked about. In fact, I think that should be very strongly and actively encouraged. How- •
ever, it seems to me that we have two main aims here. One is to understand any and all physical principles which
may, or may not, actually take place in the atmosphere, but which can be found in the laboratory. And that is
the sort of experiment that I happen to be very interested in, and, insofar I am able, will continue to be interested
in. Quite separately is the aim of understanding how or if any of these happen to occur in clouds. Now, it so
happens that for me this is a slightly less important consideration than the first. But I can well understand that
most people would feel that that was the most important part. I do not. I feel myself that the understanding of
the physical principles involved is far more important. Certainly, we are not yet at the stage of understanding
the physics in the laboratory experiments. There is a danger, in concentrating on field experiments. However,
for the good of the subject we also should consider a large scale operation such as Brook has mentioned. Again,
if Mr. Takahashi will excuse me, I think I can use his experiment as an example. I got the impression that Mr.
Takahashi was drawing conclusions about physical processes from the results of his field experiments. I per-
sonally felt that some of these conclusions were not warranted. Unless the experiments had been done in a more
controlled fashion in the laboratory, I myself would not be prepared to accept them. There is always a danger,
if one concentrates on field experiments and then uses the results to draw physical conclusions which are not
necessarily warranted.

I would just like to state that I was chairman of the Committee on Atmospheric Electricity of the American
Meteorological Society last year. In this capacity, I had to prepare the review paper which is to appear in the
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society in November. One of my recommendations is that it is now
time for a new thunderstorm project in the United States. We had the last one 25 years ago. This was a large
scale experiment. Since then, our experimental techniques have advanced immensely, and I think it's high time
that this type of new project might be re-initiated*).

I would like to second Dawson's comment about laboratory experiments, and also to encourage Latham
with his experiments in the small cloud's development. My feeling is that we are talking about cloud electricity,
while cloud physicists really don't understand how a cloud grows, especially warm clouds. There are problems
especially in understanding small cloud elements, as Few mentioned. We have carried out our experiments in
the wind tunnel of the University of California at Los Angeles where the flow was very laminar, and we found
that below 40 micrometer drops did not grow by collection of smaller droplets, so that it is possible that condensa-
tion will be a dominating process up to much larger sizes. However, when very small charges were placed on the
droplets the collection efficiency had increased tremendously. I was supposed to present a paper here about that
work; but, the calibration was not completed in time and, therefore, I cannot present data except just to quali-
tatively say that small electric charges make considerable differences in the interactions of those very small drops.
I, therefore, think that laboratory experiments are the only way one can resolve some of the problems.
*) For the development of the "Second Thunderstorm Project" see the remarks on page 809, below (Editor).
329
Brook:
I feel like I have to clear myself here for a second. I have been traditionally, and I think for good reason, very
much in opposition to very large projects because I think the amount of scientific result per dollar or Mark is
very small. I am only, in a figurative way here suggesting that the single experiment, or the single observation,
especially the field work, should be discouraged: for a long time they had to be encouraged and should have
been encouraged. But I would now like to encourage the cooperative effort leading to a more total sort of observa-
tions. Making use of the methods and technical achievements which are now available to us, great progress could
be made in a cooperative program. On the other hand, I want to second Dawson's comments about laboratory
experiments. I, indeed, favour them greatly: we turn out one or two theses per year based upon laboratory work.
The moratorium I call for is, in essence, on maintaining the irrational bias that gets into a series of investigations
which is based upon a very strong, somewhat emotional feeling about what makes the electric charge separate
in a thunderstorm. It is not a moratorium on laboratory experiments. I feel these are necessary. A balanced
program of field observations and laboratory experiments should really be encouraged.
Varshneya, Roorkee, India:
From a purely theoretical point of view, I should think it worthwhile to make an account of the energy balance
in cloud. There are three processes going on - thermodynamical, mechanical, and electrical processes - and, if one
could make a complete energy balance of the whole cloud, that would exclude any of the theories which would
violate the energy balance. I do not know if it has been done, and if it has already been done, I would request
enlightenment.
J. Latham:
I feel that any field study of thundercloud electrification, however massive, should address itself to very well-
defined questions. These would include: Where are the charge centers within the clouds? What is the charge ex-
change between the cloud and its environment? What is the air flow within and around the cloud, and what is
its role in transporting charge? What are the properties of the hydro meteors present within the clouds, and what
charges and currents do they carry?
I would like to call attention to an interaction between thunderstorm electricity and cloud physics that I do
not believe was considered by Latham in his talk. I refer to experiments that were reported some years ago by
Vincent Schaefer. He demonstrated a very lively effect on nucleation that was produced when small vegetable or
animal fibers were placed in strong electric fields. The experiments he reported, and which I have observed, in-
volved raising a fiber, for example, a spider web, to a potential of several kilovolts in a supercooled cloud in a
cold box. With proper conditions, the fiber emits a stream of ice crystals that, in appearance, is very much the
same as what one sees when one puts a small needle, chilled in liquid air, into a supercooled cloud. This is a
very dramatic effect. There is little question in my mind that in some thunderstorms at least, there must be large
electric fields and a population of such fibers of various origins and that these may be producing very real nuclea-
tion effects.
Griffiths, Alderley Edge, Cheshire, England:
I would like to move to a specific topic, on Takahashi's work that he reported here. I would like to ask if he
can offer any experimental evidence that the charging processes that he envisages and reports in his paper actually
take place in the clouds. Since Dawson raised this point, I wonder if Takahashi could tell us whether or not there
is such evidence.
Takahashi:
An experiment was done a few years ago and reported in the Journal of Atomic Science. Based on this, the
electric charge is a function of the supersaturation, the supersaturation ratio, and, of course, the ion density.
We could include this in the cloud model. Then we compared that cloud model with observations. By that process
we found out that the process is indeed sufficient to produce the positive charge. That is our process right now.
May I say a little more. Of course, we are also using the metal sphere. I think we have to continue our laboratory
work by floating the rain droplets. That is our next project.
In regard to Aufdermaur's presentation, I am trying to raise a question. According to Flechter there is a liquid
layer on the ice surface from the melting point to somewhere between minus 10 and minus 20 degrees celsius.
Is there any evidence, experimental or observation, to this kind of phenomenon? I believe that frictional electrifica-
tion is more or less a surface phenomenon. If there is a liquid surface layer existing on the surface, that may quite
330
drastically change the process. So, if there is some drastic change between -10 and - 20°C, that may be partly
due' to liquid surface layer.
Aufdermaur:
We made conclusions about surface potentials which are in some agreement with Takahashi's work. We cannot
make extrapolation to - 10°C from our measurements at - 45 dc. But it seems to me an interesting point that
Kikuchi measured different charges on ice crystals, depending on their shape. I ask myself, and Kikuchi, the fol-
lowing question: Are perhaps the surface properties of these crystals changing with their crystal habit in a way
that some surfaces prefer to stay negative and others prefer to stay positive? In other words, can we infer that
the surface potential of these ice crystals depends on their habit and determines their electric charge? I would
like to know whether this charge is in equilibrium with the surrounding air or not.
At present, I do not know what is important to the charge of the ice crystals and snow crystals. In Illy data,
the shapes of plate and dendrite are negatively charged, but column, combination of bullet and side plane are
positively charged. These are the crystals of relatively low temperature. So in my laboratory, at the present, some
students are working on the charging mechanisms dependent on the shapes of the positive or negative charge.
Takahashi:
I could understand Itagaki very well, so I think I should reply to his question. The - lOoC is very, very critical
for the charge process. We could not succeed, yet, to explain that mechanism by surface potential, and so on.
Thus we are doing another experiment. This is an asymmetric ice crystal we use. One face is very, very sharp,
and another face is very broad. This is the simulation of ice crystal at the collision between snow crystal and
droplet.
J. Latham:
In answer to Vonnegut, I had not heard of this very interesting phenomenon. However, since intense fields are
required to produce it, I cannot believe that it can exercise any significant effect on the properties of the clouds.
I would make an essentially identical reply to the question raised by Dawson. Does Aufdermaur consider that
charging measurements previously attributed to the thermoelectric effect in ice can be better explained in terms
of this new mechanism? Such measurements would include those of Reynolds, Brook and Gourley, Kikuchi, Levin
and Hobbs, together with the Manchester group on asymmetric rubbing.
Aufdermaur:
There is quite a list of questions. About the thermoelectric effect, I might make a comment. We have found
that a sublimated surface (that means a surface which was heated before the experiment) would charge negatively.
This is consistent in sign with the thermoelectric effect. If other people had experiments where they found the
warmer surface charging negatively, this was usually explained in terms of a thermoelectric effect. Sometimes it
could have been due to the sublimation of the surface. We made a test: We sublimated a surface and then we
waited until thermal eqUilibrium between that surface and the environment was reached again, and there was no
difference in the result whether we waited for equilibrium to be reached or not. Now, concerning other experi-
ments. If two pieces of ice make a long contact, for instance of that contact length which is required by the theory
of Latham and Mason to give maximum charging, then I believe that the proton transfer is going according to
their theory. But if you have experiments which give you charging by orders of magnitude larger, like the Reynolds,
Brook, and Gourley experiment, where there was the argument about having enough charge carriers in the ice
in order to transport the charge, then I think that the theory of the thermoelectric effect is clearly not able to
explain the results. So I would rather prefer, in this case, to use our explanations for these results.
Dawson:
I am sorry to hog this. I think, however, that this conference should strongly support Pierce's statement that
a new thunderstorm project is overdue. And I think that this conference should, in fact, draft such a resolution,
because it should be realized that the last thunderstorm project was done in 1948, and did not really have any
significant amount of atmospheric electricity in it at all*) (cf. footnote p. 329).
Chairman's address:
L. H. Ruhnke
11208 Wedge Drive
Reston, Virginia 22090
USA
331
Session 5
THUNDERSTORMS AND SHOWERS

An Assessment of Thunderstorm Electrification Mechanisms *)
C.B.Moore
With 10 figures
Abstract
The hypotheses proposed as explanations of charge separation in thunderclouds by the fall of charged pre-
cipitation have been improved in recent years theoretically and with wind tunnel demonstrations of charge trans-
fers when supercooled droplets collide elastically with simulated hailstones inductively charged in an applied
electric field. Despite these and other improvements, the precipitation-sedimentation hypotheses remain deficient
as they require much greater precipitation intensities than are observed at the time of the first lightning. The
amounts of charge transported by precipitation in the lower regions of thunderclouds are inadequate and usually
of the wrong polarity to be the cause of cloud electrification. Further, the authors of these hypotheses ignore
warm cloud, recombination and turbulence processes in their attempts to develop sufficiently intense electric
fields.
Convection, the other source of mechanical energy available to do electrical work in thunderclouds, has also
been studied extensively in the last decade. Organized transport of charge by convection has been demonstrated;
the properties of concentrated surface layers of charge formed at the outer boundaries of electrified clouds have
been explored with quantitative analyses and calculations. The development of downdrafts at cloud boundaries
arising from the evaporation of water droplets into the surrounding dry air has been modelled with the findings
that the surface layers of charge can be thus transported downward.
A number of investigators have reported evidence that lightning often precedes the development of intense
precipitation in thunderclouds which suggests that cloud electrification on occasion may act to aid in the formation
of precipitation instead of being its result.
Introduction
One of the major scientific mysteries related to the atmosphere is that of thundercloud electrification.
Although many mechanisms have been proposed to explain this phenomenon, none of them has yet
been widely accepted as adequate and speculation continues as new ideas are advanced.
The available hypotheses can be divided generally into two classes: In one of these, charge of one
polarity is acquired by falling hydro meteors while the opposite polarity of charge is left behind on
cloud particles. At the present time most of the mechanisms of this type are based on the Eister-Geitel
(1885) approach in which elastic collisions occur between hydrometeors and cloud particles polarized
in an external electric field and transfer some of the polarization charge. The second class of electrifi-
cation mechanism uses cloud particles as the principal charge carriers and the convective motions
of clouds as the transport agents.
The general lack of information of the electrical conditions and their development in thunderclouds
has prevented any determination as to which of these classes of electrification mechanism is more effec-
tive although precipitation is widely favored as the primary charge-separating agent.
*) Invited Paper.
333
It is the purpose of this writing to assess some of the relevant research that has been carried out in
recent years as it bears on the thundercloud electrification problem.
Precipitation-Powered Mechanisms
Since the last of these conferences, Tokyo 1968, significant improvements have been made in the
hypotheses proposed to explain thundercloud electrification by the fall of hail particles:
a) Aufdermaur and Johnson (1972) have found in well-instrumented wind tunnel experiments that
appreciable amounts of charge can be transferred in moderate electric fields for a small fraction of the
collisions between an inductively-charged, simulated falling ice pellet and supercooled cloud droplets.
b) Kamra (1970, 1971) has shown quantitatively that the electric forces acting on charged
particles limit both the rates of charge separation by the falling precipitation and the maximum
electric fields so developed.
c) Kamra and Vonnegut (1971) point out that the electric forces acting on ice crystals electrified by
collisions with simulated hail can oppose further charge separation when the local electric field inten-
sities exceed values of about 6 x 10 5 V m -1.
Mason (1973) and Paluch and Sartor (1973) have incorporated these effects into their hypotheses for
thundercloud electrification and calculate that, with precipitation intensities of 80 to 100 mm hr-l,
limiting electric field intensities of between 4.3 x 10 5 V m -I (Mason, 1973) and about 7 x 10 5 V m - 1
(Paluch and Sartor, 1973) may be developed within a few hundred seconds by the inductive charge trans-
fers during collisions between falling ice particles and smaller cloud particles in an electric field.
The physics of these hypotheses has been appreciably refined by these inclusions yet, in my view, they
remain inadequate to explain electrification of the thunderclouds that we observe. Among the essential
features that they do not describe are:
1. The intense precipitation rates postulated as necessary to develop strong electric fields are often
not available when the first lightning occurs in our clouds, for the maximum intensity of precipitation
at the time of the first lightning discharge in developing thunderclouds usually is in the range of 1 to
3 mm hr- I (Moore, 1965; Kinzer, 1974; Few, 1974). "Dry" thunderstorms that produce much lightning
with little precipitation are widely observed in the American West (from Talman (1931) to modem ob-
servations ).
We continue to observe low intensity radar echoes before the first discharge in a developing cloud
which are followed by rapid echo intensification immediately after lightning occurs. Most of our hail
is detected after lightning overhead; much of it falls in transient bursts after a nearby discharge. In
New Mexico there is little correlation between the intensity of the precipitation and the occurrence of
any subsequent lightning. Intense precipitation is not necessary for lightning but it can occur without
causing a flash. On two occasions (in successive days in August 1971) we observed intense rain and
hail (> 70 mm hr- I ) from cumulonimbus clouds that produced no lightning although the precipitation
catch was 23 mm on the first day and 15 mm on the second.
I agree with Mason (1972) in his statement that "a satisfactory thunderstorm theory must be con-
sistent ... with the scale, intensity and duration of the rain and hail that accompany" the storm. The lead-
ing precipitation electrification hypotheses do not meet these criteria for New Mexican thunderclouds.
2. Precipitation may not be the principal carrier of charges in thunderclouds. Since Kuettner (1950)
asked his question "1st die Wolkenluft oder der Niederschlag Trager der Hauptladungen im
Gewitter?", increasing evidence has developed that the bulk of the charge in electrified clouds
resides on cloud particles. We frequently see lightning and hear thunder from cloudy regions several
kilometers distant from a storm's rain shaft. Major changes in a thundercloud's electric field occur
as the result of cloud motions after the last significant precipitation has fallen out of the storm system.
Although more definitive data are needed, measurements of the specific charges carried per unit
volume of atmospheric water indicate appreciable higher concentrations on cloud droplets than on
precipitation particles. The data of Colgate (1972), Twomey (1956), Phillips and Kinzer (1958) indicate
some cloud droplet specific charge values in excess of 0.1 em -3 of cloud droplet water.
334
Chalmers (1967) summarized the rain specific charges measured at the earth by many observers and
found a range from 3 microcoulombs per cubic meter of rain to 7 millicoulombs per cubic meter with
a mean value of about 1 millicoulomb per cubic meter beneath thunderstorms.
Rust (1973) carried shielded Faraday cups with a captive balloon into the lower regions of thunder-
clouds over New Mexico and measured the precipitation charge flux and the charges carried by individual
rain and hail particles. He found mean specific charges residing on precipitation (rain and hail) of about
-3 millicoulombs m- 3 aloft and +5 millicoulombs m- 3 at the earth's surface. No large charges on
precipitation particles (of the magnitude that is predicted by the inductive mechanisms) were observed
during 9 flights into thunderclouds that produced lightning, on occasion, between the balloon and its
tether winch.
From the data now available it appears Kuettner inferred correctly that the 'cloudy air' is the
principal carrier of charges in thunderclouds.
3. The effects of recombinatiOIi between falling precipitation particles and the debris from earlier,
charge separating collisions have been ignored.
With the precipitation-powered mechanisms, successive charge separations must take place in the
same volume of the cloud if intense space charge concentrations are to be developed. [The work of
Brook et al. (1962), and Vonnegut (1963), and the rocket measurements of Winn et al. (1974) all suggest
that charge concentrations of the order of 3 x 10- 8 em - 3 or greater are accumulated in the light-
ning producing regions of a thundercloud.] Accordingly, the application of a charge transfer budget
is of some interest to the situation where accreting and rebounding collisions both are occurring with
selective charging.
Aufdermaur and Johnson measured charge transfers of the order of 10- 14 coulombs in some of the
collisions between an electrified, simulated hail pellet and supercooled water droplets 50 to 100 /lm
in diameter. These transfers occurred in 0.1 %to 1 %of their collisions; the bulk of the collisions resulted
in accretion of the supercooled droplets by the hail pellet. We may expect that the accreting collisions
result in the hail pellets' acquisition of the cloud particles' charges and since, with this mechanism, these
are the result of previous charge separations, appreciable neutralization should result. The effect can be
evaluated with the following approach:
The effective fractional rate at which volume is swept out by hydrometeors falling in the reference
frame of the cloud particles is given by
Nh
I nat dVi
i=l
where ai is the radius of the ith hydrometeor, dVi is its fall speed relative to the mean cloud particles and
Nh is the number of hydrometeors in a unit volume of cloud. For simplicity this sum can be written as
equal to na~dvhNh where the bar connotes the mean effective value.
The mean life t of a cloud particle between collisions with hydrometeors is given by the reciprocal
of the fractional rate at which the hydrometeors sweep out cloud volume divided by the probability
that the collisions result in direct contacts between the particles, i.e.
t = (cna~ dVhNh)-l
where c is the 'collision efficiency' of the hydrometeor for the cloud particle. The magnitude of t can
be estimated from the precipitation intensity I and the effective radius of the hydrometeors as
t ~ 4iiJ3cI in consistent units. With the conditions used by Paluch and Sartor for iih ~ 2 mm,
c = 1 and I ~ 100 mm hr -1, t ~ 0.028 hour or about 100 sec.
The concentrations of both the neutral cloud particles and the charged particles arising from re-
bounding collisions are now treated in continuity relations. In these the time rate of change of the
appropriate particle concentration is equated to the related formation rate per unit volume minus
the removal rate and any dilation terms. The rate of removal of neutral cloud droplets is given by the
fractional rate at which cloud volume is swept out by the falling hydrometeors times the concentration
of neutral cloud particles times the effective 'collision efficiency' of the hydrometeor for the cloud droplets.
335
In this scheme, collisions that result in direct contacts remove neutral cloud droplets either by their
accretion onto the hydrometeors or by charging them thus making them no longer neutral. The rates of
production of charged cloud droplets and their recombination with charged hydro meteors are then
evaluated from the same point of view. Let:
N; = the concentration of neutral cloud droplets in a given size range;
y; = the rate at which these particles are formed in a unit volume;
n; = the concentration of droplets that have collided with hydrometeors, transferred charge and re-
bounded;
p = the probability of droplet separation after collision with a hydrometeor;
= time.
From continuity,
and
dn;/dt = c(na~tlvhNh)pN; - (1 - p)IlJr - n; 17· tlvichargeddroplets
The divergence terms are negligible in the first relation and of third order importance in the second
relation until intense electric fields are established. With neglect of these terms and from the con-
siderations previously discussed, the continuity relations may be written as
dNddt = g; - Ndr
and
dn;/dt = [pN;(t) + (p - 1)n;J/,r.
Solutions of these differential equations give the concentration of the neutral droplets in a given size
range as
N; (t) = g; r [1 - exp (- tlr)] + N;(O) exp (- tlr),
where N;(O) is the initial concentration of the droplets in the given size range while the resulting
concentration of charged droplets
n;(t) = n;(O) exp [(p - 1)tlr]
+ N;(O){exp [(p -1jtlr] - exp(-tlr)}
+ g; r {[pl(1 - pj] - [11(1 - p)] exp [(p - 1)tlr] + exp (- tlr)} ,
where n;(O) is the initial concentration of the charged particles.
Summations of these concentrations over all classes of interacting particles give the total concen-
trations, but for our purposes here, consideration is limited to one size of hail hydro meteor, one size
of cloud droplets in the rebounding size range and to the remainder of the cloud particles that either
are accreted or escape collisions.
Plots of the above solutions are given in Fig. 1 for various values of 9 under conditions where p ~ 1
and n;(O) = O. The curves labelled A show the concentration changes as a function of time for a hypo-
thetical cloud in which no replenishment of neutral cloud droplets occurs, as hail pellets are allowed
to fall through the volume accreting a fraction (1 - p) of the cloud droplets in their paths while charging
the fraction p of them. Under these conditions at a time of r after the start, the peak concentration of
charged cloud droplets is developed with a value of lie that calculated without recombination. There-
after the concentration of the charged cloud particles decreases as both the charged and the neutral
droplets are depleted by accretion and the rate of production of new, charged particles is reduced.
At 2 r after the start, the concentration of charged droplets is less than 14 % of what would be estimated
from dn;/dt = p N;/r by ignoring recombination. At 5 r, the charged droplet concentration is less than
0.7 % that predicted.
The plots in Fig. 1 labelled E demonstrate that keeping the concentration of neutral cloud particles
constant improves the charge separation rates but this requires that the cloud droplets be replenished
at essentially the same rate that they are being removed by collisions with the hail. Such a replenish-
336
·0 ~------------------------------------------- E
_______4
D
-pN ITL-______~______~======~=====_~
o 0 T 2T 3T 4T 5,
Fig. 1. Normalized Plots to Illustrate Recombination Effects on Charge Separation by Hail Pellets Colliding
with Neutral Cloud Droplets. - No is the initial concentration of cloud droplets having the required size; p is the
separation probability after collision; , is the mean life of a cloud droplet between successive collisions with hail
pellets. - For the curves labelled "A", no resupply of neutral cloud droplets of the required size is allowed; as
accretions occur, the droplet concentration is diminished. The other curves are the result of allowing resupply
or further development of the required droplets within the volume. The resupply rate for curves "B" is N o/5,;
for curves "C" the rate is N o/2,; for curves "D"; N o/1.3r; for curve "E" the rate is No/r which keeps the
concentration of neutral droplets constant. - The dashed line shows the predicted concentration of charged
droplets as a function of time if recombination could be ignored, i.e. nj(t) = pN;(O)t/r
ment rate would cause the concentration of cloud droplets in the required size range to increase by a
factor of e in time " whenever these conditions occur in the absence of hail and this would lead to a
requirement for the anomalously rapid growth of raindrops that we have not observed prior to the
first lightning in a developing cumulonimbus cloud. Even if the replenishment (assumed by Mason
and Paluch and Sartor) did occur, the peak concentration of charged particles would be
337
pN;(O)/(l - p)at5t or about 20% that calculated by ignoring recombination. Since their hypotheses
are hard pressed to develop breakdown electric fields even when recombination of separated charges
is ignored, the inclusion of this essential limiting process shows that these hypotheses probably are
inadequate as explanations of thunderstorm electrification.
An alternative approach to the recombination problem has been developed by Colgate 0972) who
examined the charge transported by falling precipitation. He showed that a hydrometeor accretes an
amount of cloud droplet surface area equal to its own in a mean fall d~tance & dermed by the optical
mean free path divided by the 'collection efficiency' C; i.e. .1z = (Cnr 2 Nc)-I. This relation is derived
from
C(na~ .1z)4n? Nc = 4na~
where rand Nc are the effective radius and concentration of the cloud droplets. In a cloud with a liquid
water concentration of 1 g m - 3 on water droplets 10 Ilm in diameter, this distance is about 6.7 m for
unit collection efficiency. A hail pellet falling at 10m s -1 in such a cloud therefore acquires cloud droplet
surface area equal to its own every 0.7 seconds.
In collecting the surface area of the accreted cloud droplets, the falling hydrometeor also acquires
the charges residing on the cloud droplets. After falling a few of these lengths in a charged cloud the
polarity of the charge on a hydrometeor must approach that of the droplets through which it passes so
that the significant charge transported by falling precipitation will be that residing on the cloud droplets.
When the cloud droplets have acquired their charges by earlier, elastic encounters with other hail pellets,
this sequence is but another form of recombination that limits any further separation of charge.
Accordingly, Colgate defines this fall distance as a 'charge transport neutralization length'.
4. Natural hydrometeors isolated in the air cannot separate charge on collision as freely as has been
inferred.
In the recent studies by Aufdermaur and Johnson and by Scott and Levin (1970) simulated hail pellets
were maintained at earth potential and an external electric field was imposed to induce a surface charge
on the pellet. When a large cloud particle was caused to make a grazing collision with the pellet some
of the pellet's surface charge was carried away by the particle. This effect has been interpreted by the
investigators and by many others as demonstrating the Elster-Geitel view of inductive charging of pre-
cipitation.
If the laboratory hail pellets had been freed from the ground connection, their charges acquired in
this manner would have been limited for the neutral zone, separating the polarization charges would
have migrated downward; further grazing collisions would have carried away some of the net charge
on the pellets and opposed their further acquisition of charge. Sketches to illustrate these processes
are shown in Fig. 2.
In many of their experiments Aufdermaur and Johnson induced a net charge on their hail pellets with
an effectively radial field. While they interpreted the results of grazing collisions under these conditions
as also indicating significant charge separation, in reality the collisions caused the hail pellets to lose
net charge (which was resupplied through their measuring circuit). When charged hydrometeors fall
through neutral cloud droplets the net effect must be the same as shown by Aufdermaur and Johnson:
in the absence of a ground connection, charged hydrometeors can lose net charge in rebounding colli-
sions just as readily as polarized neutral hydrometeors may acquire it.
5. The effects of turbulent mixing on the orderly separation of charge by sedimenting precipitation
are ignored.
Reports of a parachute descent (Rankin, 1960) and airplane flights (Steiner and Rhyne, 1962; Sinclair,
1973) into thunderclouds are noteworthy for the violent turbulence encountered with motions appreci-
ably exceeding the terminal velocity of precipitation particles. This is the environment, however, in which
the greatest cloud electrification is developed. Although Rankin encountered hail in the upper portion
of the cloud that he entered at 14500 m, he reported no lightning until he was immersed in severe tur-
bulence after his parachute opened at 3000 m altitude.
The notion of any orderly separation of charge by sedimenting precipitation in this environment is
unrealistic.
338
Before collision
a)
b) g,l q o
c)
O~H';l
t
o
..,:S'Cloud droplet
Fig. 2 a. The charging of a neutral hail pellet polarized in a vertical electric field by elastic collision with a neutral
cloud droplet that carries away some of the lower polarization charge as proposed by Paluch and Sartor and by
Mason
Fig. 2 b. The reduction in net charge on a polarized and electrified hail pellet as a result of an elastic collision with
a neutral cloud droplet. Although polarization effects may be present on the cloud droplet, they are not shown
in these approximate sketches owing to the lack of space
Fig. 2c. Charge transfer between an isolated hail pellet and a rebounding cloud particle almost as demonstrated
by Aufdermaur and Johnson (Q. 1. 98, p. 374). The difference is that their pellet was maintained at earth potential
and a near-constant charge was induced on it by an external electric field. Their equivalent result is shown here in
the reference frame of an isolated pellet which would lose net charge as a consequence of the collision
6. Significant electrification occurs in clouds which are everywhere warmer than 0° so that processes
involving ice cannot be invoked as complete explanations of cloud electrification. Among the published
reports of warm cloud electrification are these by Foster (1950), Fitzgerald and Byers (1958), Pietrowski
(1960), Moore et al. (1960), Michnowski (1963), Vonnegut (1965), Lane-Smith (1969), and Moore and
Vonnegut (1973).
I have flown over 4 warm, electrified clouds during full daylight in J. Cook's P-38 airplane and can
attest to the existence of the phenomenon.
As occurred earlier in the discovery of warm cloud rain, atmospheric physicists from northern lati-
tudes promoting mechanisms that do not include the phenomenon have tended either to ignore it or
to misread the published reports. In a discussion of our 1959 ground-based observations of a small
warm cloud that produced 4 flashes, one well known book in cloud physics states "These observations
were made from aircraft flying over the Caribbean Sea in twilight or darkness, and are not entirely con-
vincing because, under such conditions, it could not have been easy to keep track of a cloud first spotted
100 miles away and be certain that it was not being illuminated by lightning originating in nearby larger
storms".
It is true that lightning is rarely observed in small clouds. It may be that, as Dawson (1969) has shown,
the electric field strengths necessary for positive streamer emission are so significantly greater at the
relatively low altitudes attained by warm clouds that lightning occurs infrequently for this reason.
339
Most of the reported warm-cloud lightning observations have been of intra-cloud discharges over
or adjacent to a near tropical ocean surface; in several of the reports, the numbers of flashes observed
were small. Under these circumstances it is not surprising that most of the reported sightings occurred
during evening twilight while some of the convective activity started during the day was continuing but
the sky had become dark enough for intra-cloud lightning to become noticed.
Since convection at twilight is much less than at noon and therefore may often be insufficient for the
development of the phenomenon, some years ago we attempted to determine if we could detect warm
cloud lightning in full daylight using instrumental techniques. In summertime visits to the Miami
(Florida) area we noted that appreciable lightning-like electromagnetic disturbances could be heard in
the early mornings on an AM radio tuned to about 550 kHz under conditions when the only clouds
in the vicinity were of the towering cumulus variety (similar to those shown on the cover of "Weather"
for August 1969). We had access to an airplane and on several morning occasions when the radio static
was heard we were able to climb to an altitude of about 4000 m where we were above the level of all
of the clouds within our horizon. The temperature of the clear air at this level was about + 3 °C or
greater. While we were aloft, our ground party reported to us that the radio static continued.
These observations suggested to us that the static was locally produced probably by clouds within
the limits imposed by "D" layer absorption for we could not detect the transmissions of radio stations
on the same band which were located more than 200 km distant and on clear days, no static was heard.
To test this idea we prepared a photoelectric lightning detector (Clegg, 1971) that we used in the Miami
area during August 1969. The device had a narrow angle of acceptance (ca. 5°) and responded to sudden
increases in light level. In tests over New Mexico it responded well to both cloud-to-ground discharges
and to distant, 'invisible' intra-cloud discharges whose existence was confirmed by electric field meters
beneath the active clouds.
When we used the photoelectric instrument in Florida, we immediately detected optical transients
from some but not all convective clouds; a photograph of one of the cumuli from which a single optical
transient was detected is shown in Fig. 3. Immediately after the detection, the top of the cloud subsided
and a rain shaft was observed having the behavior reported by Moore and Vonnegut (1973).
From the position of the cloud determined immediately after the detection ofthe transient by our use
of the airplane and the elevation angle measured from the detector to the cloud top, the altitude of this
cloud was estimated at 3700 m msl at a clear air temperature of about + 5°C (extracted from the
preceding Miami radiosonde observation).
Initially no correlation was possible between the optical transients and radio static as no radio was
available. During this period, nine indications of optical transients were obtained from small clouds
that similarly produced rain and subsided after the detection. After a coincidence arrangement was
established for the photoelectric and a radio-type detector of lightning, two warm clouds produced
apparent, nearly-simultaneous optical and radio transients. In this interval, we had changed our loca-
tion to a more northern site in Florida where it happened that suitable clouds were less frequent.
Since these preliminary observations we have not been able to return to Miami during the summer
months but we have continued the development of photoelectric detectors of lightning to make them
even more selective in detecting lightning against a sunlit background. We will be delighted to help
serious investigators in tropical regions with instrumentation for the continued pursuit of an evaluation
of warm cloud electrification.
Summary of This Assessment of Precipitation-Powered Electrification Mechanisms
It is difficult to support precipitation as a major charge separating agent when lightning frequently
occurs with a small fraction of the rain intensity predicted as necessary. The measured charges carried
by falling hydrometeors are far less than the Elster-Geitel based hypotheses require but this is not sur-
prising for application of the recent laboratory demonstrations to real hydrometeors show that charge
separation by the Elster-Geitel process is limited. Similarly any charge that is separated by precipitation
is subject to recombination as further encounters occur between the products of earlier charge transfers
so that less than 20% of the free charges calculated by Mason, Paluch and Sartor is available for cloud
electrification.
340
Fig. 3. Photographs of Warm Clouds Over Florida in Which Optical Transients Similar to Lightning were
Detected. - The photoelectric lightning detector is shown on the left side of the top photograph. From the
measured elevation angles to the cloud tops and the positions of the clouds determined with the use of an airplane,
the altitudes of the cloud tops were estimated to be less than 4000 meters. The temperature of the air at this level
was found to be + 4 °C
341
Since I have flown over electrified warm clouds, I also find difficult any acceptance of ice as the sole
charge separating agent in clouds.
In view of the vigor with which the precipitation-powered mechanisms have been advanced, it is
noteworthy that no evidence has yet been supplied to show significant transport of charge by precipi-
tation against the local potential gradient. Rust found that the principal charge falling at the base of
thunderclouds almost invariably acts to reduce the local electric fields and charge content of the cloud.
Similarly some of the airplane-borne observations by Latham and Stow (1969) higher in Arizona
thunderclouds showed a strong correlation between the sign of the vertical potential gradient and the
sign of the charge carried by precipitation such that the precipitation charge that they observed also
acted to reduce the local gradient.
For all of the reasons cited above, it must appear that the attribution offalling precipitation as the
primary charge-separating agent in thunderclouds is unrealistic physically and no minor adjustments
will correct the deficiencies. The models using precipitation to electrify clouds are much too simple
in view of the complexities of turbulent convection where lightning is generated and so, in my view,
we must look elsewhere for an explanation of thundercloud electrification.
Convection-Driven Mechanisms
The idea that the convective overturn of cloudy air can transport charge and do electrical work has
become increasingly considered in recent years with treatments by Grenet (1947~ Vonnegut (1953, 1955
and 1963), Wilson (1956), Colgate (1967) and Phillips (1967).
Grenet advanced the proposal that most of the ions in cloudy air will become attached to cloud drop-
lets so that the electrical conductivity of cloudy air should be very small. Since during fine weather, there
is usually a positive space charge in the air near the ground, a convective cloud developing as the result
of updrafts from below can acquire a net positive charge. The electric field of this charge can cause
negative ions in the clear air around and above the cloud to migrate to the cloud surface where they
will get trapped on cloud particles causing the external portions of the cloud to have a negative charge.
As the cloud becomes a storm, with violent ascending and descending movements of air, Grenet
proposed that the cloud core would remain positively charged while the outermost portions of the
cloud would be transported away convectively. Under the influence of the charged core, the new cloud
exposed at the boundaries would then become negatively charged in the same manner. If these processes
continue and accumulations of negative charge develop in certain regions of the cloud, disruptive
phenomena such as lightning may result.
Independently, and without knowledge of Grenet's proposal, Vonnegut (1953) suggested a somewhat
similar mechanism as a possible alternative or supplement to the precipitation-powered mechanisms.
Vonnegut's suggestion did not require the priming by fine weather space charge but could act on any
imbalance produced by precipitation. It also went beyond Grenet's in that it included the idea that many
of the positive point discharge ions (released at the earth's surface under the intense fields produced by
the accumulation of negative charge) would be carried by updrafts into the positive region of the storm
thus increasing the amount of charge in the ·core'. The resulting increased electric fields at the cloud
surface would cause more negative ions to migrate there and this would increase the accumulations
of negative charge causing more positive ion release by point discharge. The Vonnegut mechanism thus
was similar to an electrostatic generator of the influence machine variety in which positive feedback
operates on a small charge imbalance to develop large electric fields.
Vonnegut's proposal included the proposition that vigorously convective clouds constitute over-
turn of unstable air in which the updrafts are compensated by downward motions of the air aloft displaced
by the cloud. In his mechanism, much of the negative charge collected in the cloud 'screening layer'
is transported by downdrafts to lower levels where it accumulates as a result of thermal stability.
The fate of this screening layer charge and its subsequent influence on further electrification of con-
vective clouds are the major questions directed at Vonnegut's proposal (which, incidentally, has not been
fully developed in a scientific journal). The publication of Vonnegut's manuscript was rejected in one
journal on the basis that there are no significant downdrafts in or around growing clouds until substantial
precipitation has been developed as the cloud reaches maturity.
342
-
stobie
-
stable
t t
air air
_ neutral air with thermals __
Fig. 4. The Motions of Air in and Around a Cumulus Growing into Stable Air According to Scorer (1958). - The
downdrafts indicated around the sides of the growing cloud are the significant features referenced here
The convective pattern postulated as necessary however is not unusual: it is that shown by Scorer
(1958) in Fig. 4. Such cloud motions have been measured by Malkus (1954), Steiner and Rhyne (1962),
Sinclair (1973), and others. Downdrafts do not surround all clouds but from our own experiences they
clearly exist around vigorously convective cumuli.
In addition, the evaporation of droplets at the cloud boundary into the surrounding dry air will
cause local cooling and accelerate the downward motions. Some of the results of a computer study into
this phenomenon by Petschek of our Institute are shown in Fig. 5.
Although objections to the transport of charge by downdrafts have been raised (Chalmers, 1965) on
the basis that the downdraft air gets recycled into the updraft, thermal stability considerations make
this unlikely. During vertical measurements of the space charge concentrations with an airplane-
+1 (ins; d. cloud) VERTICAL VELOCITY

(m/s.)
Or---------~~--_+--------------~
-1
-2
-3
:"::I. ._____~=
___~_A_IR D_E_N_S_IT_(~_g_l_m_~_)___'__
TURBULENT ENERGY
:::: [...____J l \
___
0:" ""
L-_ _"_(' - - - J_.O_U_I.-=S", '~k_9_._)- - ,
TRACE OF ENERGY
DISSIPATION TENSOR
::::1.-..1..1"--L...- ' - '_ _ A;:~-,--,--L...........L..~( 2
5=OC-___
) ......... 1
'-0-1,
-10 o 10
DISTANCE FROM INITIAL EDGE OF CLOUD (m.)
Fig. 5. One-Dimensional Representation of the Boundary Between a Cloud and Free Air, Including Effects of
Variable Turbulent Energy Density, Plotted 30 sec After the Motion Begins (from A. G. Petschek)
343
borne filter (Moore et al., 1961), we found appreciable concentrations of negative space charge in the
clear air above the mixing layer around the base of an active thundercloud.
Comprehensive measurements of the distribution and transport of charge around thunderclouds
have not been made and these limit any conclusions that can be suggested as to the role of convection
in the organized electrification of clouds.
It is perhaps worth reciting some of the fmdings that support the significance of some variation of
the convection-powered mechanism in cloud electrification.
1. The objections raised against the precipitation-powered mechanisms do not hold against a con-
vection process.
2. Vigorous convection has long been recognized as essential for significant cloud electrification:
Reynolds (1954), Reynolds and Brook (1956); Workman et aL (1960). Precipitation alone, even with
appreciable intensity, does not appear sufficient to produce lightning. The most convective clouds are
usually the most active electrically.
3. We have demonstrated that the convective motions of air transport charge. Experiments with arti-
ficially released space charge of either polarity at ground level showed the transport of this charge up
irito convective clouds overhead (Vonnegut et aI., 1962). The polarities and initial electrification of these
clouds could be controlled by ground-based releases of charge. Convective transport of space charge
that repeatedly culminated in lightning has been observed in the clouds associated with two eruptions
of Icelandic volcanoes [Anderson et aL (1965); Brook et al. (1974)].
4. The electrical conductivity of the air within clouds is very low until appreciable amounts of free
charge have been accumulated. Mathias and Grenet (1931), Pluvinage (1946), Gunn (1954), Wilson
(1956), Phillips (1967), Krehbiel (1969), and Klett (1971) have all shown that the equilibrium concen-
tration of ions in clouds without corona discharges tends to be low because of rapid attachment of ions
to cloud particles by conduction, diffusion, and ion migration processes. Early measurements of the
conductivity of cloud air at the Puy-de-Dome Observatory gave relaxation time constants of the order
of 4000 sec (Mathias and Grenet, 1931). Essentially identical values were obtained within the bases of
electrified thunderclouds at 4000 m altitudes over New Mexico (Rust and Moore, 1974).
5. Screening layers form at the edges of electrified clouds. Gunn (1948, 1955) noted that a significant
feature of his electric field measurements around thunderclouds was the abrupt, several-fold increase
in the field strength immediately after his airplane entered a cloud. One explanation for these observed
increases is based on the Grenet-Vonnegut suggestion that charge attracted from the clear air
by the cloud's electric field has become trapped on cloud particles soon after entering the cloud.
The distribution of charge in a screening layer formed as a result of field-driven ion migration and
attachment processes have been calculated by Brown et aL (1971); an analytic solution has been pro-
vided by Klett (1972).
Subsequent calculations in which diffusion effects were incorporated have also been made with the
following findings: When the electric field at the edge of a cloud has an initial strength greater than
3 x 104 V m - 1, a screening layer of neutralizing charge forms just inside the cloud with a maximum
charge concentration p given by
Pmax = 12na; NceEo/e2 = 4eEo/e2I;;
where ac is the mean effective radius of the cloud droplets, Nc is the droplet concentration, e is the
permittivity of the cloudy air, Eo is the initial intensity of the electric field and e is Naperian "e"
(2.71828 ... ).
From the terms used by Wilson (1956) it is convenient in this work to define 10 , the mean distance
that ions can travel before collisions with neutral cloud droplets polarized in an electric field as
I;; = 1/3na; N c •
After entering a cloud with droplets 2 J.lm in radius with a liquid water concentration of 0.2 g m - 3,
an ion can travel a mean free path length of about 13 m before attachment (if diffusion effects can be
ignored).
344
At the outer boundary of an electrified cloud surrounded by conductive clear air a layer of space
charge at the cloud surface will develop with concentrations in excess of 10- 8 C m - 3 for an initial
electric field strength of 3 x 104 V m -1 and, in more intense initial fields, the charge concentrations
will be proportionately increased. The time required for the development of 63 % of the maximum
concentration is found to be Bo/2A± where A± is the appropriate polar conductivity of the clear air.
ELECTRIC FIELD IN
CLEAR AIR ABOVE CLOUD
o
g
o
=>
9
u
~
UJ
aJ
~2 2
~
~ 3
~3
::E
s,a
~
u..4 4
o
a::
UJ
aJ
::E
=>
z L---~--~--~--~----~--~ __ ~5
50 I o M
ELECTRIC FIELD INSIDE CLOUD CHARGE CONCENTRATION IN SCREENING LAYER
(units of Eol (units ofEo Eo/Pol
Fig. 6. Calculated Distributions of Electric Field and Space Charge Concentrations in the Screening Layer
Formed Around a Motionless, Electrified Cloud With an Ionic Mean-Free-Path Length of Ie for Neutral Droplets
Under Conditions Where Diffusion is Negligible
As~hown in Fig. 6, the thickness of the layer with the maximum concentration of charge is about
0.25 10 • Deeper into the cloud the charge concentrations will be less as the incoming ions have been
depleted by attachment closer to the cloud's surface.
When the effects of diffusion are included in this process, we find that they play little role in develop-
ing the charge concentrations under intense fields. With field intensities less than 104 V m -1, diffusion
processes increase the ion attachment rate to droplets close to the cloud surface, as shown in Fig. 7,
producing intense but thin screening layers of charge whose maximum concentration is independent
of field strength. In this regime the main effect of the field is to attract ions into the cloud where
diffusion processes dominate their rate of attachment to cloud particles; the maximum concentrations
of charge here are of the order of
Pmax ~ 2 X 10- 7 (/;;)-1 Cm- 2
which indicates that appreciable charge concentrations may be developed at the boundaries of
weakly-electrified clouds (Klett et aI., 1974).
The specific charges accumulated in a screening layer can effectively account for the cloud droplet
charges measured by Twomey (1956), Phillips and Kinzer (1958), and by Colgate and Romero (1970).
In the limit of intense electric fields, the maximum specific charge (space charge concentration divided
345
SCREENING LAYER CALCULATION WITH DIFFUSION - mean cloud droplet
0c::::::::;::~~========~~d=ia~m=et~erC'~6:m9i.•ro~n5~.~Jr--r--'r-------r-~
E.=10 2 V rTi'
.
I ....
't;
o
=>
a
oJ
u
a
I-
z
l
:z:
Ii::
III
o 63% of charge
1.0 ove
105 v rio'
--
-1 -9 -7
LOG (P units of cou lom b m- z I
Fig. 7. Distribution of Space Charge in a Cloud Screening Layer Formed as the Result of Diffusive Attachment
Processes (Klett et aI., 1974)
by the liquid water concentration) in a screening layer is given by geEo/e2 awhich equals 2.16 x 10- 11
Eo/d in units of farad m -1 where d is the mean diameter of the cloud droplet in the screening layer.
In weak electric fields where diffusion governs the attachment of ions to cloud droplets, the maximum
specific charge residing on the droplets at the cloud edge exceeds 10- 11 d -2 in units ofCm- 1 •
Thus with cloud droplets smaller than 10 J.1lll in diameter, screening layer charges can develop with
specific concentrations appreciably in excess of 0.1 C m - 3 of cloud droplet water. A plot is given in Fig. 8
of the maximum specific charge concentration versus mean cloud droplet diameter for various electric
field strengths.
The formation of a screening layer around an electrified cloud is a charge concentrating mechanism
that produces the highest concentrations of charge that have been identified in thunderclouds as, by
Gauss' law, it collects in a thin layer the same amount of charge as the net dispersed throughout the
cloud volume*). No further concentration is necessary for this screening layer charge to be that neces-
sary for thunderstorm activity; but, to be significant in electrification processes, electrical work must
be done and some of the charge must be transported into regions where it is accumulated.
Since the region around a growing cumulus cloud where the screening layer charge is formed is also
the zone in which cloudy air is displacing environmental air, transport of screening layer charge by
downdrafts developed at the cloud-clear air interface must often occur. Indications that some of the
*) After hearing Vonnegut's discussion of this process at the 1954 Wentworth Conference, Gunn (1956) recognized
the remarkable charge concentrations developed in screening layers and termed the formation process "hyper-
electrification" although he tried to use it primarily to electrify raindrops which have appreciably less surface
area than do cloud droplets in the same concentration of liquid water. His calculated screening layer of raindrops
had a thickness of a kilometer or so but his observations (Gunn, 1955) of the actual thickness with an instrumented
airplane indicated a value of the order of a few meters which is the same as we calculate for a screening layer
composed of cloud droplets.
346
CHARGE OEPCS1TtO BY j>IFFUSION
/ f.. ... /~ c..~( 0-"/;;' I C.l!I-)
.....a
'i'E
U
~1
W '
(!)
0::
«
:r:
U
u1~
w:
U '
W '
0-
Ul - 2
L 10:
::>
L
X
«
L -J
1~~66r-----1~6c
s --~~1~6"
4 ~~-1~O~
J ~~-71~
:
MEAN DROPLET DIAMET ER (m.l
Fig. 8. Comparison of Calculated Screening Layer Maximum Specific Charge (Space Charge Concentration
Divided by Liquid Water Concentration) Against Experimentally Determined Maximum Specific Charges in
Clouds. - Observed maximum cloud droplet specific charges appear to fall in the range of from 0.1 to 0.4 C m - 3
which can be developed by screening layer formation processes. Raindrop specific charges measured at cloud
base are about 3 millicoulomb m - 3 of raindrop water or about 2 orders of magnitude smaller than the observed
maximum cloud droplet specific charges. - The band representing the diffusion process is broad as it covers
various combinations of initial electric field, zone thickness and numbers of cloud droplets. T refers to data from
Twomey (1956) ; PK refers to that from Phillips and Kinzer (1958); CR refers to that from Colgate and Romero (1970)
screening layer charge can be transported as suggested by Scorer's picture of cloud motions are given
by our detection of appreciable space charge in the clear air around the lower peripheries of convective
clouds.
Fig. 9 shows some electric field measurements over a charge release experiment in New Mexico.
At the start of these measurements, negative space charge was being released artificially into the air
beneath pulsating cumuli. Measurements at cloud base level with an airborne filter indicated that some
of this negative charge was entering the clouds in convective updrafts. We also recorded enhanced fine
weather potential gradients in excess of 700 V m - \ as the airplane flew beneath the cloud bases. Initially
these gradients could have been produced by the negative space charge beneath the airplane; therefore
the artificial release of charge was terminated whereupon the potential gradient at the earth's surface
rapidly returned to its fine weather polarity as the negative space charge in the subcloud air was
dissipated and neutralized.
Without any further artificial release of charge, the potential gradient at cloud base level sub-
sequently intensified in the fine-weather sense as a new turret grew out of the clouds overhead. (This
excursion vanished as the cloud dissipated.)
We interpret this sequence as indicating that, as a result of the release of negative space charge, the
convective clouds above the source became negatively charged. This caused the formation of a
positive polarity charged screening layer, some of which was transported by downdrafts toward the
lower regions of the cloud volume. The intensified gradients that were larger than those produced
347
~IDr--.------~----.------.------r----,
>
~ O~~~~==~~~~~~~~~~~
At airpLane flying just
>- bases of puLsating cumuli
z
w over Mt. Withington.
a Negative charge release
<{
a:: terminated.
(!)
At summit
.1o'--c;;114';-;o;-----'---..
12~0;;-0---'------:-:12:1::2::-
0 -...J
MOUNTAIN STANDARD TIME
25 Aug 1962
Fig. 9. Potential Gradient Measurement Beneath Nonprecipitating Cumuli Growing Over an Artificial Source
of Negative Space Charge. - The perturbations around 1220 MST indicate the accumulation of appreciable
quantities of positive charge in the base of one of the clouds and suggest that the cloud began acting as an
influence machine with inverted polarity
by the charge that we released suggest that the cloud "influence machine" may have started "positive
feedback" and that we may have primed the electrification of an inverted polarity cloud.
In other charge release experiments we have found that, on several occasions, thunderclouds develop-
ing over our artificial sources of negative space charge have become electrified with inverted polarity, i.e.
with positive bases that caused the continued emission of negative polarity corona from the earth during
the active life of the storm.
These calculations and observations support the idea that screening layers of charge can form around
electrified clouds and that the charge thus concentrated can playa role in the further electrification
of the clouds.
6. Another argument for the convection process is that significant electrification can precede the
development of substantial precipitation in convective clouds.
In listing his requirements that a successful thunderstorm theory must fill, Watson-Watt (1931)
noted that "Wigand has made balloon journeys through cumulus castellatus in which he satisfied
himself that raindrop formation had not yet begun, which yet produced lightning discharges at that
stage and did not develop into cumulonimbus."
Vonnegut et aL (1959) have shown that the Reynolds and Neill (1955) evidence (of electric field pertur-
bations at the earth following detection of radar echoes in nearby clouds) was not necessarily support
for the precipitation-powered mechanisms as, in the same sequence, Reynolds and Neill also observed
that the first lightning occurred in the cloud when the observed field intensity at the earth was but
3000 V m -1. Vonnegut argued that to cause lightning the electric fields within the cloud must have been
quite intense and therefore the ground-based field measurements were effectively attenuated by a
factor of more than one hundredfold. With this reasoning the electric field strengths within the cloud
at the time of the first echo detection may have been of the order of several kilovolts per meter and
could have been sufficiently intense to aid in the formation of the rain.
Vonnegut and his associates carried out experiments over MtWithington to test the first possibility
with potential gradient radiosondes carried into convective clouds by captive balloons and a radar located
closer to the cloud than was Reynolds'. With this apparatus they reported finding significant gradient
perturbations in excess of 3000 V m -1 at times when no rain echo could be detected although
immediately afterward, precipitation echoes were detected while the electric field perturbation diminished.
The detection of the echoes was followed by the arrival of rain at the ground so that Vonnegut et aL
348
(1959) suggested that the echo detection marked the initial growth ofthe rain above the radar threshold
and therefore the earlier electrification probably could not have been caused by the subsequent rain.
Brook (1965) challenged these inferences on the basis that the radar used reportedly had a defective
duplexer with too long a recovery time for the radar to be sensitive at short ranges. Since the radar
had been tested with metallic reflectors carried by captive balloon and pictures of the radar indicator
show echoes at close ranges during low intensity rains, Moore and Vonnegut (1973) have continued
to advance the earlier data as significant.
In attempts to pursue further a determination of the precedence between organized electrification
and the development of precipitation in convective clouds, Rust (1973) carried improved electric
field meters on captive balloons into developing clouds over the sensitive radar at Langmuir Laboratory.
Unfortunately during his ascents, no isolated, horizontally-stationary cumuli of the type studied by
the Vonnegut group were available. Reversed polarity electric fields with intensities of up to 170 V m- 1
were observed in small echo-free clouds but no development of organized electrification was observed
as the prevailing winds moved most of the convective clouds away from the mountain top areas acces-
sible to the balloon handling equipment. We are continuing the study of organized electrification in
convective clouds and its initiation.
With improved quantitative radar systems, C. R. Holmes has been recording digitally the intensity
of precipitation echoes on radar before and after nearby lightning and finds that discharges can occur
with maximum rain intensities of less than 3 mm h -1. In New Mexican clouds most of the intense rain
appears to be developed after lightning and this speaks significantly to the precedence question.
8
7 August 1967
iil
~
~ 5
•
...""
0
~
5c 4
3
1420 22 28 1430 32 34
TIME-MST
-
Fig. 10. Time Height Cross Section of Thundercloud Echo Intensity Over Battan's Radar During a Period in
Which Lightning Struck Nearby. - The maximum echo intensity before the discharge had a Z value around
100 mm 6 m - 3; after the first discharge the rain intensity increased by about 35 db. An indicated trajectory of the
rain has been added to this figure taken from Battan and Theiss (1970)
349
Wilk (1963) has described the sudden, hundred-fold intensification of a radar echo from the sudden
development of precipitation immediately after a research airplane entering a thundercloud was
struck by lightning. The intrusion of the aircraft into the electrified cloud apparently triggered the
discharge which then caused the sudden growth of precipitation particles.
With a vertically pointing, 3.2 cm Doppler radar, Battan and Theiss (1970) observed an even greater
intensification (35 db) of an echo overhead immediately after lightning occurred nearby. Fig. 10 taken
from their paper shows the development of the precipitation and the associated downdraft that brought
intense rain to the earth about 3.5 minutes after the discharge.
The close association between cloud electrification and precipitation continues to indicate that the
two processes are connected and that as Rayleigh (1879) suggested, this may have a profound effect on
meteorology.
Concluding Remarks
From the foregoing it must be obvious that the thunderstorm electrification problem is still un-
resolved when a role for convection must be justified at such length.
Our greatest needs, in the quest for an understanding of thundercloud electrification mechanisms,
are for adequate knowledge of the distribution of charge and of the motions of the cloudy air. In a
"wild electrical" storm, speeds of the air greatly exceed the terminal velocity of the precipitation
particles and dominate their motions. Until we have better knowledge than we now do of the
trajectories of air parcels and of the charges contained in them, thunderstorm electrification will
continue to be a frontier and a source of scientific controversy.
Excellent work with Doppler radars is now underway and improved aircraft are being prepared for
thunderstorm studies but even with these and other advanced tools in use, appreciable work will be
necessary before sufficient cloud motion and charge distribution information is available to permit
any real understanding of cloud electrification. The difficulties of finding a suitable cloud that will
develop into a thundercloud, of surrounding and probing it with adequate instrumentation and then
of reducing and making sense of the vast amount of information that comes from this search makes
attempts to model cloud processes with a large computer quite attractive.
One pioneering attempt to model cloud electrification has recently been carried out by Pringle (1973)
and his associates. To an atmospheric electrician the assumptions used were oversimplified and
unrealistic but his effort shows to us that the computer approach needs to be continued and improved,
for thunderstorm electrification is one of the major atmospheric mysteries of our age.
Acknowledgments
Much of our work reported here was done in collaboration with Bernard Vonnegut to whom I am deeply grateful
for his inspiration and guidance. I am also indebted to Stirling Colgate for his insights, suggestions and for all
the cloud measurements that he has made. The vast efforts of C. R. Holmes and W P. Winn have improved our
observational capabilities immeasurably and drowned us in data. I appreciate all of the help and arguments
generously supplied by Marx Brook, Paul Krehbiel, and Albert Petschek.
The invaluable help of Pearl Sanders has made our study possible.
The studies reported here were largely supported by the National Science Foundation under its RANN
program and by the Atmospheric Sciences Program of the Office of Naval Research.
Finally, I thank James Hughes, Peter Wyckoff, and Edwin Berry for their support and understanding.
References
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(Oxford, 1967). - 10. Clegg, R. J., 1. Atmos. Ter. Physics 33,1431 (1971). - 11. Colgate, S. A., J. Geophys. Res. 72,
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Discussion
MO/lIlen, Albany, New York, USA:
I would like to have a clarifying statement from Moore regarding "charge transfer reactions". In molecular
physics a charge transfer reaction requires that the collision partner has a lower ionization potential than the
original charge carrier. Do you assume that just by the nature of the collision partner being an ice pellet or
being "large" in size, that it has automatically a lower ionization potential than a "smaller" particle? Do you
have any kind of experimental results of ionization potential measurements?
351
No, I do not. The substance of my remark is directed at the point that any time a potential energy is increased
there is a driving force that tends to oppose its further increase and makes harder the carrying of additional charge
in that direction. I am using the analogy of a chemical reaction here in a purely physical sense. The mechanism of
the charge transfer and of the ionization potentia~ I am leaving to the proponents of charge separation and to
the very good laboratory workers. My point is that once the charges have been separated forces act to oppose the
retention of this state, tending to return the charges to neutrality, and these forces have been ignored.
Several years ago Sartor and Mason presented a model to explain the charge separation in the thunder cloud.
The model seemed perfect. But I was disappointed because the model is too perfect. Therefore, I am glad to hear
your argument against the model. I think an imperfect model is better than a perfect model.
Moore:
Thank you, that is the last kind word I will hear today.
Moore mentions in the paper that one of the objections to the convection theory is that it is hard to believe in
downdrafts coming from the top of the cloud to the base of it. I wonder if Moore could make a short comment
on how much evidence there is for or against the presence of such a downdraft.
Moore:
I will try. The convection process is a process of overturn in which the rising of air is balanced by subsidence of
air above. In some manner this air must sink. The time lapse photographs, our flights with aircraft through the edge
of vigorously growing clouds (in which we have encountered downward accelerations in excess of 1 g), and some
theoretical modelling both by Scorer and by Albert Petschek in our institute (who has been computing the effect
of evaporation at the cloud boundary), indicate that localized downdrafts can on occasion occur particularly
around vigorous clouds. Around stagnant clouds, in which molecular diffusion has had a chance to play its role,
there are few downdrafts. But in convective overturn we except to find fairly vigorous downdrafts, associated
with updrafts. I think there is a wide body of evidence from the flights of Steiner and Rhyne, from Peter Sinclair,
and from our own, that show downdrafts surronding vigorously convective clouds. These are the ones we
expect would be transporting charges. We would not expect stagnant clouds to be transporting charges appreciably.
Author's address:
C. B. Moore
New Mexico Institute of
Mining and Technology
USA
Editors' Note: B. J, Mason (Meteorological Office, London Road, Bracknell, Berks" RG 12-2 SZ, England)
could not attend the Conference. He informed the editors afterwards that he did not agree with C,B. Moore's
statements in the paper discussed here, and he asked whether they would be able to publish in this book his
reasons for disagreement. Because of the reasons outlined in the Preface of this book, the editors felt it necessary
to regret. Readers who would like to learn about Mason's reasons may write to him.
352
Radio Emission of Convective Clouds in Varioos Stages of Development *)
L. G. Katchurin, M. Karmov, and Ch. Medalyiev
Summary
The radio emission of convective clouds is investigated in various stages from prethunderstorm stage to
dissipation stage. The measurements have been made in a frequency range of 0.1 - 300 MHz by means of the
set of 6 highsensitive receivers with directional aerials.
Radio emission is detected long before the thunderstorm stage. It has been shown that not only the intensity
of radio emission changes as the cloud develops but its other characteristics as well, namely spectral distribution
mode of emission field intensity, the time and the pulse repetition rate of packets. A continuous noise radiation
of the thunderstorm clouds has been found as well.
The complex of radiofrequency radiation, radar and thermodynamical characteristics determining the cloud
transfer from thunderstorm stage to prethunderstorm stage is considered in this paper.
Authors' address:
L. G. Katchurin, M. Karmov, and Ch. Medalyiev
Leningradskij Gidromet. Inst.
Malo-Okhtinskij Prospect 98
Leningrad 194018
USSR
*) Paper was accepted by the Executive Pane~ but it was not presented. Full text of paper not available.
353
Electrical Conditions Near the Bases of Thunderclouds in the Southwestern United States
W. D. Rust and C. B. Moore
With 7 figures
Abstract
Measurements of the electrical conditions near the bases of thunderclouds have been made at Langmuir
Laboratory, a mountain top observatory, with instruments carried aloft by captive balloons and with others at
the earth's surface. The electrical properties measured include the local electric field vector, the conductivity of
the air charge on individual precipitation particles, and the current density carried by falling precipitation.
The electrical conductivity of cloudy air was found to be about 1/10 that of clear air at the same altitude with
a typical electrical relaxation-time-constant of approximately 4000 seconds inside the lower regions of clouds.
The polarity of charge on the precipitation aloft was almost invariably that of the local potential gradient; it
did not show the well-known 'mirror-image' relation that was observed between the precipitation electricity at
the ground and the local potential gradient during periods of point discharge. An analysis indicates that Wilson
ion capture in the subcloud region may explain adequately the charge arriving at the mountain top on falling
precipitation.
The transport of charge by precipitation aloft that we observed usually acted to decrease the local electric field;
no significant increases in the electric energy of the clouds were produced by the fall of precipitation particles
that we captured.
Analysis of the precipitation data suggests that the charge on raindrops aloft could have been derived from that
residing on the cloud droplets from which the raindrops were formed. The charge carried on both liquid and
frozen precipitation particles at cloud base was generally less than 5 pC; the mean specific charges were of the
order of 3 mC m - 3 of precipitation water.
Introduction
Many mechanisms have been proposed to explain thunderstorm electrification by the fall of charged
precipitation, but quantitative tests of their applicability have not been possible largely because of the
scarcity of relevant measurements of the electrical conditions within clouds. Early observations (Elster
and Geitel, 1888) of the charge arriving at the earth 'on rain led to suggestions attributing cloud
electrification to this charge, but Simpson (1949) established that the polarity of the charge arriving
at the earth on precipitation is usually opposite to that of the cha.rge normally observed in the lower
regions of a thundercloud. Repeated suggestions have been made that Wilson's (1929) selective capture
of ions - in the subcloud region by falling raindrops polarized in the local electric field - may
account for the dominant precipitation-borne charges arriving at the earth. The distribution of preci-
pitation charge in clouds is still unknown.
The primary purpose of our investigation was to make coordinated measurements of the electrical
conditions in the lower regions ofthunderclouds in an attempt to provide information by which some of
the charge transport mechanisms could be evaluated. We used captive balloons to make these
measurements in the cloud base region of thunderstorms which form over Langmuir Laboratory in
the Magdalena Mountains of central New Mexico, USA. The laboratory is at an altitude of 3.2 km
above sea level. The captive balloons were often flown 1 to 2 km above the mountain ridge.
Instrumentation
a) Electric Field Meter
A spherical, aluminium housing was fitted with two electric field mills for the determination of the
vertical and horizontal components of the local electric field (Fig. 1). In use, the field meter was sus-
pended from a rotating bearing by a teflon-insulated nylon line. The instrument revolved about its
vertical axis, and thus the horizontal mill provided a resolvable, combined indication of the horizontal
component of the local E field plus the field due to charge on the instrument. The second mill was directed
downward and provided an indication of the vertical component of the E field plus that due to the
charge on the instrument; these could be separated with the data from the horizontal mill.
354
To Balloon
Rotator ~!'§;=====;I==:=======l
4m Nylon Line 3m Insulating Boom

In a Teflon Sleeve=-
Nylon Ring ...............

Aluminum
Housing (30 em dla.)
Teflon Antenna
Cover ~
Balloon
Tether____
Line
Top View
Fig. 1. Spherically housed electric field mills for determining the local electric field vector aloft
Two Hall-effect semiconductors mounted at right angles within the instrument provided an indica-
tion of the instrument's orientation. From the telemetered outputs of all the sensors, the local E field
vector outside the instrument could be reconstructed as a function of time.
b) Gerdien Capacitor
A lightweight Gerdien (1905) instrument (Fig. 2) was constructed for measurements of the electrical
conductivity of the air within clouds and in the presence of intense E fields (Rust and Moore, 1974).
c) Rain Catcher
Two instruments were constructed for the measurement of the electrical properties of precipitation
(Fig. 3). One instrument measured the flux density of charge carried downward on precipitation by col-
lecting the particles falling into a shielded 'Faraday funnel'. The second instrument, also electrically
shielded, had two induction rings whose centers were separated by 0.1 m placed below an intake orifice
and above a Faraday cup. Measurement of the fall speed of charged precipitation particles falling
through the two rings provided an estimate of their size. Determinations of the charge on an individual
particle that fell cleanly through the induction rings were made when each particle impacted in the
Faraday cup. One of these instruments was carried aloft, and a second collector was placed on the
355
Dielectric
T=3.7 5
Accelerating Potential
-£="l Cycling Switch
Rudder .-z.--
.............. Guard-ring
Ion Collecting \
Electrode,
Fan 8-
n -
Air Flow
Air
Intake
Fig. 2. Simplified schematic of Gerdien capacitor for measurement of both polarities of ionic conductivity in clouds
earth's surface so that precipitation charge transport measurements were often obtained at two different
levels.
Results
a) Conductivity
Careful measurements of the electrical conductivity of the air aloft were made within non-electrified
and weakly electrified clouds. Fig. 4 shows a typical sounding beneath and into a weakly electrified
cloud under a negative potential gradient. The conductivity of cloudy air was about 1/10 that of clear
air at the same level in the absence of a cloud. We found the mean electrical relaxation time constant
for cloudy air to be about 4000 seconds.
b) Precipitation
The precipitation current density at the mountain top showed the 'mirror-image' of the electric field
during periods when sustained point discharge was occurring. In our convention, positive precipitation
current density, j, is a result of negatively charged precipitation falling downward in the - z direction.
The precipitation measurements near the cloud base, both within the cloud and often some distance
below it, exhibit a different behavior, for the polarity of the precipitation charge was usually the same
as that of the local potential gradient (Fig. 5 and 6). These data are typical of measurements in a total
of eight storms in which the potential gradient-precipitation charge polarity dependence aloft is re-
peatedly seen. We calculated the mean charge per unit volume of precipitation water by dividing the
measured precipitation current density by the precipitation intensity determined at the earth and found
mean values of about + 5 mC m - 3 of rainwater at the earth and - 3 mC m - 3 at cloud base level under
negative potential gradients.
356
Dielectric
/ Support
Charge Measuring
Electronics. Faraday Cup
Batteries
Fig. 3. Sketch of the device for measuring fall speed, charge, and charge flux of falling precipitation
-
.:.:. 9 AUG. 72
Ascent Sounding
A_=A.
W 1·0 1200-1215 MST
<.9 ~~A+
0
-----
A:!'"
0:::
W
>
O
- Ar c::::::-
--.-.: __ _
-
~1'-
~CloudBase
!D
« 0·5 ---- ..
r..:
I
A~
X ..... __ :::- A_
0
0:::
n.. ... ::.
n.. 0
« 0 0·5 1-0 1·5 2·0
IONIC CONDUCTIVITY (units of 10-14 per ohm m)
Fig. 4. Vertical distribution of the electrical conductivity below and inside a weakly electrified cloud,
9 August 1972
357
1f __~~[ ~_~~.
__~.-.~.~~.__~,__~.__~.__~~~__A~L~~F_T~.~
~,x.~§
:_ 15
0 l '--_H
V,~T
----'-_N.....
tO
O_00....J ~'---'"--~
......,----'"----' I-IO-,-R'''---,-,
'IV A::......=LOF=....-...I
Eor '::;Y'~
~-15
([
.c. 20r
~ ~ RAIN INTENSITY, GNIl
I 1:L..---'-'=,J=~--,-~--J..' ---1.-1.._===",,---,
N'~ €. 30[1-~__~~~~+-~~=-
'~
________~~
PRECIP. J, GND.
-3
E
'0
~
9~A~-\H~
I I' vv,
--,J'IVVUUL---
GND.
,
-9 boLLOLOn d
1 r,1n C IOU "1
1';30
1430 1500
31 AUG. 71 TIME (MST)
Fig. 5. Potential gradients and precipitation current densities inside and beneath a thundercloud, 31 August 1971
c) A Test of the Wilson Mechanism for Raindrop Charging

The data that were obtained allow some estimate of the effectiveness of the Wilson ion capture
process for the charging of raindrops in the subcloud region. Wormell (1953) showed in his analysis of
the Wilson charging mechanism that the initial charge on raindrops falling through fast ions of the
opposite polarity is rapidly neutralized; thereafter, each drop becomes charged more slowly by the
continued collection of ions.
On several of our flights, the particles aloft had initial charges amounting to about 5 qm (where
qm = 12 nu 2 Eo, the maximum attainable charge for E field-driven collection of unipolar ions) in the
potential gradients observed. A drop, falling typically at 3 m s -1 for 800 m, with 5 qm charge units
requires 3 relaxation time units to lose its initial charge by Wilson collection. On continued fall through
air with typically observed subcloud conductivity ratios of A.+p._ ~ 10 and an assumed relaxation
time constant of 50 s, the particle can acquire a new charge of about OJ qm units in the remaining 2
relaxation time units before reaching the earth.
These findings suggest to us that the Wilson process adequately explains the charging of precipita-
tion in the subcloud region by ion capture, and thus the charge arriving at the earth on precipitation
must often be a result instead of the cause of prior cloud electrification. These suggestions are supported
by our observations that clearly show a reversal in polarity of charge on precipitation as it falls from
cloud base to ground level when point discharge from the earth is sustained for several minutes.
358
Ivvi ALOFT
!:-~, ~
10
1 10 no - f----.j
E rototlOn '\ '" HORIZ. VV ALOFT
~ :~ S=~=L ~ ~.~\;I__~'~
__ __~__ ~ __ __ -+__ __- - J
5 r ~ f\ VERT. VV ALOFT
I o~r--~~--~~~~+I--~~r-"~~~~Y----+--~--~
8 balloon
N PRECIP. J ALOFT
~ 0~--+-~~~-b~~~~~r4----r---+-~
«c
~ ·8 .... instrument on gnd.
-c 4°f
~ RAIN INTENSITY. GND.
f2:L__~____~__~==~==~~~L-__~__~__~
N 8! PRECIP. J. GND. f\
~ or---+----~--+___~~~-+1~~*~~~~L'1'~~O~-.~~-=4~
-8
VV. GND.
12!
~ 0 I I
:::="12 baLLoon
I tin c~oudj I
1030 1100
16 AUGUST 1972 TIME (MST)
Fig. 6: Potential gradients and precipitation current densities inside a developing thundercloud, 16 August 1972
d) Charge Transport by Precipitation

An estimate can be made of the local electric power generated per unit volume by use of - j . E or
j' V V. The net effect indicated by our measurements aloft is that the charge carried by precipitation
nearly always moves down the potential gradient. We saw no significant instances where falling precipi-
tation moved charge against the gradient. Our data indicate that, as Vonnegut (1963) predicted, there
was no local net increase apparent in the electrical energy of the storm caused by the fall of charged
precipitation in the lower regions of the cloud; rather the fall of charged precipitation in the lower
portions of these clouds was dissipative of the local electric field energy.
e) Origin of Precipitation Charges at Cloud Base
A remarkable feature of our observations is the close association of the polarity of the precipitation
charges and the direction of the vertical component of the potential gradient; when the dominant cloud
charge was negative, precipitation falling at the cloud base carried negative charge and vice versa.
An example of this correlation is shown in Fig. 7. Changes in the two polarities were also closely
connected in time although no clear precedence was observed.
Our measurements suggest to us that the observed charges on precipitation were derived from the
cloud particles through which the precipitation had recently fallen as suggested by Colgate (1972).
359
3
ALOFT
E
16 AUG. 72 )
(1035-1054 MST)
~
>
t>
---
-4 -2 2 4
."'10 ".
PRECIP. CHG. (pC)
-3
Fig. 7. The distribution of charge on precipitation particles and the potential gradient aloft during periods when
the gradient.kept a constant polarity, 16 August 1972
To test this hypothesis we are now endeavoring to obtain coordinated electric field and precipitation
charge measurements higher in thunderclouds by use of instrumented, free balloons.
Concluding Remarks
Our measurements of charges carried by precipitation at cloud base give little support to the notion
that these charges are responsible for thundercloud electrification; not only were the amounts of charge
too small, but often the polarity of the charge was incorrect to develop the normal thunderstorm dipole.
More and better measurements higher in thunderclouds are now required to determine if precipitation
charges play any significant role in cloud electrification.
Acknowledgments
We are indebted to Marx Brook, Paul Krehbiel, and William Winn for their help and discussions and to James
Hughes and S. D. Elliott for the equipment that they loaned us for this work. This research was supported under
Grant GI 33372 X as part of the research on Cloud Electrification and its Modification, sponsored by the
Weather Modification Program, RANN, u.s. National Science Foundation. We also thank the Atmospheric
Sciences Program of the U.S. Office of Naval Research for its help and equipment that have made this work
possible.
References
1. Colgate, S. A., J. Geophys. Res. 77,27,4511 (1972). - 2. Elster, J. and R. Geitel, Meteorol. Z. 5, 95, 95 (1888). -
3. Gerdien, R., Phys. Z. 6,800 (1905). - 4. Rust, W D. and C. B. Moore, Quart. 1. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 100, No. 425,
450 (1974). - 5. Simpson, G. c., Geophys. Memoirs 84, 1 (1949). - 6. Vonnegut, B., Meteorol. Mono. 5, 27, 224
(1963). - 7. Wilson, C. T. R., 1. Franklin Inst. 208, (1243) 1 (1929). - 8. Wormell, T. W, Quart. 1. Roy. Meteorol.
Soc. 79, 3 (1953).
Discussion
If you say the Wilson ion capture mechanism works, and indeed you showed that it does, that a particle in
travelling from a cloud base to the ground captures the charge that is coming up from corona at the ground,
then it is quite reasonable to extend that just a little more and say that in the steady state the corona charge is
indeed carried into the base of the cloud on large ions and would probably be found on the cloud particles some
distance into the base. Now, it would be a rather peculiar thing if I go back to what Moore quoted earlier as
Colgate's result that in a few optical free paths, a large particle falling through a cloud would pick up that sign
of charge which resides on the droplets. The fact that your charged particles come out of the cloud with the
opposite sign to what they carry down at the ground, in other words inferring that they do not acquire the sign
of the corona charge, which may have accumulated in the base would say to me that they must have been very
360
highly charged inside the cloud before they got to the cloud base region. Or else, why wouldn't they come out
with the same sign of charge trapped on the particles in the cloud base?
Rust, Boulder, Colorado, USA:
If we look again at Fig. 6, we can see from the ground field record that point discharge could have commenced
only a few minutes, if it did at all, before the first reversal aloft ofthe potential gradient and the precipitation charge.
Thus, it does not seem obvious that there was sufficient time for Brook's suggested mechanism to be effective in
this case. In general, in the base of the clouds, we observed precipitation whose charge was nearly always less
than 5 pC of either polarity. Only on rare occassions we measured charges higher than that, although our
instrument was capable of responding to charges in excess of 200 pC without saturating. I am hopeful that we
can soon make the necessary simultaneous measurements of the electrical charges on both cloud and pre-
cipitation particles.
I would like to make a comment to Brook's question. Ido not think that the corona blanket extends all the way
from the ground to the cloud. First, if you have the corona blanket thick enough it will quench itself. Second,
you have also, in addition to this corona current coming up from the ground, the conduction current. So, there
is a region between cloud and ground where the unipolar corona current is taken over by the bipolar conduction
current. This is also indicated by the fact that we have at the ground a lower field than at the cloud base, because
at the ground you are kind of screened by the corona blanket but at the cloud base you are not. Therefore, I do
not think we can expect higher or more charged droplets at the cloud base than would occur from an ordinary
traffic jam effect.
Rust:
I might just add that we did, indeed, try to determine whether or not the field at the ground was less than
that at the cloud base, such as has been suggested by Wilson and others. We found it a bit difficult to do over
the mountain. Recently this summer I had the opportunity to make a vertical sounding with an aircraft beneath
an isolated thundercloud over a large plain. There we found the potential gradient just above the ground to be
about -10kY/m and at cloud base it was in excess of -50kV/m. So I would rather think that what Kasemir
has said might be true: often the field does increase with altitude.
It seems to be assumed that ions from the ground will reach the cloud base level, but that does not seem to me
to be clear. Since a typical ion might have a lifetime of 30 s from the ground and given a mobility of 10- 4 m 2;Vs,
it may go to about 30 cm or a little more in the field or about 30 m in a high field. Thereafter, it's a slow ion and
will be rising with the typical rising speed of the air below the cloud which, on average, from the cloud base to the
ground might be 1 m/s. If you work out the times, the time for the ion to reach the cloud base will probably be
about 30 minutes which is more than the average lifetime of the cloud.
Authors' addresses:
W D. Rust C. B. Moore
NOAA, ERL, APCL New Mexico Institute of
Boulder, Colorado 80302 Mining and Technology
USA Socorro, New Mexico 87801
USA
361
Electrical Structure of Large Overwater Shower Clouds
D. R. Fitzgerald
Abstract
Three instrumented aircraft were used to study the development and separation of charge in large clouds.
Basic cloud physics data regarding liquid water content, icing rate, temperature, precipitation forms, cloud
photography, airborne radar cross-section, and three components of electric field were obtained from a C-130
aircraft. Two electric field components, temperatures, photography, and draft structure were obtained from an
F-100 F aircraft. A U-2 aircraft provided field data above the storms. Analysis of nearly synchronous cloud passes
at two altitudes indicates the rapid variation with time and position of the vertical field components. In contrast,
the horizontal field pattern was nearly stationary in two regions of storm growth. The vertical position of excess
positive charge centers is found to be near the upper portion of main updrafts in a zone with concentrations of
wet snow and super-cooled water droplets. An excess negative charge seems to be associated with smaller particles
or ice crystals. As the drafts subside, the excess positive charged larger particles move lower in the cloud, leaving
a residual excess negative charge in the upper portions of glaciated storm tops. Field components at 8.3 km in
these developing cumulonimbus clouds reached values to 82 kVim.
Introduction
This paper represents an attempt to interpret detailed cloud physics and electrical observations on
the structure of large overwater storms in the vicinity of Cape Canaveral (Florida, USA). Penetration
of storms was accomplished by the C-130 and F -100 F aircraft at altitudes of 8.3 and 8.7 km respectiv-
ely through the use of ground radar control and visual lineups on the cloud. Times of cloud entry varies
from plus 44 to minus 208 seconds for the four passes to be discussed. In the limited space available,
it has not been possible to review the results of related experiments by other investigators.
Wing-tip and fuselage-mounted field mill sensors were used in this experiment. Equipment and
techniques were generally similar to those described by Clark (1957) and further discussed by Fitz-
gerald (1965). Symmetrical sensor mounting and electronic compensation of local aircraft charge effects
were employed to minimize the effect of aircraft charge on the measurement of external field
components. The aircraft were basically cross-calibrated for geometrical field augmentation effects
through a series of formation flights in the clear air near large thunderstorms.
Radar and Visual Flight Observations
The National Weather Service Daytona Beach WSR-57 radar (wavelength 10cm) data was used to
follow the overall growth and movement of the storm. Radar cross-sectional data at flight altitude was
obtained from the C-130 aircraft navigational radar (3 cm). Composite charts were prepared from
sequences of rapid-scan photographs to reduce the effects of attenuation on the echo pattern.
The development of overwater shower activity in the area started at about 16: 30 Z (11: 30 LST).
Aircraft observations were conducted from 19:00 Z to about 20: 15 Z (= GMT).
The first aircraft pass was made through the southern portion of the storm in an area about due
east of the Cape. The tops in this area were the highest visual clouds at 19: 20 Z. Analysis indicates that
this area was in an early dissipating state and that the lower cloud mass to the north of these tops was
actively developing at the time. Subsequent passes were made through the region north and northeast
of the P-l cloud. These tops had been below 8 km at 19: 20 Z but developed very rapidly to about 10 km
by 19:28Z and to 11 or 12km by 19:44Z. The flight level PPI radar composite horizontal cross-
sections are shown in Fig. 1.
362
10
5
E Ie
"- 0
>
~
I
x -5
w
-10
P4
354°
o 5 10
D-km
Fig. 1. C· 130 horizontal field and PPI radar cross· section
Electrical Structure
a) Relations deduced from the horizontal field component

The field component Ex is oriented along the fuselage. Values of Ex are also shown in Fig. 1. Poisson's
equation may be used to relate variations with distance of this component to net space charge con·
centrations. Maximum and minimum values can be used to locate a chord or diameter for approximate
boundaries of charge regions. The zero field cross·over point represents the approximate axis of the
distribution.
From application of this technique, the P·l cloud is seen to contain an excess negative charge region
near the northern edge of the echo and a smaller excess positive zone near echo center. Zone
dimensions were about one to two km. Time·lapse photographs of the cloud indicate that one or two
glaciated turrets rising to about 600 m above the C· 130 were encountered on the pass. The southern
end of the cloud was an old anvil shearing to the southwest. A reciprocal heading pass P·2 A was made
back through this cloud. The same charge distribution was noticed although the magnitudes had
diminished and there was no turbulence.
The aircraft continued into a new very active cluster of two or three large turrets with tops to at
least 10 km. The Ex component shown for P·2 B indicates a possible cluster of three centers in the
southern zone and a larger center in the northern zone. The main charge regions were about 2.5 km in
diameter. The largest horizontal fields occurred in the northern cell.
The northern region remained the maximum field region of P·3 from north to south. Again two
major areas of excess positive charge were found. Each was still about 2.5 to 3 km in diameter. The
363
time-lapse photographs indicate that extensive regions of snowing cloud had reached to above flight
level by this pass and that the turrets had continued to increase in height and were glaciating.
By P-4 the echo area at flight level is seen to have doubled. The same basic structure of excess positive
charge is seen in the southern and northern regions. There is a possibility of a negative charge in the
central region, depending upon how the Ex trace is interpreted.
b) Relationships of the vertical field component, drafts, and precipitation
Composite charts of the vertical field component as measured by the F-100 and C-130 aircraft and
of the calculated draft velocities from the F-100 angle-of-attack, pitch angle, and altitude change data
are shown in Figs. 2 and 3.
P2
'l
F-IOO
: _"
(J
w
en
......
E
I
~
-5
-10
100 THIN CLOUD SNOW

NO COMMENTS
LT. SNOW PELLETS
DURING PASS
E 50
...... C-130
> 0
:.::
I
N
w -50
-100
I
0 5 10 o 5 10
DISTANCE- km
Fig. 2. Vertical field and calculated draft velocity for Pass 1 and Pass 2
On P-1 the draft velocity was very weak. There is a suggestion of an excess positive charge in the
northern cell where a weak updraft was found. The southern portion of the cloud, where light snow
was observed, was largely a weak downdraft region. The F-100 was essentially in the cloud tops here,
so it appears an excess negative charge was present between the aircraft. U-2 data taken at 14.6 km also
indicated negative charged cloud tops in this area. The liquid water content meter on the C-130
indicated a maximum in the northern turret and a minimum the central low field area at C-130 alti-
tude. On the reciprocal pass through this cloud light snow was generally observed with field reversals
and weakening in the central and northern regions indicating the entire cloud had a negative over
positive field orientation at the C-130 altitude.
The new active cloud mass of P-2 B is seen to have three updraft areas with a maximum draft to about
12 m/sec. The southern turret appears to have excess negative charge beneath both aircraft since the
F-100 field is smaller than the C-130 field. By the same reasoning, the central and northern turrets in-
dicate excess positive charge beneath both aircraft. Largest liquid water concentrations and highest
icing rates were observed in the northern turret. U-2 data taken at 14.6 km indicated excess negative
charge beneath the aircraft. The field magnitude was about twice that found over the P-1 cloud.
364
By the third pass, seen in Fig. 3, the updraft area was largely confined to the northern region. The
F-100 vertical field in this area was similar to the P-2 B data, however the C-130 field had reversed
in polarity. This suggests that an excess positive charge concentration was now located between the two
aircraft. Wet snow, maximum liquid water content, and maximum icing rate was observed in this region.
In the central and southern areas the previous updrafts generally reversed to downdrafts and the
southern negative charge region beneath both aircraft seems to have changed to a region of excess
positive charge. Light snow was observed in this region. The U-2 aircraft descended from 13.7 km to
13.0 km on a north-south pass over this cloud. The data indicated excess positive charge in the tops
of the northern turret and reversal to excess negative charge in the tops of the southern portion.
P3
[
P4
b:l
(J)
"-
E
I
SNOW + LT. SNOW FAIRLY BRUSHING

MANY
DROPS OR
100 THINNER LT. SNOW FINE
PELLETS TO
CRYSTALS HVY SNOW TOPS STILL
ABOVE WET DROPS THEN MIXED WITH IN SNOW
LT. PELLETS SNOW :3 MM DIA. HEAVIER RAIN
50
E
"-
> 0
:.::
I
N
w -50
-100
I
0 5 10 o 5 10
DISTANCE - km
Fig. 3. Vertical field and calculated draft velocity for Pass 3 and Pass 4
Visually, the pilot reported tops in the southern region appeared to have flattened and merged into
a cirriform shelf at about 11.6 km altitude.
On P-4 the draft in the northern area had narrowed and weakened. The suspension of an excess
positive charge region between the two aircraft seen on P-3 had been replaced by an apparent lowering
of this charge concentration to below flight level. A new draft in the central region had appeared. This
region now appeared to have a zone of suspended charge between the aircraft. The southern portion
of the storm seemed to have excess negative charge between the aircraft. Fairly large snow pellets and
some snow were found in this region. The northern and north central area still had the maximum water
content and icing rates. Fairly heavy snow and rain or perhaps large supercooled droplet concentra-
tions were reported.
c) Summary of the measured field component values

Maximum field values for the three aircraft are given in Table 1. Data from a subsequent over-water-
thunderstorm pass are included for comparison. The thunderstorm had tops to 14.6 km and produced
11 lightning flashes in a three minute observation period. The quantity Ey in the table refers to a compo-
nent along the wingspan and Eqw refers to the field due to aircraft charge at a wingtip location on the
C-130 or F-l00 and at a side-fuselage location on the U-2.
365
Table 1. Maximum field values - kV/m
Aircraft Pass E+. E; E+y E-y E:w E;q
U-2 1.0 0 0 0 0 0
F-100 22.5 9.7 8.8 1.6 44.6 101
C-130 23.5 6.9 0 5.0 1.3 2.9 167 0
U-2 2 2.0 0 0 0 0 0
F-100 2 25.1 42.3 21.9 11.0 14.1 127
C-130 2 30.4 77.5 10.9 9.9 15.7 10.2 167 213
U-2 3 3.0 0.9 0 0 0 0

F-100 3 10.9 41.9 22.8 20.6 23.5 113
C-130 3 59.5 37.4 7.4 12.9 12.9 8.5 167 182
U-2 4 2.0 2.0 0 0 0 0

F-100 4 22.2 25.2 16.8 12.5 4.7 115
C-130 4 58.8 81.6 8.9 11.9 11.7 7.8 167 60.8
U-2 TSTM 21.8 17.8 4.8 0.6 0 0

F-100 TSTM 44.4 18.5 16.4 26.2 37.5 197
(PEN.)
C-130 TSTM 31.1 27.7 4.2 5.0 106 45.6
Conclusions
The field component along the direction of flight has been used to identify zones of excess positive
and negative charge near flight level. The two major positive zones associated with the active cloud
mass were essentially maintained throughout the development of the storm. The average horizontal
dimensions of these charged regions were about 2.5 km. The negative zones were intermittent.
The orientation, charge heights, and magnitudes of the vertical field components varied considerably
from one portion of the storm to another, and varied with time at each location. Data from three air-
craft were required to depict and analyze these variations. It would have been desirable to have had
two more penetration aircraft at lower altitude to complete a picture of the time-dependent overall
storm structure.
The generalized storm model appearing from this data is one of excess positive charge being
generated in the upper regions of the storm updraft in association with the growth of the larger
precipitation elements. Maximum concentrations of wet snow and of supercooled water droplets were
found in this region. During this phase transition state it appears that smaller particles and ice crystals
are left with an excess of negative charge. As the draft weakens the larger positively charged particles
continue to grow and move preferentially lower in the cloud leaving a residual excess negative charge
in the upper glaciated regions.
Acknowledgments
These flight measurements were made possible through the interests of Aeronautical Systems Division,
Edwards AFB Flight Test Center, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Sandia Laboratories, and the Federal Avia-
tion Administration in lightning and thunderstorm flight hazards. The program was under the technical direction
of Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories and was conducted as a part of in-house Project 8620. Particular
assistance in the conduct of the flight measurements and in aircraft coordination was provided by Dr. Robert M.
Cunningham and Lt. Col James F. Church.
References
1. Clark, J. F., J. Geophys. Res. 62, 617 (1957). - 2. Fitzgerald, D. R.,1965. In: Problems of Atmospheric and Space
Electricity, ed. S. C. Coroniti, 199-212 (New York. 1965).
366
Discussion
Magona, Sapporo, Japan:
May I understand, from the last slide, that on the third pass through the storm we have a positive field in the
updraft area?
Fitzgerald, Bedford, Massachusetts, USA:
That will depend on whether you are in the higher or in the lower airplane. If you are in the higher airplane, it would
look as though a positive charge were beneath you. From the lower aircraft it looks as though a positive charge is above
you. So it is being suspended in the updraft.
Were you able to relate your regions of strong electric field with any properties of the hydrometeors observed
in those regions?
Fitzgerald:
Of course, these field measurements will give us just the net space charge within some zone of influence around
the aircraft. The impression w.e had, which could be wrong, was of large concentrations of precipitation. Say, in
that particular zone of pass 3 we were just looking at, the most predominant feature in going through there was
very wet precipitation, large snow and apparently rain mixed together. This is all in a zone of supercooled water
and snow at - 25°C. The impression of rain might have been from the concentration of supercooled droplets that
were coming up the windscreen. We were not really able to distinguish.
Author's address:
D. R. Fitzgerald
Air Force Cambridge Res. Lab.
Bedford, Massachusetts 01731
USA
367
Precipitation Electricity of Thunderclouds and Showerclouds *)
Ch.Magono
With 5 figures
Abstract
Observational results of electric charge on precipitation elements are discussed, in parallel with space charge
distribution in thunderclouds and showerclouds.
Considering the distribution of space charge in the convection portion of thunderclouds, it is expected that
graupel are intensively charged negatively. However the observation of charge on graupel in clouds and at the
surface all shows that the graupel are charged positively and the amount of charge is small. It is hoped that further
observational data of charge on graupel in the convection portion of thunderclouds will be accumulated.
Introduction **)
Although numerous laboratory experimental results on precipitation electricity have been presented,
these results do not necessarily agree with each other. In other words, data giving both signs of charge
generation were obtained in these experiments, and while it appears that the signs were determined
by various factors, their relative importance in natural clouds have not been determined as yet. Accord-
ingly it may be said that the physical mechanism of charge generation has not been completely clari-
fied, and the problem is becoming increasingly confusing.
The author therefore considers that a return to the original point should be made; thus, a return
to the observational results of precipitation of natural clouds seems to be in order. From this point
of view the author has made an extensive review of the results commonly obtained in various observa-
tions of precipitation electricity with special regards to thunderclouds and showerclouds. Then, he
considered the mechanism in which inconsistent results were obtained. Because showerclouds are
considered to be essentially the same as thunderclouds as far as electrical properties are concerned,
except for the lack of lightning discharge, the clouds of the former type are included in the latter
type, unless otherwise indicated in this paper.
Space Charge Distribution in Thunderclouds

When space charges in thunderclouds are discussed, the following two points should always be
remembered. One is that the electric charge of a sign is not generated singly, but another charge
with the opposite sign must exist nearby. Another is that a space charge is not always carried by pre-
cipitation, but at times the space charge is established by removal of the charged precipitation with the
opposite sign from the space.
In the earliest stage of thundercloud study, it was not clear whether the thunderclouds had positive
polarity or negative polarity, but it is now generally accepted that most of the thunderclouds are of po-
sitive polarity (upper positive, lower negative), according to many observations as listed below. For
example, Schonland (1928), Wilson (1929), Wormell (1937), and Malan and Schonland (1950) observed
positive polarity by measuring the time change in a surface electric field during the passage of thunder-
clouds. Simpson and Scrase (1937) observed this by releasing altielectrographs through thunderclouds,
and Kuettner (1950) deduced the positive polarity by measuring the surface fields which corresponded
to the various heights of thunderclouds.
Recent observations utilizing aircraft by Fitzgerald and Byers (19581 Fitzgerald (1965), and Imyanitov,
Evteev and Kamaldina (1969) also show that most ofthe thunderclouds have positive polarity, although
Moore, Vonnegut, and Botka (1958) emphasized that some thunderclouds had negative space charges
*) Invited Paper.
**) Note by editor: in this paper, a vertical electric field is called "positive" when its vector is pointing down-
wards (fair-weather case). Consequently, a current is called "positive" if it carries positive charge downwards.
368
at their cloud tops. This exception may have arisen from the penetration of negative space charge
through the upper positive space charge by a cOlwection current.
The positive polarity was also determined by an indirect method, i.e., the rapid change due to lightning
discharge to the earth. This was done by many scientists, for example, Wilson (1916, 20), Schonland
and Craib (1927), Schonland (1928), Halliday (1932), Tamura (1958), Kitagawa (1965) and Berger and
Vogelsanger (1969), although recent observations were made for other purposes. All results showed that
the negative charge was transported downward at the first discharge. Appleton, Watson-Watt, and Herd
(1926) however obtained opposite results. This exception may be explained by considering that the
distance of their observation points exceeded a reversal distance. It is therefore concluded that most
km
10
Fig.!. Typical space charge distribution in thunderclouds, given by Simpson and Scrase (1937)
.~--~-------,~~====~--~IO
km
9
~--~~~--------~ 8
_30· ~------~----------~
r-~--~r---------~ 7
-20· ~------+-~r------
~~------I6
-10· ~----~~--I-----~-4~~~~~-+---------i 5
O· ~----~r---------
~---':""--Y:"""---------l 3
10· ~~~----------~2
20 ~----------------~
30·~---------------L~~
o 4 3 2 2 3 4 5km
Fig. 2. Typical space charge distribution in thunderclouds, given by Kuettner (1950)
369
of the thunderclouds have a negative space charge in the lower layer. A limited number of exceptions
is to be expected in the description of such extensive natural phenomena.
In the case of showerclouds, however the positive polarity was not so clearly determined as was the
case with thunderclouds. Orikasa (1967) reported that many cases of positive polarity were observed,
utilizing the time change in the surface electric field under showerclouds, but showerclouds of negative
polarity were also frequently observed. Latham and Stow (1969) measured the vertical and horizontal
distribution of field and precipitation electricity, utilizing an aircraft which penetrated showerclouds.
In their cases, clouds of negative polarity were more frequent than positive ones.
Incidentally, nimbostratus clouds are mostly of positive polarity according to observational results
obtained by Imyanitov and Chubarina (1965), Magono and Orikasa (1966), Reiter (1967) and Magono,
Endo and Shigeno (1970).
For convenience sake the typical space charge distributions in thunderclouds presented by
Simpson and Scrase (1937) and Kuettner (1950) are shown in Figs. 1 and 2 respectively. In the figures,
it may be seen that the following two points are commonly described in their models, although theIr
models are different from each other and are different from natural clouds in certain points.
1. On the whole, a thundercloud has a positive space charge in its upper layer and a negative space
charge in its lower layer, respectively over a wide range.
2. In the convection portion of the thunderclouds, a local intense positive space charge exists near
freezing temperature.
Discussions regarding the relation between the space charge and the precipitation electricity will be
made in the following sections according to these typical distributions.
Positive Charge on Snow Crystals of Cold Region Type

(Positive Space Charge in the Upper Layer of Thunderclouds)
Several years ago, Takahashi (1965) obtained a typical distribution of charge on individual precipi-
tation particles of thunderclouds, by releasing electric charge sondes, as shown in Fig. 3. It may be
seen in the figure that a group of positive precipitation particles are distributed in a temperature range of
- 20 to - 50°C above the cloud top. This group is assumed to consist of ice crystals of 'column',
'combination of columns and plates' or 'side planes', considering the cold temperatures at this layer.
Hereinafter the snow crystals (ice crystals) of these types will be referred to as 'cold region type', because
snow crystals of these types are formed in a temperature region colder than - 20°C, as described by
Magono and Lee (1966).
Later Magono, Endo and Shigeno (1970) observed vertical distributions of snow-crystal type and
space charge in nimbostratus clouds. Utilizing snow-crystal sondes and altielectrographs, they found
that snow crystals of the cold region type existed in the upper positive space charge layer, as shown in
Fig. 4.
Also in the surface observations we have several data pointing to the fact that snow crystals of
the cold-region type are charged positively. For example, reports by Isono, Komabayasi and Takahashi
(1966) and Kikuchi (1970, 1972) are available. It is also recognized in the observational results obtained
by Nakaya and Terada (1937) that the snow crystals of this type were positively charged in contrast
to the negative charge on snow crystals of the plane type, although this was not emphasized there.
We also have several experimental results which show that the snow crystals of the cold-region type
acquire a positive charge during their growth. For example, we have Smith-Johansen (1965), Magono
and Iwabuchi (1970) and Endo's reports (1970).
On the other hand, there is another possibility that positive electrification of the snow crystals of
this type is present. Namely charge separation occurs in the lower layer of a thundercloud in which
snow crystals of a plane type obtain a negative charge. As a result a positive charge of the same
amount will be transported in the form of ions to the upper layer by the convection air current. These
are then captured by snow crystals of the cold-region type in that layer. In this case, the positive
charge on the snow crystals of the cold-region type is only a result of the accumulation of positive
370
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Fig. 3. A vertical distributiDn Dfcharge Dn precipitatiDn elements Dfa thunderclDud, measured by Takahashi (1965).
to- 2esu = 1/3 x to-lIe
charge in the upper layer. This is not the mechanism by which the positive space charge is generated
in the upper layer.
It is, therefore, said that there are several indications that snow crystals of the cold-region type obtain
positive charges during their growing stage, but we cannot conclude at present whether the positive.
electrification of snow crystals of the cold-region type is the main mechanism by which the positive
space charge is generated in the upper layer of thunderclouds.
Negative Charge on Non-Rimed Snow Crystals of the Plane Type

(Negative Space Charge in theLower Layer of Thunderclouds)
As described in section 2, a negative space charge is distributed in the lower layer of thunderclouds.
With regard to this, European scientists (Simpson, 1942), (Chalmers and Little, 1947), (Chalmers, 1956)
and (Reiter, 1972) have measured the precipitation current in relatively quiet snowfalls, and have
shown that the current was predominantly transporting negative charge. This means that the snow
crystals which came from the lower layer of snow clouds were charged negatively.
In contrast to their measuring method, Japanese scientists (Nakaya and Terada, 1937), (Magono and
Orikasa, 1966), (l sono, Komabayasi and Takahashi, 1966), (M ago no, Endo, and Shigeno, 1970) and (K ikuchi,
1970, 1972) directly measured the charge on individual snow crystals, and showed, without exception,
that most of the snow crystals were charged negatively in quiet snowfalls in which the snow crystals
were non-rimed and were of the plane type.
371
30 JAN. 1969
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Fig. 4. Vertical distributions of snow-crystal type, charge on the crystals and space charge of a cloud with local
convections; Magana, Enda, and Shigena (1970). 5 x 10- 3 esu::::; 2 x 10- 12 C
Since the electrical property of snow crystals in quiet snowfalls from nimbostratus clouds is common
in the lower layer of thunderclouds, except for the vicinity of their convection portion, it may be said
that the negative space charge in the lower layer of thunderclouds is carried by the negative charge
on non-rimed snow crystals.
Regarding the original mechanism in which the snow crystals are charged negatively, some con-
siderations are required:
1. Non-rimed snow crystals of the plane type obtain negative charges during their growing process.
2. The negative charge on the snow crystals relate with the graupel dipole, e.g. local heavy charge
generation in the convective portion of thunderclouds, for example, by the electrification due to colli-
sion of the snow crystals with graupel.
3. The negative charge on snow crystals is related to the positive electrification of other snow crystals
in the melting zone below the lower layer.
Because the negative snow crystals of the plane type are observed regardless of the existence of the
melting zone, the third mechanism is not important.
Because in the case of nimbostratus clouds also, a negative electrification of snow crystals is
generally observed, it is considered that herein lies the mechanism by which snow crystals of the
plane type are charged negatively, without relation to the graupel dipole, even though in the case of
thunderclouds some portion of the negative electrification is related to the graupel dipole. However,
the physical mechanism by which the snow crystals of this type obtain negative charge is not yet ex-
plained completely.
Berg and Gohkale (1969), Magona and Iwabuchi (1970) and Endo (1970) experimentally demonstrated
that non-rimed snow crystals of the plane type were charged negatively when they were growing,
however Findeisen and Findeisen (1943) and Takahashi (1970, 1973) obtained opposite results in their
laboratory experiments. Accordingly we have not yet succeeded to explain the formation mechanism
of negatively charged snow crystals due to their growth.
372
There is another mechanism considered in which snow crystals are charged negatively by selective
ion capture by the snow crystals under a condition of induction, because it is usual that the surface
field is positive, without exception, when negative snow crystals are predominant. Further it may be
stated that the stronger the field, the greater the negative charge on the snow crystals. In other words,
an inverse relation or a mirror-image relation almost always holds between the surface field and the
charge on snow crystals.
Positive Charge on Rimed Snow Crystals

(Local Space Charge Under the Cloud Base)
Non-rimed snow crystals are predominantly charged negatively in a quiet snowfall as described in
the previous section, however in a showery snowfall in which snow crystals are generally rimed,
groups of positive snow crystals and negative ones are observed alternatively with the former case
being predominant. This fact was observed by many scientists; Nakaya and Terada (1934), Magono
and Orikasa (1966), Isono, Komabayasi, and Takahashi (1966), Magono, Endo, and Shigeno (1970), and
Kikuchi (1970, 1972). This was also observed by European scientists, using the precipitation current
in showery snowfalls.
Schaefer (1947) observed that a cross current was predominant in air-earth current during showery
snowfalls. Phenomena corresponding to his results were also observed by measuring the field change
in time. The field changes its sign quite frequently during showery snowfalls. Because the mirror image
relation holds with the relation between the field or air-earth current and the charge on snow crystals,
these indirect measurements show that groups of snow crystals of different signs fall alternatively under
the base of a cloud.
In the vertical distribution of space charges measured by altielectrographs, it was also recognized
that frequent changes in sign exist under the cloud base as in the reports of Simpson and Scrase (1937)
and Magono, Endo and Shigeno (1970). Considering the frequent changes of signs both in the vertical
field distribution and the field change at the surface, it was concluded that several local space charges
of positive or negative signs coexist under the cloud base of a thundercloud. Accordingly the author
is of the opinion that the so-called 'p-charge' may be one of these local space charges.
It is not uncommon that the type of snowfall is variable in showery snowfalls from a nimbostratus
cloud: heavy snowfalls of rimed snow crystals such as graupel and light snowfalls of non-rimed snow
crystals occur alternatively. This may be so because a nimbostratus cloud consists of several small
cumulonimbus clouds from which the showery snowfalls fall. According to the results of a detailed
check of the relation between the signs of surface fields and of charges on snow crystals by M agono
and Orikasa (1966), it appears that the rimed snow crystals have a tendency to carry positive charges
and the non-rimed ones tend to have negative charges. This tendency shows that the riming of super-
cooled cloud droplets on a snow crystal exerts an effect to positively electrify the snow crystals in a
showery cloud. However, no experimental evidence has been reported regarding this mechanism,
although the electrification due to the dense riming such as in graupe1 or in a hail pellet in a
thundercloud have been studied by many scientists both experimentally and theoretically, as will be
stated later.
Charge on Graupel or Hailstones

(Graupel Dipole)
Since it was found that the lower layer of thunderclouds is electrified negatively, particularly since
an intensive negative charge exists in the portion of strong convection (Fitzgerald and Byers, 1962),
numerous scientists in this field have attempted to explain the mechanism of the negative charge
generation by this mechanism. They all seem to believe that the negative charge is carried by graupel
or hail which fall through that portion. Accordingly they undertook to demonstrate the negative
charge generation as due to the dense riming phenomenon which corresponds to the formation of
graupel or hailstones, for example Kramer (1948), Lueder (1951), Meinhold (1951), Weickmann and
aufm Kampe (1950, 1953), Workman and Reynolds (1950), Reynolds (1954), Reynolds, Brook, and Gourley
373
(1957), Latham and Mason (1961), Mason (1965) and Latham and Miller (1965) reported on this phe-
nomenon and they partially succeeded to a certain extent by giving a demonstration.
However the charges on natural graupel which are observed at the surface in Japan were positive
rather than negative, as n:ported by Magono and Orikasa (1966), Isono, Komabayasi, and Takahashi
(1966), Magono, Endo and Shigeno (1970) and Kikuchi (1970), although the amount of the positive
charge was not large. A typical example is given in Figs. 4 and 5 obtained by M agono, Endo and Shigeno
who observed the vertical structure of electrical properties of showery snow clouds from which graupel
fell intermittently. These observations were made utilizing radiosondes, snow crystal sondes, charge
sondes and altielectrographs. The vertical distribution of air temperature, humidity, snow crystal type,
charge on individual snow crystals and vertical electric field are as shown in Fig. 4 from left to right.
It may be seen in the figure that graupel were observed at layers lower than 1000m in altitude (warmer
than -10°C), and they all charged positively in contrast to negatively charged snow crystals of the type
in layers above this altitude. The time change in charge on graupel and snow crystals which were ob-
served at the surface during this period, is shown in Fig. 5 together with the electric field. If we
assume that the falling speed of the graupel and snow crystals was 1.3 and 0.6 mls respectively, the
correspondency between the positive graupel observed in air and those at surface is very good. In
any event, Figs. 4 and 5 clearly show that intensively rimed snow crystals e.g. graupel carried positive
charges.
MacCready and Proudfit (1965) have already measured vertical distribution of precipitation electricity
in thunderclouds and found that graupel were strongly charged to positive in the layers above freezing
level.
30 JAN. 1969
FIELD IN AIR
1500
0:
~
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~1000
z
500
SNOW CRYSTAL
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E
j
> 1350 1420 1430 1440: 1450 1500 1510
z TIME I
I
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<t
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~~
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;j
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SNOW FLAKES -3
III BEGINIIII NG
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Fig. 5. Time change of charge on snow crystals observed at surface, corresponding to those in Fig. 4; Magono,
Endo and Shigeno (1970).5 x 10- 3 esu ~ 2 pC; MS- 1 = ms- 1
374
In regard to the positive charge on densely rimed snow crystals, it should be pointed out that the
heavy local positive space charge is frequently distributed in the convection portion of thunderclouds.
As described hitherto, there are many indications that the densely rimed snow crystals including
graupel are charged positively. However, experimental studies on the electrification mechanisms are
scarce. Many years hence, Findeisen and Findeisen (1940, 1943) experimentally showed that a metal
probe was charged positively due to riming, but their result did not receive due evaluation, because
their experiment was carried out under a condition too far removed from natural riming. Another
reason may be that the sign of charge as demonstrated by these scientists was in contradiction with
that which was generally believed at the time.
Magona and Takahashi (1963) observed the charge on riming ice probe under natural and laboratory
conditions, and they found that the sign of charge depended on the riming rate and temperature. In
the usual riming rate, the riming ice probe was charged positively in temperature range warmer than
-10°C, but was charged negatively when colder than this temperature. These results are convenient
to explain the positive charge on natural graupe~ particularly the graupel dipole presented by
Kuettner (1950).
As described above, although it is strongly expected that the graupel is intensively charged negatively
in a local space near the convection portion of a thundercloud, the charge on natural graupel observed
in clouds or at the surface were invariably positive. It is therefore desirable that the data based on direct
measurement of charges on natural graupel will be further accumulated, both in clouds and at the
surface.
Positive Electrification of Melting Snow Crystals

(Positive Space Charge Under the Melting Zone)
Many observations of clouds by various methods show that there is a layer of negative space charge
above the melting zone of snow and another layer ~f positive space charge below the zone, as described
below.
Chalmers (1956), Reiter (1965, 1968 and 1972) measured the vertical distribution of precipitation
current in clouds and found that a positive current was predominant under the melting zone of snow
crystals. It is also recognized in the vertical distribution of field obtained by Moore, Vonnegut, and
Botka (1958) and Imyanitov and Chubarina (1965) that a positive space charge was distributed below
the melting zone, although only some of them did emphasize this fact.
Gunn (1950) and MacCready and Proudfit (1965) made measurements of vertical distribution of charge
on precipitation. In this way, it was recognized that a group of strong positive charge below the melting
zone was present in Gunn's data, however in case of MacCready and Proudfit, precipitation particles
were negatively charged, in contrast to the positive charge on the particles above that zone. The latter
case is only an exception which does not support the positive electrification of snow crystals due to
their melting.
It is generally accepted that positive raindrops are predominant in a steady rainfal~ in contrast to
the negative snow crystals in a quiet snowfall. Magona and Orikasa (1966) measured the time change
of charges on individual precipitation particles when a snowfall changed to a rainfall, thereafter the
rainfall again changed to a light snowfall. Then, they confirmed that the phenomenon is applicable to
the rapid change between rainfall and a snowfall.
These facts described above all show that snow crystals obtain a positive charge by a certain mech-
anism when they are melted. Regarding the mechanism, Dinger and Gunn (1946), MacCready and
Proudfit (1965b), Drake (1967), and Hutchinson and Martin (1971) demonstrated that an ice probe
obtained a positive charge when it was melted. Magono and Kikuchi (1963, 1965) confirmed this by
melting naturally falling snow crystals, and Kikuchi (1965 a, 1965 b) found that the positive electrification
of melting snow crystals is caused by the ejection of negatively charged minute particles from the
melting snow crystals.
The phenomena which are related to the electrification of clouds are generally quite confusing. Thus,
the description of the phenomena usually includes many exceptional cases. However as far as the
375
positive electrification of melting snow crystals are concerned, the phenomenon is highly reliable, in
other words, exceptions from this description are rare.
Charge on Raindrops
It is generally accepted that the charge generation in the liquid state e.g. in the form of raindrops,
is not the main mechanism, but has only a secondary effect on the electrification of thunderclouds.
However, there is a significant problem regarding the charge on raindrops: the final stage of pre-
cipitation.
According to Chalmers (1957), it was observed by many scientists, to date that raindrops are pre-
dominantly positive in a steady rain, as reported by (Baldit, 1911), (Herath,1914), (Gschwend, 1921),
(Schonland, 1928), (Chalmers and Pasquill, 1937) and (Simpson, 1942). However, Elster and Geitel (1888),
Gerdien (1903), Banerji (1938), Gunn (1949), and Gunn and Devin (1953) reported that the number of
negative raindrops was greater than that of positive ones. This discrepancy may have been caused by
the possible fact that the scientists of the latter group made their observation in showery or thunder
clouds.
However, it is commonly seen in the following reports that larger raindrops are predominantly
charged negatively and the average amount of negative charge on the larger raindrops was greater
than that of positive ones as commonly seen in the reports of Gschwend (1927), Chalmers and Pasquill
(1938), Gunn (1949), Hutchinson and Chalmers (1951), Federov (1951); Banerji and Lele (1952), and
Gunn and Devin (1957). These tendencies in regard to the charge on raindrops were also confirmed in
recent observations, although the names of the workers are not given in this paper.
The mechanism for the predominant positive charge on raindrops in a steady rainfall may be readily
understood by considering the positive electrification of snow crystals below the melting zone. Perhaps
it may be understood partially by considering the selective positive ion capture under a static induction
or the capture of excess positive ions near the surface which is produced by point discharge, because in
such a case, the field is generally negative.
But it is an enigma as to what mechanism can explain why the large raindrops were intensively charged
negatively. In recent observations, the measurement of surface electric field was made simultaneously
with that of charges on individual raindrops. These observations commonly show that an inverse
relation or mirror-image effect generally holds in the relation between the sign of charge on raindrops
and that of the field. Accordingly when we consider the condition of the charge generation in falling
raindrops under a vertical electric field, we may only consider the following two cases, e.g. either
positive raindrops under a negative field or negative raindrops under a positive field.
1. In case of positive raindrops under a negative field, we cannot find an appropriate mechanism by
which the raindrop can obtain a negative charge, as considered below. All mechanisms based on the
static induction as represented by Elster and Geitel (1913), Wilson (1929), Muller-Hillebrand (1954)
and Mason (1971) do not predict the change in the sign of charge itself, although the mechanism will
explain the intensification of the charge and field.
The drop-breaking theory also predicts that the raindrops will be charged positively. The only excep-
tion is the charge separation due to drop breaking under induction. That is to say, when a raindrop is
separated into two drops vertically under a negative field, the lower drop may be electrified negatively,
however, the lower negative drop thus obtained will lose its negative charge by capturing positive
ions selectively under a negative field.
2. In case of a negative raindrop under a positive field, we have many possible mechanisms by which
we can explain why the raindrop obtains an increasingly negative charge. A larger raindrop is considered
to have originated from graupel or a large snowflake. Therefore, if the mechanism by which the graupel
or the large snowflake carries a large amount of negative charge is known, the existence of the negative
charge on a larger raindrop will be understood. Unfortunately however, natural graupel or large snow-
flakes observed, are usually charged positively, as described in the previous section. In addition to that,
the processes after they leave a cloud base, have a tendency to add a positive charge to them, for example
the positive electrification due to melting, and the selective positive ion capture under a negative field.
376
Conclusions
Fairly reliable and common results discussed in this paper may be summarized as follows.
1. Non-rimed snow crystals (of plane type) carry a negative charge in their growing state. This
corresponds to the negative space charge in the lower layer of thunderclouds above the freezing level,
e.g. 'Snow Dipole'.
2. Rimed snow crystals carry a positive charge. This is related with the local positive space charge
near or under the cloud base of thunderclouds.
3. Graupel carry a positive charge but its amount is small, as far as natural graupels observed at
the surface are concerned. This perhaps is related to 'Graupel Dipole'.
4. When snow crystals are melted, they obtain a positive charge. This corresponds to the pre-
dominancy of positive raindrops in a steady rainfall.
It is strongly expected that graupel are intensively charged negatively, considering the local negative
space charge in the convection portion of thunderclouds. But the observation of the charge on
them all show that they are charged positively and the amount is small. If this discrepancy is resolved
by actual observations of charge on natural graupel, we would be able to understand the precipitation
electricity in showerclouds or thunderclouds.
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grad, 1965). - 28. Imyanitov, I. M., B. F. Evteev, and I. I. Kamaldina, Gordon and Breach 1, 401 (1969). -
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(1926).
Discussion
The fact that no reference or almost no reference can be found about field evidence of negative graupel in a
cloud is very interesting, and points very much to the necessity of getting more measurements. The fact that no
negatively charged graupel was found in the cloud is obviously at variance with the current precipitation theories
of electrification. On the other hand, the fact that no negative graupel is found at the ground is not necessarily
so, because obviously the negative charge has to be carried downwards but then released by some mechanism
at the height of the lower, negative center in the cloud.
A second point is: presumably there may be a substantial difference in the mechanism at work in clouds that
reach more or less development in electrification. I would like to ask Magono if in his Fig. 4, or in any similar
cases that he has observed, the clouds reached electrical maturity and produced lightning.
Magono:
It is generally believed that graupels or hailstones should be strongly charged negatively, but we have no such
observational data either at ground or in clouds. I would be very happy to learn of such data. About your second
point, the shower clouds seem to reach maturity in a cloud-physical sense even if their dimension is not great.
However, it is hard to answer whether they reach electrical maturity, because we do not know perfectly the
cycle of electrical activity. Sometimes thunder was heard.
Author's address:
Ch. Magono
Dept. of Geophysics
Faculty of Science
Hokkaido University
Kita 10, Nishi 8
Sapporo 060
Japan
378
The Velocities of Charged Hydrometeors and the Production of High Fields in Thunderstorms
M. J. Gay, R. F. Griffiths, J. Latham, and C. P. R. Saunders
With 5 tables
Abstract
Calculations of the terminal velocities of charged hydro meteors in the presence of electric fields have been
confirmed experimentally. They have formed the basis of computations of the charging current J flowing through
a thundercloud as a result of the operation of a precipitative mechanism of cloud electrification. Values of J
were calculated for a range of values of field strength E, precipitation rate Po, precipitation content L, cloud
water content C, charge distribution, total separated charge, and the fraction f of the small particles that have
undergone a charging event.
As E increases, J increases initially, reaches a maximum value J max and then decreases, becoming zero when
the field reaches a value Emax. At this point the dissipative effect of the field in increasing the downwards velocity
of the positively charged small particles and slowing down, levitating or even driving upwards negatively charged
precipitation exactly balances the effect of gravitational separation of oppositely charged hydrometeors.
The values of Emax and J max are very sensitive to variations of these listed parameters, and it is found that the
estimated field required for the initiation of a lightning stroke (~350 kV/m) can be achieved only over a narrow
range of conditions. The ease with which precipitative mechanisms can produce breakdown fields is considerably
increased, however, if account is taken of spatial inhomogeneities in the field.
Velocities
Calculations have been made of the terminal fall velocities of charged liquid hydro meteors falling
in vertical electric fields. They constitute an extension of those made by McDonald (1960) for non-
electrified spheres, in which the relation between the Best and Reynolds numbers formed the basis of
this treatment. They predict that if the charges and fields are of a magnitude and sign consistent with
those generally assumed to exist within a thundercloud the raindrops will be substantially slowed
down and some may even be levitated in the strong field; also the small droplets may achieve velocities
downwards which are many times greater than the field free values. Some calculated velocities v for
drops of various radii r falling through a range of values of field strength E are presented in Table 1.
Experiments in which large drops were suspended in a rising air stream or droplets fell through a region
of vertical field showed the calculations to be accurate over a substantial range of drop-size, charge
and field-strength.
Table 1. Terminal velocities v (m s - ') of drops of radius r (mm) falling in a downward directed vertical electric
field of strength E (k V m - ') and carrying charge Q = 0.22 E r2 pc. Drops of radius less than 0.05 mm carry
positive charge; larger drops have negative charge. The minus signs signify upward motion of the drop.
(T = 20DC, P = 0.1013 MPa)
E r(mm)
(kVm- l ) 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.3 1.0 2.0 2.9
0 0.012 0.046 0.256 0.710 2.45 6.49 8.78 9.16

50 0.028 0.077 0.193 0.634 2.37 6.44 8.75 9.15
100 0.074 0.168 -0.024 0.384 2.14 6.30 8.67 9.10
150 0.151 0.312 -0.351 -0.208 1.73 6.05 8.53 9.01
200 0.259 0.497 -0.708 -0.792 1.02 5.69 8.34 8.91
250 0.392 0.721 -1.10 -1.33 -0.58 5.20 8.08 8.76
300 0.551 0.978 -1.51 -1.89 -1.78 4.53 7.75 8.58
350 0.732 1.25 -1.93 -2.48 -2.78 3.58 7.33 8.35
400 0.928 1.55 -2.38 -3.09 -3.73 2.11 6.81 8.07
379
Fields and Currents
In order to calculate the charging currents carried in thunderclouds by hydrometeors the particles
were divided into two categories; negatively charged raindrops (or hailstones) ofradius R greater than
some critical value Rc but not exceeding a maximum value of 3 mm, and cloud droplets of radius r
less than a particular value rc (= RJ, carrying positive charge. Calculations performed with Rc = 50 Jlm
and with Rc = 100 Jlm yielded essentially identical results. The size distributions within these two
classes were taken to be those given by Best (1951) for cloud droplets and Marshall and Palmer (1948)
for raindrops.
It was considered desirable to retain flexibility in the choice of expressions for the charge carried on
the particles. Accordingly, the equation adopted for the charge Q(pC) carried on raindrops of radius
R (mm) in a field of strength E (kV1m) was
Q = -KEW
where K was generally assumed to be within the range 0.055 to 0.22 and the exponent x could take the
values 1, 2 or 3. In the majority of calculations the charge q on a small cloud particle was assumed to
be related to E and r by a similar expression, with the same value of x as for the precipitation, but with the
value of the constant K given a new value K' so as to make the net charge in the cloud equal to zero.
The value off was always assumed to be the same for droplets of all size in the range 0 < r < rc.
Values off ranging from 1 to 0.05 were employed *).
The current density J is the sum of contributions from the precipitation, J p , and the droplets J d •
Calculations of J were made for various altitudes Z, within a cloud whose O°C isotherm was located
at 2.5 km and which possessed a lapse rate of 6°C km -1.
Table 2. Values of J p and J d for various values of E and f

Raindrops. Po = 50 mm hr- 1 z = 5.5 km. L = C = 2.4 X 10- 3 kg m -3. Q = -0.22 ER2. r, = 50 11m
J d (IlA m -2)
E Jp
kVm- 1 IlAm - 2
f=1 f= 0.2 f= 0.1 f= 0.05
60 6.2 x 10- 2 -1.7 X 10- 4 -1.3 X 10- 3 -5.4 X 10- 3 -3.2 X 10- 2
120 1.2 x 10- 1 -3.7 X 10- 4 -5.4 X 10- 3 -3.2 X 10- 2 -2.3 X 10- 1
180 1.6 x 10- 1 -6.0 X 10- 4 -1.5 X 10- 2 -1.0 X 10- 1 -7.1 X 10- 1
240 1.8 x 10- 1 -9.1 X 10- 4 -3.2 X 10- 2 -2.3 X 10- 1 -1.6
300 1.6 x 10- 1 -1.3 X 10- 3 -6.0 X 10- 2 -4.3 X 10- 1 -2.9
360 7.6 x 10- 2 -1.8 X 10- 3 -1.0 X 10- 1 -7.1 X 10- 1 -4.7
420 -6.9 x 10- 2 -2.4 X 10- 3 -1.6 X 10- 1 -1.1 -6.9
480 -2.7 x 10- 1 -3.2 X 10- 3 -2.3 X 10- 1 -1.6 -9.8
540 -5.0 x 10- 1 -4.2 X 10- 3 -3.2 X 10- 1 -2.1 -13.3
600 -7.4 x 10- 1 -5.3 X 10- 3 -4.3 X 10- 1 -2.8 -17.4
Table 2 illustrates the general pattern revealed by the calculations. As E increases, J increases initially,
reaches a maximum value J max and then decreases, becoming zero when the field reaches a value E max •
At this point the dissipative effect of the field (in increasing the downwards velocity of the positively
charged small particles and slowing down, levitating or even driving upwards negatively charged
precipitation) exactly balances the effect of gravitational separation of oppositely charged hydrometeors.
It can be seen from Table 2 that the contribution of J d to J is minor when f = 1 and L = C, except
over a small range of E close to Em.., which has a value of approximately 400 k V1m. However, when f
is reduced below 1 the smaller numbers of droplets that are more highly charged carry a greater
current because of their greatly increased terminal velocities, and their contribution to J is such as to
reduce Emax to 360, 220 and 90 k V1m for f = 0.2, 0.1 and 0.05 respectively, as shown in Table 3, with
correspondingly smaller values of J max •
*) f = fraction of small particles which carry charges.
380
Table 3. Values of Jm.x> Em•x and E at J m•x for various values of f
Raindrops. Po = 50mmhr- 1 ; z = 5.5km; L = C = 2.4 x 1O- 3 kgm- 3 ; Q = -0.22ER2
J max Eat J m • x Emax

f (IlA m -2) (kVm- 1 ) (kV m- 1)
1 0.18 240 400

0.2 0.15 230 360
0.1 0.09 120 220
0.05 0.03 60 90
The influence of precipitation rate and charge distribution on the maximum attainable currents and
fields is illustrated in Table 4. It is seen that whereas J m • x is approximately proportional to Po, E m • x
increases only slightly as the initial precipitation rate is raised from 30 to 100 mm/hr. This, of course,
is because J depends on the total flux of charged particles, which rapidly increases with Po, while E m• x
is sensitive to Po only because the size-spectrum of the raindrops shifts to the larger particles as Po
increases. The time taken to achieve Em • x would, of course, decrease rapidly with increasing Po. Another
interesting observation is that J m.x increases markedly as x increases from 1 to 3, while E m • x is
essentially the same for x = 2 and x = 3, although substantially lower for x = 1. The reason for this is
that as x increases a greater proportion of the charge is localised on hydro meteors whose velocities are
relatively unaffected by the electric field. The opposition to gravitational separation of charge is there-
fore reduced and higher current densities exist. Also the most mobile particles carry higher charges
when x = 1 and consequently they become levitated in lower fields, thus reducing Em • x • The form of the
charge distribution is seen, therefore, to have a significant effect on the limiting electrical conditions.
Table 4. Values of J m." Em." for various values of Po, Land x.

Raindrops. z = 5.5 km; L = C;f = 1; r, = 50 11m; K = 0.22 when x = 2
Po L J max Emax
x
(mmhr-l) (kg m -3) (IlA m- 2 ) (kVm-l)
30 1.56 x 10- 3 0.05 270

2 0.11 390
3 0.16 370
50 2.38 x 10- 3 1 0.08 270
2 0.18 400
3 0.24 400
100 4.21 X 10- 3 1 0.15 300
2 0.32 420
3 0.44 420
Table 5. Values of J m." Em.., for various values of Po, L, and x.

Raindrops z = 5.5 km; L = C; f = 1; r, = 100 11m; K = 0.055 when x = 2
Po L Jrnax Emax
(mmhr-l) (kgm- 3 ) x (kVm-l)
(IlA m- 2 )
30 1.56 x 10- 3 2 0.06 >600

3 0.08 >600
50 2.38 x 10- 3 2 0.09 >600
3 0.12 >600
381
In comparison, Table 5 shows that if the mean charge carried by the randrops is reduced by a factor
of 4 the values of J max are reduced and those of Emax increased. This is because the velocity changes in a
given field are less if the particles carry smaller charges whilst a higher field is required in order to
levitate drops carrying less charge. In these calculations J waS still positive at E = 600 kV m -I and the
calculations were terminated at this point since it is not believed that higher fields can exist within a
thundercloud.
The changes in Emax and J max resulting from variations in altitude Z or the substitution of hailstones
for raindrops were not appreciable.
Discussion
We now attempt to estimate whether precipitative mechanisms of cloud electrification, in so far, at
least, as they can be described in terms of our simple model, are capable of generating the fields and
currents which must exist in clouds which produce lightning. Recent work suggests that a satisfactory
mechanism must be capable of producing at least the corona propagation field Eo ~ 350 k Vjm
(Phelps, 1974). Other work indicates that an acceptable mechanism must also be able to produce a
current density of about O.1j.lA m - 2. It can be inferred from our calculations that if! = 1 and x = 2
or 3, the required conditions can be met if Po exceeds about 30 mm hr-I. The production of breakdown
fields becomes more difficult as! is reduced below 1 and cannot occur (for Po = 50 mm hr - I) if! falls
below 0.2. If a lower mean charge is assumed Emax is higher, and considerably in excess of Ee> but higher
values of Po are required in order to produce the required current dertsities - even with! = 1,
Po must exceed about 50 mm hr - I.
It is clear that consideration of the influence of electric forces on the velocities of hydro meteors
imposes some severe restrictions on the role of precipitative mechanisms in explaining thundercloud
electrification; although in contradiction to the calculations of Kamra (1970, 1971) and others, we do
find ranges of conditions in which breakdown fields can be attained. However, the reports by Moore
et al. (1962) of the occurrence of lightning in clouds where the precipitation rate does not exceed a few
mm hr- I are clearly inexplicable in terms of a precipitation mechanism. The fraction! of small particles
which carry charges is clearly an important parameter. On a crude argument, bearing in mind that as
a precipitation particle becomes increasingly charged the charge-transfer per collision with small
particles, qe> will decrease, we might expect that if the mean charge Q = - AE1F (where A is a constant)
then qc ~ 0.25 AEp2 where Rand P are mean radii of the large and small hydrometeors respectively.
Conservation of charge demands therefore that! = 4(PjR)(LjC). If we take P = 30 j.lm, R = 1 mm
and L = e we find that! = 0.12 which our calculations show is about the lowest permissible value.
Some alleviation is afforded when one considers that: (1) larger, less mobile droplets are more likely
to separate from precipitation particles after collidi~g with them than are smaller droplets; (2) the
ratio Lje will generally be less than 1, thereby descrea,sing f
Further amelioration of the severe limitation imposed by our calculations on precipitative mechanisms
may be afforded by the following argument. If we consider that there exists a variation in E throughout
the volume of the thundercloud - and not a uniform field, as assumed on our model and by other
workers - E may continue to increase in a region of strong field, even though the local current density
is negative - because of the overriding effect of positive current densities in more widespread surround-
ing regions of somewhat lower field. Evidence for spatial inhomogeneities in electrified clouds of all
types, including thunderclouds, has been provided by Imyanitov et al. (1972), Reiter (1972) and Winn
et al. (1974). A crude assessment of the possible importance of this effect may now be made. We assume
that the electrically active volume of the cloud is cylindrical with its axis vertical. The field within this
cylindrical region, of diameter D, is assumed to be constant, of strength ED, except that within a central
cylindrical region of diameter d a higher field Ed exists. Typical dimensions for D and d might be 1 km
and 200 m respectively. If we take p = 50mm hr-I, Q = -0.22 ER2 and! = 0.2 our calculations show
that if the background field ED = 50 k Vjm, the current density is about 4 x 10- 2 j.lA m - 2. Conse-
quently, since the ratio of the cross-sectional areas in the high- and low-field regions is 1j25, the
field Ed can increase to a value of 570 k Vjm, when the charging current becomes about - 1.0 j.lA m - 2.
Winn et al. have shown that the background fields and scale of fluctuations within thunderclouds can
382
be close to those assumed. We may therefore conclude that the existence of variations in electric field
removes some of the restrictions, previously discussed, imposed upon precipitative mechanisms.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by means of a grant from the Natural Environment Research Council.
References
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M., Yeo V. Chubarina, and Ya. Shvartz,
Electricity of Clouds, NASA Technical translation. NASA IT F-718 (1972). - 3. Kamra, A. K., J. Atmos. Sci. 27,
1182 (1970). - 4. Kamra, A. K., J. Atmos. Sci. 28, 820 (1971). - 5. McDonald, J. E., 1. Meteorol. 17,463 (1960). -
6. Marshall, J. S. and W McK. Palmer, 1. Meteorol. 5, 165 (1948). - 7. Moore, C. B., B. Vonnegut, J. A.
Machado, and H. J. Survilas, J. Geophys. Res. 76, 5799 (1962). - 8. Phelps, C. T., 1. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 36, 103
(1974). - 9. Reiter, R., Arch. Meteorol. Geophys. Bioklimatol. A 21, 247 (1972). - 10. Winn, W P., G. W Schwede,
and C. B. Moore, 1. Geophys. Res. 79, 1761 (1974).
Discussion
Would you please explain why the terminal velocity is positive for smaller droplets, and then changes sign to
negative, and then changes again to positive for larger droplets. What kind of electric charge are you assuming?
Gay, Manchester, England:
The 10 and 20!lm radius drops are positively charged and they will be accelerated downwards in the
electric field, their terminal velocity will be increased. The larger drops are negatively charged. We assume a
charge given by a relationship of the form Q = K . E . r2, where K is a constant.
I want to know more about the experimental set-up. You say you got agreement between the theoretical changes
of velocity and the experimental values. I would like to ask how you measured the changes of velocity in the
case of the smaller droplets and also in the case of the larger size, which are quoted as 1.2 to 1.8 mm in radius.
Gay:
The experimental technique for the small drops was to produce highly charged positive droplets from a
glass capillary with a high potential applied to the water contained in it, and to let the droplet stream fall between
two electrodes. With stroboscopic illumination the stream was photographed to produce successive images of
the drops. This was carried out for a range of drop sizes from 20 to 50 !lm, and the agreement was good over
this range. The large drops were levitated in a vertical wind tunnel with an electric field applied. The terminal
velocity was determined from the reduction in air speed necessary as the field strength was increased.
Jennings:
One question about the smaller drops, I am a little bit confused because apparently Smith stated in the
previous session that he found it difficult to produce drops less than about 50 !lm in radius using that technique.
Is there not some inconsistency here?
Gay:
No, it is certainly difficult but not impossible.
Authors' addresses:
M. J. Gay, J. Latham, and C. P. R. Saunders R. F. Griffiths
UMIST 32 Trafford Road
P.O. Box 88 Sackville Street Alderiey Edge
Manchester M 60 1 QD Cheshire
England England
383
Electrochemical Charge Separation in Clouds
L. Wizhlin
Abstract
The proposed charging mechanism of clouds is based on electrochemical capture by drop surfaces of negative
charge from atmospheric ion pairs. It provides an explanation of charge separation within clouds during
convective growth, where strong updraft currents from below transport atmospheric ions of both polarities through
the drop population of a cloud. The charge from negative ions is captured by drop surfaces and charges the lower
portion of the cloud, while the more inert positive ions, which are carried farther, supply charge to the higher
region. Also included are results from laboratory and field measurements which will assist in substantiazing the
new theory.
A conductor immersed in an electrolyte will charge until it is in equilibrium with its environment. An
equilibrium potential is thus established between conductor and electrolyte, referred to by chemists as the
oxidation-reduction potential, and its value is determined by the electrochemical reaction involved. The
air in our atmosphere contains on the order of 109 ion pairs/m3 and is therefore similar to a weak electro-
lyte. Material surfaces exposed to ionized air are all subject to electrochemical charging, a process that
can easily be demonstrated in the laboratory.
In a typical experiment, we immerse and ventilate spheres of different materials in ionized air. The
spheres charge with respect to the surrounding air. Their equilibrium potentials, which are propor-
tional to their oxidation potentials, are listed in Table 1. A charged sphere, with its diffuse layer of
opposite charge residing in the surrounding air, can be pictured as two concentric shells forming a
spherical capacitor with a capacitance of
C = 4neoR(1 + ~)- [1]
Here, R is the radius of the sphere, and d the average distance between the surface of the sphere and
its outside layer of opposite charge.
Table 1. Equilibrium potentials for different materials ventilated by

ionized air
Equilibrium potential
Material
Volts
Magnesium -1.6
Wet filter paper -1.05
Aluminium -1.0
Cadmium -1.0
Tantalum -0.65
Molybdenum -0.6
Copper -0.45
Stainless steel -0.4
Ice -0.4
Gold -0.22
Knowing the oxidation potential Vo for a specific material, one can find the charge Q and the
charge density a on the sphere from the electrostatic equations
Q = VoC = Vo4neoR(1 + ~), [2]
384
II = _Q- =
4nR2
VOBO(..!.
R
+ ~).
d
[3]
In one of our experiments, we ventilate spheres of varying sizes with ionized air inside a Faraday
cage. In addition to charging the spheres, the air stream also removes part of the charged double layer
which surrounds the sphere and sweeps it out of the cage. This initiates an equilibrium potential
between the spheres and the Faraday cage. Similar experiments have been performed by others
(Chalmers, 1937; Phillips, 1954).
Many electrical phenomena that occur in the atmosphere can be explained by the charging
mechanism described {Wahlin, 1973). For example, airplanes speeding through the atmosphere are
subject to ventilation by ions and will charge to equilibrium potentials of several thousand volts. The
earth's surface is constantly being ventilated by winds containing natural ions and will charge accord-
ingly. Cloud drops become charged when they fall through the ionized atmosphere or are ventilated
by strong updraft winds that accompany the growth of convective clouds.
The solid curve in Fig. 1, which is constructed from eq. [2], shows calculated equilibrium charges
on water drops of differing radii.
An oxidation potential of Yo = -0.26 volts was chosen from the results of Chalmers (1938), and the
distance d was assumed to be 1 mm for a normal ion density of 109 ion pairs/m 3 . Experimental results
from other authors (Arendt and Kallmann, 1925; Twomey, 1956; Takahashi, 1972, 1973) are also
plotted in Fig. 1.
In an average thunderstorm, ions of both polarities are transported through the drop population
of a cloud by means of updraft currents. Negative ions are immediately captured by drop surfaces in
NEGATIVE
CHARGE
IN COUl.
-12
10
/
, t < . - - AT REST
/
/
'-----.<---- FAL LING
/ /
• TWOMEY "956/
"AVERAGE OF 30 NEGATIVE DROPS
/ /
-16 / / /
10
/ /
/ /
/-" / /
l
I
~ARENDT 1925/
/'
I /
16174-~~~~--~~~.-~~~~~-r~~--~~~
I 10 100 1000 10000
DROP DIAMETER IN MICRONS
Fig. 1. Charge-size measurements of raindrops compared to the predicted values from electrochemical
charging (solid curve) and ion diffusion (dotted curve)
385
the lower portion of the cloud, while the more inert positive ions sieve through and supply charge to
higher regions.
A typical cloud, which may have a cross sectional area of 10 km 2 and reach several kilometers in
height, can receive up to 9 X 10 17 ion pairs/sec, or a charge of 0.14 coul/sec, through its lower boundaries,
assuming an updraft current of 30 m/sec. In a few minutes, enough charge can be separated to
produce lightning and corona discharges which will feed the cloud with more ions and increase the
charging rate for following discharges.
17 cm
NEON
LIGHT
36 cm
PLEXI GLASS
TUBE
I
\ ~
/
ALPHA
SOURCE
FAN
Fig. 2. Laboratory model of a thunderstorm cell
A laboratory model was built to demonstrate the charging process in thunderstorms. Fig. 2 shows
a plexiglass tube containing two sections of steel wool which represent the upper and the lower
portions of a cloud cell. A fan blows ionized air through the tube to simulate updraft currents inside
a cloud. Negative ions react immediately with the steel wool and stick to the lower portion of the cell
while the positive ions pass through and collect by diffusion in the upper, and slightly larger, section
of the cell. A potential of over 100 volts, positive at top and negative at the bottom, is thus developed.
A neon light connected across the cell will produce visible discharges if a capacitor of 1 nF across the
cell helps to collect the necessary electric energy.
An electrochemically charged surface, with its double layer of opposite charge, suggests that long-
range forces are at work since the thickness across the double layer, which is about a millimeter, would
determine the distance over which the electrochemical mechanism must act. Other possible mechanisms,
such as diffusion or adsorption by oriented dipoles, are less effective because the attractive forces are
short-range, being on a molecular scale only, and requiring that the ions collide with a material surface
before capture can take place.
386
Positive charge centers often located lower in thunderclouds can be explained by the presence of
downdraft winds which charge the cloud with a reversed polarity.
A fmal question: Is the gush of rain caused by a lightning flash, or vice versa? A possible answer is
that both are caused by a third process, namely, the strong updraft currents within the thunderstorm.
References
1. Arendt, P. and H. Kallmann, Z. Physik 35, 421 (1925). - 2. Chalmers, J. A. and F. Pasquill, Phil. Mag. 23, 88
(1937). - 3. Phillips, B. B. and R. Gunn, J. Met. 11, 348 (1954). - 4. Takahashi, T. and C. M. Fullerton, J. Geophys.
Res. 77, 1630 (1972). - 5. Takahash~ T. and T. Craig, 1. Meteor. Soc. Japan 51, 191 (1973). - 6. Twomey, S.,
Tellus 8, 445 (1956). - 7. Wtihlin, L., Found. of Phys. 3, 459 (1973).
Discussion
Am I to understand that the hydro meteor would achieve a negative charge bringing it to a potential of the order
of a volt, after the double layers have been stripped away by the wind?
Wtihlill, Boulder, Colorado, USA:
The oxidation potential for water has been previously measured, I think, by Chalmers and Pasquill. And they
measured it to be about 0.26 volts. These are very close to what we got. Ours are a little bit higher than that.
Phelps:
All right, a quarter of a volt, but the problem that bothers me is how do you avoid discharge by the positive
ions continuing to come in in a stream, and how do the negative ions get up over the long range coulomb
potential hill of that voltage where they might have particle energy at least an order of magnitude lower. They
might have a 40th of an electron-volt at room temperature and you want them to go up a potential hill much
larger than that.
Wtihlin:
Well, as the drop has reached its equilibrium potential, which is 0.26 volts, then it establishes equilibrium with
the surrounding air and it will not pick up either negative or positive ions any more. For the same reason, if one
has a regular flashlight battery, as soon as the electrode has reached its equilibrium potential, it will naturally
not discharge by itself. There is no leakage.
Latham, Manchester, England:
I think there is numerous criticism that might possibly be levelled against Wtihlin's hypothesis. However, I
wish to confine myself to one question. A number of people have shown both theoretically and experimentally
that the mobilization distance for ions on cloud droplets is of the order of meters. How is it then that your
ions can travel presumably several kilometers through the cloud without being captured by droplets?
Wtihlin:
Yes, as far as the negative ions are concerned they do react with the cloud drops, but as the cloud drops reach
their negative equilibrium potentials they appear neutral to their surroundings, and they will, therefore, not
attract any ion of either kind. Thus, the positive ions which are chemically inert will pass through and reach
high regions.
Author's address:
L. E. Wtihlin
Colutron Corporation
P. O. Box 1288
USA
387
The Electric Discharges in Nimbostratus *)
I. M. Imyanitov, B. F. Evteev, and I. I. Kamaldina
Summary
1. There are many reports of aircrafts experiencing electric discharges in clouds which accordingly to aero-
synoptical flight conditions are considered nimbostratus. The probability of such strokes is equal to 10- 5 per
1 km of flight.
2. An analysis of data on distribution of electric field strenght in nimbostratus estimates the probability of
occurrence of electric field strength exceeding 105 Vim as 10- 5 per 1 km. There are direct measurements of
electric field strengths of about 10 5 V1m in non-convective clouds.
3. An appearance of strong electric fields in nimbostratus where processes of initial electrification are weak;
these fields are closely connected with small electric losses in clouds of this type.
4. In nimbostratus an electrically charged aircraft may often cause discharges.
5. An aerosynoptical analysis of the conditions which favour lightning strokes at aircrafts shows that they
mostly occur in areas of inactive cold fronts and secondary cold fronts, weakly defined in field of temperature,
winds and pressure trends.
The most possible heights of electric strokes are 1000- 3000 In, the temperatures at these heights are ranging
from +5° to -5°C.
Authors' address:
I. M. Imyanitov, B. F. Evteev, and J. J. Kamaldina
Karbysheva 7
Leningrad 194018
USSR
388
Point Discharge Characteristics and Charge Configuration in Thunderclouds
A. I. I. Ette, J. I. Aina, and E. U. Utah
With 1 figure
Abstract
Current thundercloud models are based largely on data obtained from measurement of potential gradient
changes. Little attempt has however been made to reconcile these models with potential gradient patterns
observed below isolated storm clouds because of the difficulty of obtaining meaningful quantitative data in the
presence of neighbouring clouds. Data based on measurements of point-discharge currents below storm clouds
yield, for a given discharger
(a) a constant, finite negative to positive charge ratio,
(b) a constant, finite negative to positive discharge duration ratio, and
(c) a constant, finite negative (upward) mean current.
These deductions are shown to be inconsistent with accepted tripolar cloud models, because, although finite
charge and discharge duration ratios can be obtained by inclining the storm axis, their values cannot be altered
independently to satisfy the various discharge relations for a given discharger. Of the various cloud models so
far proposed, only the double dipole model of Kuettner appears capable of satisfying these relations.
Introduction
Knowledge of the charge arrangement within thunderclouds is essential for an understanding of the
charge generating mechanisms operating in them. Measurements at a single ground station of
potential gradient changes due to lightning discharges have, since the classic studies of mlson (1916,
1921), provided the bulk of the data on which our present knowledge is based (Schonland and Craib,
1927; Halliday; 1932; Wormell, 1939; Malan and Schonland, 1951). Using this technique however, full
information on the spatial distribution of charges can only be obtained if measurements are made
simultaneously at 7 stations (Workman et aI., 1953; Reynolds and Neill, 1955; Tamura, 1958), though
under favourable conditions the number of stations can be reduced to 3 (Benard, 1951; Hacking, 1954).
As a result of these ground measurements, as well as of some direct measurements within clouds
(Simpson and Scrase, 1937; Simpson and Robinson, 1941; Gunn, 1947, 1948), it is now generally accepted
that the thundercloud is essentially a vertical charge tripole of positive polarity. The lower positive
charge is in fact thought to be essential for the initiation of cloud-earth lightning discharges
(Clarence and Malan, 1957). There has been little attempt hitherto to reconcile the tripolar charge
structure with the horizontal potential gradient profile below an isolated storm cloud on account of
the difficulty of obtaining meaningful and representative potential gradient data for such a cloud when,
as is often the case, neighbouring clouds are present. This difficulty is overcome when the related para-
meter, point-discharge current, is considered instead (Ette and Utah, 1973 b); and relations dedqced
from the current profiles are shown in this communication to constitute important criteria for the
determination of an acceptable thundercloud model.
Point-Discharge Relations
The experimental arrangements for the measurement of the atmospheric potential gradient and the
point-discharge current in trees and metal points have been described elsewhere (Ette and Utah,
1973 a and b). From the point-discharge current data obtained during various storm traverses above
the dischargers it is deduced (Ette and Utah, 1973b) that:
a) the negative to positive charge ratio q _ /q + for a given discharger is constant,
b) the negative to positive discharge duration ratio L/T+ for a given discharger is constant, and
c) the mean discharge current I.v in a discharger is negative (current vector pointing upwards) and
constant.
The average values of the discharge constants for a 13 m Palm tree - a representative discharger
in this locality - are, from the data supplied by Ette and Utah (1973 b)
389
q_/q+ =3.3, T_/T+ =2.4 and lav= -0.6I1A.
The thundercloud model for this locality must therefore yield a point-discharge current profile
consistent with these values.
Formulation of Problem
For any assumed thundercloud mode~ the potential gradient F at the ground can be determined
as a function of the horizontal distance x measured from some origin. Thus, for a vertical tripolar
arrangement of charges + Qi> - Q2 and + Q3 at heights hi> h2 and h3 respectively above the ground,
we have
where the origin of x is the intersection of the tripole axis with the ground. H it is assumed that the cloud
thus represented traverses overhead with a uniform velocity u, then since x = ut, the above equation
can also be used to express the variation of F with time t. With the aid of the Whipple and Scrase (1936)
relation which holds for most of the dischargers, the point-discharge current I can therefore be com-
puted as a function of x (or equivalently t1 and the discharge constants for a given discharger deduced.
For the 13 m Palm tree we have from the data obtained by Utah (1971) during the 1971 storm season
1= 2.5 X 10- 13 (F 2 - 100(2 ), F > 1000Vm- 1 ,
= -3.2 X 10- 13 (F 2 - 12002 ), F < -12ooVm- 1 •
Since the heights h1' h2 and h3 are more or less fIXed for a given locality by the vertical temperature
profile (Kuettner, 1950), the problem reduces essentially to that of choosing the values of the cloud
charges such that from the resulting I - x profile, we have
a) q_/q+ = §Ldx/§l+dx 3.3;

b) T_/T+ = x_/x+ 2.4;
c) lav = § (L dx - 1+ dx)/(x_ + x+) = -0.6 J1A ;
(The + and - suffixes refer to quantities associated with +ve and -ve discharge, respectively);
d) A reversal distance of around 6 -10 km.
(i.e. x_ ranging between 12 and 20km).
It should be noted that the first three relations imply the existence of substantial positive discharge
currents - hence potential gradients beyond the reversal distance.
Results
An examination of various vertical tripole models in the light of these conditions reveals glaring
inadequacies. For instance, the model of Kasemir (1965) based on electrodynamic considerations yields
infmite charge and discharge duration ratios for the Palm tree; while for the models of Simpson and
Robinson (1941) and Malan (1952) the ratios, though fmite, cannot be varied through adjustment of the
charges to satisfy the discharge conditions.
In order to enhance positive potential gradients beyond the normal reversal distance and also create
the observed asymmetry in the F and I profiles, it seems necessary to tilt the tripole axis backwards
against the direction of motion of the cloud. While this is borne out by computations, and any desired
value of either q_/q+ or L/T+ may be obtained through adjustment of the tripole inclination to the
vertical, it does not appear possible to alter the ratios independently to equal some stipulated values.
The Double Dipole Model

Since an inclined dipole yields discharge current profiles with positive and negative areas, the possi-
bility of obtaining the desired potential gradient and discharge current profiles using two horizontally
390
separated dipoles of opposite polarities readily suggests itself. Provided the separation between the di-
poles is of the order of magnitude of x_, it should be possible to vary q_/q+ and L/T+ more or less
independently by means of the dipole separation, dipole inclinations and charge magnitudes.
km
-27C
2
'<:(
1=t
.!:
~-+-----+-.----~----+-----~-----v~~~------r-~--+---rO~
-5 c::
a.
xin km -tl::
;:,
\J
-2 III
III
-3t!:
Fig. 1. Potential gradient (F) at ground level and discharge current (I) in Palm tree for double dipole shown inset
The double dipole model chosen for investigation (shown inset in Fig. 1) consists of a dipole of negative
polarity with charges at heights of 5.5 km and 7 km, followed by another of positive polarity with charges
at 6 km and 6 + 4.5 cos 0 km, where 0 is the dipole inclination to the vertical. (The mean charge heights
are deduced from the local vertical temperature profile (A ina, 1969)). The charge magnitudes and dipole
inclinations are first chosen to give a value of q_/q+ for the second dipole somewhat higher than
half the desired value and a negative discharge current area for the first dipole somewhat smaller than
the corresponding area for the second dipole. The separation between the dipoles is then adjusted to
give as good a value for L/T+ as possible on superposing the effects of the two dipoles; the final desired
values of the various discharge constants being approached through relatively small adjustments of
the other variables in the model. The adjustments are greatly facilitated using a computer program
which gives, for various values of x, the potential gradients F 1 and F2 for the dipoles in addition to,
the other parameters directly relevant to the final results. The discharge constants - q _/q + = 3.5,
L/T+ = 1.7 and lav = -0.66I!A - resulting from the profile of I shown in Fig. 1 are in reasonable
agreement with the data for the Palm tree. Better agreement may be achieved for dischargers with
smaller values of T_/T+.
Discussion
The double dipole model of the thundercloud was first proposed by Kuettner (1950) on the basis
of extensive measurements inside clouds, and was later confirmed by Tamura (1958) from simultaneous
potential gradient measurements at 8 ground stations. In this study a quantitative model is obtained
almost entirely on the basis of measurements of the predominant current below storm clouds. The
charges in the model are however seen through the screening shell due to conductivity discontinuities
at the cloud boundary (Shvarts, 1972); actual cloud charges being obtainable only from direct
measurements inside the cloud.
391
The following points of interest in the model of Fig. 1 are worth noting:
a) The horizontal separation between the dipoles appears to be grossly out of proportion to the
horizontal dimensions of typical storm cells. This is probably the result of attempting to simulate the
effect of a volume charge distribution with just 4 point charges.
b) For both dipoles, the upper charges have higher magnitudes. This is consistent with the charging
mechanism suggested by Kuettner (1950), and in agreement with the observations of Tamura (1958).
Discharges between the tops ofthe dipoles probably explain the observations by Workman et al. (1942)
in the United States and Aina (1971) here in Nigeria that intracloud flashes have channels with
pronounced horizontal development.
c) A central bulge in the negative region of the F and I profile, normally associated in tripole models
with the lower positive charge, arises naturally when the separation between the dipoles is sufficiently
large.
References
1. Aina, J. I., Ph. D. thesis, Ibadan University (1969). - 2. Aina, J. I., 1. Geomag. Geoelect. 23, 359 (1971).
3. Benard, v., J. Geophys. Res. 56, 33 (1951). - 4. Clarence, N. D. and D. J. Malan, Quart. J. R. Met. Soc. 83,161
(1957). - 5. Ette, A. I. I. and E. U. Utah, 1. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 35, 785 (1973a). - 6. Ette, A. I. 1. and E. U. Utah,
1. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 35, 1799 (1973b). - 7. Gunn, R., Phys. Rev. 71,181 (1947). - 8. Gunn, R., J. Appl. Phys. 19,
481 (1948). - 9. Hacking, C. A., J. Geophys. Res. 59, 449 (1954), - 10. Halliday, E. c., Proc. Roy. Soc. London
A 138,205 (1932). - 11. Kasemir, H. w., in Problems of Atmospheric arid space electricity (Ed. S. C. Coroniti),
214 (New York, 1965). - 12. Kuettner, J., J. Met. 7, 322 (1950). - 13. Malan, D. J., Ann. Geophys. 8, 385 (1952). -
14. Malan, D. J. and B. F. J. Schon land, Proc. Roy. Soc. London A 209,158 (1951). - 15. Reynolds, S. E. and
H. W. Neill, J. Met. 12, 1 (1955). - 16. Schonland, B. F. J. and J. Craib, Proc. Roy, Soc. A 114, 235 (1927). -
17. Shvarts, Ya. M., in Studies in Atmospheric electricity (Ed. V. P. Kolokolov and T. V. Lobodin), 103. Israel
Program for scientific translations (Jerusalem, 1974). - 18. Simpson, G. C. and G. D. Robinson, Proc. Roy. Soc.
London A 177, 281 (1941). - 19. Simpson, G. and F. J. Scrase, Proc. Roy. Soc. London A 161, 309 (1937). -
20. Tamura, Y., in Rec. Adv. in Atm. Elect. (Ed. L. G. Smith), pp.269 (New York, 1958). - 21. Utah, E. U., Ph. D.
thesis (Ibadan University, 1971). - 22. Whipple, F. J. W. and F. J. Scrase, Geophys. Mem. London 68,1 (1936). -
23. Wilson, C. T. R., Proc. Roy. Soc. London A 92,555 (1916). - 24. Wilson, C. T. R., Phil. Trans. 221, 73 (1921). -
25. Workman, E. J., R. E. Holzer, and G. T. Pelsor, National Advisory Comm. for Aeronautics Technical Notes
No. 864 (USA, 1953). - 26. Wormell, T. w., Phil. Trans. A 238,249 (1939).
Discussion
Larson, Locamo-Monti, Switzerland:
Did you suggest that the point discharge current measurements are in some way able to give results related
to particular individual cells in a storm complex that electric field measurements cannot give, and if so could
you explain why this is so?
Ette, Ibadan, Nigeria:

The major difference between the potential gradient and point discharge current profiles is that the latter start
and end at zero, yielding closed curves. The area beneath the profiles is easily determined and has a physical
significance. Even though the discharge current profile is also complicated by the presence of neighbouring clouds,
but the spacing between these clouds is on the average large enough for the various discharge constants quoted
to be more or less independent of the number and spacing of the clouds.

I feel you did neglect in your model the space charge overhead, above the measuring site. If one takes into
account that after a long time of a negative potential gradient during the middle part of your graph one must
expect a strong positive space charge overhead. If the field now changes during the last part of your potential
gradient record, first a positive charge in the upper part of the cloud is to be expected. In addition, in the first five
minutes or so, a positive space charge overhead still exists and both together will give a stronger potential
gradient, as in the beginning of this record. I think you can explain the un symmetry of your graph by considering
the space charges overhead.
392
Ette:
It is true that we have not considered space charge specifically as such. The model we propose, and this of
course is true for all other models, gives the configuration of cloud charges as seen through the space charge as
well as the conductivity discontinuity at the cloud boundary.
I would just like to add that the last positive hump, which is much larger than the first one, is a real one which
is not easily explained on the basis of space charge very close to the ground. We have observed that lightning
discharges to air which take place during this period have very long horizontal paths and usually cause the field
to change from a value close to + 2 k V1m to - 2 or - 3 k V1m. On the basis ofthat I think that space charge close
to the ground would not be a good basis for explaining the large positive hump.
Authors' addresses:
A. I. I. Ette and J. I. Aina E. U. Utah
Department of Physics Dept. of Physics
University ofIbadan College of Science and Technology
Ibadan, Nigeria Port Harcourt
Nigeria
393
Modeling of Thunderstorm Electrification
Z. Levin, A. Ziv, and W. D. Scott
With 7 figures
Abstract
The growth of the electric field and the charging of particles by the polarization charging mechanism is
considered together with the simultaneous formation of precipitation in both a continuous model and a full
stochastic model. Electric fields of lightning magnitudes are reached and a strong coupling between the field
growth and the precipitation is observed.
Introduction
Recently it was demonstrated theoretically by Sartor, Mason, and Paluch and Sartor, and experi-
mentally by Scott and Levin, Levin and Hobbs, and Aufdermaur and Johnson (see Ziv and Levin. 1974,
for references) that the primary aspects of charge generation in clouds can be explained by polarization
charging. Our recent modeling efforts seek to improve the other models by including: 1. the growth
of the hydrometeors and the time dependence of the cloud-rainwater size distribution; 2. the variation
of charges on the hydro meteors with time; 3. the growth of the electric field.
The Models
Two numerical models have been completed: the first uses a continuous collection mechanism of
precipitation formation with five interacting classes of charged particles (Ziv and lEvin, 1974). The
second uses a complete stochastic formulation of both the autoconversion process and the electrical
charge exchange processes (Scott and Levin, 1974). We will not present the details of the models here
but note that they do consider:
1. the effect of the electric field on the particle fall velocities;
2. recombination and accumulation of charge through collection;
3. a field-dependent discharge current of the cloudy air;
4. the discharge of particles to the conducting air;
5. a coalescence efficiency, E 2 , following Whelpdale and List;
6. a wide range of values of the separation efficiency, E 3 , the probability that particles make contact
and separate;
7. conditions appropriate for maritime, continental, and cold clouds.
An electrified cloud evolves which is infinite in extent and without electrical effects on the aero-
dynamic collision or the coalescence efficiencies. However, some numerical experiments were performed
using simple criteria for coalescence based on charge.
The Basic Equations

For lack of space the formulation of the collection process in the two models will be excluded here
and the interested reader is referred to the two references mentioned above. The equation which
governs the growth ofthe electric field is: dF/dt = -(1/(4ne))(I Q V + J - J e ), where F is the electric
field, the Q's are the charge densities (charge on the particles in coulomb per m 3 of air), the V's are
the particle fall velocities, e is the permittivity of the cloudy air, J the discharge current and the term J e
is the contribution from the fair-weather current which is prescribed in such a way as to make
dF/dt = 0 at t = O. The charge transferred to the small particle upon each collision is given by:
AQij = (</! F RJ cos e + (w - 1) Qj + w Qi)( 1 - e - 'oit) where Rj is the radius of the smaller particle,
</! and ware size-dependent functions and i and j represent the large and the small particles, respectively;
e is the angle of separation of the particles, Qj and Qi are the charges per particle before the collision
on the small and large particle respectively, and the last factor corrects for the charge transfer
394
efficiency. Here tc is the contact time of the particles during the interaction and 1" is the relaxation time
for charge carried in the particles (see Ziv and Levin, 1974).
Results of the Continuous Model

Fig. 1 shows that the precipitation particles grow normally and the fall velocity V increases as long
as Q and F are small. As V increases the charge separation increases and the electric field develops,
increasing the charge separated during each collision. This causes a rapid increase in the electric field
beginning at point A on the figure. The sudden increase in the electric field strengthens the electric
forces which oppose the fall of the precipitation elements and results in a quenching of the field build-
up. The precipitation rate increases with the increase in particle size and Vat the early stages. However,
later the greatly decreased velocity overcomes the effect of increasing size. Indeed, if the electric field
becomes large enough early, sufficient rainwater can be levitated that a rain gush occurs following a
lightning stroke (Fig. 2). The discharge coincides with a release of the electrical forces suspending the
particles, allowing further interactions, charge separation and build-up of the field to a point at which
precipitation almost stops and a new lightning stroke occurs.
Changing the liquid water content, the size of precipitation particles, and the angle of collision and
separation efficiency can considerably alter the maximum field reached and the time it takes to reach
it. However, such changes do not change the general behavior of the solutions. For irtstance, keeping
the liquid water content constant and increasing the mean initial radius of the precipitation elements
results in a higher maximum field which is obtained earlier. This is primarily due to the increase in the
rate of interaction of the larger particles with the smaller ones. Reduction of the liquid water content
tends in general to delay the onset of field growth.
The separation efficiency, E 3 , is an important parameter. Reducing it implies a lower charge genera-
tion rate without a direct effect on the growth of the hydrometeors. Comparing curve 2 with curves 3
and 4 of Fig. 3, we see that a reduction in the efficiency of charge generation results in a delay in the
awakening of the field. But surprisingly, a higher field is finally attained. This happens simply because
~--~----~--~----~2
u
CII
'"'"E
2 o
~
.c
'"uE 450
o E
300~
oX
150
Time (sec)
Fig. 1. The behavior of the solutions
395
400
- .en..
. ·E------- g.~ -
G> . " G>
u~
---
.!::~ f»~
IA..:J (/):.J
Fig. 2. A simulated rain gush
700r--.---,--,---,---,--,r--,
4
600
500
~
~ 400
~
;;:
u 300
~ 200
100
Time(s"c)
Fig. 3. Effect of E3 and tel. on the field growth. tel. = 1 for curve 3, otherwise = 00
the particles have grown to a larger size before the field develops so that a large field is required to sus-
pend them. Also, the smaller charge transfer efficiency expected with ice particles allows a longer time
for particle growth so that, again, the final maximum field is high.
Generally, the electrical conductivity of clouds is not known so the model was run with a wide range
of conductivities, including extremely high values (Levin and Scott, 1974). It was found that in clouds
with conductivities as high as 100 times the fair-weather conductivity the polarization mechanism is
powerful enough to develop high fields.
Large electric fields are expected to occur in ice-water clouds, fully glaciated clouds and warm clouds.
The difference in electrical development of these clouds in the model stem from different densities,
fall speeds and separation efficiencies. Compared to ice-water clouds, the separation efficiency in
ice-ice clouds is expected to be high while the density of the particles and the liquid water content
lower; so one expects early levitation. The net result is that relative to an ice-water cloud, an ice-ice
cloud develops a lower maximum field and the maximum is reached later (Fig.4). In water-water
clouds, the efficiency of separation is considerably lower but the density is higher. The result is a
396
500
ice-ice clouds
~ 400
..,~
W 300
Li:
"
~ 200
'"
W
100
O~----~--~--J- __ ~~L-~ __-L__~~

a 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Time (sec)
Fig. 4. The growth of the electric field in different clouds
rapid development of the precipitation with a considerably slower field growth and, without the
levitation effect of the electric forces, the precipitation rates reach unreasonably high values.
It can be concluded that strong fields can be found in ice-water clouds, ice-ice clouds and possibly
in very large, active, warm cumulus clouds.
Results of the Stochastic Model

Generally, the computations in the stochastic framework agree in a qualitative way with the results
from the continuous model, except, of course, much more details regarding particle numbers and
charges are available. These data are shown in Figs. 5, 6, and 7. Fig. 5 shows the cloud-rainwater mass
distribution function (G (In r)) after 500 sec of evolution time. It clearly shows an effect of precipitation
enhancement (relative to the unelectrified case, dashed line) for E3 ::;: 0.5 and a dramatic reduction in
precipitation formation when E3 ;;::- 0.5. Fig. 6 shows the charges per particle produced. The distribu-
tion roughly divides the particles into the positively-charged cloud particles and the negatively-charged
precipitation elements. It is noteworthy that the cloud drops never receive large charges and conversely,
the raindrops accumulate large charges. This effect is simply due to the relative numbers of cloud and
raindrops. There are so many cloud drops that it is unlikely that a given cloud drop receives charges from
more than one collision but every raindrop acquires charge from collision with many cloud drops. Since
5.0
4.0
.E
~ 3.0
"l:....
.5'"
';:2.0
c
1.0
Fig. 5. The mass distribution function after 500 sec for different E 3
397
+10-13
£.'0.&
+10-1lf.
:0+10-15
E
.9
::J
.§40-15
...
U
t
8:-10-14
L-
a.
a.
....~10-13
0
.c
u
-10-12
-10-11
10 50 100 500
Rad/us (cW11)
Fig. 6. The development of the distribution of charge per particle
0.09 E3 "0.5
39ml/m 3
F max" 278 kV/m
.
c
0.06 at t"e4Q lee
~E a03
....
g
u
:I.. 0
.5
i
a -Q03
-0.06 L....----,.l:-O----'--...L---L....,,!50,&,-I'-'-.u..OO~--.......--I"--..............--L..........
IOOO
Radius (p.m)
Fig. 7. The development of the charge density distribution
our model considers the fall velocities of all particles with or without charge and since very strong fields
are still produced, the conclusions of Kamra and Vonnegut (1971) that the levitation of the small particles
wi11limit the growth of the field is completely unfounded. Fig. 7 shows the charge density distribution,
which can be seen as the charge analog of the mass density distribution function. The area under the
curve is proportional to the buildup of total charge on the cloud and raindrops with time. The peak
in the cloud drop sizes emphasizes the fact that the cloud drops carry the major portion of the total charge
despite the r(:latively small charge per particle.
In essence, the results show that the absolute value of the charge per particle is roughly proportional
to R 2 . 7 exp [E3(t - 1(0)130] for a dense, maritime cloud. This equation indicates that the charge per
unit particle mass decreases with particle size, in agreement with the data presented by Colgate (1972).
398
However, we should remember that Colgate used this very data as an argument against the use of gra-
vitational charge separating mechanisms, and polarization charging, a gravitational mechanism, has
produced this result.
Discussion
The results presented defmitely show a profound interaction between the electrical charge separation,
the precipitation formation, and the growth of the electric field. They also indicate that the polariza-
tion charging mechanism is extremely effective in producing electric fields of breakdown intensities. In
addition, if we examine the results in detail, we see that the deficiencies noted by Moore in his paper*)
are unfounded. Let us consider his objections:
1. He states that lightning precedes the formation of precipitation and that the intensity of precipi-
tation at the time of the first lightning is relatively low in storms in New Mexico, of the order of
1 to 3 mm/hr. Then after the lightning discharge, rapid echo intensification occurs, often followed by
hail. Certainly what Moore is describing is the rain or hail gush, a major result of the model (Fig. 2).
Specifically, we can see that, with the stochastic model, levitation can occur before the precipitation-
sized elements form. The precipitation embryos simply remain in suspension until the lightning dis-
charge reduces the electrical forces. This effect is shown dramatically in Fig. 5 (E3 = 0.8) where there is
essentially no precipitation formation after 600 secs. But we see that if the electrical forces are removed
(Fig. 5, E3 = 0) the precipitation can quickly materialize. The rain gush phenomenon was also
discussed by Levin and Ziv (1974) with reference to the continuous model. The rain gush effect itself
suggests a pronounced correlation between the lightning flash and subsequent rain. The lack of corre-
lation between precipitation intensification and subsequent lightning merely indicates that the removal
of the precipitation embryos after the first lightning results in little more lightning.
2. He also states that precipitation particles are not the major charge carriers. Fig. 7 amply shows
that, even if one considers as precipitation all particles above 100 1JlIl, a relatively small portion of the
charge resides on the precipitation elements. Also, the fraction of charge residing on these elements
does not change significantly with the development of the electric field, even for large electric fields.
However, Fig. 7 is somewhat misleading in that the relative fall speeds of the particles are expected to
cause a separation of the positive and negative charge centers, leading to a vertical profile of the charge
density resembling Fig. 7 rotated by 90°. Viewing the charge density in this way we see that Moore's
statement is really too naive. Certainly the cloud as a whole should approximately maintain electrical
neutrality so that, if the precipitation left the cloud, all the charge would end up on the cloud particles.
Also note that a charge density of 3 x 1O- 8 Cm- 3 is precisely the maximum 'totar charge density
produced in the stochastic model when the electric fields approach breakdown intensities. Although
it is not apparent from Fig. 6, only a small percentage of the large precipitation elements have charges
which exceed 15 pC and even these are acquired only when the field is very high.
3. Moore claims that the effect of recombination has been ignored. In our stochastic model full account
was given to the recombinations of charged particles which acquired their charge on previous inter-
actions. As can be seen, high fields aFe still easily obtained.
4. Moore maintains that fields in excess of 900 k V/m are necessary to initiate lightning. In the models,
if one uses a very low E 3 , it is possible to generate fields in excess of this extreme value, but we feel that
requiring a model to generate such fields over the entire cloud volume is unrealistic. Such fields can be
no more than transient variations from the average that would be expected in a cloud of finite extent
due to displacements of charged pockets of opposite sign.
5. Moore feels that turbulent mixing should detract from the effectiveness of such a mechanism. This
point is not well taken because it is well known that the scale of the turbulence in clouds is much
larger than the size of the particles. But, in any case, Chin (1972) has considered the problem in terms
of particle capture processes in a stochastic framework and has shown that the effect of fluctuating
velocities is "negligible under realizable cloud conditions". Also, regardless of the fluctuating horizontal
*) C. B. Moore: "An Assessment of Thunderstorm Electrification Mechanisms"; these Proceedings, same

session.
399
and vertical velocities and the interactions which occur, on the average one expects a net bias which
should produce approximately the effects suggested by simple models.
6. And, finally, he believes warm clouds can produce lightning. The strength of the polarization
charging mechanism is its generality. Indeed, it should be obvious that the above results do not exclude
the possibility of significant electrification from warm clouds. Also, the charging of any cloudy mass
containing a size range of elements is possible, even electrification of volcanic clouds.
In summary, we cannot agree with Moore regarding the inadequacy of the polarization charging
mechanism and, considering his display of the credits of the purely convective mechanism, we cannot
see definitive evidence regarding its adequacy. Jndeed, not one of his criticisms has merit and his display
of the observations emphasizes the adequacy of the polarization mechanism. Finally, we agree with
Moore's suggestion that more credible data and quality numerical models are required. However, we
would like to repeat Mason's statement that "a satisfactory thunderstorm theory must be consistent ...
with the scale, intensity and duration of the rain and hail which accompany" the storm. Certainly, at this
time the polarization charging mechanism goes some way toward this goal.
References
1. Chin, E. H. c., 1. Atmos. Sci. 29, 392 (1972). - 2. Colgate, S. A., 1. Geophys. Res. 77, 4511 (1972). - 3. Kamra,
A. K. and B. Vonnegut, 1. Atmos. Sci. 28, 640 (1971). - 4. Levin, Z. and W. Scott, Tellus 27, 497 (1975). -
5. Levin, Z. and A. Ziv, 1. Geophys. Res. 79, 2699 (1974). - 6. Scott, W. D. and Z. Levin, 1. Atmos. Sci., sub-
mitted for publication (1974). - 7. Ziv, A. and Z. Levin, 1. Atmos. Sci. 31,1652 (1974).
Discussion
In order that later on we might try to assess your calculations in terms of Moore's comments, could you say
what value of precipitation rate you need to produce a breakdown field in a reasonable time if you assume a
separation probability of about 1 %?
I did not bring with me the computer output for the stochastic model. I know it gives a lower precipitation
rate than our continuous model. In the continuous model we obtain a maximum rate of less than 20 mm/h, and
this is when the field is already very high.
I want to check the validity of your use of separation probabilities from Whelpdale and List's data, since their
experimental range of droplet and drop sizes was quite narrow.
Levin:
This is a very good point. The coalescence efficiencies of Whelpdale and List do not seem to be very good ones;
however, there are no better ones that I know of at the moment. I would be happy to use a better expression for
the coalescence efficiency. We have tried a different kind of coalescence efficiency which restricts the coalescence
even more. The result was that the cloud did not grow at alL even without the use of any electrical effects.
Proctor, Johannesburg, South Africa:
I want to point out that I have frequently seen lightning activity in small cumulus clouds from which no pre-
cipitation was observed, and from which no reflection could be detected on radar. This, off hand, I think, means
that the precipitation rate was less than a few mm/h.
Levin:
I can point to the results of the model, as shown in the slide, representing the development of the size distri-
bution as a function of time. When one uses a very efficient charge separation mechanism, then the levitation of
the particles happens very early. And we don't have a high precipitation rate. If the field is high enough, you may
have lightning and no precipitation. So it really depends on the separation efficiency which, unfortunately, is not
well known and had to be used as a parameter for lack of better data.
Could I ask how Levin and Ziv handled recombination of separated charges in their model?
400
Levin:
We have two histograms describing the number and the mean charge respectively, each containing 57 drop
size categories. When 2 drops from two categories collide but not coalesce and separate charge, they are put back
into their own size category and their charge is distributed over their category. The calculations were carried out
in charge density, not in charge per particle. I understand what Moore is driving at. The ideal situation is to have
two completely independent distributions, one of charge and one of particles, so one can identify individual
cloud and precipitation particles. But something like that is a little too much for our computer capability.
Moore:
But does not this procedure seriously underestimate the actual recombination?
Levin:
The redistribution of charge in each category results in a slight lowering of the charge on the particle that
had undergone collision and separation, but on the other hand it results in an increase of charge on other droplets.
Since the number of small cloud droplets is so much larger than the number of bigger ones, we presume that each
cloud droplet suffers only one or two collisions at most. We feel this is justified since plotting the changes of the
distributions with time reveals that the number concentration of the small cloud droplets hardly changes with time.
Only the number of the precipitation elements increases.
Authors' addresses:
Z. Levin and A. Ziv W D. Scott
Dept. of Environm. Sciences Division of Radiophysics
Tel-Aviv University C.SJ.R.O., P.O. Box 76
Ramat-Aviv Epping, N.S.W., 1221
Israel Australia
Note by editor: see also A. K. Kamra's comment on Z. Levin's and A. Ziv's paper 1974 and their reply in
1. Geophys. Res. 80, 1987, 1988 (1975). Also C. B. Moore's and S. Colgate's comments and Z. Levin's and
W D. Scott's reply in J. Geophys. Res. 80, 3913, 3915 and 3918 (1975).
401
Modeling of an Induction Process of an Electric Field Growth in Thunderstorm Clouds *)
V. M. Muchnik, I. V. Budak, and B. E. Fishman
Summary
Large charges on hydrometeors may exist no longer than several tens of seconds because of a large conduction
in thunderstorm clouds. Therefore, it should be supposed that the charges are generated on the hydrometeors
thanks to electrification mechanism and as a result of one or more acts of electrification, for example, colliding
of hailstones with drops and their destruction in an electric field.
A calculation of electric field growth has been made using an one-dimensional model of a mature thunder-
storm cloud and taking into account the conditions of hailstone growth and their collisions with drops.
Information on the velocity of electric field growth in the mature thunderstorm cloud, and discharge frequency
depending on the distribution of vertical aircurrents, temperature and liquid water content, was obtained.
For the creation of a correct thunderstorm theory, it is necessary to take into account the induction electri-
fication mechanism of hydrometeor electrization, which playa main role in a mature stage at a formation of an
electric field in clouds.
Authors' address:
V. M. Muchnik, I. V. Budak, and B. E. Fishman
Ukrainian Hydromet. Res. Inst.
Prospect Nauki 105
Kiev 28
USSR
402
An Electrodynamic Instability in Thunderstorms *)
J. R. Melcher and R. F. D. Perret
Summary
Presently, there are only two fundamentally different proposed mechanisms of field growth in clouds. Thunder-
storm charging currents in the first mechanism arise as a consequence of differential fall speeds of selectively
charged particles. In the second, charging currents are due to convective transport of charge provided initially
by the sub-cloud fair-weather electric structure and later by the response of the cloud environment and surface
to the macroscopic field of the mature storm. A third possibility exists which requires microscopic segregation
of charge in the cloud but does not require selective charging of large and small particles. Instead, all that is
required is a system of large and small particles with different terminal speeds and a process whereby the cloud
elements carry positive or negative charge. Thus, even though the large and small particle families are each elec-
trically neutral in the bulk, the dynamical interaction between the counter-streaming charged particles coupled
by the electric forces is found to be unstable to small perturbations in the electric field. The instability, which
results in a rapid growth of a macroscopic electric field from a basic state of zero field is similar in many respects
to two well-known analogies. The first is the resistive-wall amplifier in which an oscillator (here the inertially-
dominated large drops) moves relative to a damping agent (the viscosity-dominated small droplets). The second
analogy, applicable in the case of inertially-dominated large and small families, is the two-stream electron-beam
plasma instability.
In our approach, we considered a model cloud consisting of two families, large drops and small droplets. The
basic or equilibrium state is represented by an electrically neutral cloud in which an overall neutral family of
positive and negative large drops is falling relative to an overall neutral family of positive and negative small
droplets. The equilibrium electric field was assumed zero, but a uniform non-zero value would serve just as well.
We then performed a first-order perturbation expansion of the system of equations and investigated the stability
of the resulting linearized system. Conditions for an unsteady equilibrium resulting in exponential growth of a
macroscopic electric field were established in terms of the magnitudes of the average charge per particle assigned
to the two families, the particle sizes, and the precipitation rate. Although the necessary charge magnitudes are large,
they are within the range of observed charges. The higher the precipitation rate, the smaller the magnitude of
the average charge per particle necessary for the instability to develop.
The use of a linearized model prohibits extension of the results to a full-fledged electrically active storm.
Nevertheless, the numerical results indicate that at least in some instances, this process could provide a boot-
strap mechanism for the generation of initial macroscopic fields in clouds subsequent to which other field-
dependent processes could become dominant. Electrically active warm clouds are prime candidates for this kind
of initial field development. As a second observation, the basic ingredients of the model, the inertia and damping
of the charged drops and droplets pictured as continua coupled through the macroscopic electric field, are
certainly important features of all thunderstorm models. Consequently, the parameters and dynamical processes
identified in this work are highly relevant to any viable theory of thunderstorm electric field generation.
Authors' addresses:
J. R. Melcher R. F. D. Perret
31-141 Dept. Meteorology
Massachusetts Inst. of Technology Florida State University
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 404 Love Building
USA Tallahassee, Florida 32306
USA
403
Effect of Convection in the Electrification of Clouds
D. Chand and N. C. Varshneya **)
Abstract
The role of eddy diffusion, along with the electrical conductivity, inside a cloud, which is building an electrical
field through gravitational separation of drops, is considered. An expression for "effective conductivity" for
the conduction of charges under electrical and eddy-diffusion currents has been obtained. With this expression,
and using the Latham and Mason equation for time build-up of field inside a cloud under the differential charge
transport mechanism of Colgate, an expression for the time build-up of field inside cloud has been obtained. The
eddy convection as well as the vertical extent of cloud, both, in their tum, have the effect of enhancing the build-up
rate.
For a theoretical model of its electrification, we consider the cloud as a capacitor which is being charged
by gravitational separation of oppositely charged drops. In this process also turbulence and electrical
conductivity play their roles. For any region inside the cloud the continuity equation is valid:
ap
-+V·J=O
~ ~
[1]
at
where p is the space charge density and J the current density.; However, the total current J must be writ-
ten as the sum of the conduction current, C, and the current due to turbulence, Then, for the J;.
vertical one-dimensional case:
J = J cond + JT = AE + K(z)a;-
ap [2]
where A is the electrical conductivity, E the vertical electric field, K(z) the coefficient of turbulent dif-
fusion, and z the vertical height, measured from the bottom of the cloud. Making use of the Poisson's
equation, div E = (P/80)*) and replacing K(z) by its average value K inside the cloud, we can write
eq. [1] in the form:
~ + J:... + K
at 80 p
ap
2
az 2
= O. [3]
We can separate this differential equation in its time-dependent and space-dependent parts by
introducing an arbitrary constant p.. Then we get for the time-dependent part
p, = P'a exp ( - A ~ P. t) [4]
where P'a is a constant. The z-dependent solution, commensurate with the cloud charge boundary
conditions (see Fig. 1), will be given in the form
pAz) = PZa cos V.! .K80
z [5]
where PZ a is a constant. For a cloud of vertical extent 2H, we have
~·H=(2n+1)2:.;
80K 2
p. - _(2 11 2H
+1)7t)2 80'
K-· n = 0,1,2,3, ... [6]
Then, finally we get
**) The Paper was presented by N. C. Varshneya.

*) 80 = capacitivity, permittivity.
404
6~a.;lalionaf
ch",.ge sepa.,.afion;
conduction a,/(J
convection currents
Fig. 1. Theoretical model of cloud electrification
P = Po I exp (- A eo- fJ. t) cos [(2n 2H+ l)nJ z.

"=0
[7]
The solution for P in eq. [7] is a sum of terms with n = 0,1,2, .... In the following, however, we shall
consider only the zeroeth (n = 0) mode solution.
From the time-dependent solution, eq. [4], we see that the relaxation time is
'! = _e_o_ = _ _-:-e...,o'-c--:--_ [8]

A-fJ. A-(2~)2Keo
Then, from the analogy of relaxation time in a conducting medium, we can, in this case, define the
denominator in [8] as the "effective conductivity" inside the cloud:
Aeff = A - (2~ Y Keo. [9]
This expression takes into account the combined effect of the electric as well as the turbulent charge
movements. Some values of Aeff are given in Table 1.
Table 1
100 2.05 400 1.34

200 1.78 500 1.12
300 1.56
The values of K have been taken from the aircraft data of Vinnichenko et al. (1973).
The Electric Field Build-Up

We want to show now how these modified values of effective conductivity inside the cloud affect
the field build-up. We consider the cloud electrification to be caused by charge separation due to drops
falling under gravity. For such a model three processes are operative: gravitational fall of drops causing
charge separation, dissipation of charge by conduction current and by point discharge current. Thus:
eo ddE
t
= ID nDqD VD - AeffE - i [10]
405
where E is the existing field at any moment, dE/dt the rate of field build-up, 1:0 the permittivity
= 8.859 x 10- 12 (AsjVm), nn, the drop density of diameter D, qn the charge on it and Vn is velocity,
Aerr the effective conductivity, given by eq. [9], and i the point discharge current density. According to
Latham and Mason (1962)
[11]
The last two terms of the right hand side of eq. [to], namely (AerrE + i) can both be combined
together and written
AerrE + i = (Aerr + 2 x 10- 13 )E = kE [12]
where k = Aeff + 2 X 10- 13 , has the dimension of conductivity, (0 m)-1.
L
To consider the term nnqn Vn , we follow the calculations given by Kamra (1970). The charge, qn,
induced on each drop due to the field E is given by
qn = (const)n x E [13]
where the value of the constant depends upon the size of the drop. Its dimension is (AsjVm). The drop
moves under two forces, the gravitational and the electrical. Thus, the velocity of the drop will be given
by
[14]
Fig. 2. Maximum electric field growth versus turbulent diffusion coefficient for various precipitation rates
(D = 4 x 10- 3 m)
406
where mD is the mass of the drop, g the acceleration due to gravity, '1 the viscosity of air, CD the drag
coefficient, and Re the Reynold's number.
In this equation, qD is again to be taken from eq. [13]. Thus Vv will compose of two terms
[15]
The constant BD will have the dimension of velocity/(Field)2. Then the term I nDqD VD will assume
a form: I nDqD VD = rl.' E - PE 3 . [16]
Finally, the eq. [10] assumes the form
~= rxE - PE 3 [17]
dt
where rx has the dimension of conductivity (0 m)-l, and p that of (Current density/(Field)3).
From eq. [17] we get, by putting dE/dt = 0, the value of the maximum field, developable inside a
cloud,
Expressing the drop density and mass in terms offall velocity of precipitation, p, and taking the numerical
values from the work of Kamra, expressed in SI-Units, we write
E;, = 3
15.54 p/D - 25.73 x 10- + (n 3 /H 2 )K x 9 x 10 (~)28
2 x 10 4 p/D 2 + 2.15 x 10 4 m
Here, Em is the maximum field obtainable in a cloud, p is the fall velocity of precipitation particles
in mis, D is the mean drop diameter in m, K, as said before, the average coefficient of turbulent diffusion
inside the cloud in m 2/s, and H is half the vertical extent of the cloud in m.
3'
34
32
30
28
2'
'i
~ 24
"~
~
22
'<
1E 20
'" 18
"
14
12
/0
10 15
P()( 10-' "'/s) --+
Fig. 3. Maximum attainable field as function of precipitation rate p
407
Results and Discussions
Our calculations for Em for various values of K are shown in Fig. 2. This shows that turbulence pro-
duces a considerable enhancement in the maximum attainable cloud field.
Fig. 3 shows the maximum attainable field, Em' as function of precipitation rates.
Acknowledgments
This work has been supported by C.S.I.R. India.
References
1. Kamra, A. K., J. Atmos. Sci. 27, 1182 (1970~ - 2. Kamra, A. K., J. Atmos. Sci 28,820 (1971). - 3. Latham, J.
and B. J. Mason, Proc. Roy. Soc. London A266, 387 (1962). - 4. Vinnichenko et aI., Turbulence in the free
atmosphere, a special research report. Consultants Bureau, transI. from Russian (1973).
Authors' address:
D. Chand and N. C. Varshneya
Atmospheric Electricity Group
Department of Physics
University of Roorkee
Roorkee
India
408
The Problem of Cloud Electricity *)
I. M. Imyanitov
Summary
1. The solution of the problem of the nature of cloud electricity is important both for atmospheric electricity
on the whole and for physics of clouds, some fields of technology and a number of fundamental sciences.
2. The main processes of electrization of cloud particles and precipitation are reduced to electrization due to
a breach of contact between them, i.e. to the contact electrization. These processes get complicated due to inter-
action with an ionised medium and the activity of electric fields. Both these factors may playa role of a negative
feedback limiting the development on cloud electrization on the whole.
3. The processes of cloud electrization on the whole, i.e. processes of organized electrization are determined,
apart from such factors as charges and concentration of particles, relative rates of fall of differently charged
particles by the magnitude of losses determined by electric and turbulent conductivity.
Microphysical and electric characteristics of clouds are closely connected with each other. Consideration of their
relationships permits to use electric characteristics of clouds as a measure of their development and also for
control of the development of clouds and change of their electric state.
5. The processes of cloud development are greatly affected by the areas with characteristics sharply different
from the average ones. Processes in clouds occur, to a considerable extent, under the effect of these zones ofhetero-
geneities.
6. A wide property spectre of a given type of clouds implies the necessity of simultaneous investigation of
electric, microphysical, aerological characteristics in the same clouds, i.e. their complex investigation.
Author's address:
I. M. Imyanitov
Karbysheva 7
Leningrad 194018
USSR
409
The Theory of Electrokinetic Phenomena Accompanying the Crystallization of
Supercooled Aerosols of Aqueous Solutions *)
L. G. Katchurin
Summary
A theory of electrokinetic potential appearing in the crystalline substance has been developed.
It has been shown under which conditions the potential may exceed by several orders of magnitude the equi-
librium potential of a double electric layer. The principal criterion is the relation of the motion of the crystalliza-
tion front and the rate of diffusion, electrophoretic velocity of the ion motion in crystal as well as electro diffusion
processes intensity in melt in the thin layer adjacent to the crystallization front.
The theory is compared with the results of laboratory experiments. Satisfactory agreement between the theory
and experiments has been obtained.
The problem of the thunderstorm electricity production along with the developed theory is discussed in this
paper.
Author's address:
L. G. Katchurin
Leningradskij Gidromet. lnst.
Malo-Okhtinskij Prospect 98
Leningrad 194018
USSR
410
On the Freezing Electrification of Freely Falling Water Droplets
T. Iwabuchi and Ch. Magono*)

Abstract
The electrification of freely falling water droplets due to freezing was measured in a laboratory experiment.
When distilled water was used for specimen, the frequencies of positive and negative electrification were nearly
the same, while the positive electrification was predominant in case of water melted from fresh natural snow.
It was concluded that the electrification of natural ice pellets is provided by the ejection of charged splinters
with a diameter of a few micrometers at the end of freezing state.
Introduction
It is known that ice pellets (frozen cloud droplets of about 100 Jlm in diameter) are strongly electrified,
(Magana and Kikuchi, 1961). The electrification mechanism, however, is not yet clarified. Two mechan-
isms are considered to explain the electrification phenomenon of ice pellets, i.e. the selective ion capture
similar to the electrification of usual cloud droplets, and the ejection of some charged particles from
freezing cloud droplets.
The electrification phenomena of water drops of millimeter size due to freezing were already studied
in laboratory experiments by Latham and Mason (1961) and Stott and Hutchinson (1965). The results
obtained by them are not directly applicable to the electrification of natural ice pellets because their
experiment conditions were different from the natural ones, in size and with regard to suspension
methods of water drops.
The authors of the present paper undertook to make a freezing experiment under conditions as similar
as possible to natural ice pellets and to observe in which stage of freezing the electrification was
occurring, avoiding the effect of ion capture .
... ----
Foam-styrene
r---:--,'-.",...=-..,
-
-10--15kV D. C.
7000V A.C.
Wooden Insulator
(Sampling Window
Glass) Brass Box
, ,
o 10
em
"Dry Ice
Fig. 1. Apparatus. Falling droplets were frozen in the center of an area enclosed by dotted lines
*) The paper was presented by Ch. Magono.
411
Apparatus
Water droplets with diameters from 90 to 160 JlIn were produced by an atomizer. In the first
step of experiment, distilled water was used for specimen, then waters melted from natural fresh snow
and rimed ice were used.
A vertical cross section of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. A few water droplets were made to fall
into the measuring space through a metal cylinder. Strong horizontal electric fields, either D.C. and/or
A.C., were applied to the measuring space. This space was cooled by dry ice blocks from the surroundings
and bottom. The air temperature of the measuring space was adjusted to about - 65 °C, in order to make
droplets freeze surely in the measuring space. The falling droplets were illuminated to photograph their
falling trajectories with a camera.
The size and shape of individual droplets whose trajectories were measured, were recorded on a
sampling glass plate coated by a replication solution, at the bottom of the measuring space.
A line of fog was left around the trajectory of a freezing droplet in the measuring space. This was
steam fog which was formed due to a great temperature difference between the environmental air and
the droplet at O°C due to the release of freezing latent heat. Therefore the length of the fog line shows
the range of droplet freezing. Several examples of trajectory with the steam fog are given in Fig. 2.
O.Scm
J f
Fig. 2. Trajectories of falling droplets with a line of steam fog due to freezing (wide portion) in a horizontal electric
field . An A.C. field is overimposed in the case of the right partial figure
412
Result
The trajectory of charged droplets was deflected to the left or right according to their signs in the
horizontal field. It is seen in Fig. 2 that the trajectory was suddenly deflected at the lower end of the
steam fog line. With an A.C. field, trajectories began to wave immediately after the end of freezing
state.
Some of the trajectories were straight and were slightly inclined already before entering the space.
These were eliminated from the analysis, because the electrification of them was not related to the freezing
of the droplets. Almost all trajectories with steam fog were curved at the end of the freezing state.
The facts described above show that the electrification of droplets occurred immediately after the end
of their freezing. This suggests that the electrification was made by ejecting a very small portion of freez-
ing droplets. The ejected portion was obviously not detected by the camera.
Charge on frozen droplets
In the steady falling state of a charged droplet in a horizontal field, the inclination of the trajectory
gives qEjmg where q and m indicate the charge and mass of droplet, and E and g, the field and
gravitational acceleration. Because all quantities except q were measurable, the charge on the droplet,
q, was obtained, as shown in Fig. 3 where vertical and horizontal axes show the diameter and charge
on individual droplets. The white and black dots indicate the positive and negative charges, respectively.
I I
180
!
160 ,
. ... . I 0 I
-...
oPositive
.. . 0
I I
-Negative
.I
0
. . ....
0
f:.140 f-
~ !
..
00 0 ,
I
~ .ocr» •
....'Q:,120 o.
0
•
0. e8
0 io ·0
': I •
0
ClJ
E
08. ato ••
I i
.
0
0100 0
Q 0 0
! !
80 I I I
d=2pm d=10pm d=20p m
: I ;
60
I I
1/J x1O- 15 1/Jx10-14 1/3 x10- 1J
Charge (coulomb)
Fig. 3. Charge on frozen droplets, measured and estimated
Signs of charge on frozen droplets
The shape of the respective charged droplets was also observed. The result is shown in Table 1, being
classified into five groups according to their apparent shapes of spicules..
It may be said that, in general, no remarkable relation existed between the shape of spicules of frozen
droplets and the sign of electrification.
Electrification ofJi"eezing droplets due to the induction eJTect

In the present experiment, an adjustment was made to freeze falling droplets surely in the electric
field. Accordingly, it would have been possible that the horizontal electric field gave an effect of electri-
fication of the droplets due to induction and ejection of a charged portion, as schematically shown in
Fig. 4. This effect was, therefore theoretically estimated, utilizing the formula given by Latham and
413
----
Table 1. Numbers of charged droplets due to freezing (produced by distilled water)
-==- Signs
Types of freezing + Non
,:)
No breaks 9 2 30
Solid spicule breaks 0 8 16 10
Liquid spicule breaks 0 8 9 5
Hom-like spicule breaks

cJ 9 11 8
Splash (bubble) breaks cf 2 5 0
Total 36 43 53
Mason (1962). The result of estimation is given in Fig. 3 with parameters of diameter of ejected particles.
In the figure it is seen that if the diameter of ejected particles is 2 or 3 JIDl, the effect of induction is
negligible, compared with the measured charge, while if the diameter is about 10 JIDl, the amount of
charge on the remained droplet is almost explained by the inducti6n effect. Accordingly, the size of
ejected particles is important. Therefore, the apparent shape of spicule of frozen droplets was re-
examined.
+
Fig. 4. Charge separation under the effect of induction
After the reexamination, it was concluded that the diameter of ejected portion was not as large as
10 11m, considering that no branching off was observed in the photographed falling trajectories, and no
fractions of ice as large as such a spicule size were observed in the sampling glass plate. It was rather
considered that splinters of sizes of micrometers were ejected in a form of bubbles from freezing droplets,
as supposed from Fig. 5.
Property of specimen water

Since it was considered that the electrification of freezing water is affected by the properties of the
water, the measurement was repeated with waters which were melted. from rimed ice and fresh snow
at the summit of Mt. Teine. The electric conductivity of waters melted from rimed ice and fresh snow
was 1.0 x 10- 2 and 1.3 x 10- 3 mho/m. The high value of conductivity of the former water was
perhaps caused by sea salt nuclei included as impurity in the rimed ice.
414
50 J.l
Fig. 5. Bubbles with diameters in the order of micrometers were ejected from freezing droplets (Ill = 111m)
100 JJ. 100 J.l

~ ~
Fig. 6. Spicules from frozen droplets of water melted from rimed ice (left) and from fresh snow (right);
(Ill = 111m)
The shape of frozen droplets produced water melted from rimed ice and from fresh snow is illustrated
in Fig. 6. It is seen that the sharp spicules are predominant in case of water from snow, while the droplets
from rimed ice had scarcely spicules. This difference may be caused by the difference in their thermal
conductivities.
The result of measurements of signs of electrification is shown in Fig. 7. It is seen that the number of
415
melted from
Rim"d , C~
mflt.d from
frf'sh FaUfn Snow
Di sti llod Water
o 50 100 (.,.)
Fig. 7. Ratios of po itive, negative and non-charged droplets
positively charged droplets was significantly greater than negative ones, while in case of distilled water
the number of positive, negative and non-charged droplets was nearly the same.
Conclusion
The electrification of falling water droplets of 100 (lm size due to freezing mainly occurred at the end
of freezing stage. This is an evidence which confirms that the electrification is caused by the ejection
of charged splinters from the droplets during their freezing. The ejection of splinters was made in a
form of bubbles of a few micrometer diameter.
About two thirds of freezing droplets were electrified, and the frequency of positive sign was signi-
ficantly greater, when water melted from natural fresh snow was used for specimen. The low frequency
of electrification in droplets produced from water melted from rimed ice was explained by the low fre-
quency of spicule formation which related to the high conductivity of the respective water.
References
1. Latham, J . and B. J. Mason, Proc. Roy. Soc. A 260,537 (1961). - 2. Latham, J. and B. J. Mason, Proc. Roy. Soc.
A 261,387(1962). - 3. Magono, C. and K. Kikuchi,J. Met. Soc. Japan, Ser. 11,39,260(1961). - 4. Stott,D. and W. C. A .
Hutchinson, Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc. 91, 80 (1965).
Discussion
Would it be possible to explain the charging of the droplets due to a small scale electron avalanche at the spicule
which is produced on freezing, since there is an applied electric field?
Magono,Sapporo,Japan :
I can say nothing about the electrification mechanism of bubbles, we can only observe the ejection ofthe air bubbles.
I don't know why the air bubbles carry their charge.
Dawson , Tucson, Arizona, USA:
What caused the freezing? It was the cold that caused the freezing, was it? It was not the electric field that caused
the freezing?
Magono:
Temperature of lower than minus 50 °C.
Authors' address:
T. Iwabuchi and Ch. Magono
Dept. of Geophysics
Faculty of Science
Hokkaido University
Kita 10, Nishi 8
Sapporo 060
Japan
416
About One of the Mechanisms of Electrization of Thunderstorm Clouds *)
N. S. Shishkin
Summary
1. The paper presents the results of experimental investigation of fog-drop charging in the region of corona
discharges between charged frozen and non-frozen large drops. The experiments have been made by the author
and T. A. Pershina.
It is shown that total charges of fog drops reach the values of the order of 1010 e/m 3 (e is elementary charge)
30 - 40 seconds after the beginning of corona discharges. Thereby the results of previous theoretical calculations
are confirmed concerning cloud drops charging by selective adsorption of atmospheric ions when corona dis-
charges originate between charged raindrops.
2. Basing on the investigation results, the author has evaluated possible charging of raindrops in thunderstorm
clouds by coagulation with the charged cloud droplets and possible values of electrical field strength caused by
charge separation during the fall of raindrops in the cloud.
3. The results of calculations allow us to conclude that the formation of corona discharges between falling rain-
drops which were charged during usual ionization ofthe air by cosmic rays and radioactive radiation may cause the
conversion of mixed or pure liquid clouds into the thunderstorm stage.
The corona discharges create, besindes the intensification of cloud droplets and raindrops charging, the thunder-
storm discharge bearer - the strongly ionized environment containing a large number of free electrons.
Author's address:
N. S. Shishkin
Karbysheva 7
Leningrad 194018
USSR
417
General Discussion
With 1 figure

I would propose to concentrate during the general discussions on four topics. First, we could discuss the contro-
versy of the first two papers: Whether charge is separated between precipitation and cloud droplets, or whether
different charges residing on the cloud droplets in different regions of the cloud are separated by air motions. Second,
we should discuss observations of charges on the precipitation and whether conclusions can be drawn for the charge
separation mechanism on the basis of the available measurements. We may also discuss other field observations
in relation to the charge separation mechanism. Third, we might discuss particular charge separation processes,
such as the one proposed by Wdhlin, and fourth, we might receive suggestions for further studies.
I think most of the answers to Moore's criticisms are mentioned in my paper. I only want to add that Moore
has chosen 't to be about 100 s. This seems to be rather low. For such values one requires very high precipitation
rates. In addition, as the velocity of the particles is decreased by the electrical forces, the value of't will further in-
crease. A larger value of 't means that the cloud droplets are swept up slowly by the precipitation. A comment
should be added regarding the decrease in the number of droplets, N (r). Moore's argument may be correct if he
uses Sartor models, where there are two distinct sizes only. However, when one uses a size distribution, like the
one we used, I feel it is incorrect to talk about a single size and a concentration at that size, since the number that
may be taken out of this size by collection may be at least partly replenished by coalescence of smaller droplets
which happen to make the same size r. So, the picture is considerably more complicated than Moore's simple
calculation tries to show. I think one has to look at the whole distribution and see how it develops with time as
we have done.
Part of the difficulty may arise because Levin has not had a chance to read the paper I gave him. The 't of
100 s arose from values chosen by other investigators, specifically Paluch and Sartor whose typical values were
used as an example. My time 't can be calculated for each size species as 4/3 of the radius divided by the preci-
pitation intensity for that species and by the collision efficiency, all in consistent units. I can sum up for each
species of particles in the cloud. Therefore, I have no 't of my own and I think my statements are normalized,
fluid, and completely unspecified.
I feel that Moore has levelled some serious objections against precipitation mechanisms of cloud electrification.
However, I think that it should be pointed out that the precipitation rate of 100 mm/h used to illustrate his
arguments is probably excessive - leading to an overestimate ofthe likely rates of recombination and cloud water
depletion. Also, I feel that the argument of Colgate, used by Moore is circular. It is based on the premise that
the charge distribution does not result from a precipitation mechanism, which proposition it then effects to
prove. To be specific, Colgate shows that the recombination distance is very small if the ratio of charge to surface
area is the same for both large and small drops. However, if a precipitation mechanism were responsible for the
charge separation, this ratio would be very much larger for the drops or pellets than for the droplets, otherwise
the total charge would not be zero. In this case the recombination length is much longer - perhaps by a factor
of 100 - and the recombination effect is not so important. It is my opinion that Colgate's arguments are wrong.
And also, that Moore does not need them in order to mount a strong case against precipitation mechanisms.
I noticed when Moore mentioned warm cloud electrification nobody rose to argue that this did not exist, and
perhaps atmospheric electricians have reached the conclusion that this is the way the world is (although, I had
not been aware that this was a generally accepted idea). Therefore, I would like to add a casual observation that I
made in the Bahamas sitting on a runway in an airplane measuring the vertical potential gradient when some
clouds were overhead. There was a distinct reversal and unsteadiness in the potential gradient from the fair-
weather sign. Subsequently, I took off for other purposes and noted that the cloud tops were at about 2 km.
The freezing level was above 4 km. I think that if it is still important to get good evidence, a properly equipped
airplane operating in such regions could get very hard data to prove that this phenomenon exists.
418
I would like to make a comment to Moore's paper. My conclusion is: We have no good and complete theory
to explain a thunderstorm. Moore has a negative opinion about the polarization theory. So, I would like to give
a negative comment on the convection theory. In Hawaii, most of rain comes from warm clouds. Whenever we
have lightning and thunderstorms, we see snowfall at the top of Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea. When we did the
cloud model in an axisymmetrical system, we had raindrops even in the downdraft area. I doubt that the down-
draft can carry only the screen layer ions, selectively, as Moore mentioned. Secondly, we observed the negative
charge accumulation in clouds during convection, in contrast to the positive charge accumulation as Moore
suggested. The electric sign of drops as a function of size also shows the difference between warm cloud and
thundercloud, although we cannot expect any difference on the basis of the convection theory. To demonstrate,
I want to show Fig. 1. The abscissa is the drop diameter and the ordinate is a number ratio of negative electric
charge to the total number of charged raindrops. The circles show the electric charge from warm rain and the
triangles that from thunderstorm rain. You can see there is a large difference between the two cases. I believe,
therefore, that in snow clouds there is another charging mechanism than in warm clouds.
1.0
0.9
0.8 D.D. R
0
0.7
0.6 0
+I MKOO
Z
..... 0.5
I PK
Z 0.4
°rw ,
I
,,
0.3 0 ,'D.
0.2
0.1
0
5 10 50 100 5001000 500010,000
DROP DIAMETER
Fig. 1. Electric sign predominancy for different sizes. Abscissa is in micrometers. Circles indicate cases of warm
clouds, triangles cases of thunderstorms. Solid and dashed lines are best fit curves for the circles and the triangles.
Data are taken from: Magono and Kikuchi: MK (1961); Phillips and Kinzer: PK (1958); Colgate and Romero:
CR (1970); Twomey: TW (1956); Takahashi and Craig: TC and prime at triangle (1974); Takahashi and Fullerton:
TF (1972); Takahashi: T, (1972); Takahashi: Tz (Hawaii, 1971)
Aufdermaur:
It looks like a possibility that each group has its own special thunderstorms and its own theory.
Moore:
I would like to try to answer briefly, if I can, the previous three comments. In regard to Takahashi's comment,
I am aware that warm clouds which make lightning, seem to be very rare in Hawaii. I am also aware of many reports
on the western side of the Atlantic, particularly in the southern Florida area, where warm cloud lightning is
reported. Similarly. I am aware ofa lesser number of reports from the western side of the Pacific, in the Philippines,
Indonesia and Vietnam area; and, therefore, I think that our chairman's comment about various groups having
various pet thunderstorms may be well taken. Secondly, with regard to the convection theory, I was perhaps
saved by the time and did not have to enter into a discussion of the convection hypothesis. I think, nowever,
it is fair to say that the convection hypothesis is not well worked out, that there are some interesting suggestions
but it does not rate the term "theory". Just as Levin has shown us that a large fraction of the charge in the cloud
resides on the smaller particles with smaller terminal velocities, so should we be concerned about what their fate
is in the convective motions of the cloud where the velocities of the updrafts and downdrafts can exceed preci-
pitation terminal velocities and must dominate the motion of the charges that Levin discusses. In regard to the
comment on Colgate'S idea, I think his point that the precipitation particle can acquire cloud droplet surface
area equal to its own in a very short distance and a very short time is a fundamental and is not interactive on the
419
other parts, as to how the cloud got electrified. I think that Rust's precipitation data at cloud base may be
explicable in terms of the capture of cloud droplets just above the rain catcher.
Cobb, Boulder, Colorado, USA:
I would like to comment on the paper about the tethered balloon measurements of Rust and Moore. First, I
wish to congratulate them on their work. I believe their measurements represent a significant breakthrough,
especially with respect to the conductivity determination in electrified clouds, something we have sought for
many years. I would certainly urge that they continue their efforts to obtain data in higher electric fields.
Perhaps we can dispel the statement as reported in another paper in the abstract that the conductivity is a hundred
times greater inside the cloud than outside. I have made measurements at Mauna Loa, Hawaii, when the ob-
servatory was engulfed in clouds both stratoform and convective, and the conductivity was always reduced as
Rust has reported. This was true even for electric fields up to 50 times the fair-weather field. It has been my observa-
tion that the decrease of conductivity in the cloud depends much more upon the density of the cloud and the
resulting small ion loss than on the field.
Aufdermaur:
I would propose to move to the next point, namely observations of charges in the precipitation and how sure
we can be about these measurements and how conclusive they are with respect to theories.
The comment I would like to make is that I wonder whether measurements made on individual particles are
a fair representation of what happens in a thunderstorm cloud. I thought that collecting a sort of aggregate within
a certain volume would be more representative, because in all cases we expect that in a storm cloud there will
be positive and negative charges in any given volume. What one observes from outside is the result of this
aggregate.
J. Latham:
I wish to ask Rust whether he considers it feasible to measure charge / radius (Q/r) ratios with his balloon-borne
equipment for both large and small ratios. A precipitation process would produce probably a Q - r2 relation,
but his suggested coalescence process would predict a Q - r3 relation. It may be possible to determine, therefore,
whether or not a precipitative process is responsible for the charging. Measurements would need to be made
much deeper into the cloud interiors.
Rust, Boulder, Colorado, USA:

I think that it might be possible, but I should state that I have very severe reservations about the technique that
we used to determine the size of particles, namely the technique of induction rings. There are problems in using
the fall speed for determining size which occurs obviously, if you have frozen precipitation rather than liquid
water. The reason we used this technique was essentially, that we had severe weight problems with our captive
balloon. I think that our data, which we have shown here, probably cannot answer your question. I do feel,
though, that it is feasible to devise a better size measuring device, to pursue the answer to Latham's question.

I have two questions for Wahlin. One is: in his slide he showed a list of equilibrium potentials measured, pre-
sumably on the spheres of material in his apparatus, which were all negative. Could he tell us, please, if the oxida-
tion potentials for the reactions involved are also negative, or what they are, indeed? The second question concerns
the spherical drop, or whatever material it is that has an equilibrium potential on it. It appeared to me from
what he said that he wanted us to believe that there were no currents to the sphere when it was in equilibrium.
As is shown by Gunn's work to which he refers, there must be equal negative and positive currents when equili-
brium potential exists. Could he tell us what his views are on that?
Wahlin, Boulder, Colorado, USA:

First of all, I realize that it is practically impossible to put forward a new idea in 10 minutes. To answer
Griffiths' first question how we arrive at negative equilibrium potentials. The equilibrium potentials are all
negative, because they are proportional to the absolute oxidation potentials. Oxidation potentials listed in
standard tables are arbitrary, and most commonly compared to the hydrogen half reaction. Therefore, in some
cases, reactions that involve a lower energy than the hydrogen half reaction show a positive sign.
The answer to the second question is that I only referred to the experimental results of Gunn and not to his
theoretical treatment.
420
I hate to be critical of a new charging mechanism. I think anyone that has the temerity to bring a new one
forth, at this time, deserves all the support he can get. However, I am very troubled by the suggested one. I feel it
is, with respect, totally unphysica~ and I have been trying to realize why exactly that was. I think the reason is
because the analogy with the electrolyte is rather imperfect. The analogy would be all right with a high density
plasma; it would be possible for isolated spheres of materials to have potentials, with respect to a plasma of high
conductivity. But that will never exist in the normal electrified atmosphere, as we know it, except in lightning.
I can find no physical basis for any possible charging of such a sphere in the isolated air, whether or not ionized.
Even if it were possible to produce such a charging which, I regret to say I cannot accept, I also feel that it would
be impossible to separate these charges.
Aufdermaur:
I think we must leave the topic there and proceed to the last item: suggestions for further studies.
I am just wondering that there is a lot of work done on electrification, but is there any complete survey of all
possible mechanisms? If not, we should look for all the possible electrification mechanisms and their contributions.
For example, I think that up to this moment the effect of light on electrification has not been considered. The
ionization potential of air may exceed the energy of light, but the work functions af many substances are below
the energy of visible light. Therefore, light may have an effect on charge generation in the atmosphere.
Aufdermaur:
I realize that in these last few days there has been a lot of discussion and it looks as though now we are running
out of steam. Therefore, I would like to close this session. Thank you very much.
Chairman's address:
A. N. Aufdermaur
Osservatorio Ticinese
Ch-6605 Locarno-Monti
Switzerland
421
Session 6
GLOBAL CIRCUIT AND TEN-YEAR PROGRAM

Remark by Editors: for additional information to some of the problems discussed in this session,
see session 8 b.
Theoretical Problems of the Global Atmospheric Electric Circuit *)
H. W. Kasemir
Abstract
A current-flow model of the global atmospheric electric circuit is proposed which deviates from the commonly
used spherical capacitor model in the following points. (a) It does not stop at the ionospheric level but extends to
infinity. (b) The zero potential is placed at infinity and the earth carries a driving potential of about - 300 kV, the
ionosphere has a potential of about - 30 !! V. The conductivity is assumed to increase exponentially to infinity. This
model has the advantage that the fair and foul weather part of the atmospheric electric circuit can be treated
separately and later superimposed to the complete picture. This allows us to calculate the fair-weather
condition with the simple assumption that the earth is the negative current source and infinity is the only
current sink. We don't have to specify that only thunderheads are the generators for the positive current, but
may include later any generator such as the austausch generator or Frenkefs general cloud generator. Further-
more, because the ionosphere is not a priori assumed to be an equipotential layer of infinite conductivity as it is in
the spherical capacitor model, it will be possible to extend this model to the inclusion of the geomagnetic field.
Mathematical solutions for several atmospheric-electric fair-weather problems are given and discussed. The
conductivity function includes the austausch layer with day and night variations on a global scale. The
fundamental significance of the power density W = E i (the product of field and current density) at the ground as a
global parameter is pointed out, a parameter which has been used by R. Reiter with great success in his correlation
of terrestrial atmospheric electric and solar events. The independence of the power density at the mountain top
from diurnal variations of the austausch layer is established. The problem of mapping up and down of electric
disturbances caused either by conductivity variations or convection currents is discussed. It seems possible that
potential differences found at a 10 km altitude level are caused by convection currents in or below the 10 km region
but are not necessarily caused by potential difference at the ionospheric level. Procedures are given to determine if
a potential difference at a certain level is caused by a disturbance above or below this level.
Introduction
A simplified circuit diagram of the global atmospheric electric circuit is shown in Fig. 1. The two
current sources of equal strength but opposite polarity are the earth and the thunderheads. All
thunderstorms active at anyone time on the earth are combined in the circuit diagram in the positive
terminal, marked T h, which is located in the horizontal resistor branch. Other generators, not shown
in Fig. 1, as for instance, the austausch generator may be added if their importance on a global scale
is established. The vertical resistor branch represents the current flow of the fair-weather areas. The
circuit is closed at infinity which has dIe potential value zero. The potential of the thunderstorm terminal
is chosen to be 100 MV and that of the earth - 300 k V. With the assumption that the conductivity in-
*) Invited Paper.
423
creases exponentially by a factor 10 for every 10 km altitude gain the equipotential lines are drawn in
Fig. 1 for </> = - 3 kV at 20 km altitude, for </> = - 30 IlV at ionospheric altitude and for </> = 0 V at
infinity. Note that the zero potential dips down from infinity in the region of the thunderhead like a
funnel from a tornado cloud and encloses the positive terminal. It crosses below the thunderhead, the
resistor connecting the thunderhead with ground. Every fair-weather equipotential line by being lower
than zero has to dip down in the thunderstorm region and intersect the resistor below the crossing point
of the zero potential. As illustrated by the arro.ws in Fig. 1 we have two paths for the current to flow from
the positive terminal "Thunderhead" to the negative terminal "Earth". The direct path is through the
resistor between T h and Earth. This resistor represents the volume of air between the thunderstorm
and ground. The second path is through the resistor between the thunderstorm and infinity and then
back to the earth by the vertical resistor branch R 2 , Rl which represents the fair-weather areas.
Ionosphere
ov
Infinity
Fig. 1. Current flow diagram of the global atmospheric electric circuit
This circuit deviates from the widely used spherical capacitor model in the following points: first
it extends to infinity, second the zero potential is at infinity not at the earth surface, and third, the earth
has a - 300 kV potential. The advantage of the circuit used here is that for a theoretical treatment the
calculation of the current flow can be split into two parts. First the fair-weather circuit. Here the earth
is the current generator with the driving voltage </>. = - 300 kV and infinity is the sink which absorbs
the current. From a physical point of view it would be senseless to impose in this model on the generator
earth the driving voltage zero and keep it zero regardless of the current output. It would be equally
meaningless to attach the driving voltage to the ionosphere which does not act as a sink or source and
has in the current-flow circuit no more significance than any other altitude level. It is in most cases pos-
sible to switch from the capacitor model to the current-flow circuit by subtracting the ionospheric
potential from the potential function.
The second part would be the foul-weather circuit with the thunderheads acting as the current
source and again infmity acting as the sink. In this case the earth has to be introduced as an equipotential
layer with a potential value which follows from the condition that in and out flowing current should
balance. A superposition of these two current flow patterns would give the complete picture.
In this paper fair-weather problems are discussed. Quasistationary conditions are assumed, which
means that time changes of the current source are always slow compared to the largest time constant
in the circuit. All problems are governed by the continuity equation of the conduction current
div r = O. The influence of the earth's magnetic field on the conductivity in the ionosphere and space
is neglected. This is done to keep the mathematical effort on a moderate level. However, it should be
424
kept in mind that an application of the equations and results of this paper to the ionosphere has a
purely ficticious value. This is true not c:mly for the current-flow circuit presented here, but applies
just as well to the spherical capacitor model or any other calculation which treats the conductivity in
the ionosphere as a scalar quantity. Conditions in the ionosphere, magnetosphere, and exosphere which
will also apply to atmospheric electric problems in these regions have been described by Obayashi
and Maeda (1965). A first attempt to incorporate the geomagnetic field in the fair-weather current was
made by Kasemir (1971).
The current flow in the thunderstorm region has been discussed by Holzer and Saxon (1951), with the
ionosphere treated as an infinite conductive equipotential layer, and by Kasemir (1952 and 1959), with
an exponential conductivity extended to infinity. In these papers the influence of the geomagnetic field
is neglected. A very interesting calculation of the field and current flow from the thunderhead through
the ionosphere and into the magnetosphere has been worked out by Park and Dejnakarintra (1973).
Here the influence of the geomagnetic field on the current flow in the ionosphere has been taken into
account. In the magnetosphere magnetic field lines are assumed to be equipotential lines.
In the next section of this paper, the fair-weather current in a two-layer conductivity is discussed.
In the austausch layer the conductivity is constant and above the austausch layer it is exponential. This
section has the purpose to acquaint the reader with the somewhat different terminology, illustrate Fig. 1,
and serve as a reference for the following sections. In the third section, the conductivity undergoes a
day and night pattern, the electrical power density is introduced as global parameter and the mapping-
up of the austausch layer is discussed. The fourth section treats the power density at a mountain top
and the last section the problem of up and down mapping of potential waves. The significance of potential
differences of the integrated field obtained by radiosonde balloon flights is discussed.
All potential functions iP are calculated by a method given by Kasemir (1963). iP is composed of two
functions M and N. N is given by th~ conductivity function A.. With A.o being the conductivity at the
earth surface N = (A./A.o)i/2. M enforces the boundary condition and has to fulfill the differential
equation
11M llN
M N
The potential function iP which fulfills the boundary condition and the current continuity equation
div i = 0 in an environment with the conductivity A. is then given by
M
iP=!i'
If, for instance, as in the fourth section, A. is given by a quadratic equation A. = A.o(mz + 1)2, I!.N = 0,
and any electrostatic solution U which fulfills the boundary condition and llU = 0 could serve as M.
In the case of an exponential increase of the conductivity as in the second and third section from now
on, M has to fulfill the differential equation 11M = kM. The eigen functions of this equations, for
instance in a spherical coordinate system, are the Hankel functions Hn+t(r) multiplied by Legendre's
polynominals P,,(00.9)' Therefore, in general, M is given in the form
"-
M = Lo AnHn+t(r)Pn(00s9)'
List of Symbols.'
Coordinate systems:
x,y,z = cartesian coordinates [m,m,m];
z, R, 4> = cylindrical coordinates [m, m, -):];
r, e, 4> = spherical coordinates [m, -):, -):];
a = earth radius [m];
b = radius of the top of the austausch layer or exchange layer [m] in the next section;
= radius of the spherical shell Em] in the last section;
h = b - a = thickness of the austausch layer Em] in the next section;
= height of the spherical shell above earth [m] in the last section.
425
Electric parameters (some additional definitions in the text):
tP(x,y,z) = potential function [V]; ,
tPa = earth potential [V];
tPi = ionospheric potential [V];
E = electric field vector [Vim];
F0 = electric field at the ground [Vim];
T= current density vector [A/m2];
A = conductivity [110m];
s = 1/2k = 104 mlln 10 = scale height of exponential conductivity Em];
W = E . T= power density [W1m 3 ];
I = current output of the earth [A];
R = global resistance [0];
Rc = columnar resistance [0 m 2 ];
j = convection current density [A/m2];
J = net convection current [A] .
Definitions:
E = - gradtP;
T= -A. grad tP;
X,}"Z
tP= S Eds.
00
The Fair-Weather Current with a Spherical Symmetric Conductivity in the Austausch Layer and Above
The conductivity of the ground layer (austausch layer) reaching from r = a to r = b is Aa, being
constant in this region. b - a = h is the thickness of the austausch layer. This layer is called space 1
and the atmospheric electric parameters in it are identified by the index 1. Above this layer in space 2,
extending from r = b to r = 00, the conductivity is given by the equation
b2
,1,2 = Ab-2 exp [(r - b)/sJ. [1J
r
The index 2 identifies the parameters in space 2. The problem has spherical symmetry. Therefore only
the r component of the field and current vector are different from zero. The factor b2 1r2 in [1] is 1 for
the first 100 km altitude above the earth surface with a maximum error of about 0.03 % so that [1]
gives the desired exponential increase of the conductivity with altitude.
In space 1 and 2 we have the following equations for the different atmospheric electric parameters:
Columnar resistance:
R
c,
= ~(1-
Aa !!:..).
b' [2]
Global resistance:
R1 = _ 1 (~ _ ~) . [3]
4nAa a b'
Potential function:
tP 1 =I[R 1 +R 2 - -
1
4nAa
(~-~)J;
a r
[4]
Field; Current density:

I 1 . I 1
E1 = - 412; 11=--' [5]
nAa r 4n r2
426
Potential function:
CP2 = 1 R2 exp [- (r - b)/sJ. [6]
R . 1 1
E2 = 1_2 exp [ - (r:- b)/s] ; 12=--'
4n r2
[7]
s
If the exponential conductivity would extend all the way to the ground (no austausch layer) eqs. [1],
[3], [6] and [7] may be used by simply exchanging the letter b by a. The index 2 can be omitted. In this
case it is:
Global and columnar resistance:
[8]
Potential function:
CP=IRexp[-(r-a)/s]; CPa=IR. [9]
R . 1
E, = I-exp[ - (r - a)/s]; I, = 4nr2 . [10]
s
Conductivity:
a2
A = Aa - 2 exp [(r - a)/s]. [11]
r
To obtain an idea how well these equations lead to reasonable values for the different atmospheric
electric parameters we have to choose certain key values and calculate the other parameters according
to the eqs. [2] to [10]. It is not claimed that the numerical values chosen here are in exact accordance
with the latest experimental results. They are rounded off to the first significant digit. They may be
adjusted to fit the individual preference or recent measurements. We set for the chosen parameters:
a = 6.3 x 10 6 m = earth radius;
4na 2 = 500 x 10 12 m 2 = earth surface;
i = -2 X 10- 12 A/m 2 ;
1 = 4na 2 i = -1000 A = earth current output (thunderstorms);
Aa = 2 X 10- 14 t/Qm = ground conductivity with austausch layer (continental);
Ae = 4 x 10- 14 1/Qm = ground conductivity without austausch layer (oceanic);
s = 104 mjln 10 = scale height;
h = 0, 2.5, 5 km thickness of austausch layer.
The fair-weather field at the ground would follow from Ohm's law E = ilAa, Ea = -100 Vim or
Ea = - 50 V1m for the continental or oceanic value respectively. (Note the negative sign of the
physical sign convention E = - grad CP; i.e. vector E pointing downwards is called negative).
Table 1
h [km] Aa [1/nm] Ab [1/nm] Rl En] R2 En] R En] <Pa [kV] <1>b [kV] <1>20 [kV]
0 4 x 10- 14 218 -218 -2.18

2.5 2 x 10- 14 7.1 X 10- 14 254 123 377 -377 -123 -2.18
5 2 x 10- 14 12.6 X 10- 14 508 69 577 -577 -69 -2.18
Table 1 gives the values for Aa (conductivity at the earth surface~ Ab (conductivity at the top of the
austausch layer), Rl (global resistor of the austausch layer~ R2 (global resistor above the austausch
layer), R = Rl + R2 complete global resistor, CPa (earth potential), CPb (potential at the top of the aus-
427
tausch layer), tP 20 (potential at 20 Ian altitude) for three different thicknesses of the austausch layer
h = 0, 2.5, 5 km. For clarification of the different resistors see also Fig. 1.
It is not surprising that in all three cases the 20 Ian potential is the same, because the current density
and the conductivity above the austausch layer are the same and the integration of the field starts
from infinity to the point of observation. The different values in the earth potential are caused by the
increased resistor values in the austausch layer. In other words the earth potential adjusts to the in-
creased resistor in the austausch layer in such a way that the same current can be driven through the aus-
tausch resistor. That the driving voltage adjusts to the load resistor is a general feature of any current
generator. It shows quite clearly that the earth potential (ionospheric potential) depends not only on
the world thunderstorm activity but also on the existing global resistor. It may very well be that the global
diurnal variation of the field at the oceans is not caused predominantly by a variation of the world
thunderstorm activity, which may even be constant, but by the diurnal variation of the global resistor
(Kasemir, 1950). We have to keep this possibility in mind, if we, for instance, try to compare the world
thunderstorm activity determined by a spherics network with the diurnal variation of the field at the
oceans or the earth potential (ionospheric potential). Miihleisen and coworkers determined the iono-
spheric potential tPi with numerous radiosonde flights integrating the measured field up to balloon
peak altitude and extrapolating it to ionospheric altitude. They found an average value of tPi = 280 kV,
most of the individual flight values were between tPi = 220 kV and 350 kV with extremes down to
160 kV and up to 1580 kV (Miihleisen, 1971). If we attach the negative sign to these values and call it
the earth potential tPa we see that the values given in Table 1 are in good agreement with the experimental
ones.
If we compare the potential value tP 20 km with the earth potential we see that 99 % or more of the
potential drop from the earth surface to infinity occurs already in a layer of 20 km thickness above the
earth surface.
If we calculate the global resistance R 20 for the region from 20 km to infmity by replacing ,1b by
,120 km in [3] we obtain R 20 = 2.18 n which is 1 % or less from the total global resistance R in Table 1.
This again means the earth potential is practically controlled by the global resistance of a layer
between ground and 20 km altitude. Therefore, it appears that fair-weather electricity in the classical
sense is confined to a layer between the earth surface and about 20 km altitude.
The Fair-Weather Current with a Day-Night Pattern of the Conductivity in the Austausch Layer
and Spherical Symmetry Above
We will extend the model discussed in the previous section to include the day and night variation
of the conductivity in the austausch layer. At the dayside of the globe with the austausch in full swing
the conductivity in the austausch layer is low and consequently a part of the air-earth current is deflected
to the nightside where the conductivity is higher. The field at the dayside will be increased because of
the low conductivity but this increase is somewhat counterbalanced by the decrease in the current
density. At the nightside the opposite effect will take place, an increase of the current density and with
it also an increase in the field. The field increase however, is reduced by the high conductivity. Above
the austausch layer where the conductivity is not affected by the austausch and may be assumed to be
the same at the day- and nightsides, the surplus current of the nightside will tend to flow to the dayside
until in higher altitude an equal current density distribution over the whole globe is established. It is
the purpose of this paragraph to calculate the field and current distribution of this problem.
It may be said right at the beginning that this model is still incomplete, for two reasons. First: the
austausch over the ocean surface is very much reduced or absent. This has the result that even on the
dayside some of the illuminated earth surface maintains its nightside conductivity and this reduces the
overall day-night difference in the field and current flow. It would require a more complex equation
for the conductivity than the one we will use later to model the continental areas on the earth surface.
However, the simple day-night sub-division is sufficient here to clarify the principle effect on the
diurnal variation of the current flow. Second: In addition to producing a conductivity change the
428
austausch acts as a generator, Kasemir (1956). The mathematical treatment of the austausch generator
effect is not given in this paper.
To obtain a still relatively simple closed solution for the potential function of our problem we
express the conductivity as the square of a sum of three eigen functions of the differential equation
!l.N-k2N=0, [12]
N = U - rx g + PH cos ¢) , [13]
with
a
J = !!:..exp [k(r - a)] ; g = - exp [ - k (r - a)] ;
r r
The conductivity is then given by
A = AoN2 = AoU - rxg + PH cos ¢)2. [15]
The functionJin [15] squared is the same function we have used in eq. [1] of the previous section to
represent the pure exponential increase of the conductivity, Ao is the conductivity at the ground in this
case and has the numerical value Ao = 4 X 10- 14 l/Qm. The functions g and hare inpole functions
which vanish with increasing r. The purpose of g is to reduce the conductivity in the austausch layer
and the purpose of H cos ¢ is to introduce the day-night variation. The two constants rx and Pallow
us to adjust the strength of each effect individually. Note that f, g and H are normalized to a (radius
of the earth) and are 1 at the earth surface. Therefore the conductivity at the ground Aa is given by
Aa = Ao (1 - rx + Pcos ¢)2 . [16]
20.0
'E
cs
-8
.a
.~
10.0
<i
Conductivity
o
Potential
Fig. 2. Day and night pattern of the conductivity and the potential function versus altitude
CD = Day conductivity «l>D = Day potential
CS = Sunset conductivity «l>S = Sunset potential
CN = Night conductivity «l>N = Night potential
(10E - 14 = 10 x 10- 14 )
In the following discussion and in Figs. 2 and 3 we indicate the dayside noon, the sunset and the midnight
values by the letters D, S, N respectively. In our numerical examples we choose rx = 0.3 and P = 0.2.
This results in a dayside conductivity at noon at the ground of AD = 1 x 1O- 14 1/Qm and a night
conductivity at midnight of AN = 3.2 x 10- 14 1/Qm. In Fig. 2 the three conductivities are plotted against
altitude and marked CD = Day-Conductivity, CS = Sunrise-Conductivity and CN = Night-Conduc-
tivity. We see in Fig. 2 that the difference between the three conductivities is. already small at 10 km
altitude (about 3 %) and has practically vanished at 20 km altitude.
The potential function if> for such a conductivity pattern with earth as the current generator with
the driving voltage if>a is given by
if> = if> + PHcos¢
(1 - rx)g
[17]
a J-rxg+PHcos¢ .
429
h
iD is iN
IOkm
Fig. 3. Day and night pattern of the field E and current density i versus altitude h
ED = Day field iD = Day current density
ES = Sunset field is = Sunset current density
EN = Night field iN = Night current density
We may take advantage here of the fact that the thickness of the layer we are interested in - let's
say from the earth surface up to the ionosphere - is very small compared to the earth's radius.
Therefore, with an error of less than 2 %we may set r = a and r - a = z. z is our new vertical coordinate
counted from the earth's surface. The functions f, g, and H reduce to the exponential functions exp kz
and exp ( - k z), and eq. [17J simplifies to
tP = tP e- 2kz 1 - IX + fJ cos ¢ [18J
a 1 + (fJcoscjJ _ a)e 2kz'
In a similar good approximation we obtain for the vertical (radial) component of the electric field E
and the air-earth current density i the equations
E=2ktP -2kz l-lX+fJcos¢ [19J
ae [1 + (fJ cos ¢ - IX)e 2kzJ2 '
i = .402ktPa(1 - IX + fJ cos ¢) [20J
and for the global resistor R and the columnar resistor Re
R = 1 [21J
e 2kA. o (1 - IX + fJ cos ¢)
With our chosen numerical values tPa = -300kV, 2k = In 10jl04 m;.40 = 4 x 1O- 14 1jQm we obtain
for the field and the current density at the ground ED = -138 Vjm; E S = - 98.5 Vjm; EN =
-76.7Vjm; iD = -1.38pAjm2; is = -1.93 pAjm 2; iN = -2.48 pAjm 2.
The columnar resistance is
ReD = 2.18 X 10 17 Qm 2 ; ReS = 1.55 X 10 17 Qm 2 ; ReN = 1.21 X 10 17 Qm 2
and the global resistor
R = 310Q.
These values fit reasonably well the commonly accepted values in the literature. (Note the negative
sign of the field and current density due to the sign convention). The one exception is that the night
current is stronger than the daytime current which is contrary to experimental results. It shows that
430
our model is not complete. The missing part is probably the austausch generator effect which will be
treated in another publication.
The potential functions <J)D, <J)S, and <J)N are plotted as the second triple of curves in Fig. 2. We see
that they all start from the - 300 kV ground value and approach zero in higher altitudes. However,
contrary to the conductivity the day and night values diverge from each other and from the sunrise value
in the lower 10 km layer and remain so up to the ionosphere. The constant separation in the logarithmic
scale of Fig. 2 means that the relative difference between the day and night value remains the same
whereas the absolute difference becomes smaller by a factor 10 with each 10 km gain in altitude. For
instance, at 10 km altitude we have an absolute difference between the day and night time potential
of 12 kV, at 20 km altitude this difference is reduced to 1.2 kV, and at ionospheric altitude the difference
will be reduced to 12 11V.
Fig. 3 shows the field and current triple against altitude. The most striking feature is that the
current stays constant with altitude, even though the day and night values differ from each other by
almost a factor 2. One would expect that in some higher altitudes horizontal components would occur
which result in an equalization of the current density around the globe. However, this equalization does
not occur in the first 100 km altitude as is also evidenced by eq. [20]' That these large differences in the
current density do occur is shown in simultaneous current radiosonde flights reproduced in Figs. 4 and 5.
The average current between 10 and 20 km altitude at Eastern Test Range, Boulder, Hachijojima, and
Kayoshima, are 1, 1.5, 1.75, and 2.6 pA/m2 (Fig.4). The first two of these stations are located in North
America and the last two in Japan. Even on the same continent large differences are found as is shown
in Fig. 5. The average current between 15 and 25 km altitude at Duluth, White Sand, and Boulder
(all in the USA) are 0.9,1.85, and 3.6 pA/m2. The most likely explanation for the different current densities
is the existence of widely different columnar resistances at the different stations.
Another striking feature in the few examples given in Figs. 4 and 5 is that the current density even
in altitudes up to 25 km is by no means constant. Variations in the current density up to 30% are not
unusual. These current variations with altitude in the individual flight indicate the presence of con-
vection currents in the respective altitude range. The electrical convection current in the 20 km altitude
layer is not yet investigated and deserves a concentrated research effort. Another possible cause of the
current variation would be the sideways drift of the radiosonde during its ascent through localized
regions with different columnar resistances. However, the two simultaneous radiosonde records
shown in Fig. 6 show the same variation even though the stations are 1000 km apart. This does not point
to a local variation of the columnar resistance.
30~----~----'------r-----'
H K
20
h,
km
10
2 3 pA/m 2 i
Fig. 4. Current density i versus altitude h. 14 February 1972

E = Eastern Test Range, Florida USA, 17:15 -19:36 world time, 12: 15 -14 :36 local time;
B = Boulder, Colorado USA, 19:42-21:22 world time, 12:42-14:22 local time;
H = Hachijojima, Japan, 18:00- world time, 03:00- local time;
K = Kagoshima, Japan, 18:00- world time, 03:00- local time
431
30 ,...---,.----,.----,.------,
o w
20
h,
km
10
2 3 pA/m 2 j
Fig. 5. Current density i versus altitude h, 16 February 1972.

D = Duluth, Minnesota, USA, 14: 00 -16 : 30 world time, 08: 00 -10 : 30 local time
W = White Sands, New Mexico, USA, 13:51-15:29 world time, 06:51-08:29 local time;
B = Boulder, Colorado, USA, 13:45-15:03 world time, 06:45-08:03 local time
~,...---,.----,.----,.---~
20
h,
km
10
o ~--~--~--~-~
o 2 3pAm 2 j
Fig. 6. Current density i versus altitude h, 17 February 1972

B = Boulder, Colorado, USA, 14:07:""15:17 world time, 07:07-08:17 local time;
W = White Sands, New Mexico, USA, 13:45-15:04 world time, 06:45-08:04 local time
A very interesting result is obtained if we calculate the field Ea and current density ia at the ground
from [19] and [20] and multiply these two parameters. This product gives the electrical power density
w.. [22]
We see that the power density in our model is independent of the local conductivity variation. It is the
same everywhere at the earth surface and proportional to the square of the driving voltage CPa. By
rearranging we obtain from [22]
cP = _1 (Eaia)t [23]
a 2k Ao .
[23] offers a way to check the earth potential at the ground as determined by a field radiosonde ascent.
However, more important is the fact that Eaia = W. and (Eaia)t are global parameters which would
be better suited to detect global relations than the field or current density by themselves. Reiter and co-
workers deserve the credit for introducing the product E i in the atmospheric electric measuring technique.
They have used the product Ea ia with good success already for some time at the mountain top Zug-
spitze to correlate terrestrial electric activity with solar events (Reiter, 1969, 1971, 1972). As this promises
to be a powerful method, we will discuss the conditions on a mountain top in the next section. Other
432
variations of [23] may be obtained if we introduce from eqs. [9] and [10] the field Eao and the current
density iao in regions without an austausch layer. It follows from [9] and [10],
r;
Eao = 2ktPa, iao = lo2ktPa
and with [23]
Eao = ( E;:a iao = (lo Ea ia)! . [24]
[24] links the field and the current Eao and iao at places without austausch, let us say at the oceans or
arctic regions, with the field and the current on the continents. The condition for this relation is that
eq. [22] is at least approximately true if large areas of the earth like the oceans and arctic regions do not
participate in the day-night pattern; and second that the austausch causes only a conductivity
variation but does not act as a generator. The second condition especially may not be fulfilled. There-
fore, the results in this section should be interpreted only as a first step in the analysis ofthe interrelation
of continental and oceanic field and current patterns. However, we have gained valuable suggestions
in which direction the theoretical analysis and data collection should be extended.
The Electrical Power Density at a MOImtain Top

The mountain is represented 'mathematically by a hemispherical or a cylindrical boss on an infinite
horizontal plane. It is possible to extend the calculation with a slightly greater mathematical effort to
spheroidal shapes, i.e., a tall half spheroid or a flat disc of circular or cylindrical form, however, the
results will be similar to the simpler forms treated here. The plane and the boss are a source of a negative
current. In a large (horizontal) distance away from the boss the current density io is constant. The con-
ductivity at the ground is lo and consequently the field at the ground F 0 is given by
Fo = io/lo. [25]
The conductivity l has a parabolic increase with altitude z and is given by
l = lo (mz + 1)2 [26]
The parabolic increase instead of the exponential one is chosen here because it gives a better represen-
tation of the austausch layer and also leads to simpler mathematical expressions. The factor m in [26]
may contain a time factor which reflects the conductivity variation of the austausch layer during the
day and night. We may set m to be given by
m = mo(l + cxcoswt). [27]
It will be shown that the electrical power density W given by the product of the field and current density
E i at the top of the mountain is independent of the day and night pattern of the conductivity. Cartesian
coordinates X,Y,z will be used with the z axis (altitude) in the vertical direction. The axis ofthe cylindrical
boss is in the y direction so that the cylindrical coordinate R is given by
+ Z2)! .
R = (x 2
In spherical coordinates the equivalent relation is r = (x 2 + y2 + Z2)!. "c" is the radius ofthe cylindrical
or hemispherical boss. Field or current components in x and z direction are indicated by the index x
or z.
For the cylindrical boss we have the following equations:
tP = .!..!L[1 - mz (1 - C2/R2)] , [28j

m mz + 1
1 - C2 /R 2 2C2Z2 ]
[29]
Ez = Fo [
(mz - 1)
2 +
+ l)R 4 '(mz
iz = io [1 - c 2 /R2 + 2c 2 Z2 (mz + 1)/R4] , [30]
433
Z 2c 2 x
Ex = F o - - - R4 . [31]
mz + 1
[32]
At the ground and at the boss surface for z = 0 or R = c we obtain from [28]
Fo
cP = CPo = -
m
CPo corresponds to CPa the driving voltage of our previous section. In higher altitudes z -+ 00, the potential
approaches zero. At the top of the boss where R = z = c, x = 0 we obtain from [29] to [32]
E. = 2Fo/(mc + 1); i. = 2io(mc + 1); Ex = ix = o. [33]
Note that for constant conductivity m = 0 the field and current concentration factor E./F 0 = iz/io = 2.
The electrical power density follows from [33]
W = Eziz = 4Foio· [34]
F0 io is the electrical power density on the earth surface away from the cylindrical boss where conditions
are undisturbed by the presence of the boss. Eq. [34] means that the power density at the top of the
boss is four times as much as on the undisturbed part of the plane and that this relation is independent
of the conductivity variation with altitude i.e. independent of m. Therefore, if the power density on the
earth surface is proportional to a global pattern under conditions discussed in the previous section
the power density at the mountain top will follow the same pattern with an additional constant concen-
tration factor. This factor is given by the square of the field concentration factor of the same problem
with altitude-constant conductivity. We may expect, therefore, that in case of the spherical boss, where
the electrostatic field concentration factor is 3, that the energy concentration factor is 9. That this is true
can easily be verified. The potential function for the spherical boss is
cP = !.2...[1 - mzmz+ 1 (1 - ~)J.

m r3
[35]
The field and current density at the top of the boss follows from [35]. It is
E. = 3Fo/(mz + 1); i z = 3i o(mz + 1) [36]
and the power density
W = Eziz = 9F o io . [37]
The energy concentration factor is 9 as expected and we may conclude that in general for other shapes
of the boss the energy concentration factor is the square of the field concentration factor of the
equivalent electrostatic problem.
The field distortion of a mountain in an environment with an altitude dependent conductivity has
for some time been a problem in atmospheric electricity which defied a simple analytic solution. It may
be mentioned here that the horizontal and vertical field distortion above the mountain can be easily
obtained from [28] and [35] as shown for the cylindrical case in [29] to [32]. Such orographic distor-
tions become important for electric field measurements from an airplane or balloon over mountainous
terrain.
VJl and Down Mapping
At a spherical shell concentric with earth, r = b, shall exist a surface current source which produces
a potential CPb at this level given by
CPb = A cos e. [38]
434
At the earth surface r = a with a < b the potential shall be constant. The conductivity A shall increase
exponentially from the earth surface to infinity.
2
A = A ~e2k(r-a) = A N2 [39J
a r2 a
We would like to know the solution of the following problem: In which manner does the potential of the
shell map up and down. For instance, if the maximum potential difference at antipode points at 10 km
altitude above the earth is 20 kV, how much is the difference attenuated if we reach ionospheric level.
On the other hand if at the ionospheric level there is a potential difference of 20 kV at antipode points,
how much of a potential difference would we measure at the 10 km level. The fair-weather current
produced by the earth generator may be superimposed to the current flow of the spherical shell to ob-
tain a more complete picture. This calculation deals with potential, field, and current distribution of
the shell only. It may be considered as the first step to the solution of the austausch generator problem.
The shell subdivides space into two parts. The first one, indicated by the index 1 on the electrical
parameters, is the region between the earth surface and the shell, a :s; r :s; b. The second one, indicated
by the index 2, is the space outside the shell, b :s; r :s; 00. We define four Hankel-type functions F,G,K,L.
F = .!C~ek(r-b). G =.!C~ -k(r-b). K = ~~e-k(r-a); L = ~ek(r-a). [40J

r2 kb - 1 ' r2 kb + 1e , r2 ka +1 r
If the argument r of the function is r = a or r = b this is indicated by the index (a) or (b) in brackets.
Note that
The potential function <PI and <P2 in space 1 and 2 are given by
L(b) F - F!a)K
<PI = A cos 8, [41J
L 1- F(a)K(b)
L(b) G- F(a)K
<P2 = Acos8. [42J
L 1- F(a)K(b)
A cos 8 in [41 J and [42J is the driving potential <Pb at the shell r = b as given by [38J and the two frac-
tions in front of it give the attenuation in space 1 and 2 as a function of r. If we now introduce the ap-
proximation used before r/a = r/b -> 1, the new coordinate z = r - a, which gives the altitude above
the earth surface, and h = b - a which is the altitude of the driving shell above the earth surface, the
eqs. [41] and [42] simplify to
1 - exp (- 2kz) A 8
"'I =
J.
cos , [43J
1-exp(-2kh)
<P2 = exp [ -2k(z - h)J A cos 8. [44J
Bostrom et al. obtained an equation equivalent to [43J for the two-dimensional case (Bostrom et aI.,
1973). They treat the more general case of time varying potential waves in the ionosphere including the
time independent solution as a special case for the general problem. The eq. [4.7] on page 14 of their
report,
V -- --~~~--~~~~cos
exp(r\z)-exp(-r2z) k x,
[43aJ
exp (rla) - exp(-r2a)
converts to [43J if we consider that their scale factor k of the x coordinate is a very small number if
cos kx represents a wave around the globe. In good approximation it is rl -> 0; r2 -> 1/H and with
"1/H" equivalent to our "2k" and "a" equivalent to our "h" the two eqs. [43aJ and [43J agree with
each other.
Prior to Bostrom et aI., Volland (1972) calculated the mapping down of the potential wave generated by
the S q current in the ionosphere. He used a spherical coordinate system and a three-term expression
of the potential function in spherical harmonics. His wave is sunrise-sunset oriented being zero at
435
noon and midnight and at the poles. The altitude dependence of the potential wave is given by a
tenn 1 - exp ( - 2 kz) which again is in agreement with [43].
The maximum and minimum of the potential in each level is obtained for () = 0, cos () = 1 and
() = n, cos () = -1. Therefore the maximum difference Dl and D2 in space 1 and 2 is given by
D - 2A 1 - exp(-2kz) [45]
1- l-exp(-2kh)'
D2 = 2A exp [ -2k(z - h)] . [46]
The factor 2A is the maximum potential difference in the shell itself. Let's assume flrst that the shell
is at h = 10 km and 2A = 20 kV. The decay of this difference with increasing altitude - mapping
up - is given by [46]. We see that the difference D2 is attenuated by a factor 10 with each altitude
gain of 10 km. At ionospheric level z = 100 km the potential difference has attenuated from the
20 kV at the 10 km level to 20I1V. This is in agreement with the result of the third section showing
that the absolute potential difference decays in the same fashion at the potential itself.
In we now tum to the problem of mapping down we have to use eq. [45]. Let's assume again that
the potential difference at two antipode points in the ionosphere is 20 kV. h is now 100 km and
z = 10km. From [45] follows that at the 10km level we have still a potential difference of 18kV.
Therefore in this case we have an almost unattenuated mapping down of the absolute difference. Only
close to the ground level, i.e. in the last few kilometers altitude the potential difference vanishes. How-
ever, with this perfect mapping down we will not be able to determine if the disturbance is only 10 or
90 km above our measuring level. If the disturbance would be at 20 km altitude with the same
potential difference of 20 kV it would map down to the 10 km level with a potential difference of
18.2kV.
We will calculate now the strength of the current source and the charge, which will produce the
postulated potential wave with an amplitude of A = 10 kV, and the fleld and current distribution at
the ground and with altitude. From [41] and [42] or in good approximation from [43] and [44] we
calculate the components E 1.. E 2 .. iIz and i2z of the fleld and current vector in the r or z direction. It is
E lz -- - 2kexp(-2kz) A ().
E 2z = 2kA cos (}exp [ -2k(z - h)], [47]
cos ,
1 - exp (-2kh)
. _ 2k' Acos8 i 2z = 2kl o A cos 8exp(2kh). [48]
liz - - 11.0
1 - exp (-2kh)
The surface current source density j and the surface charge density q at the shell for z = h follows from
[47] and [48]
q = e(E2z - EIz) = 2keAcos8(1 + 1 ), [49]
exp(2kh) - 1
j = i2z - i 1z = 2kAo A cos () [1 + 1 ] exp (2kh). [50]

exp(2kh) - 1
By integrating q orj over half ofthe spherical shell we obtain the net charge Qor the net current J:
Q = 2nb 2 keA [1 + eXp(2~h) IJ. -

[51]
J = 2nb 2 kAoA [1 + exp (2th) _ 1] exp (2kh). [52]
Table 2 lists the maximum surface charge and current source density q and j, and the net charge and
current Q und J for shell altitudes of 10, 20 and 100 km.
436
Table 2
h [km] q [pC/m2] j[pA/m2] Q [C] J[A]
10 18.4 0.83 2300 1.04 x 102
20 21 9.1 2520 1.14 x 103
100 22 9.2 x 108 2540 1.15 x 1011
The current source density j would be proportional to a convection current density which delivers the
current. We see from Table 2 that for a shell altitude of 10 km the required convection current density
is moderate, j = 0.8 pA/m2. The presence of a convection current is indicated in many current radio-
sonde ascents and can be recognized by the fact that the conduction current is not constant with altitude.
The deviation of the conduction current from a constant value is proportional to the convection current.
Fig. 6 shows two simultaneous current radiosonde flights at Boulder and White Sands which are about
1000 km apart. Both flight records show a conduction current increase in the 5 to 15 km layer of about
1 pA/m2 with a slow decrease to 25 km altitude. Such increases and decreases of the conduction current
with altitude are by no means unusual, but occurred in a more or less pronounced way in a large number
of flights. It is interesting to note that a similar but smaller bulge can be seen in a graph of the air-earth
current density versus altitude obtained by Hake, Pierce, and Viezee (1973), by calculating the air-earth
current density from the field and conductivity and averaging these values over a large number of
radiosonde flights.
A current source shell in 20 km altitude would require already 9 pA/m2 convection current to produce
a potential difference of 20 kV in this level. Also the net current of about 1000 A is already quite sub-
stantial, whereas the required net current of 100 A in the 10 km level is certainly in the realm of con-
tinental convection currents. Almost unrealistically high are the values of the current source density
j = 0.1 mA/m2 and the net current J = 115 X 109 A at ionospheric altitude, which are required to
produce a potential wave of 10 kV amplitude.
Introduced by Fischer (1962), it is today common practice to extrapolate the potential at the peak
altitude of a field-measuring radiosonde to the ionospheric level. If the balloon is flown to 20 km altitude
or higher this extrapolation is not necessary because the correction gained by extrapolation would be
below the measuring accuracy of the radiosonde. For the determination of the earth potential a 20 km
peak altitude should be quite sufficient. However, conclusions drawn from extrapolated potential dif-
ferences with regard to conditions in the ionosphere, Muhleisen (1971, 1972), Fischer and Muhleisen
(1972), can be accepted only with great reservation. Without additional safeguards there is no way to
show that potential differences measured at, let's say, a 10 km altitude level are not caused by disturb-
ances just above or even below this level. Therefore it may be advisable to discontinue the pratice of
extrapolating potential values to the ionosphere. Instead, the field should be integrated to balloon or
airplane peak altitude and the potential value reported as the 10 km potential or to whatever altitude
the measurement was actually carried out.
Fortunately, the difference between up and down mapping provides a simple means to check if
potential differences are caused from above or below the peak altitude. If the potential difference is
larger at a level below peak altitude than at peak altitude, the disturbance is below. If the differences
are the same or the peak altitude difference is the greater one, the disturbance is above. An even better
safeguard is to fly a current radiosonde simultaneously. As long as the current density is not constant
with altitude - and this is usually the case, not an exception - the supposition for extrapolating the
peak potential does not exist.
The field at the earth surface z = 0 can be calculated from the first equation in [47]. If the disturbance
is higher than 20 km the exponential term in the denominator can be neglected. For cos () = 1 we obtain
the amplitude of the potential wave:
A = Elz/2k. [53]
Lobodin and Paramonov (1972) analyzed a large number of field measurements from 8 stations at dif-
ferent latitudes during aurora. The field deflection at the most northern station (80 0 N) was negative
437
(atmospheric electric sign convention) and of the order of - 30 V/m. The deflection decreased with
decreasing latitude and showed a positive maximum at the most southern station (66° S). If we interpret
these field deflections as caused by a negative charge deposited in northern and a positive charge de-
posited in the southern hemisphere we may use [53] to calculate the amplitude of the corresponding
potential wave. With 2 k = 1n 10/10 km it would be A = -130 k V. The net charge to produce such a
wave follows from [51] and would be in the order of =+= 30000 to =+= 33000 C. Note that the amount
of charge does not depend very much on the altitude level in which the charge has been deposited.
It would be interesting to compare the calculated potential difference of such a potential wave with
the data obtained by Muhleisen from simultaneous flights at the equator and at Weissenau, Germany
(estimated latitude 48 N). The calculated difference L1 V would be - 62 k V. Disregarding the sign this
would agree with the maximum difference of 60 kV reported by Muhleisen for the potential difference
extrapolated to ionospheric altitude. For a better comparison the ionospheric potential values would
have to be restored to the balloon peak altitude values. (Note that the calculated wave maps down
almost unattenuated, but the extrapolation to the ionosphere may reduce the measured potential
difference at the 10 km level by a factor 2 or more).
Acknowledgment
The author wishes to express his thanks to Professor D. Olson, University of Minnesota, Duluth; Chief Mete-
orologist I. Kuhnast, Eastern Test Range, Florida; Dr. W. Webb, White Sands, New Mexico; and Dr. I. Shimizu,
Meteorological Agency, Tokyo, Japan, for providing the data of the air-earth current radiosonde flights used in
Figs. 4, 5 and 6.
References
1. Bostrom, R., U. F ahleson, L. Olansson, and G. H allendal, Theory oftime varying atmospheric electric fields and some
applications to fields of ionospheric origin. Dept. Plasma Physics, Roy. Inst. Tech. (see page 14, eq. [4.7]) (Stock-
holm, 1973). - 2. Fischer, H. J., Die elektrische Spannung zwischen lonosphare und Erde. Diss. T. H. (Stuttgart,
1962). - 3. Fischer, H. J. and R. Muhleisen, Met. Rundsch. 25, 1,6 (1972). - 4. Hake, R. D., E. T. Pierce, and W.
Viezee, Stratospheric Electricity. Stanford Research Institute Report, Project 1724 (see page 57, Fig. 16) (1973). -
5. Holzer, R. E. and D. S. Saxon, J. Geophys. Res. 207 (1951). - 6. Kasemir, H. w., Arch. Met. Geophys. Biokl.
III, 84 (1950). - 7. Kasemir, H. w., Die Stromausbeute des Gewittergenerators in bezug auf den luftelektrischen
Vertikalstrom der Schonwettergebiete. Ber. d. Wetterd. d. U.S. Zone 6 (38): 428 -434,1952. - 8. Kasemir, H. w.,
Arch. Met. Geophys. Biokl. 9, 357 (1956). - 9. Kasemir, H. w., Z. Geophys. 25, 33 (1959). - 10. Kasemir, H. w.,
USA ELRDL Tech. Report 2394 (1963). - 11. Kasemir, H. w., Pure and Applied Geophysics 84, 76 (1971). -
12. Lobodin, T. W. and N. A. Paramonov, PAGEOPH 100, 167 (1972). - 13. Muhleisen, R., Z. Geophys. 37, 759
(1971). - 14. Muhleisen, R., Elektrische Felder in der lonosphare, abgeleitet aus luftelektrischen Messungen
(Klein-Heubacher Berichte 15, 361 (1972)). - 15. Obayashi, T. and H. Maeda, Electrical state of the upper atmos-
phere. Problems of Atmospheric and Space Electricity (Amsterdam, 1965). - 16. Park, C. G. and M. Dejnakarintra,
1. Geophys. Res. 78, 28, 6623 (1973). - 17. Reiter, R., PAGEOPH 72, 259 (1969). - 18. Reiter, R., PAGEOPH
86,142 (1971). - 19. Reiter, R., PAGEOPH 94, 218 (1972). - 20. Volland, H., 1. Geophys. Res. 77, 10,1961 (1972).
Discussion
Ogawa, Kyoto, Japan:
What have been the altitude profiles of the air-earth current density? The air-earth current density is strongly
influenced by the underneath orography. In other words, in a mountain area, the electric current increases by the
reduction of the columnar resistance. Did you check the underneath orography when you compared the air-earth
current density profiles at the different places? Did you check the time of the flight of the day when you compared
the air-earth current at different places? Did you check the weather on the day of those flights?
The first point was whether I took into account the orographic shape of the land over which the balloon flies.
In Boulder all the weather comes from the west; the balloon rises and is blown to the east, and in the east there
is what we call the "high plains", that is high-altitude flat country. We very seldom have wind coming from the
east or bad weather. All the balloon flights I showed in Boulder are in fair weather and over flat country. The
same is approximately true for White Sands. Now I do not know the conditions of the Japanese flights. At the
South Pole we have a high plain situation and the flights were made during fair weather. I was not there, but
438
probably Cobb can answer this question. There was a second point, concerning time. The flights are made at the
same universal time. Some of them, as the Boulder flights, were early in the morning, one to three o'clock. The
Japanese flights would be about 7 hours earlier, i.e. 18:00 to 20:00 on the day before. There was a third question
about weather conditions: The flights were fair-weather flights.
Author's address:
H. WKasemir
NOAA, ERL, APCL
USA
439
Diurnal Variation and Absolute Intensity of world-wide Lightning Activity,
September 1970 to May 1971
M. Clayton and C. Polk
With 8 figures
Abstract
The cavity resonator bounded by the surface of the earth and the lower ionosphere is continuously excited by
lightning activity. It has been shown in principle (16) that resulting "Schumann resonances", particularly those
between 5 Hz and 25 Hz, can be employed to measure the intensity and location of major lightning activity.The
required data have been recorded almost continuously at a field site near Kingston, Rhode Island, USA, since
1969 and methods for absolute calibration of sensors have been described (1). The resulting records for the
period September 1970 to May 1971 have now been analyzed in detail with proper corrections made for hour
to hour variation of source-receiver separation and for variations of ionospheric electrical conductivity due to
changes in solar activity as indicated by 10.7 cm flux.
Curves of diurnal variation of the absolute lightning activity are based upon six sample days in each month.
Source locations obtained by ELF were checked, where possible, against available VLF data. The absolute
intensity is obtained in terms of a world-wide charge moment squared per second, that is in (coulomb meter)2/
second. This number can then be reduced to number of lightning flashes per second if a value of charge moment
is assumed for the average lightning flash. If one uses 60 coulomb kilometers (26), i.e., transfer of 20 coulombs
over a 3 kilometer path in the "average" lightning discharge, our data show a variation between 42 and 608 light-
ning flashes per second during the analyzed period. An assumption of 90 coulomb kilometers for the average
flash gives a variation between 19 and 270 discharges per second. Further refinement of the analysis and
measurement methods could be employed to obtain information about possible differences in lightning charac-
teristics (related to differences in the generated ELF spectrum) at different locations.
Introduction
The magnitude of world-wide electrical excitation by lightning activity is clearly an essential para-
meter for understanding the "global circuit" of atmospheric electricity. The required quantitative in-
formation is, however, very incomplete for several reasons; the definition of the "thunderstorm day"
provides at best information about frequency oflightning and not about its intensity; most short range
lightning observations cover the temperate zone much better than the very important tropical regions;
oceanic thunderstorms are possibly of great importance to global activity (9), but even recent data
on oceanic thunderstorms (25) are dominated by data from North Atlantic shipping routes and even
IEI2 5
REL
UNITS
4
o
o 10 20 30
HERTZ
Fig. 1. Spectrum of vertical electric field (near Kingston, Rhode Island, USA) for 19; 35 -19; 52 GMT, 29 June 1972,
relative values
440
VLF lightning analyzer networks (6, 7, 8) cover the surface of the globe as yet only very incompletely.
Under these circumstances another, independent method for measuring global lightning activity is
clearly useful. Such a method is provided by the analysis of Schumann resonance data (16, 21, 23).
The basic phenomenon is illustrated by Fig. 1 which shows the power spectrum of natural electro-
magnetic noise in the 3 to 30 Hz frequency band as obtained at a field site near Kingston, R.I. The
particular spectrum illustrated is that of the vertical electric field and represents an averaging or inte-
gration period of 17 minutes. Similar spectra are obtained for two orthogonal components of the hori-
zontal magnetic field. These field components are monitored continuously (12) and methods for obtain-
ing and processing power spectra very rapidly (12, 14) have been developed so that a significant fraction
of the available data can be analyzed.
Source Location and Vertical Conductivity Profiles

An early analysis of extremely low frequency (ELF) propagation due to Wait (27) contains all the
essential features needed for our application and is therefore summarized here. The propagation medium
is the space between the surface of the earth (which is essentially a perfect electrical conductor at ELF)
and the lower "boundary" of the ionosphere. In the detailed calculations upon which our results are
based, the "ionosphere" is stratified (24) to take into account the variation of ionospheric conductivity
with height. The lowest layer in this "ionosphere" model extends from 40 km altitude to ground level,
because even the small conductivity at low elevations affects ELF propagation.
If one assumes a homogeneous conducting spherical earth of radius "a" surrounded by a concentric
conducting ionospheric shell of inner radius "a + h", it can be shown (27) that the electric field pro-
duced by a vertical electrical 'dipole located at () = 0 and r = a (in standard spherical coordinates) is
E = M(w)v(v + 1) [P,(- case)] [1]

, 4wBoha2 sin vn .
where
M(w) = source dipole moment in ampere-meter,
() = angular separation between source and receiver,
w = radian frequency,
P, (- cos ()) = Legendre function of argument ( - cos e) and complex order v,
v(v + 1) = (kaS.)2,
V
k = free space propagation constant = w /loBo,
S. = sine of the complex angle of incidence at the lower ionosphere boundary (determined
from boundary conditions for n = 0,1,2, ... ).
In general S. is obtained from the solution of a transcendental equation involving spherical Bessel
functions of complex order (24). At extremely low frequencies, where the wavelength is large compared
to the ionospheric height, h, the electric field is essentially radial and only the So mode is significant.
This permits simplification of the field expressions and leads to the replacement of the Legendre func-
tions by series of Legendre polynomials using the Dougall expansion (15).
The expression for E, becomes
_ M(w)v(v + 1) ~
E, - 2n + 1 P ( ll) [2]
L..., .cosu.
4nwBoha2 .=0 n(n + 1) - v(v + 1)
All symbols have the same meaning as in [1]. For each value of n, that is for each term in the series
expansion, a particular value of the complex quantity v can be found such that the denominator be-
comes very small and the electric field becomes very large. Since v is a function offrequency, a frequency
dependent "resonance" is obtained. Typical measured resonance frequencies near 8, 14 and 19 Hz
correspond respectively to n = 1,2 and 3 in the expansion.
It is clear from [2] also that the magnitude of E, depends on the source-receiver separation angle e,
and must be equal to zero when p. (cos e) = O. However [2] gives only the field due to a single, localized
excitation source. In reality many sources are always present simultaneously, corresponding at least
441
to several slightly different values of 8. The superposition of the fields from many sources is therefore
never precisely equal to zero.
At each of the resonance frequencies relations [1 J and [2J lead to standing waves of E, and H", on
the surface of the earth (16, 18). Since the standing wave patterns are different for each resonance fre-
quency, i.e. for each value of v for which [n(n + 1) - v(v + 1)] -+ 0, and since they are also different
for E, and H"" it is obviously possible to obtain information about the source-receiver separation 8 by
measurements at a single receiving site if one evaluates the ratios of E, to H", or the ratios of fields at
adjacent resonance frequencies, for example E(f = 14)jE(f = 8). Details of this procedure have been
worked out (16, 23) and results have been compared with lightning locations from the Heydt-Frisius
VLF analyzer network (6, 7, 8). For thirty-one ELF locations VLF data covering the same time period
and the same part of the globe were available; among these twenty-two showed major lightning activity
at the value of 8 determined by ELF (18).
While the present summary is not concerned primarily with the location of sources, but rather with
the magnitude of global activity, reasonable confidence in the som:ce location procedure is important,
because the electric field intensity measured at the receiving site (12) clearly depends upon 8 as indicated
by eq. [2].
Expression [2J does not take into account excitation of the cavity by many nearly simultaneous
discharges which are distributed over a finite region with angular boundaries (8 - .d8) < 8 < (8 + .d8)
and (¢ - .d¢) < ¢ < (¢ + .d¢), where ¢ is the azimuthal angle measured from some arbitrary reference
radius in a plane through the center of the globe which is perpendicular to a diameter line through
the ELF receiver at the earth's surface (23). Such distributed sources were handled mathematically by
integrating the !E,l z function given by [2J over a spherical area between appropriate limits (2, 4).
The total intensity received from a distributed source depends upon its half-width .d = .d8 as well
as upon the separation 8 between the receiver and the center of the source. If !E!z is measured over a
finite frequency band between!, = 12 Hz and!z = 21 Hz, the dependence upon 8 and .d is as indicated
by Fig. 2, assuming that the total intensity is independent of surface area (i.e. as .d is increased individual
sources are reduced in intensity). Clearly the dependence of received intensity upon 8 is only very weakly
affected by .d; we postulated a value of.d = 5.0 for both of the two simultaneously active sources which
0
can be handled by our source-location procedure (18, 23). The ELF data gave their total intensity and
their relative magnitudes.
1ff2 IEI2d f
I REL
UNITS 4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0 '---+---+---+--+--+--+---t---+---
o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
'-DEGREES
Fig. 2. Integrated power spectrum (eq. [11]) for two different size sources (,11 = Mil = 10° and ,12 = de 2 = 40°)
as a function of angular separation e from the receiver
In determining the magnitude of global lightning activity from the magnitude and spectrum of the
received ELF data, it was clearly desirable to employ a method which would reduce the dependence of
the result upon an exact knowledge of 8. The object here was to minimize the effect of any error made
in the measurement of 8 upon the calculation of the equivalent global current moment. For this reason
L M(w) was calculated from the intensity in a frequency band (12 Hz to 21 Hz) rather than from the
442
intensities at the individual resonances, which depend very strongly upon the exact value of 8 (16, 18,
23). The individual resonances were only used to find 8. As indicated by Fig. 2 an error in the determina-
tion of 8 by 9° in the high slope region, for example at 8 ~ 30°, causes an error of 24 percent in the total
activity estimate, while an error of 9 degrees at 8 ~ 130° causes an error of only 1 percent in the global
current moment LM(w).
The lower cut-off frequency (fl = 12 Hz) of the band used for global intensity evaluation was taken
above the first resonance (f ~ 8 Hz), because the Schumann spectrum is frequently contaminated below
10 Hz by noise which is presumably due to extra-terrestrial sources either in the ionosphere or the
magnetosphere (11, 17).
In calculating both 8 and the global intensity it was necessary to assume an average electrical con-
ductivity profile extending from ground level to about 80 km altitude. It has been shown previously
(16, 23) that the ratios of fields at adjacent resonant frequencies and the ratios of E/H depend only
weakly upon the details of the ionosphere profile while the exact values of the resonance frequencies
(i.e. 8.0 or 8.1 Hz) and the width of the resonant peaks (inversely proportional to cavity Q) depend
strongly upon the profile. In a number of cases we performed therefore an iteration by first evaluating
8 from the measured Er and R", using an assumed "reasonable" conductivity profile (i.e. average profile
based upon published data); employing the value of 8 thus found we then modified the conductivity
profile to obtain better agreement with the measured values of resonance frequency and cavity Q. The
process was repeated until the spectra of Er and R"" calculated by using 8 and the modified conductivity
profile agreed with the measured spectra of Er and R", to within the accuracy ofthe receiving and analysis
equipment (for example Llf = 0.125 Hz for the resonance frequencies). It was also found that in the
absence of a "Solar proton" or "peA" event, the different conductivity profiles are well correlated with
different levels of solar activity as indicated by 10.7 em radio flux (24). In the present study the profiles
shown on Fig. 3 were therefore used depending upon the value of 10.7 cm flux reported for the particular
day (3).
9C L
I - JUNE 7. 1967. FEB. 1.1972
~~
2 - SEPT 6, 1970
3 - NOI/. 16. 1970
8
/J ~
2.3
/ LI
", l- V?-
I
i .,.IU
KT9 ....
KT
COIIIlUCTIVITY
KT
(mho/m)
KT6
Fig. 3. Ionospheric conductivity profiles used for determination of (J and global source strength
(10.7 cm flux in 10- 22 W m- 2 Hz- 1 : 1-107 to 116,2 -159,3-198)
Source Spectrum and Evaluation of Global Lightning Intensity

In the actual computation of lightning activity from measured ELF data, the source dipole moment
M(w) of eq. [2] must be replaced by Sgdw) where
S = magnitude squared of n lightning currents (over path lengths dl i ) contributing to the observed
noise = n (Average current moment)2
[3]
gl (w) = Power spectrum of the source.
443
We used an expression for g1 (w) based upon experimental and analytical estimates of the lightning
flash spectrum (5, 19,20, 29) which was normalized so that its contribution to the total power spectrum
integrated fromf1 = 12 Hz to f2 = 21 Hz was unity:
gdw) = (0.0447)e-o .. 0091 "'Hz-1. [4J
The variation with frequency of this g1 (w) is identical with that used by Raemer (19) and Galejs (5).
Several different forms of g1 (w) were tried in our source location procedure with 12 different data sets
and it was found that [4J gave the best fit between calculated and experimentally obtained power
spectra (such as Fig. 1) (2).
Using relations [2J, [3J and [4J, the power spectrum of the received field due to a number oflightning
strokes distributed over a finite source area of angular extent (0 - .dO) < 0 < (0 + .dO) and (rf> - .drf» <
rf> < (rf> + .drf», and normalized with respect to source area, is given by
+<14> 0+<10
J J Sgdw)IE;(0,w)1 2 a2 sinOdOdrf>
IEr (w)1 2 = _-..:<1:.::,4>..:0_-,;:<1,-0_ _-:-:-_ _ _ _ _ _ __
[5J
+<14> O+AO
J Ja
-A</> 0-<10
2 sin 0 dO drf>
where E; = [Er/M(w)J from eq. [2J with h in [2J being the height of the lowest atmospheric layer
and v resulting from the multi-layer ionosphere models (24) shown in Fig. 3.
This expression was integrated between radian frequencies W1 = 2nf1 and W2 = 2nf2 to obtain the
curve of Fig. 2 (using S = 1).
The value of IEI2 = 1'IEr (wWdw clearly consists of the product between source magnitude S, which
"'1
is independent of w, 0 and rf>, and the propagation parameter F which is the remaining part of the integral
(for convenience divided by .df = f2 - f1)' Since our source location procedure gives two source regions
A and B we represent the total received field (over the frequency range f1 to f2) by
IEI2= SAF A + SBFB. [6J
Defining
[7J
we write
[8J
and the total source strength responsible for the received IEI2 is
T = SA + SB = SA (1 + 15) . [9J
From [8J and [9J it follows that
IEI2
T = I I (1 + 15). [10J
FA + 15FB
T can be evaluated, because IEI2 = "'{IEr(w)1 2dw(V/m)2 is given by the amplitude and frequency
"'1
dependence of the experimentally determined power spectrum of the received ELF noise and FA and
FB are found from [5J after 0A, OB and 15 have been obtained from the source-location program:
F = _1_fJ2IE (f)12d!f (V/m)2 [11J

A.B (.df)S h r (Am)2Hz .
From [10J and [llJ it is clear that the dimensions of Tare

(Am)2
[TJ = (amperemeter)2 Hz = ---. [12J
second
444
This result can be interpreted by assuming that n lightning discharges per second contribute to the
received field; the average current moment of each discharge is then given by
[13]
If we modify IEI2 in [10] so that it is not the integral of the power spectrum betweenf1 and f2' but
the average value of that spectrum
1 f2
IEI~ .. = -If J IE,(fWdf (volt m- 1 )2jHz, [14]
LI "
and if we define the source location parameter F~,B by
1 f2 (voltm- 1)2
F~,B = s), IE,(f)2Idf (Am)2 [15]
the corresponding total source strength becomes
T = IEI~,· (1 + 15) (volt m -1)2 (A m)2

[16]
FA + c5FB (volt m- 1)2 Hz
The dimensions of Tare
[T] = (ampere-second m)2 = (coulomb m)2
[17]
second second
and the average charge-moment transferred by a lightning flash would be
(QdQA" = [T/n]l2coulombm [18]
where n is again the assumed average number of discharges per second.
T and T' are of course related by
T
T = (Llf)2 [19]
and therefore
...,:-(l,.....,dc:"'
-,-
QA,,-,. -_ [ - T J112 -_L J''If sec -1 [20]
(QdQA,' T .
As indicated above, the integration interval LIf = (f2 - fd was rather arbitrarily selected to obtain
the least contamination of the experimental data by non-lightning noise and also to minimize errors
in the computed source strength due to errors in the location procedure. The ratio obtained here be-
tween the sum of all current moments and the sum of all charge moments is therefore rather arbitrary.
Since the size of the average charge moment (10, 26) seems to be better established than the size of the
current moment, which is effective in producing ELF noise, the final results of this study were evaluated
in terms of T.
Numerical Results
The analysis of nine months of data was carried out based on the preceding theory. Six days were
chosen as representative data for each month from September 1970 through May 1971. Two days
were taken near the beginning of each month, two in the middle and two near the end. Days selected
were characterized by locally clear skies and absence thunderstorms within a 1000 km radius. The
results are given in Figs. 4, 5, 7, and 8, which show the equivalent total (world-wide) charge moment
squared per second, T'. Each curve was computed by averaging the six days' data for each month.
The ordinates M2 on the graphs indicate only relative values and must be multiplied by a calibration
factor 4.43 (10 11 ) to obtain T.
The nine-month average as a function of time of day is shown in Fig. 4. Its general shape is similar
to the curve W given by Whipple and Scrase (28) and reproduced by others (9). One reason for the dif-
445
M2 K
ELF
,,---'\
4 2000
K" ------ -7'"'" K"- '\

-, /
/ -\---
V
, I
1500
' - .-
."./
/ \
W/ ~\
I000
r\: W'
2
\ //
~ 500
000 04 08 12 16 20 240
GMT
Fig. 4. Average lightning activity for nine months (ELF) and twelve months:
K = Krumm's evaluation based on WMO data, W = Whipple and Scrase
ference between the two curves (ELF and W) may be that data for June, July and August had to be
omitted in the ELF analysis, because this is the summer season in Kingston when local storms frequently
spoil the ELF data. The difference in average level between the ELF curve and the other two curves
(Wand K) which seems to be indicated on Fig. 4 is due to the use of different vertical scales; the W
and K curves in any case give only relative diurnal variation while the ELF curves represent an absolute
level in (coulomb meter)2 sec- 1 .
The curve labelled K shows the diurnal variation of the average number of thunderstorms on a yearly
basis (13). These results were derived from the world maps prepared by the World Meteorological
Organization (30).
Fig. 5 shows M2 averaged over three-month periods SON (September, October, November), DJF
(December, January, February) and MAM (March, April, May) and Fig. 6 shows a comparison be-
---SON '70
4 -----DJF '70
--MAM'70
-----, ,,
','
I
O~ ____ L -_ _ _ _L -_ _ _ _L -_ _ _ _L -_ _ _ _~ ___~
00 04 08 12 16 20 24
GMT
Fig. 5. Average charge moment squared per second [T' = 4.43 (10") M2 (cmf/s] for different seasons as a
function of time of day (SON = Sept. Oct. Nov.; etc.)
446
1.0
V~
;'
./
/
/
1\
Ej ,
.8
1&1 T / \
0 /
~
!:: .6
-- ./
)
i\ '-,
\
z
~
:IE ~7
IV
> .4
1&1
~.J
1&1
~
V '\
It: .2
o
00 04 08 12 16 20 24
GMT
Fig. 6. Diurnal variation of lightning activity for December-January-February derived from two different analyses
tween the DJF curve and a curve "T" derived by planimetric integration from the maps of "hourly
probability of thunderstorm occurrence" published by the Office of Telecommunications Research (22).
Only relative magnitudes of the intensity levels derived from ELF data are shown on Fig. 6. The "T"
curve does not show as large a difference between maxima and minima. We suggest that this is due in
part to the comparison of long term (several years') data (T) and short term data (ELF). In addition,
oceanic thunderstorms may not have been considered sufficiently in (22).
Curves of M2 giving the diurnal variation of lightning activity for September 1970 and January 1971
are shown on Figs. 7 and 8; similar curves for each of the nine months between September 1970 and
May 1971, not reproduced here to conserve space, are available from the authors. The values of M2
for this entire period vary from 0.34 at 1000 GMT in January 1971 to 4.96 at 1600 GMT in September
1970. If one assumes in eq. [18] a charge moment of 60 coulomb kilometers (26) for the average light-
ning flash, i.e. transfer of 20 coulombs over a 3 kilometer path, this corresponds to a minimum of 42
4
/
/ \"EP .~
'-"
~ J
\ /
3
2
V
I'---
I
o
00 04 08 12 24 16 20
GMT
Fig. 7. Average charge moment squared per second for September as a function of time of day
447
I JA~ . '71
I
7\
4 ----- --
3
I 1\
2
r-... ........,
I
\
o "'-- L/
00 04 08 12 16 2024
GMT
Fig. 8. Average charge moment squared per second for January as a function of time of day
and a maximum of 608 lightning flashes per second. An assumption of 90 coulomb kilometers for the
average flash gives a variation between 19 and 270 discharges per second.
References
1. Clayton, M., C. Polk, H. Etzold, and W. Cooper, IEEE Trans. on Antennas and Propagation 21, 514 (1973). -
2. Clayton, M., World Thunderstorm Activity from ELF data; Ph. D. thesis, University of Rhode Island (King-
ston, R.I., 1974). - 3. ESSA Research Laboratories, Environmental Data Service, Solar - Geophysical Data
(Table of "Daily Solar Flux at 2800 MHz, Ottawa ARO"), Series IER-FB (Washington, D.C., 1970-1971). -
4. Galejs, J., IRE Trans. on Antennas and Propagation 9, 554 (1961). - 5. Galejs, J., Terrestrial Propagation of
Long Electromagnetic Waves (New York, 1972). - 6. Heydt, G., Results of Statistical Evaluations of Photo-
graphic Records of VLF-Atmospherics Parameters Supplemented by Monthly Averaged Values of Azimuthal
Dependent Atmospheric Rates; Technical Report No. 154, Heinrich-Hertz-Institut fUr Schwingungsforschung
(Berlin-Charlottenburg, 1972). - 7. Heydt, G. and J. Frisius, VLF-Atmospherics-Analyzer Network; Heinrich-
Hertz-Institut fUr Schwingungsforschung (Berlin-Charlottenburg, 1972). - 8. Heydt, G., Observation of Single
Storm Complexes with the Atmospherics Analyzer Network; Proc. Waldorf Conference on Long-Range
Geographic Estimation of Lightning Sources, NRL Report 7763, Naval Research Laboratory, 420-433
(Washington, D.C., 1974). - 9. Israel, H., Atmospharische Elektrizitat, Teil II, Felder, Ladungen, Strome, Aka-
demische Verlagsgesellschaft (Leipzig, 1961). - 10. Jones, D. L., 1. Atmos. and Terr. Phys. 29, 1037 (1967). -
11. Keefe, T. J., H. Etzold, and C. Polk, Characteristics of ELF Spectra during Solar Proton Events and Some
Geomagnetically Disturbed Periods; abstract in Program, URSI meeting, Nat. Acad. of Sciences, 72 (Washing-
ton, D.C., 1968). - 12. Keefe, T. J., H. Etzold, and C. Polk, Detection and Processing of ELF (3 - 30 Hz) Natural
Electromagnetic Noise, Final Report AFCRL-TR-73-0077, Part I,-AFSC (Bedford, Mass., 1973). - 13. Krumm,
H., Geophysik 28, 85 (1962). - 14. Langenthal, I. M., Real Time-Time Compression Spectrum Analysis; Bull.
TB-ll, Signal Analysis Industries Corp. (New York, 1971). - 15. Magnus, w., F. Oberhettinger, and L. Soni,
Formulas and Theorems for the Special Functions of Mathematical Physics (Berlin, 1966). - 16. Polk, c.,
Relation of ELF Noise and Schumann Resonances to Thunderstorm Activity; Planetary Electrodynamics (ed. by
S. Coroniti and J. Hughes) 2, 55, (New York, 1969). - 17. Polk, c., Sources, Propagation, Amplitude and Temporal
Variation of Extremely Low Frequency (0-100 Hz) Electromagnetic Fields; in The Effects of Low-Frequency
Magnetic and Electric Fields on Biological Communication Processes (J. G. Llaurado, ed.) (Springfield, Ill.,
1974). - 18. Polk, C. and M. Clayton, Location of Major Thunderstorm Regions Employing ELF Noise;
Proceedings, Conference on Long-Range Geographic Estimation of Lightning Sources, NRL Report 7763,
Naval Research Laboratory, 242 (Washington, D.C., 1974). - 19. Raemer, H. R., J. Res. NBS (Radio Propagation),
65,581 (1961). - 20. Rycroft, M. J., Resonances of the Earth-Ionosphere Cavity Observed at Cambridge, England.
Radio Sci. J. Res. Nat. Bur. Stand./USNC-URSI, 69 D, 8, 1071 (Cambridge, 1965). - 21. Schumann, W. 0., Z.
Naturforschg. 1 (1952). - 22. Telecommunications Research Report OT /1 T S, RR 12, Hourly Probability of World-
448
Wide Thunderstorm Occurrence. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Inst. for Telecommunication Sciences (Boulder, Colora-
do, 1971). - 23. Toomey, J. P. and C. Polk, Research on ELF Propagation with Particular Emphasis on Schumann
Resonance and Related Phenomena, Part. II: Location of Sources; Final Report AFCRL-70-0226, Part II,
Office of Aerospace Res. (Bedford, Mass., 1970). - 24. Tran, A. and C. Polk, Electrical Conductivity of the Meso-
sphere from ELF Spectra; Final Report AFCRL-TR-73-0168, Part III, AFSC (Bedford, Mass., 1973). -
25. 7Tent, E. M. and S. G. Gathman, Oceanic Thunderstorms; Report of NRL Progress, Ocean Sci. Div., Atmos-
pheric Phys. (Branch, 1971). - 26. Uman, M., Lightning (New York, 1969). - 27. Wait, J. R., Electromagnetic
Waves in Stratified Media (New York, 1962 and 1970). - 28. Whipple, F. J. W. and F. J. Scrase, Point Discharge
in the Electric Field ofthe Earth; Geophys. Mem. London VII, 68 (1936). - 29. Williams, J. C., Thunderstorms
and VLF radio noise; Ph. D. thesis, Division of Engineering and Applied Physics (Harward, 1959). - 30. World
Meteorological Organization, World Distribution of Thunderstorm Days; Parts 1 and 2 (Geneva, 1952 and 1956).
Discussion
R. V. Anderson, Washington, D.C., USA:
The spectral analysis which you perform, is this done through analog filtering or is this a digital analysis?
Polk. Kingston, Rhode Island, USA:
It is partially digital and partially analog. For the data which we have presented here, we use 34 minutes ofinte-
gration time in real time to obtain the power spectra. Of course, the data is speeded up in the laboratory and the
actual computation is performed in a few seconds.
I think it is a little overestimation if you said you can give an absolute measure of the lightning intensity.
I have the feeling, from your talk, that it is a method to get a relative figure of the lightning intensity. And, what is
the response of the ionosphere-earth space to cloud-to-cloud flashes and, in comparison with this, to cloud-
to-ground flashes?
Polk:
We do get an absolute number. The electric field and the magnetic field sensors are very carefully calibrated.
This is described in a recent paper. We do not just obtain the diurnal or seasonal variation. We know also what
the attenuation is. The question is, of course, the nature of the exciting source. It has been pointed out by Wait
and Galejs that a horizontal radiator, if it is elevated a considerable distance above the surface of the earth,
excites the earth-ionosphere cavity only very inefficiently. The field which we measure is therefore primarily due
to the vertical component of world-wide lightning activity. So I would say that we do get an absolute intensity,
but it is primarily related to the vertical component of global lightning activity.
I agree with you on the point that the separation between the source and the receiving point has an essential
role on the Schumann resonances. However, the conductivity profile has another important role in determining
the Schumann resonances. Did you calculate with different kinds of profiles of the conductivity?
Polk:
Yes, in fact, we used for the data which is shown here whatever conductivity profile we decided was appropriate
for the particular period. Many parameters can be used when working with Schumann resonances. There are many
resonances, there are two components of a magnetic field, there are the different resonances in the electric field.
Depending upon how one treats the data, one can get either information about the source location, or one can
get information about the ionosphere. We used a treatment of the data which would give us information about
the ionosphere and we compared the results with other studies. We also made use of various solar activity indices
such as 10.7 cm flux and finally used conductivity profiles which seemed appropriate for the solar activity at the
particular time. So, yes, very definitely we employed the ionosphere profile which seemed to be valid at the
particular time at which the observations were made.
Authors' addresses:
M. D. Clayton Ch.Polk
Thistledown Lane Dept. of Electrical Engineering
Kingston, Rhode Island 02881 University of Rhode Island
USA Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, USA
449
Airborne Atmospheric Electrical Measurements of the Variation of IonoSpheric Potential
and Electrical Structure in the Exchange Layer Over the Ocean
(including a discussion of the convective generator over the ocean)
R.Markson
Abstract
The temporal variation of ionospheric potential was investigated by airplane potential gradient soundings
and extended duration constant altitude potential gradient measurements to investigate the classical picture
of atmospheric electricity. 'Soundings provided an estimate of ionospheric potential magnitude; constant level data
indicated variation. In a low noise environment, above the inversion, utilizing one day's data, diurnal change in
potential gradient at constant altitude was clearly seen and in phase with the Carnegie curve. Typically, because of
environmental noise, ground level measurements on land or sea must be averaged over many days for this pattern
to emerge. A day-long comparison of potential gradient above the inversion with similar measurements of air-earth
current density by R. V. Anderson, 7000 km away, showed high correlation. This suggests the ionosphere is an equi-
potential surface in accordance with the classical picture. From 120 potential gradient profiles obtained mostly over
the ocean, the average estimate of ionospheric potential was 241 kV; corrected for diurnal variation it was 219 kV.
Measurements indicate that daily variation of ionospheric potential has not changed over the last four decades.
Details of space charge densities over land and sea were also obtained. A relatively dense positive space charge
layer existed in the lowest 150 m over the ocean; transported upward by convection, this establishes electric field
variations from which circulation patterns in the exchange layer were deduced. Convection of positive space charge
over large portions of the world's oceans may help the global generator, thunderstorms, maintain the ionospheric
potential.
Introduction
The classical picture of atmospheric electricity postulates the upper atmosphere (ionosphere) is in effect
an equipotential surface maintained at an electrical potential of a few hundred kV positive relative to
earth by worldwide thunderstorm activity (5). Wilson (17) suggested a global circuit in which charge
from the upper atmosphere returns to earth in fair-weather regions. However, evidence exists indicat-
ing that significant horizontal electric fields occur across segments of the ionosphere (10,13,15) and one
prominent theory of atmospheric electrification specifies horizontal potential differences with magni-
tudes on the order of hundreds ofkV will be created across portions of the ionosphere by tidal motions
in the upper atmosphere (16). In order to investigate the global circuit, a program was conducted to
develop a method for following the variation of ionospheric potential. Such data could be correlated
with a simultaneous record of worldwide thunderstorm activity, when the latter becomes available,
in order to test the Wilson circuit concept. In addition, two or more simultaneous estimates of iono-
spheric potential at remote locations could be used to determine horizontal potential differences across
segments of the ionosphere.
A small airplane was utilized to obtain 127 potential gradient soundings which provided details of
electrical structure from 5 m above the sea to well above the exchange layer. Also, many extended dura-
tion recordings of potential gradient at constant altitude above the exchange layer were made to observe
quasi-continuously the variation of ionospheric potential. Over flat terrain, when constant columnar
resistance exists, and with constant conductivity at the flight level, the variation of vertical potential
gradient is proportional to the variation of ionospheric potential. The conductivity at measuring alti-
tude controls response time, typically 1 to 2 min at flight levels used. Initial observations over land
and sea in the northeastern United States indicated that spatial and temporal variations of columnar
resistance produced more variation in the record than the expected signal. However, a suitable region
was located in the Bahamas where a clean maritime trade-wind air mass exists. Switching operations
to the Bahamas increased the signal to noise ratio by about a factor of four.
Details of space charge distributions from 5 m above the sea to an altitude of 5.5 km were obtained.
A notable feature was the dense layer of positive space charge generally observed close to the ocean.
450
Table 1. Summary of electrical potentials and percent of ionospheric potential crossed at sounding apogee at various locations
(f l-l. (ut) (f (f l-lG (ut) (f V3 . S (f Vs.s (f V3 •S/l-lG Vs.s/l-lG
LAT (deg) Region N l-l. l-lG
(kV) (%) (kV) (%) (kV) (%) (kV) (%) (kV) (%) (kV) (%) (%) (%)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
46N Nova Scotia (ocean) (4) 218 12.7 206 16.4 228 6.9 216 12.4 187 4.4 208 7.4 82.0 89.5
(4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (2) (4) (2)
43N Albany (land) (14) 250 11.9 223 10.4 255 11.4 228 9.8 217 13.2 220 13.3 85.1 95.1
(14) (14) (14) (14) (14) (11) (14) (11)
Schenectady (4)
Poestenkill (6)
Saratoga Lake (2)
Sacandaga Lake (2)
41-42N Cape Cod Area (ocean) (3) 299 6.7 260 8.9 292 14.0 253 13.3 274 4.6 96
(3) (3) (3) (3) (3) (3)
Nantucket (2)
Provincetown (1)
39N Maryland (land) (5) 284 42.0 248 43.0 247 5.7 218 4.3 209 12.3 84.6
Summit (2) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5)
Waldorf (3)
27-25 N Florida (ocean) (5) 189 7.5 174 7.9 194 9.7 178 7.7 146 10.4 154 75.3 79.4
(5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (1) (5) (1)
G.Mexico (2)
Key West (2)
Miami (1)
25N Bahamas (ocean) (89) 239 23.7 218 '20.2 239 15.7 219 13.1 176 16.7 173 11.2 73.5 79.1
(88) (88) (89) (89) (89) (6) (89) (6)
Eleuthera (85)
Gulf Stream (2)
Andros (2)
sum/mean (120) 241.3 218.5 240.6 219.0 183.7 198.5 76.2 81.0
(119) (119) (120) (120) (120) (20) (120) (20)
-
l-l. = ionospheric potential computed using scale heights from the soundings (ut) = "unitary time" corrected potential as per Carnegie curve
l-lG = ionospheric potential computed using scale heights from the Gish curve (1944) N = number o£ vertical soundings
V3.5 = potential at 3.5 km; (f = standard deviation in percent
Ul
"'"
- Vs•s = potential at 5.5 km
In addition, convection patterns could be inferred from constant altitude potential gradient recordings.
A combination of these phenomena is relevant to the global circuit investigation since the upward
transport of positive charge constitutes a "local generator" (5). If this effect is widespread, it could be
significant in the global circuit; while not directly charging the upper atmosphere, it could help the
"global generator" maintain the ionospheric potential.
Measurements and Discussion

Instrumentation consisted of polonium probes on each end of a vertical mast at the wingtip of an
airplane which provided inputs to a differential electrometer (Keithley 301). The probes were positioned
a) in the same equipotential surface relative to aircraft charge so the latter would not be measured and,
b) so that the aircraft form factor equaled unity to improve measuring accuracy. Five percent was added
to the measurements to allow for signal loading with 10 12 ohm input resistors.
Table 1 summarizes ionospheric and atmospheric potentials by location as derived from all sound-
ings in the program.
Fig. 1 presents the average potential gradient and potential variations with altitude for all soundings
made over the ocean (n = 100). For comparison, the Gish equation (9) and potential variation are
depicted as dashed lines. The bulge in the potential gradient curve to the right ofthe Gish curve below the
inversion appears to be mostly due to convection of space charge. At the top of the exchange layer, the
potential for the soundings is 50 kV higher than the Gish potential. This is 21 % of the average ionospheric
6 I
I f
I
I I
I
I
I I
I I
I
I
5 I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
I I
I I
E 4 I I
.:L I n=20 (land & ocean) I
I
W
l' I
0 ~ I
~
n =100 (ocean) I
I
f- 3 t+-50 kV
f-
--.J
\ POTENTIAL I
I
« \ GRADIE NT I
\ (SOUNDINGS) I
\ I
\ /
2 \ /
\ /
\ /
\ /
\ /
\ /~ -POTENTIAL
\ / (GISH)
/
\ /
\ // .----POTENTIAL
//', . / GRADIENT
....::/
/ '
......
(GISH)
_--
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
POTENTIAL GRADIENT (Vim)
POTENTIAL (kV)
Fig. 1. Average profiles of oceanic electrical potential gradient and atmospheric potential with corresponding
Gish curves for comparison
452
potential. If such a convective generator exists over a significant fraction of the earth's surface, it would
be important in the global circuit. About 80% ofthe earth's surface is ocean and convection is a common
feature over the ocean.
Above the exchange region, the average profile closely followed the Gish curve. Examples of how
precisely the upper portions of soundings can parallel the Gish curve, i.e., have the same scale height
(slope) at a given altitude, are seen in Fig. 2. The voltage increment from the top of a sounding to the
18 \ \~
:. ~\
.
17 i ~I .
5
16 .,
~
" II
\.\
SACANDAGA LAKE
\, \1~ 30 AIJG 1972 (1740 Z & 1930 Z)
overage 01 "uD~ &. "down"
i II
\
15
\
~I
14 ~I
~\
4 13
\\ \\~~
12
t
"
\0
<~~".\\
11
,
E3 ::;'0
x
~
9
5COTlA~
;:1~~L;J 1972
NOVA
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10 30 100 300
POTENTIAL GRADIENT (VIm)
Fig. 2. Examples of correspondance between upper portions of Gish curve and soundings
ionosphere was calculated by taking the product of potential gradient at apogee times scale height in
the upper portion of the sounding (1, 4, 6). There is some uncertainty in the extrapolated portion of
the estimate. However, even at relatively low airplane apogees (compared to balloon soundings) most
of the ionospheric potential is crossed. In the Bahamas, 74 % of the ionospheric potential was below
3.5 km and 79% was below 5.5 km; near Albany, 85% was below 3.5 km and 96% was below 5.5 km.
With about 80% of ionospheric potential crossed at 5.5 km (Fig. 2), an error of 10% in the extrapolated
portion would cause an overall error of 2%. Once an altitude is reached where the characteristic ex-
ponential decrease in field intensity with height exists, scale height can be accurately determined and
little is gained by going higher. When scale heights from the Gish curve were used in place of those
from the soundings, the average ionospheric potential changed by only 0.3% *).
The average ionospheric potential estimated from all complete soundings (n = 120) was 241 kV.
Corrected to allow for the diurnal "unitary" variation as defined by the Carnegie curve (3), the value
*) More details concerning the extrapolated portion are given here than during the oral presentation of this
paper.
453
\36
125
120
115
110
105
I- 100
z
w 95
U
n::
w 90
0..
85
'30
75
70
65 2 o o 14 14 19 27 27 30 27 24 20
nol2 hr Interval
o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 0
HOUR WT)
Fig. 3. Two-hour running mean of ionospheric potential variation from soundings compared to average of
Carnegie potential gradient variation
was 219 kV. Muhleisen (15) reports the average ionospheric potential, estimated from balloon sound-
ings over the last 9 years, was 240 kV (uncorrected). Thus both programs give the same result which
is lower than past estimates (1, 2, 4, 7).
Fig. 3 summarizes the hourly averages of all ionospheric potential estimates arranged according to
GMT and compares their temporal variation to the Carnegie curve. Data were smoothed by taking a
2-hr running mean. The correlation coefficient is 0.96. These results suggest the diurnal variation of
ionospheric potential has changed little since the Carnegie data were obtained almost half a century
ago. Fig. 4 shows all individual ionospheric potential estimates at the time they were obtained. These
are the same data used to calculate the curve seen in Fig. 3. Points taken on the same day are connected
by a line. Large changes are seen during individual days and between days. These variations do not
appear in Fig. 3 because there the data were averaged.
Airborne electric field records obtained during constant-altitude runs above the inversion and next
to the sea surface could be used to infer patterns of organized convection. This is schematically illustrated
in Fig. 5. Air rich in positive space charge near the sea is transported to the inversion by periodically
spaced plumes. This causes periodic increases in potential gradient when the aircraft crosses the plumes
near the surface and periodic decreases when flying above the inversion. Details are given in a separate
report (11).
Space charge profile averages for 77 oceanic soundings are shown in a semi-log plot in Fig. 6 (insert).
A relatively dense layer of positive space charge exists in the lowest 150 m; the average at 10 m is about
100 million elementary charges per cubic meter (e/m3) and at 30m it is about 3 x 10 7 e/m 3. This is the
source of charge for the oceanic convective generator.
Fig. 6 also depicts land versus sea space charge profiles on a linear scale. The dense positive space
charge layer near the sea was present wherever maritime soundings were made. It appears mostly due
to the electrode effect; over land where there are radioactive gases and emanations from the soil, it was
not detected. It was present over a lake where, as over the ocean, there are no radioactive sources (8,14).
A secondary accumulation of positive space charge occurs near the inversion over land due to the
conductivity discontinuity (12).
454
330
320
310
300
290
280
270
>
~ 260
...J
<{ 250
i=
z 240
w
t-
~ 230
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Q::
w 210
I
II..
I/)
0
200
z
Q 190
180
170
160
7 1 1 2 4 o o 4 8 14 14 19 27 27 30 27 24
o
150 "0/2 h,. interval
o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 0
HOUR (UT)
Fig. 4. Summary of all ionospheric potential estimates plotted as a function of sounding time
The X-4 Atmospheric Electrical Intensification Period of the Ten-Year Program provided an op-
portunity to test the techniques ability to measure the temporal variation of ionospheric potential.
Fig. 7 is a comparison of potential gradient variation at a constant altitude of 3.5 km in the Bahamas
with a simultaneous record of air-.:arth current density at 3.3 km over the Gulf of Alaska 7000 km
away. The measurements were conducted over two half-day periods covering a full diurnal cycle.
A 24-hr rest period for the crews was necessary between measuring periods. In the Bahamas, 4 flights
were conducted, 2 on the first day and 2 on the second. Continuous 13-hr records were obtained over the
Gulf of Alaska on both days. Since one measurement was taken every 15-min for the Alaskan time-
series, the Bahamian data were averaged for each corresponding interval to make the comparison.
Linear regression between all Alaskan and Bahamian data gave a correlation coefficient of 0.37, signi-
ficant at the 1% level. Meteorological factors caused the large variations seen during the last Bahamas
flight. When data from this flight were excluded, the correlation coefficient was 0.84, well beyond the
1 % significance level. These results indicate the ionospheric potential tended to rise and fall simul-
taneously in both locations. This would happen if the ionosphere was an equipotential surface. It
could also happen as short period variations superimposed on a relatively constant potential difference
between the locations. Since estimates of ionospheric potential magnitude were made only in the
Bahamas, it is not known if both locations were at the same potential.
Fig. 8 presents ionospheric potential estimates made in the Bahamas and Germany during the X-4
Period with the Carnegie curve as a reference. The temporal variation of both data sets essentially
follows the Carnegie variation. However, the magnitude of estimates obtained in the Bahamas appear
generally lower than those made in Germany. Whether this represents real horizontal potential dif-
455
+
+
+ + +
+ Vertical
Potential Grudlent
+
---------------~
+ + +
Fig. 5. Schematic explanation for periodicities in potential gradient records related to convective patterns.
.
18
17
g~
5 16 5
error bars =lsfd dev
"""pl·'"
~IJ Y'
15
1#
13
12
1 j
/I
~1t---- __
~J -:::.10 ' ..
11 -<: -<:9
~10 .~ '~8
..lo: :t:2 :t: 7
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·iii 7 Ij.
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6 2
1
5 o
If oI I I I I111II I I 1111111 I I I 1111 if'"
0,1 1 10 100
3 '" 13) Positiv, space charge/millions e/m J
Ibany(JandlIn"
2 Nantuckel/CapeCod{n'3) Bahamas (n=n)
1 _x:;;'rl<_.~!~'!.'?ff!'!!t:J!n=2) GulfofMexico(n'2)
o oI I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
-601r-1>
-10 0 10 203040 5060 7080 90 100110120 130 Ito 150160170 180 190200210220 Z30 21{(J
Positive space charge; millions e/m J
Fig. 6. (upper insert) Average space charge profiles for Bahamas' soundings separated as to presence or absence
of whitecaps; (lower) comparison between average space charge profiles at land and sea locations
456
ferences across the ionosphere or is due to calibration, operational, or environmental factors is un-
known. It is recalled that both measuring techniques gave the same average ionospheric potential with
independent data when all estimates from each program were considered.
1.4 -----,- 1.4
1.3
\. 18 FEB 1972
-I' 19 FEB 1972
1.3
1.2 1.2
1.1 ~~ XX
'U
x' ')I-x
1.0 r oo . 2 ; ' \ \ 1.0

no 14
I~'~
0.9
r~:x 0.9
)(~ . . . . ~\ x-", ,x, ,)(, : \,'
~,'\,''x.' "-x x 'x..x,x
\(''''\ ,rx,~ IV \:
x ,I
0.8 ~ 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
)( Anderson, normalized air- earth current

0.5 density (Gulf of Alaska) 0.5
o Markson, normalized vertical potential
gradient (Bahamas)
04 0.4
23 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
HOUR (UT)
Fig. 7. Comparison between simultaneous atmospheric electrical measurements obtained on aircraft 7000km
apart
....... 350 X-4 Atmospheric electric intenSification period

:::.
::::'300
]250 . Carnegie curve diurnal variatian

sf!ton 200kVforcomparison
~
'2;200
Q,
/\
.~ 150
.c:: 100
~ oBahamas (MARKSON)
c [).6ermanyIMiiHLEISENandFtfCHER)
c: 50
.S!
0~--~12~----~13~~--~1~~~~~1~5--~--1~6--~--1~7~~--1~8--~--1~9--~2-0-Fe-Lb~~
Day
Fig. 8. Comparison between ionospheric potential estimates in the Bahamas and German: during the X-4
Atmospheric Electric Intensification Period
457
Conclusion
Evidence has been presented supporting the ability of the described technique to follow the variation
of ionospheric potential. To the extent that this has been achieved, Fig. 4 represents true temporal
variations in the worldwide intensity of the earth's electric field. The technique also makes possible
estimates of potential differences across segments of the ionosphere. The evidence so far tends to sup-
port the assumption that the ionosphere has properties of an equipotential surface and that its potential
varies in a diurnal variation in agreement with the Carnegie measurements. Nevertheless, significant
potential differences probably exist at times across segments of the ionosphere, particularly in the polar
cap regions.
Acknowledgments
This work was conducted as part of a Ph. D. program at the State University of New York at Albany under
the supervision of Prof. Bernard Vonnegut. Individuals who assisted by providing discussion, facilities, or data are:
Robert V. Anderson, Prof. Duncan C. Blanchard, Hans Dolezalek, Dr. Heinz Kasemir, Prof. Donald Latham,
Breon Leary, Prof. Bernard Lettau, Dr. Elizabeth Markson, Prof. Dr. Richard P. Muhleisen and Dr. Lothar H.
Ruhnke. This work was sponsored in part by the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories, Office of
Aerospace Research, under Contract F 19628-68-C-0057 and in part by the Office of Naval Research under
Contracts N 00014-71-C-0156 and N 00014-74-C-0336.
References
1. Buis, P., Atmospheric Electricity at Base "Koning Boudoin" Expedition 1964, Exanter (1 Rue de Louvain,
Bruxelles, Belgium, 1968). - 2. Chalmers, J. A., Atmospheric Electricity, First Edition, 30 (New York, 1957). -
3. Chalmers, J. A., Atmospheric Electricity, Second Edition, 298 (New York, 1967). - 4. Clark, J. F., The fair-
weather atmospheric electrical potential and its gradient, Recent Advances in Atmospheric Electricity, ed. by
L. G. Smith, 61 (New York, 1958). - 5. Dolezalek, H., Discussion of the fundamental problem of atmospheric
electricity, PAGEOPH 100, 8 (1972). - 6. Fischer, H.-J., Die elektrische Spannung zwischen lonosphare und
Erde, Ph. D. Thesis; Univ. Tiibingen, 124 (Weissenau, 1962). - 7. Fischer, H.-J. and R. Muhleisen, Variationen des
lonospharenpotentials und der Weltgewittertatigkeit im 11jahrigen solaren Zyklus, Meteorol. Rundsch. 25, 6
(1972). - 8. Gathman, S. R. and W. A. Hoppel, J. Geophys. Res. 75, 1041 (1970). - 9. Gish, O. H., Terr. Magn.
Atmos. Electr.49, 159 (1944). - 10. Haerendel, G. and R. LUst, Electric fields in the upper atmosphere, Planetary
Electrodynamics, Vol. 2, ed. S. C. Coroniti and J. Hughes, 381 (New York, 1968). - 11. Markson, R., Atmospheric
electrical detection of organized convection, Science 188, 1171 (1975). - 12. Moore, C. B., B. Vonnegut, R. G.
Semon in, J. W. Bullock, and W. Bradley, J. Geophys. Res. 67, 1061 (1962). - 13. Mozer, F. S., PAGEOPH 84,
32 (1971). - 14. Muhleisen, R. P., J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 20, 79 (1961). - 15. Muhleisen, R. P., The global circuit
and its parameters, Proc. Fifth Int. Conf. Atmos. Electr., Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, Sept. 1974
(Darmstadt, 1977). - 16. Webb, W. L., J. Geophys. Res. 73, 5061 (1968). - 17. Wilson, C. T. R., Phil. Trans. A. 221,
73 (1920).
Discussion
I object to the term you use, ionospheric potential, in the interpretation of your measuring results. A better term
would be, extrapolated ionospheric potential, or, even better, the integrated field between surface and five
kilometers.

I defined the way the measurement was made, which is the standard procedure used by all of us who have
estimated "ionospheric potential" in quotation marks, which could more precisely be called an estimate of the
potential of the upper atmosphere relative to earth. I use the term "estimate" of ionospheric potential because
the extrapolated portion is added to the measured portion.

Regarding your figure, where you showed the dependence of the potential gradient in the altitude, it is obvious
that the potential gradient below 3.5 km is higher than normal. Therefore, one has to assume that the course of
the potential gradient above 3.5 km altitude is lower than normal. For this reason I expect that your extrapolation
458
is not correct. I think that you should study the relation between potential gradient and altitude up to higher
altitudes in the region where you carried out your measurements *).
Could you tell us, how you extrapolate your field from 5.5 km to infinity, or how you get that extrapolated
potential?
Markson:
I did it in two ways. I used the upper portion of the individual soundings to obtain scale height in the section
where the curve appears to have a constant slope as could be seen on a semi-log plot. Scale height is the negative
slope of a line in which the natural log of the potential gradient is the abscissa and height is the ordinate. The extra-
polated potential was taken as the scale height times the potential gradient at the top of the sounding. This
potential gradient was determined by a least squares fit ofthe data through the height range where the scale height
was approximately constant. The value of potential gradient at the point where the least squares line crossed
apogee altitude was used. Multiplying scale height times potential gradient at apogee to determine the extra-
polated voltage increment has been the standard procedure used by others in the past. I also used the Gish (1944)
scale height in an alternate procedure. At whatever my apogee altitude was, I computed what the Gish scale height
was for this height and I multiplied this value by the same potential gradient as determined by the least squares
line. The magnitudes of ionospheric potentials came within 0.3 % of the same value, with either procedure, which
indicates that the average of my scale heights was the same as the Gish scale height. However, the standard
deviation of the ionospheric potential estimates was 50 %greater, using the sounding's scale heights, because there
were more variations in the upper (linear) portion of the potential gradient profiles. That is, the curves had not
quite assumed a smooth exponential decrease with altitude at the maximum altitude of my soundings, 5.5 kill,
and deviated even more at the 3.5 maximum altitude of most of the soundings. I am quite convinced that if sound-
ings are made to a somewhat higher altitude, probably no more than 7 km over the ocean, the upper portion of
the soundings would assume an exponential decrease of potential gradient with altitude and closely parallel the
Gish curve.
Author's address:
R.Markson
Measurement Systems Lab. W-91-201
Massachusetts Inst. of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
USA
*) R. Markson does not agree with this statement but he had no chance to present a response during the
Conference.
459
Annual Variations of the Ionospheric Potential,
the Air-Earth Current Density and the Columnar Resistance Measured by Radiosondes
K. Uchikawa
With 4 figures
Abstract
It was found that the horizontal visibility at the surface is related to the air-earth current density in the
stratosphere (6~ and it is expected that the air-earth current density has an annual variation. Statistical results
show that indeed the air-earth current density has a pronounced annual variation, high in winter and low in
summer. The columnar resistance has also an annual variation, reverse to the variation of the air-earth current.
The ionospheric potentials over Tateno and Hachijojima did not show clear annual variation, and no change
over Syowa-Base (Antarctica). The product of thunderstorm days and their areas, on the basis of the World
Distribution of Thunderstorm Days published by the WMO (World Meteorological Organization~ shows a
maximum in July and minima in December and April. According to Miihleisen and Fischer, clear annual
variation of the ionospheric potential was observed at Weissenau, minimum in June and maximum in December.
Above-mentioned facts suggest that variation of the ionospheric potential does not seem simply to be ex-
plained by the thunderstorm activity.
Introduction
Diurnal variations of the atmospheric electric elements have been investigated by many authors
since the famous Carnegie measurements, and representative curves of the diurnal variations of the
atmospheric electric elements at the surface and even in the free atmosphere above the exchange layer
are found. However, we have not found clear ideas on the annual variation of the atmospheric electric
elements, especially in the free atmosphere.
Recently, measurements by radiosonde or aircraft have been carried out and the data have been
accumulated on the global scale (1, 2). Sufficient data are desirable to discuss fully the annual variation.
Now, almost two decades are going to elapse since the IGY (International Geophysical Year). It may
be meaningful to discuss the annual variations by using the accumulated data since then, although
the analysis might be unsatisfactory.
Ionospheric Potential
Radiosonde flights or aircraft soundings were carried out for measurements of the potential gradient
in the free atmosphere at many stations in the world. From these results, we can calculate the ionospheric
potential. A great amount of available data were obtained at Weissenau (2). Fig. 1 shows the annual
variations of the ionospheric potential obtained at six stations in the world. The curve for Leningrad
indicates the potential difference between ground and 6000 m height. Mean values for three months
are plotted in every curve. For instance, the value of March includes those from February to April, the
value of June includes those from May to July and so on. By a glance at Fig. 1, we cannot fmd a
common type of annual variation. The most characteristic curve is the variation obtained at Weissenau.
In this curve every point includes at least forty soundings. The ionospheric potential at Weissenau
shows minimum in summer and maximum in winter. Another characteristic curve is found in Ant-
arctica (Syowa-Base). It is almost flat and its maximum and minimum are not clear. On other four
curves, except Uppsala, maxima occur in winter and minima occur in spring or autumn.
The product of thunderstorm days and their areas was calculated monthly on the basis of the WMO
maps, to investigate the annual variation of thunderstorm activity. Fig. 2 shows the results. It can be
seen that the maximum occurs in July and minima occur in December and April. According to Figs. 1
and 2, variation ofthe ionospheric potential does not seem to depend only on the thunderstorm activity,
though we haven't satisfactory data to discuss the annual variation.
460
'I,
,.....--TATE NO
~; 120 'I,
...--HACHIJ OJ I MA 110
100
90
'I,
r
80
o
100
'T
"'-UPPSALA
90
100
'LENINGRAD 90
'I,
80
110
f'"
/WEISSENAU
100
90
1101'"
_______ 100
\~~~ASE 90
I I I I
DEG MAR JUN SEP DEG
Fig. 1. Annual variations of ionospheric potential
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
JAN MAR MAY JUL SEP NOV
Fig. 2. Product of thunderstorm days and their areas calculated on the basis of the WMO maps.
Ordinate: arbitrary unit
Air-Earth Current Density

The air-earth current density in the free atmosphere has been measured by radiosonde since 1964
at the Tateno Aerological Observatory. The ascent was made once a week, every Wednesday, and
available data were obtained during the period of 1964-1967. Two vertical antennas were used for
measurements (3).
It was found that a meteorological element, namely the horizontal visibility at the surface, is related
to the air-earth current density in the stratosphere (6). Generally speaking, small air-earth current
density corresponds to low visibility, and large air-earth current density corresponds to high visibility.
From these results we can expect that the air-earth current density would have an annual variation,
for the visibility has a seasonal (annual) variation. Fig. 3 shows the variations of the air-earth current
density in the stratosphere obtained at Tateno. On account of scant data, mean values for three months
were plotted. We can see a clear annual variation, high in December and low in June, although individual
values showed a fairly large amount of deviation.
461
i (pA/m 2 )
1.5
1.0
0.5
MAR JUN SEP DEC MAR JUN SEP DEC MAR JUN SEPDEC MAR
1964 1965 1966 1967
Fig. 3. Variations of air-earth current density in the stratosphere observed at Tateno
Columnar Resistance
Negative polar slectric conductivity was measured at Tateno during the period of 1957 -1962 (4).
Columnar resistance R can be calculated as follows:
R=J+dH
21\,_o
[1]
where A_ is the negative polar conductivity, h is the height of the atmosphere. The value of the columnar
resistance between 20 km height and the ionosphere is only 0.1 % of the value between the surface and
the 20 km height. For a practical calculation, h in eq. [1] can be taken as the height of the 50 mb level
(about 20.5 km). Fig. 4 shows the variations of the columnar resistance at Tateno during the period of
1957 -1960. We can see a clear annual variation in this figure. Maxima occur in June and minima
occur in December.
1.5
1.0-
SEP DEC MAR J UN SEP DEC MAR J UN SEP DEC MAR J UN SEP DEC
1958 1959 1960
Fig. 4. Variations of columnar resistance obtained at Tateno
DiseUllSion
The thickness of the exchange layer increases in summer and decreases in winter (5), and the horizontal
visibility is generally large in winter and small in summer. These phenomena influence the columnar
resistance in the exchange layer. The greater part of the columnar resistance is in the exchange layer.
We may explain the annual variation of the columnar resistance observed at Tateno by the activity
of the exchange layer. The change of the air-earth current density observed at Tateno is inversely
proportional to the change of the columnar resistance. These observations at Tateno were not simul-
taneous, and the amounts of amplitude of Rand i are 35% and 42% of mean values respectively.
462
Ionospheric potential at Weissenau has a maximum in winter and a minimum in summer and its
amplitude is 18% of the mean value. This variation is in phase to the annual variation of the potential
gradient at the surface. Ionospheric potential observed at Weissenau and the thunderstorm activity
shown in Fig. 2 are contrary to the hypothesis that the ionospheric potential depends only on the thun-
derstorm activity. On the other hand, variation of ionospheric potential at Syowa-Base is almost flat
through the year, and the deviation from the mean value is within ± 2%. This behaviour seems to be
due to local effects. The exchange layer exists on the continent, but not in the polar region. We should
consider the electric behaviour in more detail in the exchange layer and should accumulate data on
the global scale in order to investigate the variation of the ionospheric potential.
References
1. Voeikov, A. I., Main Geophysical Observatory: The data of measurements of electric field strength of the
atmosphere at various altitudes (1964, 1965). - 2. Voeikov, A. I., Main Geophysical Observatory: Results of
observations of atmospheric electricity (1965 -1969, 1971). - 3. Kasemir, H. w., A radiosonde for measuring
the air-earth current density. US Army Signal Res. and Develop. Lab., Fort Monmouth, 32 (New Jersey,
1960). - 4. Uchikawa, K., Geophys. Mag. 31,705 (1963). - 5. Uchikawa, K., Geophys. Mag. 30, 617 (1961). -
6. Uchikawa, K., Pure and Appl. Geophys. 100, 54 (1972).
Discussion
I am wondering about the seasonal variation of the mean potential difference at Weissenau. We studied this
very intensively, but we introduced in this picture the error bars and the scattering bars. Then you can no lon~er
find a seasonal variation at all. And I would like to say that this is true for the other stations, too. Because of many
efforts for an improvement of our accuracy which have not been made by others, I would feel that the error bars
of other balloon-results are a little larger than ours. And then the seasonal variation will be completely
eliminated..
Uchikawa, Tokyo, Japan:
The variation of the variation over the sea and the ground will be different from each other. Individual values.
indicate large scattering; but average values, including large numbers or flights, will show available data if the
observations are comparatively good.
In the slide you showed *) the measured values of current density from the three stations with a scale of visibility
as the vertical scale. Was that the visibility at the surface, as to a surface observer?
Uchikawa:
The visibility was observed at surface.
Author's address:
K. U chikawa, Chief Marine Section
Japan Meteorological Agency
Otemachi, Chyoda-ku
Tokyo, Japan
*) Figure not reproduced here, see reference (5).
463
Air-Earth Current Density Over the Atlantic Ocean *)
W. Gringel and R. Muhleisen
With 2 figures
Abstract
During the METEOR-expedition 1973 we have measured for the first time directly the air-earth current density
over the ocean. This is one of the most important parameters in the global air-electric circuit, because the total
current flowing permanently from the ionosphere to the earth is mainly due to the contributions over the oceans.
The values for these areas which have been published up to now are calculated from the conductivity resp. the
small ion concentration of the air and the electric field near the sea surface. But just in this region there exists an
electrode effect in full magnitude detected by us in the year 1969 for the first time. Therefore an estimation of the
accuracy and reliability of these former calculations was rather difficult.
One part of our direct measurements of the air-earth current density over the North Atlantic near 16° Nand
43° W yield values between 1.8 pA/m2 and 3.5 pA/m2 according to a preliminary evaluation. The discrepancy
between these new values and the value published in 1970 by one of the authors is mainly caused by a condition
of the air, aspirated by the "Gerdien aspirator", which was polluted (in spite of the high position on board) by
the exhaust of the ship. This fact was not expected, but by extensive aerosol measurements and by special
conductivity measurements at different places, mainly at a mast 6 m over deck of ship, this has been discovered
in 1973.
Furthermore the direct measured values for the air-earth current density could be confirmed by calculations
of the current density using conductivity and electric field values on board ship and in the free atmosphere, which
we got from a series of radiosonde ascents up to 12 km height (Figs. 1 and 2). In contrast to some measurements
over land by other authors, our results show a constancy of the current density with height as it is required for
undisturbed conditions by Wilson's theory.
h
,, I
10 .
,,
I
Ii
~
I
km i
"
Fig. 1. Positive and negative air-conductivity .l.± and electric field strength E as function of altitude. On the right
part, there is calculated the polar air-earth current density jv = E x .l.±. The mean value for the total current
density amounts to 2.3 x 10- 12 A/m 2 • Ascent at Pos. 16°05' N, 45°42' W (North Atlantic) Launching 22. 11. 73
20:20 GMT
Ette, Ibadan, Nigeria: Discussion

I want to find out whether the current antenna was a solid metal plate, or whether it was a mesh?
Gringel, Ravensburg, West-Germany:
It was a very fine mesh of about half a millimeter.
*) Abstract and figures only. Full paper to be published in "METEOR Forschungsergebnisse".
464
jv -values obtained by: ...&. balloon measurements
• measurements with a floating net
20. 27. Nov. 73

O~~~~~~~__~~~__~~~~~~~__~~~
012 12 OGMT
Fig. 2. The solid line shows the air-earth current density calculated from air conductivity and electric field strength,
which have been measured continuously on board ship. Also the direct measured values from the sea-surface on
21 and 23 November, and the values from balloon ascents up to 12 km altitude on 22 and 26 November 1973
are shown

How many pairs of flights did you make from which you could calculate the air-earth current density, and from
these flights, how many did show this beautiful constant current, and how many did not? What I am driving at
is the following. You should not really say the current is constant but tell us how constant. Cobb showed in his
diagram the average, and the standard deviation from a number of flights so that we have an idea what kind
of scattering is involved. It is always possible to select from a sufficiently large number of flights one where the
air-earth current is constant - let's say inside ± 5 %
Gringel:
During the whole expedition we carried out 6 ascents where we measured conductivity and electric field with
altitude. At all six ascents we found that the air-earth current density was constant with altitude.
May I ask you to please clarify what you call air-earth current? How large is the deviation? Certainly, the
current density is not exactly constant. If there is a deviation of 10% or 20 % or even 30 %, do you still call it
constant?
Gringel:
From my measurements I can only say that the mean value is constant with altitude except a scattering of
values, calculated from marked points of each ascent. I found that the deviation of the mean value was less than
10% or 15%.
Marksoll, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA:
If I recall correctly, the air-earth current measured by the balloon was about 1,5 x 10- 12 A m - 2. The values
on the sea surface were about between 2 and 3. I am wondering if this may be due to the effect pointed out by
Hutchinson's paper of the collection of space charge due to turbulence near the surface in the electrode layer. This
effect should be there under all but calm wind conditions.
Gringel:
What you mean referring to the last slide were only the values for the polar current density (jv± = E x A±),
but the total air-earth current density amounted to 2.3 x 10- 12 A m- 2 • Thus, it gave us the same result as the
calculated values from conductivity and field strength measured on board the ship.
Markson:
I see. I misunderstood your slide.
465
Ruhnke:
In Cobb's data on current density versus altitude, a decrease in current density appears only at about 10 km
altitude. Your flight level reached only to 10 km as shown in the figure. Did all of your flights end at 10 km, or
do you have constant current above that level too, up to 30 km?
Gringel:
No, during this expedition we measured only up to 12 km altitude. But we have some other flights over land.
One was made by Riekert in 1968 or 1967, who found a nearly constant value, up to 25 km, for the product field-
strength times conductivity.
Authors' address:
W. Gringel and R. Muhleisen
Astronomisches Institut der
Universitat Tiibingen
AuBenstelle Weissenau
D-7980 Ravensburg-Rasthalde
West-Germany
466
The Global Circuit and Its Parameters *)
R. Milhleisen
With 9 figures
Abstract
Wilson's hypothesis of the global air-electric circuit with the thunderstorms as generators has not been proven
up to now. However, many results of measurements and considerations support the ideas of Wilson a.o. The task
remains to study the significant parameters of the circuit one by one and in particular the balance of currents
through this circuit. The main parameters are: the charge output of the thunderclouds to the ionosphere and to
the ground, which includes the number of simultaneously acting storms and their individual output, the total air-
earth current in fine-weather areas as well as in cloudy and weakly precipitating regions, the electric potential
difference between ionosphere and ground and the columnar resistance. New measured values of these parameters
are discussed and introduced into a new balance. It seems that a smaller value for the total current in the global
circuit of about 1000-1200 A should be used in the future instead of 1800-2000 A formerly.
Some remarkable measurements gave information about horizontal fields in the magnetosphere and ionosphere
which penetrate at least into the stratosphere and perhaps into the troposphere. It will be one task for the future
to clear up the duration and the intensity of deviation from Wilson's picture produced by such magnetospheric
dynamo effects.
The papers of this Conference show that there exist many ideas, new problems, obscure observa-
tions and contradictory hypotheses in the field of atmospheric electricity. Also in the case of the global
circuit one has many new results and one has to state first the proved and ensured facts. The second
step will be to exhibit new attempts, new problems and to make critical remarks to some ambiguous
results or new developments. No judgement of course can be without personal note. Many statements
given in the following base on measurements, calculations, and theoretical considerations made by
the author since 1960.
Wilson's Hypothesis
The wellknown hypothesis of Wilson (1920) which was evolved lateron by Whipple, Scrase, Simpson
a.o. led to a picture as given in Fig. 1. Up to now this hypothesis is the best way to describe the electric
global phenomena. In 1920 there was only little knowledge about electric fields and currents below
Fig. 1. Atmospheric electric global circuit after C. T. R. Wilson (1920)
*) Invited paper.
467
thunderclouds. Also very little was known from balloon flights about conductivity which is increasing
with height. Out of this simple knowledge Wilson formulated his hypothesis, which is saying that
thunderstorms represent the generators in the global circuit. In the average, these generators carry
negative charges towards the ground and transport positive charge to a conducting layer in the higher
atmosphere. The charge distributes homogeneously in these layers. Between earth surface and the
conducting sphere a voltage has been built up, which drives a current I tot downwards in all fair-weather
areas of the atmosphere. Thunderstorm currents and the currents in the remaining area of the atmos-
phere, mainly in the fair-weather regions have to be in halancc. Thc hypothesis of Wilson has most
of the scientists as its supporters, though it is hardly quantitatively proven.
The only value which describes the actual conditions 111 th.: global au· elcl.:tric I.:irl.:uit accurately and
which can be measured up to now is the electric potential difference between ionosphere and earth.
This will be shown later.
At present, the main problems and questions are the following:
1. How large is the existing power at all times in the whole region outside the generators: Jj x I tot ?
2. Is this power balanced by the total effective output of the generators supplied to the conductors:
n x WI1 ,?
3. How is the link between the thunderclouds and the conductors? In particular, which kind of charge
transport occurs between the thundercloud base and earth: conduction current, precipitation current
and/or lightning current, mainly?
4. How large is the contribution of non-thunderstorm clouds, especially showers? .
In order to answer these questions one has to consider to which degree the different parameters
"re known at the present time.
Currents Above Thunderstorms

Only a few measurements by Vonnegut et al. (1966), Gish and Wait (1950), Stergis, Rein and Kangas
(1957) and Imyanitov (1967) exist on the magnitude of the intensity of current over the whole area of a
thundercloud. They show currents of 0.1 up to 6 A with an average value of about 1/2 -1 A per thunder-
storm cell. No measurements exist on the influence of the geographical latitude on this current intensity.
It would be interesting to know, for example, if the lightning-intensive tropical thunderstorms deliver
more or less current than the thunderstorms in the moderate zones. One cannot say whether the average
current is also modified as a result of the different heights of the cloud base, or of the frequency of light-
ning to ground. Furthermore, some observations indicate that there exist some or even many storms
over South America, India and Central Africa which have an inversed polarity.
Number of Generators
Also, the number of simultaneously working thunderstorms, n, is uncertain. Due to calculations by

Brooks (1925), Whipple (1929) and Krumm (1962) the number seems to be 1500-1800. In order to
know continuously the number of thunderstorms existing per hour one way is repeatedly recommended,
namely the counting of atmospherics, or of lightnings directly. Besides the problem of exact counting
of all cloud to ground flashes without the cloud to cloud or intracloud flashes, the question remains: is
the number of flashes a measure for the electric output of the thunderstorms as generators? This is the
parameter, which we have to know from all storms, simultaneously.
From the number of thunderstorms, n = 1500-1800, and a mean value of the current intensity
over one thunderstorm cell, i = 1/2 -1 A, results the wellknown value of the global current I tot =
n x i = 800 -1800 A. Up to now these figures are still used. Possibly there are other generators still
effective in the atmosphere, for example the so called "Austausch" generator which leads to a charge
transport in the lower atmosphere. Furthermore, the effect of showers and continuous rain is rarely
observed, though this kind of precipitation covers much greater areas than thunderstorms. One example
of a field measurement is shown in Fig. 2. Doubtlessly, in this case the negative potential gradient
recorded above a shower cloud led to a current from the top of the cloud to the higher conducting
468
h/km
top I
15
'/ Il
I
I
I
Weissenau
I
I
I
I
13
22.06.61
I
I
I 13 29 Release
I
I
12 13" Shower
I
11
8/8Cu,Ac cast.,Cs
Visib. 10 -15 km
I
10
t = +22°C RH 61°/0
No ~ observation in
the flight patr. area
9
I
I I
I
I I
I 8
I
I
-
II I I I I
15 10 5 0 + 5 VIm 10 dV
d-h
Egtential gradient above shower cloud
Fig. 2. Negative potential gradient dV/dh above a shower cloud indicates the function as an additional generator
in the global circuit
layers. The same is valid for sand-storms, which are electrically charged due to measurements in Nigeria
(Harris, 1967, and Ette, 1971). Sand dust can be carried over several thousand kilometers.
Currents Below Thunderc louds

What was said about the area above thunderclouds is even more valid for the region between cloud
base and ground. Below the base of thunderclouds there exist three different kinds of current, which
carry the charges towards the earth surface. One has to distinguish between:
1. Corona currents from points on trees, bushes, grass and buildings; with a new total value of about
640 A after Stromberg (1971).
2. Lightning currents with a total amount of about 400 A.
3. Precipitation currents below thunderclouds, which have only partly the same direction as the
above mentioned currents. Most of the time, this current has the opposite direction and a total value
of about 200 A is estimated.
Due to the above mentioned values the total amount of currents is therefore 840 A.
All values of these currents are questionable. They should be estimated with more accuracy again
and subdivided for moderate, tropical and subtropical climates by using a well tested measuring method.
Thus, uncertainty remains concerning the number of lightnings, the ratio between cloud-to-ground
discharges, the amount of the charge transport below the thundercloud, the extent of other generators,
and the number of generators with "wrong" polarity. Due to these many parameters, different by time
and place, it will be hardly possible to establish a measuring project with the goal to obtain an absolute
value of the active part of the global circuit n x W~.
The Fine-Weather Vertical Current

Probably one has less difficulties to determine the local power in the global circuit outside the genera-
W
tors ~ x Itol> respectively fR, where R is the global resistance between ionosphere and earth (see Fig. 1,
right side). The value of the total current I tot can be calculated by integrating the measurable vertical
current density j,. over the fair-weather area ofthe globe. One should count with approx. 1 x 10- 12 A/m2
469
for inhabited and industrialized areas and with 2-4 x 10- 12 A/m2 for vegetated grounds and for
deserts. With these mean values one gets a total current of 300 A for land. Recent values are smaller.
For instance, Buis (1967) quoted a current of 220 A for the continents.
The value for the oceans is uncertain; there exist only very few values. The formerly accepted value
of 3.5 x 10 -12 A/m2 from the Carnegie cruises has been revised downwards recently (M iihleisen and
Riekert, 1970). Kraakevik (1961) calculated 2.5 x 10- 12 A/m2 for the Pacific and 1.6 x 10- 12 A/m2
for the Atlantic. Latest direct measurements with a floating net which have been carried out first bv
Miihleisen and Gringel (see these proceedings) led to similar values. Reasons for a decrease might pos-
sibly be, first, an increase of the air pollution over the oceans, and secondly, the electrode effect which
must be accounted for in the determination of the vertical current density from field and conductivity.
With a mean value of about 2 x 10- 12 A/m2, one would obtain a total current over the sea of about
750 A. These figures lead to a value of the entire fair-weather vertical current I tot of about 1000 A.
A neglected factor in all known estimations is the vertical current above high mountains. The columnar
resistance over this part of the earth is much smaller than over flat land. Therefore it is possible that a
considerable part of the global vertical current streams towards the mountains. An estimation made by
the author leads to a value of about 20%. .
Columnar Resistance
Another parameter in the air-electric global circuit is the columnar resistance Re. One is able to
calculate its value from average values of the atmospheric conductivity A (h) dependent on the altitude h:
Re = I A(h)1 dh
00
and obtains from the conductivity values of Gish (1944) a value of

Re = 1.3 X 10 17 nm 2 •
It is variable with time and place. The main part of the columnar resistance is located in the lowest
part of the atmosphere (see Fig. 3) and is strongly depending on weather conditions.
h
00
10% stratosphere
10
20% upper troposphere
Rc
km 6 exchange layer
0,1
10% ground layer
o
percentage of the
columnar resistance Rc
Fig. 3. Contribution of different atmospheric layers to the columnar resistance
470
No doubt that the columnar resistance has a longterm trend to increase with the pollution of the
atmosphere, but nobody knows how much, up to now. Furthermore, the columnar resistance has a
connection with the meteorological state of an air mass, but in a complicated matter of dependence.
This, for instance, makes it difficult to offer the meteorologists a possibility to define the kind of air
mass from air electric resistivity measurements.
With all columnar resistances all over the globe one is able to estimate a value for the total resistance
in all fine weather areas together with the cloudy areas without precipitation. One gets a global resistance
R = 230Q.
Taking into account the high mountains this value is revised to be, after a rough estimation, 200 Q.
But, again, it is very difficult to gain an exact value.
Ionosphere Potential
The value of the voltage Vr between the equalizing layers, practically the ionosphere and the earth
surface, can be estimated by using the values of the entire global resistance R and the total current I tot :
Vr = R x I tot = 230Q x 800 A to 1800 A = 180kV to 4OOkV.
On the other hand this value can be estimated with different methods:
1. By measuring the vertical electric field E(h) and by integrating it over the altitude h:
00
Vr = SE(h)dh.
o
The median value ofthe results of measurements at Weissenau (South-West Germany) during the last
15 years is:
and the mean value is:
2. By measuring the atmospheric conductivity A (h) as function of the altitude h and by measuring
the air-earth current density iv in the same area; then it is
Vr = i,· I A:h) dh = i,·Rc •
One assumption is necessary: the measurement conditions have to be very homogeneous in the area.
In the opinion of the author, other attempts to measure the ionospheric potential will not be suc-
cessful. It would be nice to have a tethered balloon in about 10 km altitude as Vonnegut suggested, and
to measure the potential of this layer immediately. But many difficulties, not only the problem with
the air-traffic control, may be too great in order to realize this project.
Doubtless the ionospheric potential is the only measurable more or less global parameter. All other
measurements are restricted to more or less local parameters. Therefore, the measurements of the
ionospheric potential have a special significance and results shall be reported in the following.
In Fig. 4, different variations of the ionospheric potential are presented. The potential has been
determined by integration of the electric field over the altitude as it is mentioned above, whereby the
field measurement has been carried out by balloon radiosonde ascents. During 356 ascents the minimum
potential value amounted to 145 kV, the mean 278 kV and the maximum 608 kV. Furthermore, the
figure shows the distribution ofthe measured value, an l1-year variation and the average daily variation.
Up to now, we do not know the reason for the variation in the solar cycle which seems to be opposite
to the solar activity characterized by the relative sunspot number. But this 11-year variation points to
a solar influence on the global circuit, a fact which will be discussed below. The daily variation corres-
ponds in an excellent manner with the daily variation of the electric field on the oceans. Today this
daily course of the ionospheric potential as well as of the oceanic electric field, is a confirmed fact.
471
REL. FREQUENCY MEAN ll-YEAR CVClE MEAN DAILY VARIATION
_________________________ 0
Eo
MAX --------------------;>'....".----'. 0
v ....
=-""'-------",c------'-'20
__~------------~--~~oo
--~~------------------~
~
~ ~
~ -
----~-------------- ~
--------------------- ~
, , I I I I I I I , , • ,
1969 60 81 112 IS3 e4 ell 88 87 118 68 10
Fig. 4. Variation of the electric potential difTerence be twee n iono phere a nd ea rt h (1 25 ascents class I to 3)
Fig. 4. Variations of the electric potential difference between ionosphere and earth (t 25 ascents class t to 3)
number
of ascents
30
,-,
I \
I \
I
I \
I \
\
\
\
\
20 I
\
\
\
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
10 I
I
\
\
\
,
O~~~~~~~~~~~~-L~--~~--~~~-
90 120 ISO 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420 450 480 510 540 570 600
VI [kV)
Fig. 5. Frequency distribution of measured ionospheric potential values VI
472
But - and this often is overlooked and neglected - all these variations will be obtained only as an
average. The single values are varying strongly as demonstrated in Fig. 5, which shows the day to day
variation. In this figure, the distribution of all measurement results after elimination of the mean daily
as well as the mean ll-year-variation has been presented. It is important to point to the great scat-
tering of the individual values of the ionosphere potential.
"
99
%
95
90
80
,~, --- = 175 balloon ascents, classification 1- 3
,350 1· 9
70
60
50 ~'"
~
40
30
20 .........
~,
10
,
5
2 "'"~,
"
1 t::::..
0,5
.....
0,1
100 200 300 400 500kV 600 VIx

Fig. 6. Frequency distribution f'l ;::: f'lx
Finally, in Fig. 6 all obtained values of the ionospheric potential are represented as frequency distri-
bution of the values VI ~ J.-fX. It results a nearly log-normal distribution with a median value VI=ed =
240 kV. The two curves are based on a different selection of the values, which depends on the accuracy
of the single ascent results.
A view on Fig. 4 could lead to the conclusion that because of the close connection between the iono-
spheric potential and the oceanic field one needs to measure only the ground field E, instead of carrying
out expensive ascents. But once again one has to take into consideration that this connection does
not exist for single pairs of values. A constant ratio between V; and E postulates that the columnar
resistance over the station remains constant. This condition is controlled by meteorological factors
and by ionization strength. Both can vary and therefore there is only small hope to find places which
meet these suppositions, perhaps at high mountains, sometimes at oceans and in arctic regions. Also,
the current density will be influenced in similar manner, so that its measurement cannot substitute the
determina tion of J.-f.
Horizontal Fields in the Upper Atmosphere
All considerations made above base on the assumption that there exists an equalizing layer in the
higher atmosphere, which is free of generators. But since many years it is clear that this assumption is
not quite right. From many theories of Bostrom and Fahleson (1973), Maeda (1964), Obayashi (1964),
Volland (1971) and others we know that there exist at least three mechanisms, which produce potential
differences in the magnetosphere. In addition, because of observations and records of Mozer et al.
(1974) there is no doubt that these voltages can penetrate the magnetosphere, the ionosphere and the
stratosphere. The question is open whether these voltages may influence the field and the air-earth
current density over some places on the ground and make differences in the worldwide picture.
With regard to measurements at the ground, there exist up to now no certain indications for such
473
; 20mV/m
1240Ql
30KV
NORTHERN POLAR
CAP, By < 0 I 00
Fig. 7. Equipotential contours in the stratosphere derived from measured field vectors round the polar cap,
after Mozer et al. (1974). (Hourly average electric field vectors plotted in a magnetic local time invariant latitude
nonrotating frame of reference for the data collected when By < 0, along with equipotential contours of the
large-scale polar cap electric field deduced from the experimental data. Several vectors emanating from a point
mean that samples were collected on more than 1 day.)
influences. Perhaps the observations of Olson (1971) in the Northern United States and Canada could
be considered as this kind of indications.
According to the author's knowledge, neither the findings of the world-wide synchroneous course of
the daily field variations on the oceans, nor the daily field variations on land indicate a dependence on
magnetospheric voltages. But it may be not improbable that the analysis offield records on two or more
undisturbed land-stations round the magnetic poles in a distance of some thousand kilometers may give
information about such a relation (see Fig. 7). If we look at pictures like this one by Mozer et al. (1974),
we can see horizontal potential differences of about 50 kV in the magnetosphere. These differences
rotating round the poles with the sun should influence the field on the ground and its daily course,
if the magnetospheric fields penetrate the upper and the lower atmosphere. Reiter as well as Miihleisen
found quite different solar-terrestrial relationships associated with solar events. Reiter (1969) detected
an increase of the potential gradient on top of the Zugspitze (3000 m) several days after a solar flare
(see Fig. 8), and Miihleisen, Fischer, and Hofmann (1971) found differences in the potentials of the iono-
sphere over the Equator and over Southern Germany only 1 to 2 days after a strong solar eruption
(see Fig. 9). In both cases, we have no clear explanation of this pronounced deviation from Wilson's
hypothesis. One can only assume that in the second case an influx of fast charged particles from the
sun is separated due to the sign of the charge by the geomagnetic field and generates in this way a
horizontal field between the accumulated charges in different regions of the upper atmosphere.
Summarizing the above mentioned features, one can say that in general Wilson's hypothesis is right.
Surely, we have to check the balance in the global circuit by improvement of detailed measurements.
In particular, we have to try to obtain better knowledge on the thunderstorm parameters as there are
kind and amount of the charge transporting processes. Finally, we have to add some modifications to
the Wilson hypothesis due to other generators in the lower troposphere and particulary in the upper
474
Zugspz'tze peak 2961fmas.1
Feb. 67 - 11ay 69
160
% PotentzOi gradient
1M E
120
[)i:~?:ti
100 ~~ 16 37 31f 15 1* 28
,1. ,
Nr 30
80
I ][
60 sIde level -5 -If -J -2 -7 -0++7 +2+J +4 +S side level
days ke)day
Hrx flare
Fig. 8. Increase of the potential gradient E at high mountains after solar eruptions [H-alpha flares, three years
superposed epoch analysis] (Reiter, 1969)
Ionosphere
~6600km
Fig. 9. Horizontal difference of ionosphere potential derived from simultaneous balloon ascents (Muhleisen, 1972)
atmosphere. In this connection, the determination of the ionospheric potential gains special significance.
In order to detect magnetospheric horizontal fields one has to aim at a measuring error of 5 % at maximum,
because the horizontal potential differences being expected are between 10 and perhaps 80 kV. Only
with this accurac:-, of measurement, we shall have a chance to get reliable results on the electric features
in the higher parts of the global air electric circuit by measurements in the lower atmosphere.
References
1. Bostrom, Rand U. Fahleson, Theoretical and experimental considerations behind balloon-borne electric field
experiments, TRIT A-EPP-73-14 Royal Inst. of Technology Dep. of Plasma Physics, 1 - 26 (Stockholm 1973). -
2. Brooks, C. E. P., Met. Office, Geophys. Mem. 3, 145 (1925). - 3. Buis, P. M., Nature 216,360 (1967). - 4. Ette,
A. I. I., 1. Atm. Terr. Phys. 33, 295 (1971). - 5. Gish, O. H., Terr. Magn. 49, 159 (1944). - 6. Gish, O. H. and
G. R Wait, 1. Geophys. Res. 55. 473 (1950). - 7. Harris, D. J., Nature 214, 585 (1967). - 8. Imyanitov, I. M.,
Trudy Glavnoy Geof. Observ. 204,3 (1967). - 9. Kraakevik, J. H., 1. Geophys. Res. 66, 3735 (1961). - 10. Krumm,
H.-Chr., Z. Geoph. 28, 85 (1962). - 11. Maeda, H., 1. Atm. Terr. Phys. 26, 1133 (1964), - 12. Mozer, F. S., w: D.
Gonzales, F. Bogott, M. C. Kelly, and S. Schutz, 1. Geophys. Res. 79, 56 (1974). - 13. Muhleisen, R, Kleinheu-
475
bacher Berichte 15, 361 (1972). - 14. Muhleisen, R., H. J. Fischer, and H. Hofmann, Z. Geoph. 37, 1055 (1971). -
15. Muhleisen, R. and H. Riekert, Luftelektrische Messungen auf dem Meer - Ergebnisse von der Atlantischen
Expedition 1969, Teil III: Untersuchungen zum Elektrodeneffekt beim luftelektrischen Feld tiber dem Meer
und die Konsequenzen fiir den globalen luftelektrischen Stromkreis. METEOR-Forschungsergebnisse Reihe B,
45 (Berlin, 1970). - 16. Obayashi, T., 1. Geomagn. Geoelectr. 15, 133 (1964). - 17. Olson, D. E., PAGEOPH 84, 118
(1971). - 18. Reiter, R., PAGEOPH 72, 259 (1969). - 19. Stergis, C. G., G. C. Rein, and T. Kangas, 1. Atm. Terr.
Phys. 11, 83 (1957). - 20. Stromberg, I. M., 1. Atm. Terr. Phys. 33, 484 (1971). - 21. Volland, H., Analytic represen-
tation of large scale electric fields within the atmosphere, Forschungsberichte der Astronomischen Institute, 1,
71 (Bonn 1971). - 22. Vonnegut, B., C. B. Moore, R. P. Espinola, and H. H. Blau, 1. Atm. Sci. 6, 764 (1966). -
23. Whipple, F. J. w., Quart. 1. Roy. Met. Soc. 55, 1 (1929). - 24. Wilson, C. T. R., Phil. Trans. A 221, 73 (1920).
Discussion
I think, we are all impressed with the quality of the observations here. I would merely like to make one
observation with respect to your contention that the ionospheric potential is, of necessity, the prime para-
meter. I say this because on consideration of the thunderstorm charging mechanism, whatever it might be, if it
is intrinsically a constant-potential system, then this is true. If, however, it is a constant-current generator, then you
have a constant current flowing against the fair-weather columnar resistance; and then the current density would
become the prime parameter. If, on the other hand, the thunderstorm acts as a constant power generator, then
perhaps the product of potential and current density would be the prime parameter. It might be that global circuit
observations might provide a clue as to the exact nature of the thunderstorm generating mechanism in that that
which best correlates from station to station would be the parameter which is the most valid.
Yes, you are right. We have the columnar resistance varying with time and locality. I did not emphasize this
in my speech because the columnar resistance is a local parameter in the same way as conductivity is a local
parameter, but I agree that the voltage is not independent of this.

You are emphasizing the importance of parameters and you list the variations we should look for. You mention
the hourly average, daily variations, seasonal variations, day-to-day variations, eleven years cycles. You missed,
however, the most important period of variation. You assume that thunderstorms feed the global circuit. Each
cell is made up of a period of ten or twenty minutes. So, the total current is put together from impulses about
ten minutes wide. That should be the most important parameter to measure as far as periods are concerned. -
The second problem is the ionospheric potential. Each thunderstorm has a potential difference between the upper
and lower parts of about 108 to 109 volts which is much higher than the ionospheric potential. This is the driving
force for the current of the global circuit. We have as a voltage divider the columnar resistance and the resistance
between the upper part of a thunderstorm and the ionosphere. We lose most of our voltage in this path between
the thunderstorm and the ionosphere, and also most of the power. The resistance of that path is mainly determined
by cosmic ray ionization in this region. The columnar resistance, however, is mainly determined by what
happens in the troposphere. Thus, one has two different influences which influence the voltage divider. The iono-
spheric potential depends, besides on thunderstorm activity, with equal importance on the cosmic ray ionization
and on tropospheric influences. How can you ascribe such high importance to such a complex parameter?
Muhleisen:
I think you did not hear me say that I would not like to touch this equilibrium between the charge generation
in the thunderstorm-generator, but to restrict myself to what is going into the global circuit only. I know what
you mean. we have single thunderstorms and we have the high voltage between top and base of the thunderstorms.
But I was only talking about the output of the thunderstorm into the global circuit. If I could have another hour
I should be glad to speak about these other facts, too.
Author's address:
R. Muhlei.~e/1
Astronomisches Institut der
Universitat Tiibingen
AuJ3enstelle Weissenau
West-Germany
476
On the Regional Effect in the Global Atmospheric Electric Field
M. Takagi
With 3 figures
Abstract
The fair-weather electric field on the oceans displays a typical universal-time dependent diurnal pattern super-
posed on an almost steady value. A fractional portion of this may still be variable with the geographic position.
Several possible factors will be considered as causes of regional differences in the universal field. A long
established factor is the latitude dependence relating to that of cosmic ray ionization. Global pollution of the
atmosphere associated with the human activity may affect it through gradual decrease of conductivity even in
the middle of the oceans. Seasonal effects lead to negative correlation of annual variation of the field between
northern and southern hemispheres. Coupling of thunderstorm current in the global circuit with ionospheric
current may modify the diurnal variation. If the propagation in the global circuit is not perfect, distribution of
thunderstorm areas geographically localized will affect the pattern of diurnal variation.
Observation of electric field carried out onboard over almost the whole area of the Pacific Ocean will be
compared with the above consideration. Although the data are not sufficient as to cancel ambiguity resulting
from the daily fluctuation and to introduce a general trend, the results suggest that those factors may more or
less influence the universal electric field.
Introduction
Since the first observation by Carnegie half a century ago, it has been verified by various investigators
that the fair-weather atmospheric electric field on the ocean varies in the course of a day roughly syn-
chronized with the worldwide thunderstorm activity. It is also a fact that the values ofthe field consider-
ably fluctuate from one day to another. This makes it difficult to estimate whether the electric field is
the same and to what extent on the globe or whether it involves some systematic regional differences.
A probable step to approach the problem is to compare daily the values at globally representative
stations after careful check of the fair-weather condition. An attempt was made between the data of
the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and Antarctica (Takagi and Kanada, 1972), which resulted in a high
correlation of daily variations between the stations for the same undisturbed day. Regional differences
of the field will probably be secondary in the universal field pattern, nevertheless the effect will not be
overlooked when discussing the global electric state. This report is describing possible factors to cause
regional differences of electric field and their comparison with observations on the Pacific Ocean.
Observational Results
Measurements of the electric field were carried out through three cruises of the research vessel
Hakuho-Maru from 1968 to 1972 in almost the whole area of the Pacific Ocean. All cruises were during
northern hemisphere winter. In order to minimize ambiguity due to day-to-day fluctuation, hourly
values are averaged in each of 17 sections divided by 30 degrees both in longitude and latitude. Fig. 1
indicates the cruising routes and the sections divided. In the average, 185 fair-weather hourly values
are obtained for a section. This number is surely insufficient to reduce to the representative diurnal
pattern, especially for 4 sections of less than 100 fair-weather hours. However, we would expect to see
some general trends in regional differences.
Fig. 2 shows the geographical distribution of elemental values to represent the pattern of electric field.
The region with the lowest values of mean field shown in (a) is found in the 15° S to 45° S latitude range.
The amplitude of diurnal variation shown in (b) is high at southern high latitude and low in the region
near the Americas. The time of maximum of diurnal variation shown in (c) ranges from 14 through
19 UT in all sections, which is an indication of universal-time dependent characteristics of the electric
field. A barely detectable trend may be a delay of the maximum time toward the Americas.
It may be a usable method to remove the predominant and common UT -dependent part in order to
elucidate the regional differences. Fig. 2, (d) and (e), are the amplitude and the maximum time of di-
477
~
---y-----,45 N
~:.~ ....
, ,
-.
CD, -'
CD'
ai,
(II,
, -,,
~,
, ,
,,
~: ,
\
,,
~~ ,• . .
. ,
' . . ,,
''\,
,
-- ......... _.
I ...'
755
135 E 165E 165W 135W I05W 75W
Fig. 1. Crusing routes and 17 sections divided by 30 degrees for data reduction
urnally varying component of the deviation, which means the differences from the daily vanatlOn
averaged over all data of the Pacific Ocean. The magnitude of deviation is several percent of the mean
field value, and it is generally larger in southern high latitude than the other regions. The maximum
deviation occurs usually in nighttime. These results will be considered in comparison with the follow-
ing several factors.
(0 ) (b) (c)
(e)
(d)
(a) (b) (e) (d) (e)

Vim Vim UT Vim LT
<80 5-10 14-15 0-2.5 0-6
80-90 10-15 15-16 2.5-5 6-12
90-100 15-20 16-17 5-7.5 12-18
100-110 20-25 17-18 7.5-10 18-24

>110 >25 18-19 10
Fig. 2. Geographical distribution of measured values; (a) mean electric field, (b) amplitude of diurnal variation,
(c) time of maximum amplitude in universal time, (d) amplitude of deviation frpm common diurnal variation,
(e) time of maximum deviation in local time
478
Factors Causative of Regional Differences
Columnar resistance
The ionization in high atmosphere guiding air-earth current down to the earth is mainly due to
cosmic rays, so that the columnar resistance is smaller in higher geomagnetic latitude. The resistance
in 50° geomagnetic latitude is estimated to be 70% of that at equator. As the electric conductivity close
to the ocean surface is not so much dependent on latitude, the electric field in high latitude will be
several tens percent higher than that in low latitude. This is well-known as the latitude effect since the
time of Carnegie (Gish, 1942).
Electric conductivity
Even in the middle of the oceans, the conductivity of atmosphere is gradually decreasing with pro-
gressing human activity (Cobb and Wells, 1970). The degree of decrease must depend on geographic
location and it will reflect on the electric field. However, as the columnar resistance is determined
mostly in the low level near the earth surface, the .decrease of conductivity there makes the columnar
resistance increase. In turn, this decrease of air-earth current density may cancel more or less the in-
crease of electric field. Disturbances characteristic on the ocean such as a thick space charge layer or
the electrode effect (Miihleisen, 1961) might rather affect the subtle conditions on the sea surface.
Seasonal variation
Regarding the variation of the period of a year, it will be better to differentiate between the globally
common annual variation and the seasonal one. For the electric field, the latter is reported to involve
16% variation related to the alteration of warm and cold seasons, high in winter and low in summer
(Paramonov, 1950). This gives a cause of differences between northern and southern hemispheres. The
three factors above may explain the lowest field being observed at the region shifting toward south
from the equator in the season of the present measurement.
Ionospheric horizontal field

The horizontal electric field in the lower ionosphere is of the order of m V1m. This makes between
angular distance of 90 i.e. 104 km along the earth surface the potential difference of the order of 10kV,
0
which will give several percent regional differences in the ionospheric potential of about 300 kV. Though
much higher horizontal field in the ionosphere than above value, of course, exists on occasion of some
events, we consider here the solar quiet condition because of discussing averaged regional effects over
a long period. Because the solar quiet field in the ionosphere varies according to local time there will
be a possibility to detect the effect out of the elemental UT -dependent variation. For example, the S q
field estimated by Maeda (1955) gives the highest potential during nighttime 22 to 04 LT in mid-latitude
and the lowest during daytime 10 to 13 LT also in mid-latitude. This accords to the result shown in
Fig. 2 (e).
Distance from thunderstorm active areas

In the concept of the global circuit, the distance from generator area is usually not considered as
being of importance. Actually, exponentially increasing conductivity with altitude in the high atmos-
phere gives negligible distance effect excepting the neighborhood of the generator in theoretical calcu-
lation (Kasemir, 1959). However, some observations involve an effect which might be ascribed to the
distance from generator area (Anderson, 1969). If we would take the distance effect onto the electric
field, the daily pattern of the field would be more or less modified because of non-uniform distribution
of generator areas and local time dependence of the activity of storms. Let us here take the following
assumptions. First, the activity of a generator has such a sinusoidal daily pattern as having maximum
on 16 hour and no activity on 04 hour in local time. Second, the location of generators is intensified
only at the three points, 10° S, 60° W in South America, 10° S, 30° E in South Africa and 10° S, 120° E
in South-East Asia. The respective generators have the intensities of ratio 2: 2: 1. This assumption
corresponds to the storm day map in northern winter to compare with the present field measurement.
479
Third, the effect of distance is represented by the form of 1 + k cos 8, where 8 is angular distance from
the generator and k is a constant less than 1. Then the ratio of effect from a generator at the place near
the generator to that at its antipodes is (1 + k)/(1 - k). The relative intensity at a certain point is given
by adding the effects from three generators. Fig. 3 shows the results of calculation when k = 1/3. The
figure includes only the area of the Pacific Ocean. The border surrounding sections of field measure-
ment are given by straight lines in the figure. Daily mean shown in (a) is the value relative to the case
k = 0 where regional differences disappear. High values are found near South America, having an inten-
sive generator, while low values are near Japan. For the diurnal variation, its amplitude shown in (b)
is also high near America and the maximum time shown in (c) is delayed with going east. The last tendency
coincides with the observation in Fig. 2 (c). For the deviation shown in (d) and (e) there will be nothing
comparable with observation.
(0) (b) (c)
f)',h
~oL8
(d) (e)
Fig. 3. Geographical distribution of elemental values of relative electric field calculated by considering the
distance effect. Numerals in (a), (b) and (d) are relative to global mean field. Straight lines surround 17 sections
for reduction. (a) daily mean, (b) amplitude of diurnal variation, (c) time of maximum amplitude in universal time,
(d) amplitude of deviation from common diurnal variation, (e) time of maximum deviation in local time
This report concerns the quantitative comparison between the observation and some probable
factors; a qualitative contribution of every factor is left for a future discussion.
Acknowledgment
I wish to express my gratitude to the staff of the Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo, for giving us
opportunities to make the measurements on the research vessel Hakuho-Maru. Technical assistance by M.
Kanada and N. Toriyama was invaluable.
References
1. Anderson, R. v., J. Geophys. Res. 74,1967 (1969). - 2. Cobb, WE. and H. J. Wells, J. Atmos. Sci. 27, 814 (1970). -
3. Gish, O. H., Terr. Mag. Atmos. Elec. 47, 323 (1942). - 4. Kasemir, H. W, Z. Geophys. 25, 33 (1959). - 5. Maeda,
H., J. Geomag. Geoelec. 7, 121 (1955). - 6. Muhleisen, R., J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 20, 79 (1961). - 7. Paramonov,
N. A., Dokl. Akad. Nauk USSR 71,39 (1950). - 8. Takagi, M. and M. Kanada, PAGEOPH 100,44 (1972).
Discussion
Your results and the demonstration of the results are quite interesting and it is necessary to discuss them. But
at the moment I would like to ask only what do you think about error and mean scatter of the values?
480
Takagi, Toyokawa, Japan:
Mean scattering is rather large. As we know, the electric field measured on the ocean shows a fluctuation day-
to-day and in different places. The magnitude of fluctuations reaches up to about 40 or 50 percent. We ha ve on the
average 8 days of fair weather in each section, so that I am not sure if my figures do represent real regional dif-
ferences, but I expect some trends can be found in these figures.
Author's address:
M. Takagi
Associate Professor
Res. Inst. Atmospherics
Nagoya University
Toyokawa Aichi-ken 442
Japan
481
Secular Trends in Thunderstorm Frequencies
S. A. Changnon, Jr.
Abstract
Thunderstorm day frequencies during the 1901-70 period at a series of 53 weather stations located around
the world were studied 1) to examine for the existence of trends, and if trends existed, 2) to explain their causes.
All stations examined in the central and eastern United States, Japan, South Africa, and in parts of southern
Europe in the latitudes of 30° to 45° were found to have their lowest frequencies in the most recent period, 1951 to
1970, ranging from 10% to 30% below their 70-year averages. Furthermore, this recent minimum is the result
of a general downward trend in thunderstorm frequencies that began at most locations in the 1930's. Stations
in the tropical areas and in latitudes above 45° exhibit no trends or upward trends since the 1930's. The sizable
trends of the last 35 years can be partially ascribed to inadvertent, man-made atmospheric alterations which are
supported by a secular change in atmospheric conductivity and aerosols found in the North Atlantic. However,
most evidence suggests these recent trends in thunderstorms are due to natural climatic change. Observational
errors are also evaluated as a possible explanation but considered negligible. Regardless of the causes, such
changes have pertinence in gaining a better understanding of possible regional shifts in atmospheric electricity,
severe storm climatology, and in properly interpreting climatic records.
Introduction
A global-scale investigation of thunder-day frequencies in the 20th century was launched to examine
for secular trends of at least 20 years duration. Any secular trends in thunderstorm activity could be
ascribed to three causes: natural climatic fluctuations, man-made climatic changes, or changes in
observational techniques or quality. The question of regional, hemispheric, or global changes in thunder-
storm activity automatically arises out of the first two explanations, and serious questions of reliability
of climatic data arise from the third possible cause for the observed trends.
Thunder-day data largely for the 1901-70 period were secured from
1. 36 first-order weather stations in different geographic-climatic zones of North America,
2. 5 European weather stations,
3. 5 first-or~er stations on Pacific Islands,
4. 3 South African stations,
5. 4 Japanese stations.
A thunder-day is defined when one or more peals of thunder are heard. The audibility of thunder-
storms, which is dependent on various factors, has been the standard means of defining a thunder-day
since 1895 by the U.S. Weather Bureau. Other global data sources also indicate no change in reporting
regulations in the 1901-70 period. Thus, thunderstorm reporting techniques have been uniform
throughout the 1901-70 study period.
Results
Various regional thunderstorm values are shown in Table 1. Results chosen for presentation are those
from data for 1901- 35, data for 1936 - 70, and a comparison of these two data sets.
The 1936-70 (recent) averages of the Gulf Coast, Midwest, and East Coast (USA) regions are all
significantly lower than their 1901- 35 (early) averages. The recent averages are 5 to 13 % lower
than the early ones. The 1936-70 time trends of the Rockies, Midwest, and East Coast were also
significantly different (more downward). The recent trends in the two Canadian zones were significantly
more upward.
The pattern of the percentage change in thunderstorms during the 1936-70 period for North America
appears in Fig. 1. An east-west area of decrease is centered about 40° N latitude. Negative departures
are greatest, 15 to 22 %, along the East Coast of the United States. The 1936 - 70 values to the extreme
north and south are above normal, exceeding + 20% in parts of Canada.
482
Table 1. Regional frequencies of thunder days for early and recent periods
Annual average Difference Diff. 100 Linear time trend

1901-35 x Standard deviation
Regions Early Recent (1901-35)- (slope value)
1901-1935 1936-1970 (1936-70) value 1901-1935 1936-1970 1901-1935 1936-1970
Rocky Mountains 46.3 44.2 2.1 4.5 6.34 7.59 +.19 -.36 1
Gulf Coast, USA 76.1 71.5 1 4.6 6.0 6.66 6.22 +.03 -.17
Midwest, USA 47.3 43.4 1 3.9 8.2 5.25 5.19 +.08 _.171
East Coast, USA 31.2 27.21 4.0 12.8 4.92 5.35 +.09 -.34 1
Canada West 14.8 17.21 3.4 23.0 5.03 5.16 +.01 +.31 1
Canada East 14.2 15.2 1.0 7.1 4.61 4.90 +.11 +.29 1
Pacific - 11.9 - - - 4.57 - +.15
Western Europe 13.8 13.6 0.3 2.2 4.09 4.07 +.05 +.09
Japan 15.4 13.21 2.2 14.2 3.91 4.06 +.10 -.28
South Africa - 71.3 - - - 6.11 - -.19
----- -
1 Value for 1936 -70 is significantly (at 5 %level) different than 1901- 35 value.
~
w
Fig. 1. Difference between 1901- 35 and 1936 -70 thunder-day values expressed as percents of 1901- 35 value
Only 1 of the 5 stations in the tropical Pacific Islands (Honolulu) had records for the entire early
period. Honolulu had a higher average in the recent period, and the trends of all 5 stations (Table 1)
for the 1936 - 70 period were slightly upward. Hence, the Pacific region results agreed with those of
the one semi-tropical station in the continental United States, Miami. An upward trend in recent years
existed at the 3 northern most European stations. Paris and Rome had lower averages in 1936 - 70,
but the European average trend (Table 1) had a slight upward trend in the recent period. Four stations
in southern and central Japan all showed decreases during 1936-70, as reflected in Table 1. The de-
crease in Japan exhibited a north-south gradation, being greatest in the south near 40° N. The 3 stations
in South Africa (30 to 35° S) had no data for 1901- 35, but their trends for 1936 - 70 were all downward.
Observational QUality
A possible explanation for the recent changes concerns the quality of recent observations. Since the
observer instructions for thunder-day definition have not changed during the study period, trends
could be explained by several other reasons relating to the observations.
One possible reason relates to shifts in the locations of most stations, typically from a downtown
city locale to the airport in the surrounding area. Inspection of several American stations with site
shifts revealed that the trends were unrelated to the shifts.
Another potential "record quality" explanation for the decrease (in U.S.) in thunderstorms is one
of increasing noise during 1930 - 70 wich can affect an observer's ability to hear thunderstorms. Most
stations from 1901 until their shift to rural airport sites in the 1935-55 period were in downtown
business districts which were as noisy (or more so) than rural airport sites. The very large airport sites
may have experienced increasing noise that limited storm detection because of aircraft activity, particu-
larly that due to the jet aircraft in the 1960's. Use of air conditioning with a closing-in of offices in the
1955-65 period may also have been a factor. However, thunder frequencies at major cities had down-
484
ward trends that began well before the "airport move" and air conditioning. Thus, the decreases cannot
be clearly ascribed to the site changes, air conditioning, or jet noise of the 1960's.
Indeed, one might suspect that airport sites with the greater interest in aviation meteorology plus
the pilot reports of thunderstorms may have led to a bias in thunderstorm reporting that would lead
to increased frequencies. Decreases did not occur at Honolulu and Miami where observers had the
same observing rules, noisy locales, and site changes as other U.S. sites. Downward trends existed at
locations where no site change occurred and where the aircraft use was minor. For example, the fre-
quency at Cairo, Illinois where there was no airport, no site relocation, and no urban growth in 1901-70,
shows a decrease that matches that of nearby (140 km) St. Louis which underwent the typical large-
city shifts and noise effects.
Climatic Change: Natural and/or Man-Made

If the 5 to 25% recent changes in thunderstorm frequencies in North America are real, they represent
a major regional change in climate. This might be explained as natural regional fluctuation and part
120
110
/. • ROCKY MOUNT AI N ZONE
100
•
::[ ~.
I
1-=- -=.
110
_ I_____ ~ ~ I I
•
.... _
I
_
GULF COAST ZONE
.'.-===-==---.~-"'""""=--.-------I.
I
i::r-: :s ~
100
90~1____~1____~1______1~____~1____~1______1
'"
~ 120r----.----r---,----~--_,r_--_,
EAST COAST ZONE
110
.---.--.~
100~~-------------~·~-----~
:t
•
1901-10 1911-20 1921-30 1931-40 1941-50 1951-60 1961-70

lO-YEAR PERIOOS
1~~10--~~--~~--~~--~~-~~~-·~19~70
YEAR
Fig.2. Regional 10-year thunder days in United States (% of 1901-70 averages) and atmospheric electric
conductivity over North Atlantic
485
ofthe "climatic seesaw" (Landsberg, 1971), or it might be due to inadvertent climatic changes produced
by man and his activities.
One way to examine for and support a natural-factor explanation 'is to relate the thunder-change
to other phenomena related to thunderstorms. Long-term (230 years) precipitation records for Phila-
delphia (Landsberg, 1971), show that the amounts in the 1960's a) were extremely low (second only to
those of 1815 - 25), and b) matched the 1960 - 70 low in thunder days at Philadelphia. Other fluctuations
in the 1901-70 precipitation generally agreed with the thunderstorm fluctuations. Landsberg (1960) also
examined the time tendency of precipitation across the United States by comparing the 1906 - 30 values
with those of the 1931-55 period. He found changes of ± 10%, but most stations in and east of the
Rocky Mountains (and south of the Great Lakes) had 5 to 10% decreases. This generally matches the
locales and degrees of change in thunderstorms noted (Fig. 1). Landsberg explained the lower rainfall
in the 1931-55 period as being related largely to major droughts, and certainly the droughts of the
early 1950's (and that of 1960's in the East) may be related to the lower frequencies of thunderstorms or
due to a lack of thunderstorm-producing weather conditions,
There is a possibility that the downward shift in thunder days in the United States is due to man-made
causes. The man-made increase in atmospheric particulates in the 20th century has increased the
number of cloud condensation nuclei which in tum should lead to many more small cloud droplets
(Braham, 1973), and greater in-cloud colloidal stability. Gunn (1964) and Warner and Twomey (1967) have
hypothesized that regional, hemispheric, or even global increases in cloud condensation nuclei from
man-made aerosols would lead to an increase in non-precipitating clouds and a decrease in rainfall.
Such conditions would also be expected to lead to a decrease in convective motions and activity with
a consequence being a decrease in thunderstorms. A secular increase in aerosols required to further
support the hypothesis of man-made decreases in rain and thunderstorms is indicated by the results
of Cobb and Wells (1970). They found for the North Atlantic a 20% decrease in total atmospheric
conductivity (Fig. 2) and concluded there had been a doubling of man-made aerosols downwind of
the United States during the 1910- 68 period. The relationship between the change in conductivity
and the thunder decrease on the East Coast (Fig. 2) suggests that the thunderstorm decrease may be
partially due to inadvertent man-made factors.
However, the lack of decreases during the 1936-70 period in the heavily populated-industrialized
regions of southeastern Canada (Fig. 1) and northern Europe augers against the hypothesis that man-
made factors have lead to the thunderstorm decreases. Of course, the increases in these areas might
have been greater without the pollution-convective stabilizing effects, but this factor helps suggest that
man-made conditions have not materially contributed to the downward trends in 1936- 70. Reitan
(1974) also has shown a temporal decrease in the number of cyclones in the United States during the
1951-70 period, another factor that reflects on a natural climatic change explanation.
Summary and Conclusions
Analysis of 1901-70 thunder-day records from several world regions shows 5% to 20% decreases
since the 1930's at most stations in the continental United States, South Africa, Southern Europe,
and Japan. Decreases at several stations were statistically significant. An upward trend in thunder-
storm frequencies was found in the more northern (beyond 45° N) parts of Europe and North America
and also in tropical areas. A global pattern consisting of a belt of decrease centered in the mid-latitude
area around 40° (30° to 45°) with increases to the south and north is suggested. The net change in thunder
days during 1936-70 was calculated for North America. The average point decrease was 4.1 days/year
(based on all 23 decrease values), and the average increase for the 13 stations with an increase was 3.8
days/year. Hence, the number of thunderstorms in the last 35 years in North America does not appear
to have been different than that in 1901- 35.
Three reasons for the sizable 1936-70 trends in thunderstorms were examined. Observational errors
or omissions were shown to be unlikely explanations. It is most likely that part or possibly all of the
thunder decreases and increases in North America are due to a natural climatic fluctuation. This is
supported in part by the reasonable relationship between thunderstorms and rainfall, and low rainfall
486
is produced by periodic, regional scale droughts attributed to natural factors. Fine-particle aerosols
over the North Atlantic doubled from man's activities in the past 60 years and the possibility exists
that they have lead to the observed decreases in rainfall and in thunderstorms. Regardless of the causes,
the recent changes in thunder frequencies in the continental United States appear to be real and have
pertinence in developing a better understanding of atmosphere and the phenomena that produce most
severe local storms.
Acknowledgments
This research was partially supported by the RANN Program, NSF under grant GI-38317. The advice and
assistance of Paul T. Schickedanz and Richard G. Semonin are acknowledged.
References
1. Braham, R. R., University of Chicago Contribution to Project METROMEX-1. Final Tech. Report NSF
GA-28190 X 1, 98 pp. (Chicago, 1973). - 2. Cobb, W. E. and H. J. Wells, J. Atmos. Sci. 27, 814 (1970). - 3. Gunn,
R., J. Atmos. Sci. 21,168 (1964). - 4. Landsberg, H. E., Man-made climatic changes. Tech. Note BN-705, Inst.
Fluid Dynamics and Applied Mathematics, University of Maryland, 46 pp. (College Park, 1971). - 5. Lands-
berg, H. E., J. Geophys. Res. 65, 1519 (1960). - 6. Reitan, C., Mo. Wea. Rev. 102, 861 (1974). -' 7. Warner, J.
and S. Twomey, 1. Atmos. Sci. 24, 704 (1967).
Discussion
Landsberg, College Park, Maryland, USA:
I would like to ask the question: How do you make your particular data jibe with your own results and ours,
that we have increased rainfalls, say, to the lee side of urban areas?
Changnon, Urbana, Illinois, USA:
The situation that Landsberg is referring to are the intensive studies in the United States about local effects
of cities on weather which do show that there are increases locally in thunderstorm activity. Discernment of these
local trends was made difficult by the macro scale regional decreases due either to natural climate changes and/or
man-made aerosols. The local changes, in the St. Louis area, I believe, are largely related to several environmental
factors such as roughness, heating and aerosols. These factors are not extending over large areas. One cannot
take these thunder data and make a strong thesis for man-made effects.
I wonder whether your climatical change of thunderstorm frequency is related to a change of the annual
world-wide potential gradient.
Changnon:
This cannot be checked over 70 years. In North America we have the greatest number of points with data.
That is the only region of continental size that I feel safe to talk about. The rate of increase in the last 35 years
(1936 to '70) across the Northern United States and Canada yields an average change of 3.8. All the continental
negative values yield an average point change of four thunderstorm days per year. Certainly, statistically they
are not significantly different, indicating that the same number of thunderstorms were going on in the 1936 - 70
period, as occurred in the 1901 - 35 period.
Author's address:
S. A. Changnon, Jr.
Illinois State Water Survey
Box 232
Urbana, Illinois 61801
USA
487
Quantitative Characteristics of Thunderstorm Activity *)
v. P. Kolokolov
Summary
To meet the demands of various intensively developing fields of national economy and to solve some
problems that confront certain branches of geophysics, more accurate and detailed data than those provided
by the meteorological network (the number of days with thunderstorms and the duration of thunderstorms)
are required.
Among such characteristics is the number of thunderstorm discharges for a unit of area.
Data on a number of discharges can be obtained from a network of stations, equipped with lightning counters.
But at present systematic observations of the thunderstorm discharge number carried out by means of lightning
counters (thunderstorm registers) are practised only within the limited areas and bear an irregular character.
The problem of obtaining quantitative characteristics of thunderstorm activity, i.e. the number of discharges,
could be solved by a transition from a climatological characteristic of the thunderstorm days number to a number
of thunderstorm discharges by means of calculation methods.
For a transition to the new characteristics it is enough to carry out observations on the number of thunder-
storm discharges and those on the thunderstorm days number for typical (in their physico-geographical condi-
tions) points in order to find the recalculation coefficients (which make it possible) to pass from a number of thun-
derstorm days to a number of thunderstorm discharges.
During the research there have been obtained coefficients associating the number of thunderstorm days with
that of discharges for the area unit, and the relations between them have been established.
This permitted to draw maps of thunderstorm discharge numbers with the use of the available maps of
thunderstorm day numbers.
These maps have been constructed both for the USSR territory and for various regions of the globe.
Author's address:
v. P. Kolokolov
Karbysheva 7
Leningrad 194018
USSR
*) Paper was accepted by the Executive Panel, but it was not presented. Full text not available.
488
Effect of Convection Within the Austausch Layer on the Electrical Potential Gradient
in the Atmosphere
R. O. Weiss, R. K. Frazer, and M. L. Hill
With 5 figures
Abstract
Within the exchange or austausch layer (which may extend up to 3 km) the electrical conductivity is usually
low due to the limited mobility of large ions, and the electric field is high, typically l00-200V/m. The con-
ductivity may be higher by a factor of 2 to 6 at a relatively small altitude above this layer. Convective cells rising
through the top of the exchange layer may produce a bubble of low conductive air reaching upwards into the
high conductive region thus leading to a perturbation of the electric field lines. The magnitude of the induced
horizontal gradients depends on the amplitude of the bubble and the change in electrical conductivity across
the interface. A numerical model has been developed to describe the interaction phenomena as a quasi-static
problem in electrostatics, and results have been obtained for a continuous field of convective cells as functions
of bubble size and conductivity ratio. Significant distortion of the field lines is shown to be confined to within
plus or minus two amplitudes of the disturbance with the largest horizontal gradients occurring near the lowest
point on the interface, in the low conducting region.
Introduction
The existence of a potential gradient within the atmosphere has been known since the time of Benjamin
Franklin. Historical reviews on the subject of atmospheric electricity have been given by Chalmers
(1967) and Israel (1970). In a recent article Hill (1972) has suggested the use of radioactive collectors
as a means of obtaining attitude reference measurements for the stabilization of airborne vehicles.
In response to Hill's article, Markson (1974) has discussed the possible limitations of such a concept.
Nonetheless, the electrostatic autopilot was found to be quite useful in a radio controlled drone (model
airplane) used for meteorological investigations (Hill,1972), and its application on other remotely
piloted vehicles or possibly as a pilot-assist device on light planes appears promising.
Studies at the Applied Physics Laboratory of the John Hopkins University have been directed
toward answering some of the questions connected with the practical application of an electrostatic
autopilot system. In a separate paper presented at this Conference, Hill and Hoppel (1974) have given
a theoretical treatment for the effects of several physical variables on the response of the radioactive
ionizers. Experimental evidence generally verifies their analysis. The analysis presented here is concerned
with a different aspect of the problem.
The autopilot system discussed by Hill (1972) relies on the fact that in regions distant from thunder-
storms, dust storms, precipitation or extensive cloud layers, the equipotential planes will usually be
horizontal with respect to the earth's surface. During such fair-weather conditions the magnitude of
the vertical gradient depends on the atmospheric conductivity. Local phenomena which may disturb
the horizontal character of the equipotential planes are of particular .importance. One disturbing
influence occurs when convective updrafts encounter the top of the austausch or mixing layer. A distor-
tion is produced in the interface between the low conductivity air within the mixing layer and the higher
conductivity air above it which induces a horizontal component in the potential gradient. The condition
described is considered here numerically as a function of the amplitude of the convective cell and the
difference in atmospheric conductivity within and above the austausch layer.
The Convective Process

During daytime heating of the earth's surface, ascending warm air currents push through the top
of the austausch layer. The upper boundary of this layer is often made visible by a broken layer of fine
weather clouds or as the top of a haze layer. The development of convective fields has been studied by
Konrad (1970) through the use of sensitive high-powered radars. A characteristic domelike boundary
489
region is visible with a vertical scan of the radar due to variations in the refractive index caused by
turbulent mixing.
Numerical Model
The movement of a convective cell through the top of the mixing layer has been numerically modeled
as a quasi-steady state problem in electrostatics. For this study the effect of excess charge or charge
separation within the convective cell, has been neglected. The region within the convective cell is assumed
to be thoroughly mixed. Fig. 1 shows the region considered in the analysis in which the symmetry of
a repeating cosine wave convective field is described by the two-dimensional model. Initially the inter-
face (which is assumed to be distinct) between the low and high conductivity regions is horizontal at
z = 0 and the conduction current (see the field lines) flows in the vertical direction with a magnitude
of typically 2 x 10- 12 A/m 2 . The formation of a convective bubble of amplitude [) and half-width L
produces a distortion in the equipotential lines indicated qualitatively in Fig. 1. The magnitude of the
disturbance will depend on oi L and the conductivity ratio AH j). /. (KR).
c:J High Conduct ive Region with Conductivity AH

D Low Conduct ive Region with Conduct ivi ty A L
- - Equipotential Lines
- - - Field Lines
Clear Air
Convective Cell
Mixing Layer
- 45
- 55~~~L- __~__J
I n the Atmosphere In the Model
Fig.1. Periodic convective cell model
The solution procedure utilizes the known boundary voltages from the one-dimensional case with
a region size of ± 5 O. Arbitrarily, the zero voltage level has been chosen at the top of the unperturbed
exchange layer, i. e. at z = O. Although an exponential conductivity profile could easily be accounted
for in the numerical model, constant values have been adopted for convenience. In this case, the upper
and lower boundary voltages are inversely related to the negative of the respective conductivity values.
The region shown in Fig. 1 was divided into a network of some 125 smaller regions, or nodes, over
which the voltage was assumed to be constant (so-called lumped parameter model). At steady state,
in the absence of sources (or sinks) for electric charges the algebraic sum of all current flows for every
non-boundary node in the network must be zero.
The resulting set of finite difference equations supplemented with the boundary conditions and
continuity condition, was solved numerically for the grid voltages.
490
Numerical Results
The intent of the present analysis is to determine how the bubble geometry and conductivity differences
influence the potential field. The basic model describes a continuous field of convective cells as a periodic
cosine wave. Results have also been obtained for a single cosine wave, but these will not be presented
here. A range of values for 111 L from 0.25 to 1.0 and for conductivity ratio Anj)"L from 1 to 10 was used
in the numerical analysis. The relative voltage at three particular points in the region is plotted in Fig. 2
as a function of AnlAL for four values of 1I1L. Fig. 2a shows that the voltage at (0.05 L, 0.0 11) (which is zero
when AnlAL = 1) reaches a saturation level at AnlAL ~ 3 and thereafter decreases. Voltage levels just
within the peaks of the cosine wave, at (0.05L, 0.9511) and (0.95L, -0.9511), are shown in Fig. 2b. These
voltage levels are equal and opposite in sign when AnlAL = 1. At both locations the voltage decreases
-6
>
-"
w-4r---~~~~-----+----~~~~
(!)
«
I-
".J
o
>
w
~-2r---~~4--------+----+---~
I-
«
".J
w
a:
(a)
2 4 6 8 10
AHn'L
LOCATION B IN LOW CONDUCTIVITY
REGION: Zib = 0,95 y/L = 0.05
LOCATION C IN HIGH CONDUCTIVITY
REGION: Zib = -0.95 y/L = 0.95
>
-"
w
>
i=
«
".J
w
a:
(b)
Fig. 2. Voltage dependence on conductivity
491
with increasing AHj).L but does so at the greatest rate in the low conductivity region. This effect is nearly
linear with All/ )'L'
The distortion in the potential field caused by the continuous cosine wave of convective cells can
easily be seen from a contour plot of the equipotential bands. Such a plot is shown in Fig. 3 for the
case where 8/L = 0.75 and AH/AL = 7.5. The computer generated plot is developed by assigning voltage
intervals to the letters of the alphabet and then printing these letters wherever the voltage is within
the specified interval. Therefore the edges of the areas where all of one letter is printed are representative
of equipotential lines. For example, for L = 1 km, the -15 kV level is, at its lowest point, 790 m below
. the zero reference altitude and rises 170 m across the half-width of the cosine wave. In the region above
the cosine interface, the equipotential lines curve away from the interface contour ; that is, the field
EQUI POTENT IAL LINES - PERTURBED INTERFACE KR = 7.5 DIL =0.75

LOAD CASE NUMBE R 1
VO LTAGE
5.0 kV
- - - - - - =------.=:::=--..:;:=:--
-----
' - - - ' - ==-=:===:::::-::::::::=::.::
------ . -~-.-
O.OkV
2.5 k V
z
L y
o .:,:::::::t!:!:::!:i:·:ti!!!g:::::t:::1:::! ::':t:p,H!::ii:::::::iii:':::;::!':::!:.::
:,::.g:,,::;:::::::::::::::::;;,:::::::;:::::':::::;:'::,!!!:::!;·::t.i~:i:i:j::i:i!::;i;;:::i:
- 7.5 kV
::::::::::::::::.:::::::::::.:::::::: .......
---
- 27.5 kV
....-.... ~-- ....
::::::::~m:::~E::~:~:::~i:ii:i':j~~:~ij~;;:~~~·~~~~:
if~ili~ffi::mjili: i§m:::mg::i'ii:i:jj:i::: :jj:jjii:~:j:;E::i;:;::iiElmi!:;!:; ;
_26 '--_ _ _ _ _ _ _ ".::j.Q:.9_k_V_
Fig. 3. Contour plot of disturbed equipotential bands ; <5", D; A.,,/ A.L '" KR
492
lines (or orthogonal lines) prefer a path through the high conductivity region. Below the interface,
the equipotential lines follow the shape of the interface but are of lesser amplitude. Within the mixing
layer. near the interface, the field lines bend toward the high conductivity region.
The relative vertical and horizontal components of the potential gradient are plotted in Fig. 4 for
the case illustrated in Fig. 3. The left and right frames show the vertical potential gradient for a location
near the lines of symmetry on the cosine wave. The horizontal component, as a fraction of the unperturbed
vertical gradient in the low conductive region, is shown in the center frame for five altitude locations.
All curves show a discontinuity across the interface due to the abrupt change in conductivity. The
slope of the equipotentials above the interface is opposite in sense to those below the interface. The
magnitude of the induced horizontal component is of particular importance. Careful study of the
numerical results shows that the equipotential lines with the largest slopes are located in the low con-
ducting region near the lowest point on the cosine wave (y = L, z = - b). An indication of the relative
magnitudes involved has been given in Fig. 4 for the case where blL = 0.75, AHj)"L = 7.5. Several other
cases are shown in Fig. 5. The plot shows the horizontal component of the gradient as a percent of the
local vertical potential for several values of 151L. The dependence of the horizontal component on these
parameters is as expected, that is, greater updrafts (increasing blL) and larger conductivity differences
(Alii AL increasing) cause a large relative horizontal component. Also shown (right vertical scale) is the
magnitude of the vertical potential gradient which is moderately dependent on the Alii AL ratio for this
particular location (dashed line). There is also a slight shift to the right of the vertical potential curve
with decreasing 151 L which has not been shown on the figure.
y/L=0.10
f-
oiL = 0.75 XH/XL = 7.5 y/L = 0.90
2.0
z 2.0
w
0
«cc Z/o = 1.15
(!) 0.02
...J
« 0
f- 1.0
1.0 z
w
f-
a0-
<00
<00 W
N :r: ~
f- w
w LL -0.02 0
0 0 0 0
::::>
::::> f- f-
f-
f-
Z
w 0.10 i=
...J
...J
«
Z
a 0 «
w
w ~-0.10 >
>
i= -1.0 8-0.20 ~-1.0 ----
« ...J 0 ...J
...J
w « w
cc
cc ~-0.10
a
!:::! 0
cc
-2.0 ~-0.02 , -2.0
w -0.04
>
i=
«...J
w
cc -3.0
-3.00
0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 0 1.0
RELATIVE VERTICAL RELATIVE HORIZONTAL
POTENTIAL GRADIENT LOCATION Y/L
Fig. 4. Relative vertical and horizontal components of the potential gradient (see text)
493
I-
Z r-------------.--------r----.----.---r--.--r-.-,200~
W
Z
>
o I-
Z
~ _ 60 W
0*
u-
Z
oa..
...J ~ 50 150 ~
5~ u
f=~ ...J
0:: 0:: 40 <X:
~(!) ~
O...J I-
0::
~~ 30 100 ~
<x:z
I-W
zl-
0020
Na..
-u..
~O
::r: 10
o Q~
f=
;i
~~~~::~~~::~====t:::::±::::i:::t::I:=r:J:J
01 4 6 10
Fig. 5. Relative horizontal component in low conductive region below interface, and vertical potential gradient
(dashed line, right ordinate)
Concluding Remarks
A limitation of the present analysis, that could be easily removed, is the step change of conductivity
across the top of the exchange layer. Clear air semilogarithmic conductivity profiles of the type measured
by Kraakevik (1958) could be accounted for within the framework of the present model.
Vonnegut and Moore (1962) have discussed the convective process in which fair-weather space charge
at ground level is carried aloft in thermal updrafts. The complex recirculation currents that develop
within the convective cloud are thought to be accompanied by charge separation and the fOrniation
of a screening layer at the edges of the cloud. This convection-driven mechanism whereby clouds become
electrified has been discussed in a paper by Moore (1974) at this conference. The need for precise knowl-
edge on the distribution of charge and the motions of air within a convective cloud is emphasized.
This kind of information is also basic to the numerical simulation of electrified convective clouds.
References
1. Chalmers, J. A., Atmospheric Electricity (Oxford, 1967). - 2. Hill, M. L., Astronautics and Aeronautics, 22
(1972). - 3. Hill, M. L. and W. A. Hoppel, Effects of Velocity and Other Physical Variables on the Currents and
Potentials Generated by Radioactive Collectors in Electric Field Measurements, presented at the Fifth International
Conference on Atmospheric Electricity (Garmisch-Partenkirchen, 1974). - 4. Israel, H., Atmospheric Electricity,
Vol. I: Fundamentals, Conductivity, Ions, NSF translation by D. Ben Yaakov and B. Benny, U.S. National
Technical Information Service TT 67-51394/1 (1971). - 5. Konrad, T. G., J. Atm. Sci. 27, 1138 (1970). -
6. Kraakevik, J. H., J. Geophys. Res. 63,161 (1958). - 7. Markson, R., Astronautics and Aeronautics 44 (1974). -
8. Moore, C. B., An Assessment of Thundercioud Electrification Mechanisms, presented at the Fifth International
Conference on Atmospheric Electricity (Garmisch-Partenkirchen, 1974). - 9. Vonnegut, B. and C. B. Moore,
1. Geophys. Res. 67, 10 (1962).
Discussion
Why did you chose to have such high conductivity ratios and to neglect the space charge?
Weiss, Laurel, Maryland. USA:
This particular model was the first one applied. We could easily model the dome shape of the cell; we have
not done this as yet. As far as the space charge distribution is concerned, I do not believe that we know enough
494
about the process yet to model it adequately. The chosen range of conductivity values was purposely very broad.
We wanted to examine the effect of this parameter.
I think that you may find it necessary to include the effects of diffusion when you recall that the natural
time-constant of the air within the plume will be quite long because of the low conductivity.
Weiss:
Yes, this model is very simplistic, but it certainly gives us a basis from which we can improve. It did indicate, at
least within framework of our analysis, what kind of horizontal components do develop with this restrictive
model.
I know from Reinhardt in Oberpfaffenhofen that he made such measurements of vertical and horizontal fields
with a glider. He was not able to find out the so-called thermals by his electric measurements. Is it thinkable
that you have assumed a much too large ratio for the conductivities? During the occurrence of convection, the
differences in the conductivity are decreasing strongly. Only, in the beginning of the convection, the effect will be
as large as you assumed. One should do measurements in the morning hours; after some hours of convection
one will not find large differences in the conductivity provided the area is not too strongly polluted.
Weiss:
I should add, that we do have a fullscale instrumented airplane which we are using to take electric field
measurements. We are just becoming automated on the data reduction. Hopefully we will be able to take some
data that will indicate what is going on in a convective field.
Authors' addresses:
R. O. Weiss and R. K. Frazer M. L. Hill
Applied Physics Laboratory RPV Flight Research
The Johns Hopkins University The Johns Hopkins University
Johns Hopkins Road Applied Physics Laboratory
Laurel, Maryland 20810 John Hopkins Road
USA Laurel, Maryland 20810
USA
495
On the Turbulent Convective Component of the Fair-Weather Current Density *)
R. F. D. Perret
Summary
A mathematical model of the eddy transport of space charge in a contaminant-free atmosphere is developed
for oceanic regions in which surface radioactivity can be neglected. The model is formulated in terms of average
net space charge density and average conductivity for scaling purposes. Non-dimensional parameters governing
the vertical profiles of electric field, net space charge and conductivity are identified in terms of standard para-
meters of the constant-flux layer such as the friction velocity and roughness parameter, while electrical parameters
are scaled according to the ratio of ionization rate to recombination coefficient. Several eddy diffusion coefficients
are used in numerical experiments to investigate the influence of boundary layer stability and height of the ex-
change layer on the height of the electrical boundary layer.
Author's address:
R. F. D. Perret
Dept. Meteorology
Florida State University
404 Love Building
Tallahassee, Florida 32306
USA
*j Paper was accepted by the Executive Panel, but it was not presented. Full text of paper not available.
496
Ligthning Occurrence in a Subtropical Area *)
D. Mackerras
Abstract
Studies of the occurrence oflightning and thunderstorms on a global scale using annual thunderdays, sferics, etc.
should be supplemented by detailed observation of the occurrence of lightning and thunderstorms over a limited
area, but over a long period of time. For most purposes it is sufficient to know long-term average lightning
flash densities, and the manner in which the occurrence varies with time of day, with season, and with meteoro-
logical influences. This type of information has been obtained from observations oflightning in Brisbane, Australia
(153° E, 27° S). During a ten-year period, the mean total flash density was 5 km- 2 year- 1 and the mean annual
thunderday level was 21. The ground flash density was 1.2km- 2 year-l, and the ratio cloud flashes to ground
flashes was 3.2. There are well-marked seasonal and diurnal variations, with maximum rate of occurrence in
December (mid-summer), and in the period 1900-2000 hours, based on observed flashes. From thundery periods,
the peak activity is between about 1500 and 1800 hours, and the mean duration of thundery period per thunder-
storm is 75 minutes. The occurrence oflightning in Brisbane is closely related to the proximity of fronts or troughs
to the S, SW or W. Maxwell et al. made a global survey oflightning occurrence. From their results the total flash
density for Brisbane is less than that observed by a factor of about 2.4. A possible cause of this discrepancy, and its
significance in interpreting global lightning occurrence data, are discussed.
Introduction
Lightning and thunderstorm observations have been carried out using a lightning observatory
located in St. Lucia, Brisbane, (27S S, 153° E). The climate is subtropical and the long-term mean
annual thunderday level is 33. The occurrence of lightning in this area has been investigated using
visual/aural observations, lightning flash counters, photography, electric field and luminosity measure-
ments. The results presented are based mainly on observations between July 1959 and June 1969. An
attempt was made to classify all flashes observed at least as ground and cloud flashes, but this task
is rendered difficult by the poor visibility which frequently occurs in thunderstorms.
Frequency of Occurrence of Types of Lightning Discharge

The large number of visually unidentifiable flashes (about 72%) precludes a completely objective
determination of the relative frequency of occurrence. The estimates are based mainly on visual obser-
vation, with some supporting data from photographic and electric-field change observations, described
in detail by Mackerras (1971).
The terminology given by Schonland (1956) is followed in general. The term "composite flash"
(Mackerras, 1968) was applied to those lightning discharges in which there was at least one channel
to ground, accoumpanied by a system of discharge channels within or near the thundercloud so extensive
that the channel to ground appeared to be merely an incidental off-shoot. The events described by
Szpor and Kotlowski (1957, Fig. 9) and Malan (1961, Fig. 5) may have been of this type. The term "simple
ground flash" was applied to a discharge in which the predominant feature appeared to be a mainly-
vertical channel to ground. About 11 % of all flashes were observed to have at least one channel to
ground. Electric-field change observation suggested that some of the visually unidentified flashes were
ground flashes; it is estimated that 20% of all flashes were simple ground flashes and 4% were composite
flashes.
About 17 %of all flashes were observed to have one or more clearly-visible discharge channels none
of which reached the earth. Electric-field change observations suggested that most of the visually un-
identified flashes were cloud flashes of some type, and it is estimated that, of all flashes, 40% were intra-
cloud, 32% were intercloud, and 4% were air discharges. The term "intercloud" was applied to flashes
*) Paper was accepted by the Executive Pane~ but it was not presented. It was, therefore, not considered in any
discussion.
497
with relatively long, more or less horizontal discharge channels. As these channels were of the order
10 to 15 km long, there is some ground for assuming that two distinct thunderclouds were involved,
but the term "intercell flash" might be more appropriate, as it is very likely that the discharges took
place between different convective cells. Intracloud flashes usually appeared as diffuse illumination
originating from the upper part of a single thundercloud.
Estimate of Total Flash Density Based on Visual/Aural Observations

From observations between July 1959 to June 1969 the total number of flashes observed varied
from about 1100 to 8900 with a 10-year average of 4900 (all per year). Estimating the area under obser-
vation to be about loookm2, the mean total flash density was about 5km- 2 year- 1 and varied from
about 1 to 9km- 2 year- l .
Estimate of Total Flash Density Based on Lightning Flash Counter Records
Lightning flash counters of the CIGRE (International conference on large high-voltage electric
systems) type registered about 8000 flashes per year (denoted K). Prentice and Mackerras (1969) showed
that the total flash density, N" is related to the effective range for cloud and ground flashes, Rc and Rg
respectively, by the equation
Nt K2 [
= --
7tRg
1+_
Nc
Ng
J[ +
1 Nc
_ (Rc)2J-I
N g Rg
- [1]
Nc/Ng is the ratio cloud flash density to ground flash density. Prentice and Mackerras gave the follow-
ing estimates: Rg ~ 30km, Rc/Rg ~ 0.67, and NclNg ~ 4. Hence Nt ~ 0.64 X 10- 3 K. For K ~ 8000,
Nt ~ 5 km- 2 year-I. The uncertainty in this estimate is about ±40% because of uncertainty in Rg
and Rc. Estimates of Nt by this method are only slightly affected by variation in Nc/Ng. If Nc/Ng = 3,
Nt ~ 4.8km- 2 year-I.
Estimate of Ground Flash Density Based on Visual and Aural Oservations
Visual observations of ground flashes within 20 km of the lightning observatory between July 1964
and June 1969 showed that the local ground flash density is about 1.2 km - 2 year-I, obtained by count-
ing all ground flashes observed within given distances of the lightning observatory, distance being
obtained from time to thunder, and calculating N g for all ground flashes up to the given distance, Fig. 1.
The falling off in the calculated density with distance reflects the lowering of the probability of identifying
a ground flash as the distance increases. Extrapolation of the curve to zero distance gives N g about
1.2 km -2 year-I.
'7... 1.5
N>'
I
E
-'"
..><
z 1.0
z
~0.5
LU
I-
~
5;0
LU
0 3 6 9 12 15
DISTJlNCE IN km
Fig. 1. Estimate of ground flash density, Ng, based on all ground flashes observed up to the indicated distance
498
Estimate of Ground Flash Density Based on Lightning Flash Counter Records
Prentice and Mackerras (1969) showed that
Ng = n~; [1 + Z: (~:Yrl [2]
Using Nc/N g = 4, N g = 0.126 X 10- 3 K. For K = 8000yr-t, N g ~ 1.0km- 2 yr- 1• If Nc/Ng = 3,

Ng ~ 1.2 km- 2 yr- 1 .
The Cloud Flash/Ground Flash Ratio

From the above estimates, we may take Nt ~ 5 km- 2 yr-t, and N g ~ 1.2 km- 2 yr- 1 • This implies
Nc ~ 3.8 km -2 yr-l, so Nc/Ng ~ 3.2. This may be compared with an estimate of Nc/Ng using a formula
given by Pierce (1968, p. 71).
r( = Ng/N t ) = 0.1 + 0.25 sin A. [3]
where A. = latitude (degrees). At A. = 27° for Brisbane, r = 0.21, from which Nc/N g = 3.7, in reasonable
agreement with the above estimate.
Observations of individual storms showed a wide variation in the ratio of cloud flashes to ground
flashes. In a few storms, all observed flashes were ground flashes, while in others no ground flashes were
observed. It is sometimes asserted, and observed in particular storms, that ground flashes are more
frequent in the early or mature stage of a thundercloud than in the later stages. To find whether this
effect is statistically significant when all lightning observations are taken into account, each observation
period was divided into ten equal segments and the numbers of flashes of each type observed in each
segment was noted. Fig. 2 shows the result when averaged over all the observations. There is an almost
uniform rate of observation of both ground and cloud flashes up to 80% of the observation period,
and a slight reduction in the rate of observation -thereafter. It appears therefore, that the degree of
maturity of the thundercloud does not affect the averaged relative occurrence of ground or cloud flashes,
although the assumed association between the timing of the observations and the maturity of the
thunderstorm is questionable.
V)
UJ
~ 4
-'
u.
u.
...
o
20 40 60 80 100
%OF OBSERVATION PERIOD
Fig. 2. Percentage of flashes observed up to indicated time versus percentage of observation period elapsed
Seasonal and Diurnal Variation in Occurrence of Lightning

There is a strongly marked seasonal variation in occurrence of lightning, with a peak of activity in
midsummer (December) and very little activity in winter (May to August); this is summarised in Table 1.
The last row gives the mean number of flashes observed up to any given time during the year, expressed
as a percentage of the total flashes observed.
499
Table 1. Seasonal variation in occurrence of lightning mean quantities for 10 year period shown
Month Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Thunderdays per month 0.3 0.4 0.6 2.4 4.4 5.1 2.7 3.2 1.7 0.6 0.3 0.2
Thunderstorms
per thunderday 1.12 1.05 1.08 1.15 1.1 1.06
Flashes
per thunderstorm 5 36 73 250 267 300 233 120 70 47 71 27
Flashes per month 2 15 44 675 1235 1645 725 418 126 28 21 5
% of all flashes .04 .3 .9 13.7 25.0 33.3 14.7 8.5 2.6 .6 .4 .1
Accumulated percentage
of all flashes .04 .34 1.24 14.9 39.9 73.2 87.9 96.4 98.9 99.4 99.9 100
Assuming an effective area of observati9n of 1000km 2 , total flash density in km- 2 month- 1 can
be obtained from the given flashes per month. This is plotted in Fig. 3 against thunderdays per month,
using logarithmic scales. Maxwell et al. (1970) give the relation
N ld = 0.06 N}J [4]
where N ld is lightning counts km - 2 month -1 and N TD is thunderdays per month. Adopting this form
of relation, a satisfactory fit to the data in Fig. 3 is given by
[5]
,
2
cf'
fs 1 c:lc:l,'
,,
~ .5 /c:l
"t .2
E
..>< .1 ,c:l
;::; .05
~
:;: .02
z:
~ .01
~ .005
"-
.2 .5 1 2 5
lHUNDERDAYS PER MONlH
Fig. 3. Monthly total flash density versus thunderdays per month
!.
i
(b) i
lH UN DE RY",·
PERIODS /
i
/
12 18 24
HOUR OF DAY
Fig. 4. Percentage of all flashes (a), and thundery periods (b), observed up to indicated time of day
500
The diurnal variation in occurrence is also strongly marked. The percentage of flashes observed
up to a given hour of the day is shown in Fig. 4. The maximum rate of occurrence of observable flashes
occurs between 1900 and 2000 hours, local time, that is 7 hours after local noon. In the winter months,
the maximum activity occurs earlier (about 1800-1900 hrs.) than in the summer months (about 2000-
2100 hrs.). Except in December and January it is very rare for activity to continue past midnight into
the hours 2400 to 0500. The percentage of thundery five-minute periods observed up to the indicated
time, shown as the dashed curve in Fig. 4, indicates an earlier maximum of activity than the curve
based on observed flashes. The mean duration of thunderstorms, measured as the thundery period,
is about 75 minutes.
Dependence of Occurrence Upon Proximity of Fronts or Troughs

Surface synoptic charts issued by the Bureau of Meteorology (Australia) were related to the occurrence
of thunderstorms and lightning near Brisbane. The most significant single variable that could be obtained
from the synoptic charts was the smallest distance from Brisbane to a front or trough system. It was
found that the probability of occurrence of lightning varied from 4 times the mean value when there
was a front or trough less than 300 km to the south, south-west or west of Brisbane down to OJ times
the mean value when there was no front or trough nearer than 1300 km south, south-west, or west,
or nearer than 300 km north, north-east, or east of Brisbane.
. Year-to-Year Variation in Occurrence of Lightning

The variation in annual thunderdays in Brisbane from 1911 to 1968 is shown in Fig. 5. It is not certain
whether the earlier records applied strictly to days on which local thunder was heard; nevertheless
there has been a gradual fall in annual thunderdays in the last 4 decades. Years with a relatively large
number of thunderdays appear to have a disproportionately large number of flashes. The total flash
density, N, of 5 km - 2 yr- I was obtained during a period with about 21 thunderdays per year, whereas
the long-term mean is about 33 thunder days per year. Thus the value of N, given may be lower than
the "true" long-term mean by a factor of 2 or 3.
50
c::
«LLI
>- 40
c::
~ 30
V)
~ ./'
~ 20 ANNUAL------
~ THUNDERDAYS
z
~ 10
O~-'--r-"-'--'-~--r
1920 1940 1960
YEAR
Fig. 5. Annual and ten-year moving average thunderdays in Brisbane, 1911 to 1968
In the 10 year period 1959 -1969, year-to-year variation in N, covered a 8: 1 range, whereas year-
to-year variation in annual thunderdays covered a 203 : 1 range (14 to 32 per year).
The Need for Improvements in Determination of Lightning Statistics

as a Basis for Global Occurrence Estimates
While some of the main features of the occurrence of lightning in south-east Queensland have been
established, the degree of uncertainty in many of the quantities, especially the flash densities, is large.
Estimates of ground flash density based on lightning-caused faults on electric power transmission
lines exceed those given above by a factor of the order of 3, emphasising the uncertainty in our knowledge
of this quantity. In view of the difficulty of obtaining accurate statistics from prolonged observations
501
at a single station, estimates of global lightning occurrence must be considered to have a very large
degree of uncertainty.
An extensive review on a world-wide basis of the statistics of occurrence of thunderstorms and light-
ning was given by Maxwell et al. (1970). Their relation between lightning counts per km 2 month and
thunderstorm days per month is given above (eq. [4]). The experimental data from several sources,
based on CCIR (International Radio Consultative Committee) counter registrations (Horner, 1960)
and thunderstorm observations, are plotted in their Fig. 3-2, p. 3 - 7. Assuming lightning counts/km 2
can be equated to total flashes/km 2 , Nt can be estimated. From Table 1, N TD ~ 5.1 for December.
Hence N Id = 0.06 X 5.11.5 = 0.69, using eq. [4]. From Table 1, about 33% of all flashes occur in
December, so N ld ~ 1.7km- 2 month-I. The discrepancy is a factor of 2.4; local observations suggest
that the CCIR counters may have been recording mainly ground flashes over the assumed effective
range of 40 km. Better agreement would be obtained if Ny were used in place of Nt above. Alternatively,
the constants in eq. [4] should be replaced by those in eq. [5].
Improvement in the accuracy of lightning statistics is unlikely to be achieved with existing lightning
flash counters, or by visual/aural observations alone. As knowledge improves of the characteristics
of all types of lightning, it is becoming possible to make automatic recording devices which will provide
the required information with acceptable accuracy.
Acknowledgments
This project was supported financially by University of Queensland research grants, by the Electrical Research
Board, Australia, and by the Australian Research Grants Committee. The assistance of the many people who
provided the information on which this paper is based is gratefully acknowledged. In particular, I thank
Professor S. A. Prentice for his assistance in this work.
References
1. Horner, F., I.E.E. Proc. (London) 107 B (34), 321 (1960). - 2. Mackerras, D., J. Geophys. Res. 73 (4), 1175 (1968). -
3. Mackerras, D., Subtropical lightning, Ph. D. Thesis, Univ. of Queensland (1971). - 4. Malan, D. J., Annales de
Geophysique 17(4),388 (1961). - 5. Maxwell, E. L., D. L. Stone, R. D. Croghan, L. Ball, and A. D. Watt, Develop-
ment of a VLF atmospheric noise prediction mode~ Research Report No. 70-1 H 2-VLFNO-R 1, Westinghouse
Georesearch Laboratory (Boulder, Colorado, 1970). - 6. Pierce, E. T., The counting of lightning flashes, Stanford
Research Institute Special Technical Report (1968). - 7. Prentice, S. A. and D. Mackerras, I.E.E. Proc. (London)
116 (2), 294 (1969). - 8. Schonland, B. F. J., The lightning discharge, in S. Plugge (ed.), Handbuch der Physik,
Vol. 22, 576 (Heidelberg-Berlin-New York, 1956). - 9. Szpor, S. and J. Kotlowski, Acta Geophysica Polonica 6
(1),18 (1957).
Author's address:
D. Mackerras
Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Queensland
St. Lucia, 9. 4067
Australia
502
General Discussion
I would like to initiate discussions on the paper, "Problems of the Global Atmospheric Electric Circuit" by
Kasemir.
If I understand Kasemir correctly: He said, over the oceans we have no "Austausch". Meteorologists and we,
too, investi8llted it, and Markson mentioned just before that we have a strong exchange ofthe air over the ocean
in the tropical and subtropical regions, and the only difference between land and sea is that the "Austausch"
over the ocean transports only charges produced by the electrode effect and sometimes by the Blanchard effect.
But over land the "Austausch" transports charges produced on the earth surface by pollution and so on. That is
the difference. We must introduce this "Austausch".
Another question concerns the day to night exchange of current between the daytime area of the earth and
the nighttime area. I think that results from Kasemir's calculations should demonstrate that the currents in the
horizontal distance over some 10000 km or more cannot be horizontal but must be mostly vertical currents. Then
we have an equal-potential in the 10 km region or in the 100 km region, again. I think the ratio of the distances
vertically and horizontally is too small for direct horizontal currents.
The next point is the product of the field times the air-earth current density. This is a nice measure for some
specific considerations. The condition has to be a well-defined thickness of the layer in which the conductivity
is changed. If the thickness of this layer is small, the product will not give a global or regional value. If the thick-
ness of this layer is too large, one will not get a figure for the regional value. Only if the thickness is of middle
magnitude, say in an air mass in Europe, it is right that the product of the field times air-earth current density
should give a better measure than one of the parameters.
Another point is a surprising feature in some of Kasemir's figures. These showed us that the air-earth current
density over Boulder is less than the air-earth current density over Japan. Boulder is situated quite high above
sea level and mostly has clear air. Both facts should cause a large air-earth current density. I know some stations
in Japan with often low visibility and high pollution, and generally low altitude. These stations give the quoted
values of the air-earth current density for Japan. Therefore, I would expect exactly the inverse ratio of the values
of the air-earth current over the cited places, namely a high value over Boulder and a small value over Japan.
Finally, one more point: The proof for the inconstancy of the air-earth current density with a maximum in
about 10 km. Kasemir wanted to confirm this by using the mean values of the conductivity in function of the
altitude. I think, from the paper of Mohnen and from the paper on stratospheric electricity by Pierce and others,
we should have the impression that we cannot rely on these values of a very strongly variable conductivity higher
up.
I shall try to answer these questions in the sequence they came. First, austausch over the ocean. If there is aus-
tausch over the ocean which affects the electric condition, how does it happen that we can detect worldwide
patterns without local influence? It is one of our basic fmdings that on the ocean the austausch does not greatly
affect the global diurnal variation as measured there. What I intended to say was that on the ocean we should not
find a remarkable difference between the day and the night current density because the columnar resistance
does not change very much. However, over a continental area the difference should be quite apparent. Whether
this is true, measurements will show. .
The next question was: Why don't the different day and night currents equalize in higher altitudes? The
calculation says that this does not happen in the first 100 km altitude. Because I do not fmd an error in the calcula-
tion, I have to accept this as a valid result.
The answer to your next question is practically the same. It is a result of the calculation that the thickness of
the austausch layer does not effect the product of field times current density at the mountain top or on the
ground. This is true only for the assumptions made in the calculation. As I pointed out in the paper and also in
the presentation, the assumption for the day-night pattern of a large scale conductivity is oversimplified; there-
fore, the theory can give only a hint in which direction to proceed However, the remarkable experimental results
of Reiter by using the product iF are quite encouraging.
There may be two reasons for the difference in the current density at the Japanese stations and Boulder, USA:
A different columnar resistance and a different austausch-generator. The theory predicted that there could be
large differences as by about a factor 2 between current densities at two different locations on the earth, even
503
in higher altitudes. The examples I showed in the graphs demonstrated that indeed there are measurements
which support this prediction.
Vonnegut:
I am sorry to stop the discussion on this paper. I would like now to ask for questions and discussions on the
paper by Clayton and Polk.
R. D. Hill, Montecito, California, USA:
Polk commented on the different excitations that might occur through horizontal and vertical lightning strikes.
I wonder whether when he converted his diurnal variation curve to the number of strokes per unit time, he took
into account the different efficiencies or the different probabilities of excitations that might occur from, let's
say, a group of flashes, or continuing strokes, or the nature of the vertical stroke itself.
Polk, Kingston, Rhode Island, USA:
Question was whether Schumann resonances provide information about magnitude of horizontal lightning
flashes. The answer is no, because the data just do not provide any information. The data provide information
about the vertical electric field and an equivalent vertical dipole or current source. We realize that the data do not
say anything significant about horizontal components in the exciting source. All we get is an equivalent current
moment or an equivalent worldwide charge moment per second due to the excitation by the vertical component
oflightning flashes.
R. D. Hill:
But there is a time dependence, also, which might enter into the vertical flash. This is the point I am trying
to make. There is a frequency dependence in the flash and also in the K changes of the continuing stroke that may
affect excitation.
Polk:
Of course, we did assume a noise spectrum for the vertical stroke. We did not assume that we had a white noise
excitation over the band from 3 to 25 Hertz, but we used basically the Williams and Galejs data. We experimented
to see which of the various available spectra fit the data best. We assume a source function and we know from
other measurements what the response of the cavity is. Then we work back to the magnitude of the source
function and its diurnal variation. Although the frequency dependence of the source function is not very rapid,
there is a variation of excitation with frequency which enters into the calculations. I don't know whether this
answers the question.
I should like to ask whether when Clayton and Polk are considering the excitation of the wave guide formed
by the ionosphere and the earth, they take account of the differences between the day and the night side of the
earth.
Polk:
The ionospheric conductivity profile, which we are using, is an average for the day and night sides. So, the
propagation function is averaged, taking into account the difference between the day and the night side. The ex-
citation function or the spectrum of the individual lightning stroke, which is assumed, is the same for all lightning
strokes.
Vonnegut:
Are there comments concerning the paper by Markson on airplane observations of electrical activity?
This really is cheating a bit because I would like to address a comment to papers by Markson, by Muhleisen
and by Takagi simultaneously. I do so because Markson in his paper, cited measurements which I made with our
airplane over the gulf of Alaska. At the Tokyo conference, I presented curves measured over the Tyrrhenian and
Tasmanian Seas in which the traditional Carnegie curve was not exhibited with the same type of experiment.
And this was one reason for the Alaska measurements. We wished to make measurements in the far North
during the Arctic winter, so that we would be far removed from any active generating areas. And I think, the fact
that this curve did, in fact, shows the more or less classical picture is a corroboration of the validity of that assump-
tion. And I would perhaps suggest that the points made both by Muhleisen and by Takagi with respect to
horizontal potential differences and/or regional differences, may very well explain the differences between the
TasmanianjTyrrhenian curves and those which we obtained in the gulf of Alaska in the Arctic winter.
504
We know that the electrical characteristics of water are very dependent on the amount of salt in the water.
Blanchard and I had some argument about this about 10 years ago and he pointed out to me, then, that his meas-
urements would indicate that the bubbling effect was, perhaps, 100 times as effective over fresh water as over
salt water. Furthermore, as we know, over salt water in the oceans we get a positive space charge and over fresh
waters, that is in the great lakes, we get a negative space charge. I then pointed out to Blanchard that the area of
fresh water in the earth is something like 1 % of the area of the oceans. So, therefore, if we are considering a
global balance we have apparently the positive charge developed over the oceans, just about balanced by the
negative charge developed over large bodies of fresh water. Does Markson have any comment on that?
I have discussed charging the atmosphere through the breaking of bubbles with Blanchard frequently, but do
not recall this estimate of 100 to 1 for lakes versus oceans being mentioned and I do not know how reliable the
figure is. But, let us assume it is. One needs the breaking of bubbles to make the Blanchard effect work, and I
suspect the oceans are a much more favorable place for this than lakes. However, in my paper I referred to a space
charge layer over water which was mostly created, I believe, by the electrode effect supplemented at times by a
layer of low-conductivity air near the sea surface and to a lesser effect by the Blanchard effect. Also, to affect the
global circuit significantly, this space charge must be transported upward. Convection over the ocean is much
more significant than over lakes.
Vonnegut:
Let us proceed to the paper by Uchikawa.

I used the same kind of data in Japan and obtained the annual variation of the air-earth current. But somewhat
different results were obtained. The reason is this: We carefully checked the altitude profile of the air-earth
current. When the air-earth current changes very much with altitude, it is not in the steady state. If we use relatively
constant air-earth current with altitude, the result will come out different. This is my comment.
Vonnegut:
Let us proceed to the paper by Gringel and Mjjhleisen.
I have two questions or comments on this paper. First is the question: I wonder if Gringel and Mjjhleisen have
found any evidence of convection near or at the surface, as reported by other people including Hutchinson, at this
conference. And secondly, in the measurements of current densities with which they made a comparison of
airborne-shipborne and the unit on sea surface, did they use the total conductivity times electric field for the
indirect measurement, and compare it with the measurement of the Wilson plate on the sea surface? And if they
did, did they find any discrepancies, as reported by a number of other people?
Concerning the convection, our measured values during the Meteor expedition were beginning at 1 km over
the sea. We could not measure from surface up to the first kilometer because of the exhaust of the ship.
Mjjhleisen:
I would like to answer to the second question in connection with a remark to Markson and to the question of
Pierce. We had time enough for studying the Blanchard effect and the space charge density over the ocean during
three expeditions, all together 9 months work over the Atlantic Ocean. During this time we could find only space
charges produced by the electrode effect, because we measured all the parameters: field, sometimes air-earth
current density, space charge and conductivity and the electric field by tethered balloons from the sea surface
to 100 m or more. All the measured values and the experiences from measurements over a large lake near Weissenau
gave us the feeling that the Blanchard effect is not working overall on the oceans. We could not yet find indications
that we had space charge produced by the Blanchard effect. We did not find a dependence of the space charge on
the wind velocity, and there should be one if the Blanchard effect is effective. Space charge over the ocean is, in
our opinion, due to the electrode effect only, and only under stormy conditions the Blanchard effect may work.
I think that is the answer for both questions.
Vonnegut:
Is there a discussion, now, concerning Mjjhleisen's invited paper?
505
I am most impressed in Milhleisen's presentation on about 60 kV which he found as a difference in potential
between the mid-latitude ionosphere and an equatorial ionosphere. I hope to hear some explanation this after-
noon. I like to look into the possibility of an error in measurement. One needs only a 20 % error in Weissenau
and an 20 % error at the equator to come to a zero potential difference. One possibility lies in the very detailed
structure of current density versus altitude. It means the presence of convection currents and space charges on a
very small scale. If one has small scale variations in the electric field versus altitude and a long time-constant
in the measuring instrument one makes an appreciable error if one integrates the electric field to obtain the
potential difference. It is, therefore, necessary, to have a small time-constant in the measuring apparatus.
Milhleisen:
Let me invite Ruhnke's attention to some publications concerning the differences. In these publications he
will find that we checked very intensively the accuracy of our measurements on one side. On the other side, we
found larger potential differences only at a time after a solar event during which particles can flow into the earth's
atmosphere. I have pictures which show better than we expected that all differences occur in the interval of twenty
to forty hours after a solar event. This is exactly the time when middle energetic particles touch the earth's atmos-
phere. For the present time, we have no better explanation. Regarding our accuracy, we are the only persons
who give the accuracy of the measured values according to a classification scheme which has been given to the
World Data Centre in Leningrad.
Vonnegut:
Are there comments concerning Takagi's paper on the regional effect in the global atmospheric electric field
or on Changnon's paper on secular trends in thunderstorm frequency?
First of all, I should like to add a cautionary note regarding the interpretation of thunderstorm day records.
The variation of thunderstorm days does not necessarily reflect a change in the incidence of thunderstorms, al-
though this will usually be the case. The response of observers is very complicated. Secondly, I would like to
mention that in England we have thunderstorm-day data back to 1880. I have only analysed the last 40 years
data, but there does not seem to be a secular trend such as is mentioned in this paper. The variations are certainly
less than 1 %.
Changnon, Urbana, Illinois, USA:
It is probably the most difficult part of such a study to evaluate the thunderstorm-day records, if you will, to
calibrate them. However, the data I received from Great Britain and examined included London and two stations
of Scotland. The trends were slightly upwards from the middle 30's.
It is of interest to insert in the proceedings typical values for the coefficient of variation, the standard deviation
divided by the mean, for these data. This value may be equivalent to the change being reported as significant
in this paper.
Changnon:
Please, look at the paper because it will have, for each area all of the trends, deviations and means.
Basically, the standard deviations around the means in the early 35 years of this century were not different than
they have been in the last 35 years.

It seems to be rather fashionable, nowadays, to correlate most every event with an increase or a change, at
least, in atmospheric aerosol loading. Changnon has done this too, in his paper. He compared aerosol concentra-
tions, as deduced from conductivity measurements over the oceans, and implied, at least, that a similar trend
occurs over large land areas, and that this increased trend in aerosol concentration might be responsible for an
increase in the thunderstorm activity. Have I misinterpreted your paper, or is this, in effect, your current
explanation?
Changnon:
I believe that you have misinterpreted. That it is offered as a possibility, but without going into all details of the
research. There is much more evidence, in my consideration for natural climatic causes for the fluctuations and the
trends that have been found. I do agree that there is a tendency to try to explain everything by increased aerosols,
506
whethe~ it is atmospheric electriciiy or anything else. But it is offered as one of the possible proofs that there is
a man-made effect in the air-earth current.
Vonnegut:
Are there comments concerning the paper by Weiss, Frazer, and Hill?
Markson:
Horizontal potential gradients have been measured by myself with a glider as well as a powered airplane.
This is possible with state of the art of instrumentation. Typically the maximum horizontal field resulting from
the convective activity in the mixed layer is on the order of 5 volts per meter and generally it is lower.

I feel we should not let pass unused the occasion to emphasize that objective measurement of thunderstorm
or lightning frequency is an important point within the necessity to make meteorological reporting better. In
addition to, or in replacement of, the common "days with thunder heard" or "hours with lightning seen", actual
numbers obtained by good lightning counters and/or good atmospherics monitors should be recorded. The
hearing of the thunder and the seeing of lightning depends on so many subjective conditions of the individual
observer or around him, that the result of such observations is bound to be inaccurate. Also, by definition, a "day
with thunder heard" is a very poor measurement because there may well be more than one thunderstorm per day,
and some thunderstorms are very weak - having just one lightning - and others are extremely strong. Thus,
it is high time to get objective measurements.
Chairman's address:
B. Vonnegut
Dept. Atmosph. Science
State University of New York
at Albany
Albany, New York 12222
USA
507
Session}7
ATMOSPHERE-SPACE COUPLING,
SOLAR-TERRESTRIAL EFFECTS,
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY ON OTHER CELESTIAL BODIES
Global, Quasi-Static Electric Fields in the Earth's Environment*)

H. Volland
With 9 figures
Abstract
Large scale electric potential fields can be generated within the lower atmosphere due to thunderstorm
activity, within the ionosphere from the dynamo action of the neutral wind and within the magnetosphere
from the interaction between solar wind and the geomagnetic field. These electric fields are related to electric
currents and magnetic fields. Sources and configurations of these electric fields as well as their mapping into the
various height regions are discussed.
Introduction
The electromagnetic state of the earth and of its atmosphere and magnetosphere which is caused
by exogen processes is characterized by an energy spectrum with a broad maximum near a period of
5 days and with discrete peaks at periods of one solar day, 27 days, one year and their harmonics (30).
Since the electric conductivity has a minimum near the earth's surface with an average value of
0'0 - 4 X 10- 14 n- 1 m- 1 (Fig. 1) and since the capacitance of the atmosphere equals the dielectric
constant which is nearly that of free space, the decay time of an electromagnetic wave is
'0 ~ eo/O'o - 220 s =3.7 min. [1]
Therefore the observed electromagnetic fields must be caused and steadily maintained by external
non-electromagnetic forces like gravity, angular momentum of the solid earth, solar radiation and
momentum of the solar wind.
In this paper we want to consider the low frequency tail of this exogen spectrum with periods greater
than one hour or angular frequencies of
OJ;;;; 1.75 X 1O- 3 s- 1 . [2]
For these periods, the displacement current in the first Maxwell-equation generally is small as com-
pared with the convection or the conduction currents. Because of [1] and [2] it is
[3]
and the first Maxwell-equation reduces to
curiH =j [4]
with H the magnetic field strength andj the electric current density. Thus, we exclude all high frequency
phenomena like geomagnetic pulsations, ULF- and VLF-whistlers, atmospherics and radio waves.
*) Invited Paper.
509
Magnetosphere
200,~--------------------------~--~-------------------+----rm
l00'r---------------------------~~~--~_=~~~------------ri
-E
.JI.
Earth's Interior
-100
Fig. 1. Average electric conductivity of the atmosphere
We exclude also all exogen processes connected with secular variations of the main geomagnetic field.
This main field may therefore be described by a scalar potential field
Bo = - grad V [5]
with V the magnetic potential and Bo the magnetic induction. In many cases it can be approximated
by a co-axial dipole field outside the earth's surface. Furthermore we want to limit ourselves to large
scale phenomena with characteristic lengths of the order of the thickness of the average auroral ovals
or larger:
100 km < L < 2na (a = earth's radius). [6]
Then in the second Maxwell-equation the terms on the left hand side have magnitudes
IcurljEI - ElL [7]
while within the atmosphere the right hand side has the magnitude
loBlotl- ZoHwlc [8]
with Zo = 377 n the wave resistance of free space and c the velocity of light. For a plane wave and for
V
the periods considered it is E = ZoHlnA with nA ~ ITo/(2Bow) the magnitude of the refractive index
of the atmosphere. Thus within the lower atmosphere the right hand side [8] is several orders of mag-
nitudes smaller than the single terms on the left hand side [7], and Maxwell's equation reduces to
curlE = 0 [9]
above the earth's surface which implies that the electric field strength E can be derived from a quasi-
static electric potential:
E= -gradq>. [10]
Within ionosphere and inner magnetosphere the electric conductivity becomes highly anisotropic
with a parallel conductivity increasing rapidly with altitude (s. Fig. 1). Therefore any electric field
parallel to the geomagnetic field lines must break down in a time small compared with the characteristic
510
times considered here. Thus, E and B will be orthogonal to each other to a sufficient degree of approxi-
mation:
E·B = 0 [11]
and the quasi-static electric potential field of [10] still holds. However within the tail of the magneto-
sphere where the ratio between kinetic plasma pressure and magnetic stresses is greater than unity,
the approximation [10] may become invalid.
Likewise, within the earth's interior, eq. [10] is not more valid because of the great increase ofthe iso-
tropic electric conductivity there. With E = ZoRinE' both sides in [7] and [8] become of the same
order of magnitude. As is well known, an external electromagnetic field induces electric currents within
the earth's interior, the magnetic components of which are superimposed on the primary field. As a
rule, these secondary magnetic induction fields increase the horizontal component of the primary
magnetic field and decrease the vertical component by about 1/2 of their original magnitudes (50).
The skin depth of the penetrating electromagnetic wave is of the order
Zs = cl(nEw) ~ cV2eo/(uEw). [12]
It increases with increasing period.
In this paper we want to treat only electric fields above the earth's surface. Since the ratio between the
horizontal and the vertical component of the electric field strength of a plane wave at the earth's surface
is (58)
[13]
with /} the angle of incidence, E virtually always is orthogonal at the surface. In the frequency range
considered here the surface of the earth therefore acts like an electric equipotential layer. We define
it as the plane of null potential:
tP(a) = O. [14]
Finally, the connection between electric field and electric current is given by Ohm's law for the
conduction current:
jd = uE [15]
while for the determination of the convection current
[16]
the dynamic equation of the plasma and the neutral gas are needed. It is N i , ei and Vi number density,
charge and velocity of the i-th component. The total electric current which is the sum of [15] and [16]
is assumed to be divergence-free:
divj = 0 [17]
which means that we consider only regions outside of sources and sinks.
The Electric Conductivity

Electromagnetic wave propagation strongly depends on the electric and magnetic properties of the
propagation space. Within the entire atmosphere, ionosphere and magnetosphere and for the wave
periods considered, permeability and permittivity to a reasonable degree of approximation are those
of free space: /1 = /10; e = eo. On the other hand, the electric conductivity as a parameter mainly
depending on the non- electric physical properties of the air, widely varies in magnitude and character
throughout the different height regions. We shall discuss briefly the electric conductivity within the
three height regions: lower atmosphere up to 100 km altitude, dynamo region between 100 and 200 km
and inner magnetosphere between 200km and about 10 earth's radii distance. We shall denote the
lower boundaries of these regions in terms of radial distance from the earth's center: r. = a, ri = a +
100km and rm = a + 200km (s. Fig. 1).
511
a) The lower atmosphere (28)
Cosmic radiation from space, and within the lowest 100 m, radioactive gases - mainly radon -
exhaled from the ground, are the main sources of primary positive ions (fast ions) which form long
living combinations of one proton and several water molecules. The primary electrons attach to neutrals
forming in most cases ionized oxygen molecules tied to a varying number of water molecules. Within
the atmospheric exchange layer, positive and negative ions can be attached to aerosol particles forming
slow ions. The fast ions are mainly responsible for the electric conductivity of the air. Although the
ion production rate is five times larger above land than above sea due to radioactivity, the loss rate
due to attachment to aerosol particles is also five times larger there. Therefore the number density
of fast ions is about 10 9 m ~ 3 above land and above sea. Within the exchange layer, the aerosol content
greatly varies as a consequence of natural and man-made factors. Thus the density of fast ions within
the lowest part of the atmosphere shows a great variability with time of day, season and orography.
The electric conductivity of the air depends on the number density of the fast positive and negative
ions and on their mobility. Since the mobility is roughly proportional to the reciprocal density of the
air, the electric conductivity increases nearly exponentially with altitude although the number density
of the fast ions does not change very much. On the average it is (9)
O'A = O'oexp(zjH) (0 ~ z = r - a;S 60km) [18]
with 0'0 = 4 X 1O~14Q~1 m~l; H = 6km.
Due to meteorological and other factors, deviations from the average value in [18] up to several
hundred percent can occur below the exchange layer. Several reductions of 0' A within the Junge layer
between about 17 and 25 km and above have been observed which are not yet explained. The diurnal
variation of the electric conductivity above land shows a maximum in the local morning hours which
later decreases because of the establishment of the exchange layer. Above sea strong diurnal variations
of 0'A are absent. In clouds and fogs the conductivity can be reduced to about one third of its clear air
value. .
b) The dynamo region (55)

Above about 70 km altitude, the solar XUV -radiation ionizes certain constituents of the neutral
air with an efficiency increasing with height so that this kind of ionization predominates the cosmic
ray ionization in that height range. The free electrons and ions are maintained by complicated photo-
chemical production and loss processes as well as by the dynamic movement of the neutral gas itself.
Below about 80 km, the mobility of electrons and ions is dominated by collisions with the neutral gas.
However, above 80 km the collisions between electrons and neutrals become less frequent so that
the electrons can gyrate several times within the geomagnetic field between two collisions. Thus they
are essentially bound to the geomagnetic lines of force. For the ions, this happens above about 140 km
altitude. It is this different behavior between electrons and ions which makes that region electrically
anisotropic.
The relation between electric current and electric field within a two-component plasma (electrons
and one species of ions) exposed to an external magnetic field is
[19]
with
0'11 = e2 Ne (_1_ + _1_) parallel conductivity
me Ven mi Vin
0'
p -
- e2 N {
e me(v;n
Ven
+ w;) + Vin
mi(vrn + wfl } Pedersen-conductivity [20]
Hall-conductivity
512
Here, mk and Wk = lelBo/mk are mass and gyrofrequency of ions (k = i) and electrons (k = e). N.,
e are number density and charge of electrons, and Vkn is the collision number between the k-th com-
ponent and the neutrals. E II and E.L are the electric components parallel and orthogonal to Bo respectively.
Evidently, the effect of the magnetic field is to reduce the electric conductivity (Jp orthogonal to the
magnetic field compared with the parallel conductivity (JII' Since the gyrofrequencies Wk remain nearly
constant with altitude, (Jp has a maximum where Vin = Wi which is at about 140 km. Above this height,
(J p decreases proportional to the mean density (Fig. 1). (Jh represents the electric conductivity orthogonal
to E and Bo. Since electrons and ions both drift into the same direction under the influence of E x Bo,
it is the difference in their mobility which leads to a finite value of the Hall-conductivity. Its maximum
is near 105 km altitude where Vin Ven = WiWe' Above that height, it decreases rapidly with altitude
(Fig. 1). In the ranges of their maximum values, Pedersen and Hall conductivity are maintained pre-
dominantly by ions and electrons, respectively.
At low latitudes, significant vertical electric currents do not flow out of the dynamo regions. In parti-
cular, within the equatorial region where the geomagnetic lines of force are horizontal, vertical electric
polarisation fields are set up in order to prevent vertical Hall currents to flow. These electric polarisation
fields produce horizontal Hall currents which add significantly to the total zonal electric current. The
effective horizontal electric conductivity at the equator is called Cowling conductivity and has the form
[21]
The dynamo region is defined as that region where most of the Pedersen- and Hall currents flow.
This is the case between about 100 and 200 km altitude. Outside this height region, the Pedersen and
Hall conductivities have decreased to values smaller than 10% of their maximum values (Fig. 1). The
electric conductivities are subject to large diurnal, seasonal and geographic variations due to the varying
electron number density Ne which is related to solar radiation. At nighttime, the magnitudes of (J
may drop to more than one tenth of their daytime values. Solar flares produce X-rays which penetrate'
into the ionospheric D- and E-Iayers shifting temporally the lower boundary of the dynamo region
to lower altitudes.
c) The inner magnetosphere (27)

The lower boundary of the magnetosphere may be defined as that region above which the dynamo
currents cease to be effective. Such boundary is of course not a sharp one. A height of 200 km adopted
in this paper should be considered as a convenient idealization of a model which describes sufficiently
well the large scale electric behavior of the earth's environment.
The plasma of the magnetosphere is essentially collisionless and hydromagnetic. Any plasma motion
is strongly coupled with the magnetic field. The plasma convects together with the tube of magnetic
flux which is known as the "frozen-in" concept of hydromagnetics. Due to the high parallel conduc-
tivity, the geomagnetic lines of force are electric equipotential lines apart perhaps from localized areas
(11). The outer boundary of the inner magnetosphere is that region where the kinetic plasma pressure
equals the magnetic stresses. Within the inner magnetosphere the geomagnetic field essentially deter-
mines the plasma convection. Outside this region the geomagnetic field is strongly modified by the
plasma.
Electric Fields of Tropospheric Origin

Measurements of the vertical electric potential within the fair-weather regions above ground show
an increase of the potential from zero at the ground to about 300 kV at 40 km altitude (17). At 14 km
altitude, already 90% of this value is reached. A corresponding nearly constant electric current density
of the order of 2 pA/m2 flows from the upper atmosphere down to the ground. The electric potential
is a worldwide phenomenon. Also its diurnal and seasonal variations are worldwide. Therefore the
earth's interior and the upper atmosphere above 40 km behave like equipotential layers while the
atmosphere in between is a resistor of about 300 Q. In order to drive such an electric current system,
an electromotive force must exist. The most reasonable and now generally accepted explanation for
513
such a force is charge separation within thunderstorm areas. It leads to positive charges at the top
and to negative charges at the bottom of a thunderstorm cloud. Because of the high conductivity at
the upper terminal of the generator which may be located as high as 15 km, the global system is closed
via ground to cloud to the ionosphere. The electric current within bad-weather regions indeed has
been observed to flow predominantly from the ground to the clouds.
A lightning discharge is then a short circuit within that system. Since about 100 discharges per second
occur on the dayside hemisphere carrying on the average 5 C (63), the short circuit is smaller than
500 A and only· a fraction of the global circuit The total electric energy of an average active thunder-
storm is 2 GW while its total energy has been estimated to 6 GW sufficient to convert part of it into
electric energy. With 1500 existing active thunderstorms at any time, we arrive at 3 TW electric energy
of the global system.
According to Whipple and Scrase (71), the diurnal variations ofthe electric potential at various ocean
stations depend on universal time with a maximum near 20.00 GMT. The explanation for this phe-
nomenon is that three large thunderstorm areas - South America, Africa and Asia - predominately
contribute to the generation of the electromotoric force. This geographic distribution together with
the occurrence of the thunderstorms mainly during the late local afternoon is responsible for this effect.
Indeed, a correlation between the diurnal variations of the electric potential and the global occurrence
of active thunderstorms is rather high (17).
There remain two problems: Firstly, the amplitudes of the diurnal variations of both phenomena
do not fit. Secondly, the seasonal variations ofthe electric field do not coincide with seasonal variations
of the global thunderstorm activity. However, the present method to measure thunderstorm activity
by counting the days where thunder is heard appears to be not very reliable. A much better quantitative
method would be to locate and count atmospherics by modern quantitative techniques (25).
It should be mentioned that Webb (70) claims that the driving force of the global electric field is the
vertical transport of positive ions within the lower ionosphere. However, the vertical velocities which
are needed are at least one order of magnitude larger than estimated from tidal theory (32). Moreover
Webb expects vertical electic fields of the order of 50mV/m between 70 and 100km altitude and at
low latitudes which have not yet been observed (24).
Near active thunderstorms the global field is distorted. Within the lower atmosphere below 40 km
altitude, this distortion decays rapidly with distance and becomes insignificant beyond 50 km. However
it may map into the magnetosphere to form field-aligned irregularities along which whistler propagation
is favoured (49).
The electric potential within the fair-weather region outside the thunderstorm areas can be repre-
sented according to eqs. [10], [17] and [18] by (42)
tP(a') = tP\l') h(r) (a ~ r ~ ri) [22]
with h(r) = 1 - exp[ -(r - a)jH];tP\l') = 300kV.
Evidently, this potential has only a vertical electric field component of
E, = -(tP\l')/H)exp[ -(r - a)/H] [23]
which exponentially decreases with altitude. The vertical electric current density is then constant
according to [15], [18] and [23]:
[24]
Because of the rapid decrease with altitude of E, in eq. [23], the so-called electric equalizing layer
thought to be the upper equipotential layer is merely a matter of definition. We define it as that height
where the electric potential in [22] has reached 99.9% of its total value. This is the case at 41 km if
we use the numbers given above. In the next sections we shall see that this exchange layer *) is not an
equipotential layer in a strict sense since horizontal field components comparable in magnitude to
the vertical components can exist there.
*) Not to be confused with the "exchange layer" in the lower troposphere.
514
Because of the large values of the conductivity within the dynamo region as well as within the magneto-
sphere, both regions have the same average potential of 300 kV with respect to the ground.
Electric Fields of Ionospheric Origin

Regular tidal winds driven by solar heat input or by gravitational forces of sun and moon are generated
within the entire atmosphere. Within the dynamo regions of the thermosphere, the free electrons and
ions react in a different way to the impact of the neutral wind. The forced motion of the plasma across
the geomagnetic field gives rise to Lorentz-forces v x Bo where v is the bulge velocity of the plasma.
Due to ambipolar diffusion of electrons and ions, charge separation sets in which produces an electric
polarisation field Es. Under the influence of this secondary electric field and the Lorentz-field, electric
currents flow. The magnetic effects of these electric currents are known as Sq (solar quiet) and L (lunar)
geomagnetic variations. The theory which explains these variations is called dynamo theory (13) because
of its analogy with a technical dynamo.
a) The Sq field
The Sq current is caused primarily by the thermally driven diurnal tidal wave (1, -1) (29,59,61,66).
This tide is also called a (1, - 2) wave (32) and has been discovered only recently. Within the lower
atmosphere, this wave is evanescent *) and decays rapidly outside its origin. However its meridional
configuration matches rather well the solar heat input distribution. Within the dissipative thermo-
sphere where all tidal waves tend to become quasi-evanescent, the (1, -1) mode therefore develops
to the dominant tidal wave with horizontal velocities of the order of 100 m/s. Moreover due to its large
vertical wave length, its phase does not change more than 2 hours between 100 and 200 km altitude
which is only 1/12 of its wave period (68). This is the reason for the great efficiency ofthat wave to produce
the observed Sq variations.
The horizontal wind components of the (1, -1) mode can be approximated within the lower atmo-
sphere below 100 km by
V8 =4 vJSq) cos (J cos r
[25]
VA = - t VJSq)(6cos 2 (J - l)sinr
and above 200 km altitude by

V8 = vJsq) cos(J cos(r - 2h)
[26]
VA = - VJsq) sin(r - 2h).
A transition range exists between 100 and 200 km (68). Here V8 and VA are meridional and zonal wind,
positive toward south and east, respectively. r is the local time, VJSq) is a function of altitude increasing
from about 20 to 100 m/s between 100 and 200 km, and (r, (J, l) are the spherical coordinates. Note
that eq. [25] is an exact solution of the horizontal momentum equations including the Coriolis force
while eq. [26] is exact if the Coriolis force is neglected.
In order to estimate the general behavior of the secondary electric polarisation field Es as well as the
electric currents produced by these winds, we use eq. [19] and assume Ell = 0, E.l = Es + v x Bo,
up = constant and Uh = 0, together with the condition [17] and a co-axial dipole approximation
of the geomagnetic field with Boo = 3 X 10- 5 T being its strength at the equator. This yields an electric
potential and an electric current function of
r.B v,(sq)
tP(sq) = ' 00 0 sin(J(3 + 4 cos 2 (J) sim (z;S 100km) [27]
3
tP(·q) = riBoo VJ·q) sin(J sin{r - 2") (z ~ 200km) [28]
s(·q) = - riBoo vJSq) I: psin (J cos II cos (r - (X) [29]
*) evanescent = "vanishing".
515
with IX = Ii' and 2h at heights z ~ 100 km and z ~ 200 km, respectively. Lp is the height integrated
Pedersen-conductivity. Both wind systems in [25] and [26] are related to two different electric polari-
sation fields in [27] and [28]' However they lead to exactly the same current function S(sq) in [29],
apart from the relatively small phase difference of 2 hours. This behavior also adds to the efficiency
of the (1, -1) wind in generating the Sq current because the whole region from 100 to at least 200 km
must contribute to the electric current system in order to produce the observed amplitudes of the geo-
magnetic Sq variation. If the phase change with height would be larger - say half a wave length within
the dynamo region - then the magnetic effects of the currents at different heights would cancel each
other, and only a small magnetic effect would be observed on the ground (59, 61).
Taking a mean value of the Pedersen-conductivity of (Jp = 1.5 X 10- 4 0- 1 m -1 averaged over the
height range between 100 and 200 km (s. Fig. 1) which gives Lp = 150- 1 and assuming a value of
VJSq) = 65 mls, we arrive at a total electric current within the contour interval on the day side of
r B V,(Sq)L
= 00 0 p ~ 95 kA
S(sq)
max
i
2 [30]
which is the right order of magnitude derived from observations (36). Rishbeth (54) who considered
a wind of the form [26], has estimated that even the F2-region above 200 km altitude may contribute
to the Sq current by as much as 10%.
Sq- Potential
a)
Maeda-
Wind
~h~====~==~====:===~====~==~Oh
(1,-1) -
Wind
_'f
Fig. 2. Equipotential lines of the electric polarisation field of the Sq current on the northern hemisphere within
ionospheric heights. Fig. 2a: Maeda-wind (curl-free); Fig. 2b: tidal (1, -1) wind (see this section, a)
Fig.2a and 2b show the equipotential lines of the two electric field configurations from [27] and
[28] on the northern hemisphere. Both configurations differ mainly at lower latitudes. Maximum
horizontal potential difference between morning and evening is 25 k V at the equator. The electric
field of Fig. 2b is in reasonable agreement with a more sophisticated calculation of Matsushita (37).
This field has maximum values of 4.2 mV/m at the poles. In the case of Fig. 2a the maximum value
516
is 1.8 mV/m. The electric field of Fig. 2a agrees with Maeda's calculations, apart from a phase difference
of two hours (33). In fact, Maeda used a curl-free wind system similar to that of eq. [26]' Haerendel
(24) pointed out that his electric field measurements agree better with Maeda's than with Matsushita's
computations. This is what we expect, because Haerendefs measurements cover a height range between
150 and 220 km.
Our simplified model must of course be modified if quantitative agreement with the observations
is expected. E. g., the focus of the observed S q current is near 35° latitude and at 11 h local time while
the focus of the calculated current system [29] is at 45° latitude and between 12 and 14h local time.
Hall currents neglected in our estimate contribute about 40% to the total current and shift the focus
to earlier times. Moreover, the diurnal variation of the electric conductivity gives rise to semidiurnal
components of the Sq current with amplitudes of about 1/2 ofthose of the diurnal components, however
phase shifted by 180° (66). This is verified by the observations (35).
Within the equatorial region, vertical electric fields are built up to prevent Hall currents to flow
out of the dynamo region. These vertical fields add a strong Hall current to the zonal Pedersen current
thus increasing the total zonal electric current by a factor of two. This enhancement of the Sq current
within a small belt around the geomagnetic equator is called the equatorial electrojet. In addition,
poloidal electric currents flow within the dynamo region just outside the equator generating a toroidal
magnetic field which cannot be observed on the ground (64). Those poloidal fields may also be pro-
duced outside the equatorial region due to altitude varying electric conductivities or winds (21, 45).
During a solar flare, enhanced X-ray radiation from the sun penetrates deep into the ionosphere
increasing temporally the electron density, in particular within the D-Layer. This increase enhances
the electric conductivity and thus the strength of the Sq current in that height range where the wind
system [25] is responsible for its generation. On the ground, one observes that increase in form of the
geomagnetic solar flare effect or crochet in the geomagnetic field. The electric current system of a crochet
is similar to that of the Sq current. However it is phase shifted by about one or two hours to the east
(65). This is just what one expects from the phase shift of the current function [29] with altitude. On the
other hand, during a solar eclipse, within the shadow regions of the ionosphere the conductivity is
decreased, giving rise to a depression of the Sq current which is observed on the ground as the geo-
magnetic eclipse effect (69).
Besides the (1, -1) mode, other symmetric modes may contribute to the Sq current, in particular
the semidiurnal modes (57). The significance of the fundamental (2,2) mode is not yet clear. E.g., Evans
(19) deduced a predominant semidiurnal component of the electric fields above 180 km from backscatter
observations at Millstone Hill. On the other hand, Amayenc (3) observed predominant diurnal winds
at those heights in Nancy. Richmond (53) deduced a significant (1,1) mode which contributes to the
generation of the equatorial electrojet.
b) The Lfield
For the generation of the L variations, the gravitational influence of the moon is responsible. These
variations are predominantly semidiurnal. They are believed to be mainly generated by the wind system
of the (2,2) mode (61). The amplitude of L is about 3% of that of Sq (36). In a similar manner as for the
diurnal (1, -1) mode, we can estimate the horizontal winds, the electric potential and the current of the
lunar (2,2) mode to be given by
V9 -
- 3 T?(I) • 0
Z·o sm cos O' sm 2'! } (z < 100 km)
[31]
VA = i VJ') (3 - 2 sin 0) sinO cos2'!
2 ~
V9 -
- T?(I)
.0
• 0
sm sm 2'! } (z ~ 200km)
cos O' [32]
VA = VJ') sinO cos2'!
<p(I) = -ir;Boo VJ') (5 - 3sin 2 0)sin 2 0cos2'! (z ~ 100km) [33]
<p(l) = -ir;Boo VJ') sin 2 0 cos2'! (z ~ 200km) [34]
S(l) = - jr;Boo VJ ') I;p sin 2 0 cos 0 sin 27:. [35]
517
L - Potential
Sh
a)
Maeda-
Wind
(2,2)-
Wind
Fig. 3. Equipotential lines of the electric polarisation field of the L current on the northern hemisphere within
ionospheric heights. Fig. 3a: Maeda-wind (curl-free); Fig. 3b: tidal (2,2) wind (see this section, b))
Again, the same current function for the two different wind systems results. Here, T is the lunar local
time and Va') - 4 m/s. The phase in [31] and [32] is selected such that S(l) agree with the observations.
A more sophisticated model must take into account Hall currents, diurnal variations of the conducti-
vities, the phase of the moon and the shift of the wind with altitude (61). Fig. 3a and 3b show the equi-
potential lines of cP(l) from [34] and [33] on the northern hemisphere during the prenoon hours. Again
the agreement between Fig. 3b and more detailed calculations of Matsushita (37) is reasonable, whereas
Fig. 3a fits to Maeda's (33) computations. Note that the wind of [32] is curl-free and agrees with Maeda's
wind.
c) Mapping into the lower atmosphere

Mapping of the large scale electric potential fields into the lower atmosphere can be described mathe-
matically by
cP = h(r) cP(i)(fJ, T) (a ~ r < r;) [36]
where cP(i) is the potential given by [27] or [33] and h(r) is taken from eq. [22]. Fig. 4 shows the equi-
potential lines of the electric field of the Sq current [27] within the equatorial plane of the lower atmo-
sphere. These lines are nearly vertical just below the dynamo region and change to horizontal lines
at the earth's surface. The ratio between the zonal component and the vertical component ofthe electric
field strength at the equator is according to [10] and [36]
I~
E,
I 9~ 900
= H(1 - exp( - zIH»
r exp( - zlh)
[37]
518
12 kVolt
II II I II
I
I I I I
20 ! I cp(sq) I I
I I I I
..
..c:
I I
I \ -10'
I I / ,
111
I \ \ /
~
I \ \ ,- /I
,
,
10 /
I \ /
\', /
I
\
"-- ----
,-~ //
/ _/
6 12 18 24
Local Time (hours)
Fig. 4. Mapping of the ionospheric polarisation field of the Sq current from Fig. 2b into the equatorial plane
of the lower atmosphere
with z = r - a the height above ground. This ratio becomes unity at 41 km. It is this altitude which
we defined as the height of the electric exchange layer. Below that height, the horizontal components
rapidly decrease and disappear at the ground. The vertical field strength of th Sq current at the ground
is 3 Vim at the equator which is about 6% of the tropospheric field and may scarcely be detectable.
However Mozer (42) measured with great success the horizontal components of the electric fields of
ionospheric and magnetospheric origin at balloon altitudes. Mapping of short periodic, small scale
ionospheric disturbances into the lower atmosphere is more complicated due to the non-negligible
influence of the displacement current (8).
Evidently, electric current systems develop within the lower atmosphere and the earth's interior
under the influence of the ionospheric potentials. E. g., the potential of the S q current produces a vertical
electric current density into the earth during prenoon at the equator ofi, = uor;Boo VJSq)/H = 4 x 10- 14
A/m2. This current density is, however, much smaller than the mean horizontal current density within
the dynamo region which is 1i91 = Boo VJSq)u p = 2.7 X 10- 7 A/m2, or the current due to the "thunder-
storm" electricity (s. eq. [24]).
d) Mapping into the magnetosphere

Above the dynamo region, the geomagnetic lines of force behave to a high degree of accuracy like
electric equipotential lines for the periods and horizontal scales considered (51). Therefore, the electric
potential fields of ionospheric origin map into the magnetosphere, and the electric field is orthogonal
to the geomagnetic field (eq. [11]). Mapping of the Sq- and L-fields into the magnetosphere has been
considered by Matsushita (38) and Maeda (33). If we assume a co-axial dipole approximation for the
earth's magnetic field, such mapping can be represented mathematically very simply by the functional
relation
if> = f(sin 2(}/r). [38]
Since sin 2 {}/r = const. is the equation of a geomagnetic field line, eq. [38] immediately fulfills
eq. [11]. We choose a simple power law
519
r sin 2 8 }P:2
cp = { m r Apncos[m(r - IXpn)]. [39]
The electric potential must be continuous at the lower boundary of the magnetosphere at r m' Thus,
we find from [39] for the potential [28] of the Sq current the parameters
p = n = 1; All = riRaa VJSq); IXll = 8 hours, [40]
and for the potential of the L current [34] the parameters
p = n = 2; A22 = riRaa VJ 1)/3; 1X22 = 6 hours. [41]
a)
Sq
Fig. 5. Mapping of the ionospheric polarisation field of the Sq current from Fig. 2a and of the L current from
Fig. 3 a into the equatorial plane of the magnetosphere
Fig. 5 shows the equipotential lines of the electric fields of the Sq- and the L-current within the
equatorial plane of the magnetosphere (8 = 90°) calculated from [39], [40] and [41]. These field con-
figurations are very similar to those of Maeda (33) who applied a more sophisticated model. The po-
tentials drop like r - p!2 with distance from the earth and become insignificant near the magnetopause
where the fields of magnetospheric origin dominate.
In our model the vertical electric field is discontinuous at the lower boundary of the magnetosphere
at rm because we assumed purely horizontal fields within the dynamo region. This discontinuity which
in reality is smoothed out over a finite vertical distance is produced by charge accumulation at r m that
prevents vertical currents to flow out of the dynamo region. This is true for symmetric conditions.
However, current outflow of the dynamo region is possible if deviations from symmetry with respect
to the equator occur. E. g., during the solstices, antisymmetric tidal winds generate potential differences
520
at the roots of the same field line on both hemispheres, and a field-aligned electric current flows which
is of the order of 10- 10 A/m2 (34, 57, 66). Likewise any asymmetry in the real geomagnetic field or
in the winds will produce field-aligned currents.•Their magnetic effect on the ground is however small (34).
Electric Fields of Magnetospheric Origin

It is now generally agreed that an electric convection field exists within the magnetosphere which
is directed from dawn to dusk (5). This field can be deduced indirectly from several indepedent obser-
vations: from the geomagnetic S: and DP2 variations observed on the ground (46, 47), from the plasma-
pause configuration derived from whistler observations (12) and in situ measurements (14, 62) and
from ionospheric electric fields measured at balloon altitudes (43), by barium releases (24), or by satellites
(15, 26). That large scale electric field may originate either from viscous-like interaction of the solar
wind with the magnetopause (4), from merging ofthe interplanetary magnetic fields with the geomagnetic
field (18) or from unipolar induction (16). At present, the theoretical state of the solar wind interaction
with the geomagnetic field is still subject to controversies (75). We want to outline briefly Coleman's
hypothesis of unipolar induction (16). The other mechanisms essentially lead to the same electric field
configuration.
a) Origin of the convection field

The geomagnetic field is confined to a cavity, the magnetosphere, within the highly conducting
solar wind plasma. Within the boundary layer of that cavity, the magnetopause, electric eddy currents,
the Chapman-Ferraro-currents, flow, excluding the geomagnetic field from the regions outside the
magnetopause. The free stream flow of the solar wind plasma induces a Lorentz-force in the eddy cur-
rent layer. This Lorentz-force produces an electric field in the boundary layer which penetrates into
the magnetosphere in order to conserve the transversal component of the electric fields. Since the
magnetosphere contains a collisionless background plasma with negligible resistance in the direction
parallel to the geomagnetic field lines, these lines must be electric equipotential lines, and the electric
field lines are orthogonal trajectories of the geomagnetic field lines. A cross section through the dawn-
to-dusk-meridian of the expected field configuration is shown in Fig.6 which is adopted from
Coleman (16). We note in this figure an electric double layer at that geomagnetic line of force which
threads the boundary layer. This field line separates two regions in which the magnetospheric back-
ground plasma drifts under the influence of E x Bo from night to day within low latitudes and from
the day to the night side within high latitudes. At this shell, a reversal of the electric field occurs which
has been established experimentically (15, 26).
Boundary Layer
Magnetosphere--.....~
Fig. 6. Cross section throught the dawn-dusk meridian of the magnetosphere as viewed from the sun. White
arrows: lines of geomagnetic force. Black arrows: lines of electric force. White region: Day-to-night convection.
Dotted region: Night-to-day convection. Adopted from Coleman (16)
521
The configuration of the electric field in Fig. 6 was determined with the assumption that the electric
conductivity across the geomagnetic field is zero within the cavity. However the ionospheric dynamo
region at the inner boundary of the collision-free plasma contains a collision-dominated plasma with
finite transverse conductivity. Thus, the outer boundary of the cavity, the magnetopause, is electrically
connected with the ionosphere, and field-aligned electric currents must flow in the high latitude regions.
Since the electric conductivity of the dynamo region is finite but still small, such current cannot com-
pletely short circuit the system and will produce probably only a small effect on the electric field con-
figuration. Therefore the actual field will not appreciably differ from that sketched in Fig. 6. From
the observations of Zmuda et al. (77) and Whalen and McDiarmid (72) it appears that such field-aligned
currents, sometimes called Birkeland currents, predominantly flow along the electric double layer on
the polar border of the auroral oval near 75° geomagnetic latitude.
The steady-state current which results from the induction by the solar wind and the shortening action
of the ionosphere is counter-clockwise on the northern hemisphere as viewed from the sun. Maximum
flow-out of the ionosphere occurs on the dusk side and inflow on the dawn side. The flow is clockwise
on the southern hemisphere. Such current produces a tangential drag on the magnetic cavity which
may contribute to the formation of the magnetospheric tail, the stretching of the high .latitude ge-
omagnetic lines away from the sun on the nighttime hemisphere. The field lines within the tail are
"open" which means that they are connected with the interplanetary magnetic field (40). Therefore
that field line in Fig. 6 which coincides with the electric double layer is the last closed field line within
the dawn-to-dusk-meridian.
The electric convection field thus produced should be proportional to the solar wind V. If viscous
interaction is mainly responsible for its origin, it should be proportional to V 2 (39). A southward di-
rected component of the interplanetary magnetic field may ease the transfer of solar wind energy into
geomagnetic cavity with the net effect of also increasing the electric convection field. On the other
hand, an increase of the electric conductivity within the ionosphere increases the field-aligned currents.
This is accompanied by a motion of the inner boundary of the magnetopause to lower latitude lines
of forces, and the tangential drag increases.
b) Substorms
A turning from the north to the south direction of the interplanetary magnetic field may initiate a
chain of events called a magnetospheric substorm. Typically, a substorm has a duration of a few hours
and can be divided into three stages (56). During the growth phase, the electric convection field increases,
and the magnetopause moves inward. This is equivalent with a transport of additional magnetic flux
into the tail. The plasma sheet narrows, and a slow build-up in the particle energy density occurs in the
near-earth magneto tail. During the expansion phase, the field lines in the near-earth tail collapse to
a more dipole-like configuration, and the plasma sheet suddenly expands. The high energy particles
trapped within this region are released. They enhance the ring current and precipitate into the auroral
ovals of the ionosphere, substantially increasing the electric conductivity there. Thus the field-aligned
currents increase, too. During the recovery phase, a return to quiet conditions occurs. On the ground
one observes a bay disturbance in the geomagnetic field at high latitudes, called a polar magnetic sub-
storm. That bay is generated by the enhanced electric current system within the auroral oval, called a
polar electrojet. Such event generally happens only in localized areas of the magneto tail and the iono-
sphere.
A series of substorms can cause a worldwide phenomenon, the geomagnetic storm, with durations
of several days. The typical feature of a geomagnetic storm is a worldwide decrease of the low latitude
geomagnetic field due to an enhanced ring current. Also, at auroral latitudes, large fluctuations occur
generated by a strong westward electrojet on the night side and a weaker eastward electrojet on the
afternoon side. This current system is now called a DP1-disturbance (48). From geomagnetic data,
Nishida (47) derived a transient electric current system of twin vortex configuration, DP2, which flows
outside the polar regions and which is similar in structure to the quiet time S: current. Akasofu et al. (2)
suggested that DP2 is merely an enhancement of S:.
522
c) Analytic model of the electric field
Based on these observations, we can construct a simple model of the magnetospheric electric potential
(67). In the polar regions, bounded by the electric double layer, we write according to eq. [39]:
""(CI') =
'P
",,(cr)
'PO
r m sin 2 ()
. 2()
r sm 0
.
SIn"
. (>
r= r .
sin 2 ()
m,--
r
<
=-sin 2 ()o )
--
rm
[42]
with, the local solar time and ()o = 7SO geomagnetic latitude the polar distance of the intersection
of the electric double layer with the ionosphere at rm' This electric field is considered as the primary
driving field with 2cP~") = 17 kV the total electric potential from dawn to dusk during very quiet con-
ditions. cP~") increases during disturbed conditions. The double layer intersects the equatorial plane
of the magnetosphere at 15 earth's radii in the case of an ideal dipole configuration. This is roughly
the distance of the magnetopause in the dawn-dusk-meridian.
Within the lower latitude cavity we assume
""(CI')
'P
= ""(CI') { r sin. 2 2()
'PO
rmsm
()O}2. (> .
r
2 2
rm
>
sm" . r = rm , sin () = sin ()o ) . [43]
cP(CI') is continuous at the double layer. The exponents in [42] and [43] have been chosen in such
a manner that cJ>f.cv) is consistent with the observations. Fig.7a shows the equipotential lines of cP(CI')
within the equatorial plane of the magnetosphere. These lines are convex indicating that the convective
plasma flow within the magnetospheric cavity only partially penetrates into the inner region (41).
The plasma of the inner magnetosphere is believed to co-rotate with the earth's atmosphere. There-
fore an observer in a non-rotating frame of reference would observe in addition a socalled co-rotation
field which is set up by Lorentz-forces generated by the plasma motion across the geomagnetic field.
The electric potential of that co-rotation field is
[44]
Fig. 7. Equipotential lines of the magnetospheric electric convection field within the equatorial plane of the
magnetosphere (Fig. 7a) and superposition of the convection field with the co-rotation field (Fig.7b) during
very quiet conditions
Evidently, within the inner cavity, cP(ro) decreases and cP(cr) increases with distance from the earth.
Superposition of both potentials leads to a field configuration of Fig. 7b. It consists of a range of closed
equipotential lines and a range where the lines are connected with the magnetopause.
d) The plasmasphere
It is now widely accepted that the region of closed lines can be identified as the plasmasphere which
is a region of relatively high density of the thermal plasma (10,47). Within the plasmasphere the ions
can move only along equipotential shells. They are trapped within this region during steady state
conditions. The ionosphere can provide thermal protons to the plasmasphere along the geomagnetic
523
field lines thus maintaining the relatively high density there (6). Outside the plasmasphere, the outflow
of protons from the ionosphere can reach the magnetopause in a reasonably short time (6 to 12 hours)
and will be permanently lost to the solar wind. Since that outflow is inhibited by collisions with O-ions
below 1000 km altitude, the density in that region remains very low (~104 protons/m 3 ). At the plasma-
pause as the last closed equipotential shell, a sudden drop in the proton density by several orders of
magnitude has been observed (12), (62). The measured configuration of the plasmapause during very
quiet conditions is similar to that of Fig. 7b. In particular, the ratio between maximum and minimum
elongation of the last closed line in Fig. 7b is 0.6 in agreement with the observations. In our model
that ratio depends on the parameter p = -4 selected in eq. [43]. The original models of the plasma-
pause used the parameter p = - 2 which leads to a more elongated form (23).
e) Mapping of the convection field into the ionosphere
Mapping of the convection field into the ionosphere (r = rm) on the northern hemisphere gives the
equipotential lines of Fig. 8. If we assume constant values of Pedersen and Hall conductivity within
the dynamo region, we can construct an equivalent electric current system driven by such a field. The
magnetic observations on the ground detect mainly the Hall component of that current. Therefore
the lines in Fig. 8 are also the stream lines of that Hall current. The current flows clockwise within the
morning vortex and anticlockwise within the evening vortex as viewed from above. Between two stream-
lines flow 20 kA. It is this current system, which Nagata and Kokubun (46) identified as the S: current.
Fig. 8. Mapping of the electric convection field from Fig. 7 a into the ionosphere on the northern hemisphere
Fig. 9 shows the horizontal electric field components at ionosphere heights (r = rm) on the northern
hemisphere derived from Fig. 8 and eqs. [42] and [43]' The meridional component Eo, positive toward
south, has maximum values within the noon-midnight-meridian. We notice a field reversal of Eo at
80 = 15° with ajump of25 mV/m, a nearly constant amplitude over the polar cap and a strong decrease
toward lower latitudes. The zonal component E)., positive toward east, is continuous at 80 , It is constant
over the polar cap, and it also decreases rapidly toward lower latitudes. At the lower border of the
field reversal, Eo is four times larger than E).. In order to achieve flow continuity at the location of the
field reversal, an electric sheet current along the electric double layer flows with a maximum value of
0.4 A/m at 18 h local time. All these results are in reasonable agreement with the observations.
524
20
Noon Dawn
mV/m
10
1 0
-10
Fig. 9. Meridional component Ee during dawn and zonal component EJ. during noon of the electric convection
field from Fig. 8 at ionospheric heights on the northern hemisphere
f) DP 1 and DP 2 disturbances
During the main phase of a typical geomagnetic storm, the primary electric convection field may
increase to 100 mV/m near the location of the field reversal (26) corresponding to an increase of the
dawn-dusk potential to values of 100 kY. Likewise the electric conductivity within the auroral ovals
may be enhanced by as much as a factor of two (8). The consequence is a contraction of the plasma-
pause to lower L-values (L ~ 5 during mildly disturbed conditions). The S: current increases proportional
to the increase of if>~I). However the discontinuity of the electric conductivities at the borders of the
auroral ovals generates a secondary electric polarisation field within the inner cavity because the
meridional Pedersen currents must remain continuous at the boundaries. This secondary field weakens
the total field within the auroral zones and enhances it within lower latitudes (1,7,67). Moreover the
enhanced Hall conductivity within the auroral zones causes a shift of the bulge of the plasmapause
toward later times than 18 hour. The effective zonal conductivity within the auroral regions is further
enhanced to a Cowling type conductivity because of the influence of the meridional component of
the secondary polarisation field (22,67). Thus in addition to the S: current (or DP2 current) a strong
polar electrojet is driven by the convection field which closes in the magnetopause via field-aligned
currents. The magnetic manifestation of that DP1 disturbance on the ground has been described earlier
by an equivalent current which flows entirely within the ionosphere (13). However, it is now rather
well established that the three-dimensional flow picture originally proposed by Birkeland is more
realistic (22, 31).
The individual short periodic transient phenomena are much more complicated. E.g., during the
recovery phase, the regions of closed equipotential shells within the plasmasphere widens, and the
empty regions are filled up by ionospheric plasma. Owing to the slow rate of refilling, about one week
is required to replenish the emptied field tubes. Since geomagnetic disturbances tend to occur more
frequently than one week, the plasmasphere generally is never in a state of equilibrium (14). Moreover
the diurnal variation of the electric conductivity as well as the localized character of the auroral dis-
turbances can modify substantially the behavior of a single event from the average picture outlined
above (62,76). Also, many aspects of the phenomenon of a magnetospheric substorm are still subject
to controversies (2a, 65a).
Mapping of the magnetospheric electric field into the lower atmosphere follows the concept given
in the previous section (eq. [36]). Fields of reasonable magnitude have been observed only in the
environment of the auroral ovals (43).
525
g) Some unexplained phenomena
We shall now briefly mention two effects which are still unexplained. The first one is the observation
of a correspondence between geomagnetic variations in the polar caps and the azimuthal component
of the interplanetary field (20, 73). The vertical component of the geomagnetic field observed at a polar
station is depressed (increased) several hours around noon if the interplanetary magnetic field is directed
away from (toward) the sun. This behavior corresponds to a dawn-dusk-asymmetry of the electric
convection field observed by Heppner (26). An equivalent electric circular current around the poles
can produce that magnetic disturbance (60). It has been speculated that interplanetary electric fields
penetrating into the polar regions of the magnetosphere may be responsible for this effect (73).
A second observation concerns an apparent correlation between the occurrence of solar flares and
the potential gradients and air-earth currents observed at stratospheric heights (44) and on the ground
(52) at mid latitudes. The time delay between solar flare and the ground event is about two days. The
physical interpretation of this effect is difficult. The magnetospheric electric fields certainly are not
directly involved because they do not reach to such low latitudes. It may be interesting to speculate
whether this effect is related to the newly discovered apparent connection between the sector structure
of the interplanetary magnetic field and the weather (74) although no fully plausible physical explana-
tion for this connection exists either.
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and S. Kokubun, Report Ion. Space Res. Japan 16, 256 (1962). - 47. Nishida, A., J. Geophys. Res. 71, 5669 (1966). -
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Discussion
Which kind of horizontal fields in the magnetosphere and in the ionosphere can penetrate into layers of the
lower atmosphere to balloon altitudes, that is 35 or 30 km altitude?

They all will penetrate down to the earth, and we expect e.g., for the electric field of the Sq current, a vertical
field strength of the order of 1 or 2 volts per meter during local noon at the equator and at the earth's surface, and
minus 2 volts per meter during midnight. We have a horizontal potential difference of 25 kilovolt between noon
and midnight within the ionosphere in the case of the S q current, and in the case of the magnetospheric field we
may even have potential differences up to 100 kilovolts between dawn and dusk. If you map this down to the
surface, you find vertical fields of the order of ten volts per meter. This should be compared with the 100 volts
per meter of the tropospheric field and with the highly irregular behavior of this, and this makes the whole matter
very complicated. Moreover, in the case of the magnetospheric fields, we should not expect any field in latitudes
lower than about 30 or 40 degrees, because the magnetospheric field appears to be limited to the higher latitudes.

The horizontal fields which you find over the equator, are they directed east-west or north-south?
Volland:
The S q field has a maximum at lower latitudes. In the ionosphere it is horizontal and mostly in an east-west
direction.

In one of your early slides you showed the earth with a 'plus' on it. Was this meant to be a net charge on
the earth?
Volland:
No, that sign only indicated the center of the earth.
Muhleisen:
I have another question which does not really deal with the content of your paper, but refers to the electric
fields outside the atmosphere of the earth. Do we have any evidence from measurements that the earth as a
whole is charged or uncharged? Have we any possibility to check whether the earth with its ionosphere, magneto-
sphere, and plasmasphere is - as a whole - an uncharged body or a charged body?
Volland:
If the earth and its environment as a whole would have a net charge this should have an influence on the solar
wind. On the other hand, the highly conducting solar wind would immediately neutralize such net charge.

V. A. Bailey and others have calculated a net charge on the solid earth based on wrong premises. They took
the average surface charge on the ground in fair-weather of about one nanocoulomb per square meter and
527
multiplied it by the surface area of the earth, arriving at about five hundred kilocoulombs negative. That is, of
course, wrong. On the other hand: the fact that the atmosphere is conductive, is no proof that the solid earth could
not have a net charge.
Author's address:
H. Volland
Radioastronomisches Institut
der Universitat Bonn
Auf dem Hugel 71
D-5300 Bonn-Endenich
West-Germany
528
Vertical Propagation of Time-Dependent Electric Fields in the Atmosphere and Ionosphere
R. Bostrom and U. Fahleson
With 3 figures
Abstract
It is shown how problems involving time-dependent fields can be solved taking into account displacement
currents and induction (non-potential) fields as well as the anisotropy and frequency dependence of the complex
ionospheric conductivity. Fields of a horizontal scale> 100 km penetrate from above to balloon altitudes (30 to
40 km) with little damping provided the temporal variation is slower than 1 second. Fields of a horizontal scale
of 1 km penetrate from above only to the E-Iayer with little damping for time-independent fields and the
damping becomes substantial for time-dependent fields even for periods as long as 1 hour. The field response
upon a transient change in the source is also studied. The often quoted result that the temporal variation of the
field at each point is governed by the local relaxation time is shown to have only a limited applicability.
Extraterrestrial Influence on the Atmospheric Electric Field

Measurements of electric fields in the near space have shown that substantial horizontal potential
differences exist in the high-latitude ionosphere. Obviously, the classical picture of atmospheric elec-
tricity where the upper atmosphere or ionosphere is regarded as a potential equalizing layer must be
abandoned. Fields from atmospheric sources are certainly severely damped when they spread upwards
into the highly conducting layers, but powerful extraterrestrial sources can produce strong currents
and fields in the conducting ionosphere. Clearly the latter fields will spread downwards into the less
conducting atmosphere with little damping. During the last few years, numerous balloon experiments
aimed at studies of these fields have been successfully performed. In this paper we shall discuss the
methods of theoretical analysis and present a few results on the vertical propagation of time-dependent
electric fields.
Various Classes of Solution
The basic equations are the two Maxwell equations
curlE = -
aH
J.lo-- [1]
at
curl H = [2]
Ohm's law i = (J E has been used to eliminate the conduction current i, (neglecting other means of
charge transport such as convection currents). We are interested primarily in the electric field and not
in the very minute variations in H which are superposed on the dominating permanent field of the
earth and variation fields from currents in the ionosphere. Thus we will eliminate H and solve [1]
and [2] for E.
For sufficiently low frequencies we may neglect one or both of the time-derivatives of [1] and [2].
Assuming sinusoidal temporal variations of an angular frequency OJ the displacement current EO ~;
is negligible compared to the conduction current (J E provided OJ ~ (J/EO. Using the minimum con-
ductivity of the atmosphere, about 10- 13 S/m, this condition gives OJ ~ 10- 2 S-1. The time derivative
of [1] can be neglected if the wavelength 2n/(OJVeoJ.lo) and damping length (skin-depth) 2~
are large compared to the characteristic dimensions of the problem. Assuming the latter to be < 100km,
and using (J < 10- 8 S/m, valid below 70 km, we find the condition OJ ~ 2 X 104 S-1. We may now
characterize a problem as belonging to one of the following three classes:
Class 1. Problems where both time derivatives can be neglected. For such cases of very slow temporal
variations the solutions have the same character as time-independent ones. As only conduction currents
are important an analog circuit model would consist of only resistive elements.
529
Class 2. Problems where the time derivative is negligible in [1] but not in [2]. An analog circuit
model would consist of both resistive and capacitive elements, and signals will be both damped and
phase shifted.
Class 3. Problems where the time derivatives of both [1] and [2] must be retained. An analog circuit
model would consist of resistive, capacitive and inductive elements, and resonance effects are possible.
Class 1 problems related to the mapping of ionospheric fields into the lower atmosphere have been
studied by Kellogg and Weed (1969), Atkinson et al. (1971), Volland (1972) and Chiu (1974).
Solution of Class 2 Problems

By taking the divergence of [2J curl H can be eliminated giving
div ( (j E + eo ~~) = o. [3J
This is a continuity equation for the total current (conduction plus displacement). In general, this
scalar equation alone will not suffice to determine the vector field E, since [1 J has not been taken into
account. For Class 2 problems the time derivative in [lJ can be neglected, that is, curlE is small com-
pared to other derivatives of E. This leeds to the potential field approximation
E(x,y,z,t) = - grad V(x,y,z,t). [4]
This approach, which gives unique solutions satisfying both [1 J and [2J was used by Bostrom et al.
(1973) and Bostrom and Fahleson (1973) for studies of field-mapping problems of Class 2 and was also
used in studies of time-dependent fields from thunderclouds by Anderson and Freier (1969), Mann
(1970), and Illingworth (1972).
As the equations are linear, an arbitrary field can be decomposed into harmonic temporal and spatial
oscillations using Fourier analysis and each component can be studied separately. We will study basic
solutions in the form of travelling waves
V(x,y,z,t) = U(z)exp[;(wt - kx)J. [5]
The magnitude of the complex function U defines the amplitude of the oscillation at the altitude z,
and the argument of U defines the phase relative to the source field. Assuming that (j is isotropic and
dependent only on the altitude z, and introducing [4J and [5J in [3], we obtain an equation for U(z)
which is solved numerically by stepwise integration.
Fig. 1 shows an example of the damping in the atmosphere of the field from an ionospheric source.
A field with a horizontal wavelength of 400 km (characteristic scale )./4 = 100 km) or more penetrates
down to balloon altitudes (30-40km) with little damping if f < 1 Hz, but for much smaller wave-
lengths or higher frequencies the damping becomes substantial.
Solution of Class 3 Problems

For higher frequency temporal variations where induction fields cannot be neglected we can elim-
inate H by taking the curl of [1] and using [2J giving
curl curl E = - Po (j
aE ~ Po eo "fu2
at a E. 2
[6J
This is a vector form of the "telegraph equation" describing the propagation of damped waves.
We will study solutions of the form
E(x,y,z,t) = [U(z)x + V(z).9 + W(z)z]. exp[;(wt - kx)J. [7J
This is a wave travelling horizontally in the x~direction with the velocity w/k, and with a certain
vertical propagation described by the complex functions U, V and W. We want to solve the problem
also for the ionosphere where the conductivity is anisotropic, described by a tensor
530
A=30, f=~0~-~10~____----------~
100
- - - - f=O
75 _·_·-f=O.IHz
.
...
E _··_··-f=1 Hz .,.
.... 0°
; ..·············f=10Hz ........ ..... ..-
..
'tI
B 50 ... .......• ~•• ........ A=OO
...... /.. ........
< ......... /··/.1 ...········ .. / ,
.... / .'}... ../ ./ I
25
: .. .~7 / /. I I
...../ .,(.....,./.. ""."". I I
.:"/ ./,···.r
.....~.......
.'l..~:(;;; ~."".
"". "'''
_......__
/ /
...
~. :(.":. -.::r:::::=-:::.-- ....
oJE~~~~--~--~r---~--~
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Normalized potential amplitude lui
Fig. 1. Amplitude of potential, IUI, or horizontal electric field, kl UI, at different altitudes for various wavelengths
A = 2n/k (in km) and frequencies f = w/2n (in Hz) of the wave originating from an ionospheric source
V = 1· exp [j(wt - kx)] at 112 km. The conductivity model used is (J = 9 X 10- 14 exp (z/7000)
(J= (-~:~;
o
~.). 0 (JII
[8]
For simplicity we have assumed that the direction of the magnetic field is vertical (£) which is a good
approximation at high latitudes where we expect the most significant influence from extraterrestrial
sources. The Pedersen, Hall and parallel conductivities are frequency-dependent complex quantities.
While in the E-layer the conductivities are given by frequency-independent real numbers for a wide
range of frequencies from roughly w = 10 - 6 S - 1 to OJ = 1 s - \ this is not so at higher altitudes or at
other frequencies. Thus, above 1000 km the Pedersen conductivity is imaginary for OJ > 0.001 s - \
that is, the current is a capacitive (displacement) current. The conductivity model that we have used
for our examples is given by Bostrom (1974).
The problem of field spreading in the ionosphere with anisotropic conductivity has been considered
earlier for the case of time-independent fields by Farley (1959), Spreiter and Briggs (1969), Park and
Dejnakarintra (1973), and Chiu (1974), and for the case of time-dependent fields by Bostrom (1974).
Dejnakarintra and Park (1974) have also recently studied the mapping of time-dependent fields but
they restricted their analysis to such low frequencies that the potential field approximation could be
used in the anisotropic region (Class 2 problems).
Introducing [7] and [8] in [6] we obtain a set of three coupled differential equations for U, V, and
W, one from each vector component of [6], which can be solved by numerical integration (Bostrom,
1974).
For OJ ~ k2 /ILol(J111 the equations reduce to those of a Class 2 problem. Due to the high parallel
conductivity the frequency limit is quite small for the ionosphere, and even for periods of several hours
it is not always possible to use Class 2 solutions. However, for small k we may find from both the
Class 2 and Class 3 equations that U is nearly constant. Although the two methods predict different
rates of change of U with altitude, the results for U may be virtually identical.
531
'I ~ : ';. . . . . . . """"'· · · · ./
••...•.••. A = 1 km
10' _.- A= 10km
W=I~••. ··••••·• --- A= l00km
3 •••••.••••••••••
10
-3 , ....
--A=I000km
E W= I °i
--
.lI:
• ......i '.
-
~ 102 :;;;.:::;;.:;::::~:::::::::.:.:::::=:.::::::.:;::I
-
<
-- .".- "",.'
".""
101
""
-- ",,""
--- ;"!" .
~~
~~
lL-~~---L---L~~----~--~--~--~--~.
0.01 0.1 1 10
Normalized horizontal electric field amplitude lui
Fig. 2. Amplitude of horizontal electric field at different altitudes for various wavelengths .l. and angular fre-
quencies w of the wave originating from a magnetospheric source Ex = 1· exp [;(wt - kx)] at 35000 km. The
conductivity model takes into account the anisotropy and frequency dependence of the ionospheric conductivities.
After Bostrom (1974)
Fig. 2 shows the magnitude I U I as function of altitude for the case of a source far out in the magneto-
sphere. We can see that fields of a wavelength longer than about 100 kIn penetrate far down into the
atmosphere while fields of a wavelength of 1 kIn penetrate only to the ionospheric E-Iayer. The damping
increases with increasing frequency. Below 100 kIn this frequency dependence occurs for OJ > 0.01 s - 1,
when the displacement current becomes important. In the magnetosphere, however, this frequency
dependence appears at much lower frequencies. For OJ = 10 - 4 S - 1 the displacement current (or imag-
inary part of O"p) dominates over the conduction current (or real part of O"p) at altitudes above 1000 km.
Thus, as seen in Fig. 2, a field with a wavelength of 1 km, which is not much damped between 10000
and 1000 km for OJ = 10 - 6 S - 1 is severely damped even at such a low frequency as OJ = 10- 3 S - 1.
At high frequencies (OJ > 1 S-1) and high altitudes (z > 500 km) where the damping length is long
compared to the hydromagnetic wavelength the solutions for U will show rapid oscillations.
Transients
The validity of the classical, exponential solution
In textbooks on atmospheric electricity (e. g. Chalmers 1967, Israel 1973, p. 323 and 392) one may
fmd an expression for the way in which the atmospheric electric field varies with time. This expression
E = Ee exp( -O"t/eo) + E.[1 - exp( -O"t/eo)] [9]
is meant to describe the changes in the field that occur upon a transient change in the source at time
t = O. It says that everywhere in space the initial state Ee decays and the final state Es builds up ex-
ponentially with a time constant determined by the local relaxation time eo/O". We will show here that
this expression has only a limited applicability.
This solution appeared first in studies of the classical, spherically symmetric capacitor model with
no generators in the atmosphere (Benndorf 1925,1927, see also Israel 1973, p. 323). For this case, eq. [6]
directly integrates to the form [9] with Ee = Ee(r)r and E. = E.(r)r, showing that the only possible
form for temporal variations for a strictly spherically symmetric problem is the exponential one. A
generalization to the form
E(x,y,z,t) = Ee(x,y,z)exp(-O"t/eo) + E.(x,y,z,t) [1 - exp(-O"t/eo)] [10]
532
meant to be valid when E also has horizontal components and varies with all three coordinates has
been attempted. The expression [10] was derived by Kasemir (1950) who also-verified (Kasemir 1963)
that the solution really satisfies the boundary conditions and [3] when Es is assumed to vary with
time slowly compared to the relaxation time. However, as mentioned above (Section 3) eq. [3] alone
does not define a unique solution. A further condition has to be imposed on E which for Class 2 problems
is curl E = O. Forming the curl of E as given by [10] we find
t
curlE = -exp( -atjeo)(grada) x (Es - Ee) [11]
eo
as Es and Ee are assumed to be curlfree fields. For the atmosphere we may assume that a varies with
altitude only, thus grad a is vertical. Then curl E will be small only if Es and Ee (and then E) are nearly
vertical everywhere. Thus, for Class 2 problems, where curl E has to be small, expression [9] gives a
correct description only if there are no horizontal field components.
Study of transients by Fourier analysis
For the general case with three-dimensional fields we may build up the solution for a transient source
by Fourier superposition of the solutions discussed earlier. As an example we have investigated how
the atmospheric electric field responds when an ionospheric source is switched on at time t = O. The
source is assumed to have a spatial sinusoidal variation with a wavelength A = 100 km but is constant
in time for t > O. The problem has been solved using 3 different methods. Shown in Fig. 3 are
z =112 km
1.0(}jf"-----::::::::;;;;._------1
n
II
"0 //~--
~
! /''''fl }
0.
E
~ 0.75
"ii I z=7km
;;::: r-Exponential
u
u
~
I
I
.; 0.50 I
if I
C I
,,,
o
N I
6 I
.s:. 0.25
i:
.!:!
if
E
,
a
z 0.00+------t-------I-------1
o 100 200 300
Time, seconds
Fig. 3. Normalized amplitude of horizontal electric field at 7 km altitude due to sudden application of
Ex = 1· cos (2n{x/A)) at 112 km with A = 100 km. Fourier method solutions of the exact eq. [6] and the
approximate eqs. [3 + 4] agree better than line thickness in contrast to a solution by the exponential method,
eq. [10], which deviates considerably. The temporal variation at the upper boundary used in the Fourier
approximation is also shown. Conductivity model same as for Fig. 1
1. a solution of [6] (that is the full Maxwell equation), using [7] and [8] and Fourier superposition,
2. a solution of [3] using [4] and Fourier superposition and
3. a solution according to the exponential expression [10]. The Fourier solutions have been ob-
tained by superposition of 101 terms with Lanczos' convergence factors to form a rectangular wave
of period 1200 sec at the upper boundary. It can be seen in the figure that the temporal variation at
the upper boundary so obtained is a good approximation to the desired step function.
533
As expected from the discussion in the previous section, the solution of eq. [3] with curl E = 0
shows excellent agreement with that of the exact eq. [7]. The exponential solution, on the other hand,
disagrees by a factor of 4.7 in the time to reach half amplitude. A similar difference occurs for the
solutions of the vertical field component.
References
1. Anderson, F. J. and G. D. Freier, J. Geophys. Res. 74, 5390 (1969). - 2. Atkinson, W, S. Lundquist, and
U. Fahleson, PAGEOPH 84, 46 (1971). - 3. Benndorf, H., Sitzungsberichte Akademie der Wissenschaften
in Wien, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Klasse, 134, 281 (1925) and 136, 175 (1927). - 4. Bostrom, R.,
in Magnetospheric Physics, B. M. McCormac (ed.), 45 (Dordrecht, 1974). - 5. Bostrom, R. and U. Fahleson,
European Sounding-Rocket and Related Research at High Latitudes, ESRO SP-97, 181 (1973). - 6. Bostrom, R.,
U. Fahleson, L. Olaasson, and G. Hallendal, Rept. TRITA-EPP-73-02, Royal Inst. Techn. (1973). - 7. Chalmers,
J. A., Atmospheric Electricity, 2nd edition, p. 41 (Amsterdam, 1967). - 8. Chiu, Y. T., J. Geophys. Res. 79, 2790
(1974). - 9. Dejnakarintra, M. and C. G. Park, J. Geophys. Res. 79, 1903 (1974). - 10. Farley, D. T., J. Geophys.
Res. 64,1225 (1959). - 11. Illingworth, A. J., Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc. 98, 604 (1972). - 12. Israel, H., Atmospheric
Electricity, Vol. II, Fields, Charges, Currents, p. 323 and 392, Israel Program for Scientific Translations (Jerusa-
lem, 1973). - 13. Kasemir, H. W, Arch. Met. Geoph. Biokl. A3, 84 (1950). - 14. Kasemir, H. W, USAELRDL
Techn. Rep!. 2349, U.S. Army Electronics Research and Development Laboratories, Forth Monmouth (N. J.,
1963). - 15. Kellogg, P. J. and M. Weed, Planetary Electrodynamics, S. C. Coroniti and J. Hughes (ed.), 2,431
(1969). - 16. Mann, Jr., J. E., J. Geophys. Res. 75, 1697 (1970). - 17. Park, C. G. and M. Dejnakarintra,
J. Geophys. Res. 78, 6623 (1973). - 18. Spreiter, J. R. and B. R. Briggs, J. Geophys. Res. 66, 1731 (1961).
19. Volland, H., J. Geophys. Res. 77, 1961 (1972).
Discussion
Did you write or solve the energy equation, too? I wonder what frequency is most efficient to transport energy
to the ground.
Bostrom, Uppsala, Sweden:
The energy is the product of the electric field and current, so the answer to your question could be obtained
by considering the electric field only. If there is a strong electric field at low altitudes, there is a strong energy
transport to this altitude. As seen from Fig. 1 of our paper, the highest efficiency would generally De for zero
frequency. However, if the frequency is very high, the displacement current will dominate at all altitudes and the
solution would in this case be a straight line in this figure, so even for very high frequencies, we could have an
efficient energy transport downwards.

In your numerical solution of the equations, did you use experimental values for the conductivity? What was
the variation with height, and was this for daytime or nighttime?
Bostrom:
For the atmosphere, we took a simple exponential variation of the conductivity which made a good fit to
typical data, such as discussed by Cole and Pierce some years ago. For the ionosphere, we used a night-time
profile, and it makes a substantial difference whether we consider profiles for day or night, or high or low
latitudes. So, the results should be interpreted only as indicating how fields can penetrate into the atmosphere,
and one should not pay too much attention to the exact numbers in the figures. They will vary with the conductivity
models used.
Vol/and, Bonn, West-Germany:

You showed that the horizontal component decreases downward, and you called that damping. But what
happens is that the horizontal component changes into a vertical component. The vertical component increases
downward, and you have the maximum of the vertical component at the earth's surface.
Bostrom:
That is not exactly true. For the frequencies and wavelengths we have considered we can use an electrostatic
potential. Fig. 1 of our paper shows this potential, and we can compute the vertical component of the field from
the slope of the curves. And the slope does not give the highest vertical field at the ground for all parameters.
534
Volland:
If you consider potential fields of a sufficiently large wavelength, you should expect an increase of the vertical
component of E downward.
I would like to point out that eq. [10] of Bostrom's and Fahleson's paper quoted from my paper, Kasemir (1950),
has not been derived from their eq. [9] by generalizing from one-to-more-dimensional space. Eq. [10] as quoted is
an approximate equation derived from an exact general expression (eq. [10] in Kasemir (1950)). The imposed
approximation limits the validity of the approximate solution to cases where the time function of the source
changes slowly compared to the time constant e/A anywhere in the circuit. The exact equation has not such a
limitation.
The assumption of curl E = 0, E = - grad <P has not been made in my paper. Therefore the conclusions drawn
by Bostrom and F ahleson from their eq. [11] (limitation to the one-dimensional case) do not apply to the solutions
given in Kasemir (1950).
Bostrom and F ahleson are correct in their statement that the equation div (0" E + eo aE/ot) = 0 describing the
continuity of the current flow is not enough to lead to a uniquely determined solution. However, the severely
restrictive assumption of curl E = 0, E = - grad <p made by Bostrom and F ahleson is not the only way to
achieve uniqueness of the solutions. As explained in more detail in my paper, Kasemir (1963), the general field
vector E in my solutions is composed of the electrostatic and the stationary current flow field each weighted by
a space-dependent different time function. The electrostatic and the stationary current flow field are derived
from two potential functions, i.e., they are curl free. This condition together with given boundary conditions
guarantees the uniqueness of the solutions given in my papers. However, the general field E is not curl free due to
the space-dependent time functions. Because of this less restrictive assumption, solutions given in my papers do
not belong to Class 2 problems as defined by Bostrom and Fahleson and arguments of the limitation of Class 2
problems do not apply. (References see in reference list of the paper by Bostrom and Fahleson.)
Authors' addresses:
R. Bostrom U. Fahleson
Uppsala Ionospheric Observatory Inst. f. Plasmafysik
S-75590 Uppsala, Sweden Kung!. Tekn. Hogskolan
S-10044 Stockholm 70, Sweden
535
The Effects of Magnetospheric Convection on Atmospheric Electric Fields in the Polar Cap
C. G. Park and M. Dejnakarintra
With 7 figures
Abstract
It is well-known that a potential difference of some 30 to 300 kV exists between the dawnside and the duskside
boundaries of the polar cap ionosphere. This potential difference arises from interactions between the solar wind and
the magnetosphere. In this paper we examine how the resulting ionospheric electric fields map down to the lower
atmosphere. It is found that such fields map down to balloon altitudes of 30 - 40 km with little attenuation or
distortion, in agreement with several previous authors' results. It is also found that the mapping efficiency is not
significantly affected by conductivity changes during auroral and polar cap absorption events, provided that these
changes occur over areas larger than the scale size of electric fields involved. These results generally support the
ideas behind balloon measurements of ionospheric electric fields. It also appears possible to infer magneto-
spheric convection electric fields from simultaneous ground-based measurements of vertical atmospheric fields
at suitably spaced stations in the polar cap.
Introduction
It is well established that large-scale electric fields exist in the earth's magnetosphere as a result
of its interactions with the solar wind rushing by at supersonic speeds. Electric fields are also known
to be associated with magnetospheric substorms, a process by which the magnetosphere explosively
releases its energy [see, for example, Akasofu and Chapman (1972)]. These electric fields play vital roles
in magnetospheric dynamics and have been a topic of great interest in recent years. These fields are
typically 10- 1 Vim or less, and hence difficult to measure, but a number of techniques have recently
become available to measure them directly or indirectly. They include probes flown on satellites (e.g.
Heppner, 1972; Gurnett and Frank, 1973), rockets (e.g. Mozer and Bruston, 1967; Aggson, 1969), and
balloons (e.g. Mozer, 1971; Mozer and Manka, 1971), artificial injection of ion clouds (e.g. Haerendel
and Lust, 1970; Wescott et aI., 1970) and ground-based probing techniques such as incoherent scatter
radars (e.g. Banks et aI., 1973) and whistlers (e.g. Carpenter et aI., 1972). As a result of intensive experi-
mental efforts utilizing these techniques, a crude first-order picture of electric field distribution in the
magnetosphere and ionosphere is emerging.
At ionospheric heights and above, electrical conductivity along the geomagnetic field is normally
so high that the magnetic field lines can be regarded as equipotentials. Thus, any potential difference
set up between field lines in the magnetosphere is carried virtually undiminished to the lower edge
of the ionosphere. It is interesting to investigate how this affects the ionospheric potential with respect
to the earth and fair-weather electric fields in the lower atmosphere. In this paper, we will only consider
the effects of solar-wind induced electric fields at high latitudes. We will not consider substorm-asso-
ciated electric fields that are more turbulent and penetrate to middle latitudes (e.g. Carpenter and
Park, 1973). Another source of electric fields not discussed here is the dynamo action in the ionospheric
E region. Their effects on the lower atmosphere have been considered by Volland (1972).
The solar wind sets up a large-scale circulation of plasma in the magnetosphere through frictional
interaction (Axford and Hines, 1961) or through field line merging (Dungey, 1961). We need not be
concerned about the interaction mechanism here, because both mechanisms give rise to essentially
the same circulation pattern in the polar ionosphere [see, for example, Axford (1969)]. Fig. 1 is a noon-
midnight cross section of the magnetosphere illustrating Dungey's field line merging model. As the
solar wind encounters the magnetosphere, the interplanetary magnetic field in which the solar wind
is embedded merges with the geomagnetic field as shown. Where the field lines are merged, magneto-
spheric plasma is swept in the anti-sunward direction by the solar wind. This is accompanied by a
counterflow in the sunward direction at lower latitudes. Fig. 2 shows how this circulation pattern
will appear when we look down upon the north pole. The flow lines in the figure are also equipotential
lines, since the plasma flows perpendicular to electric fields according to the relationship
536
SOLAR
WIND
Fig. 1. A sketch illustrating Dungey's (1961) model of solar wind-magnetosphere interaction
12
18 06
SO"
00 LT
Fig. 2. A sketch of plasma flow pattern in the high-latitude ionosphere
IONOSPHERIC
POTENTIAL
300 kV
200
100 DAWN
90"
LATITUDE
Fig. 3. A sketch of ionospheric potential distribution corresponding to the convection pattern illustrated in Fig. 2
(Earth potential == 0 V)
537
v = E X2 B where B is the geomagnetic field.
B
Associated with the circulation pattern of Fig. 2 is a dawn-to-dusk variation in the ionospheric
potential as illustrated in Fig. 3. A total potential drop of 250 kV across the polar cap has been assumed
in addition to an average ionospheric potential of 200 kV with respect to the earth. Electric field meas-
urements by satellites flying over the polar cap show that such dawn-to-dusk potential difference may
vary from ~ 30 kV to 300 kV depending upon the state of the magnetosphere and of the solar wind
(Heppner, 1972; Gurnett and Frank, 1973). Given an ionospheric potential distribution as in Fig. 3,
what electric fields are expected in the lower atmosphere? Before considering this question, we will
first discuss the general problem of mapping ionospheric fields to lower altitudes.
Downward Mapping of Ionospheric Electric Fields
Conductivity Profile
At high latitudes conductivities are greatly influenced by precipitating energetic particles associated
with geophysical disturbances such as aurora and polar cap absorption. Fig. 4 shows model conductivity
profiles representing undisturbed nighttime conditions and polar cap absorption (PCA) events. These
models were constructed in consultation with T. Watt (private communication, 1974), who has been
measuring electron densities above ~ 50 km altitude using an incoherent scatter radar at Chatanika,
Alaska. At lower altitudes we lack experimental data and therefore must rely on "best guesses". We
assume that the conductivities are identical to the middle latitude values below 15 km (see our companion
paper) and fill in the region between 15 km and 50 km with smooth curves. Comparing these with
corresponding middle latitude models in our companion paper, it appears that at high latitudes the
conductivities are significantly enhanced by background precipitation even during geophysically
"quiet" times.
~p ~I
,
,...-----A---.. ~
150 I
I
I
I
I
/
/
/
100 I
I
/
/
E /
-'" \ /
N
/
V
/
/
/
50 /
/ POLAR REG I ON
/// - - - QUIET NIGHT
/
...--/ ...--"'-- -----PCA
/
Fig. 4. Conductivity profiles representing quiet night and polar cap absorption conditions in the polar region
538
Mapping Factor
We use similar procedures as in the third section of our companion paper to calculate the mapping
factor, defined as the ratio of horizontal electric field EH at the altitude of interest to the assumed horizon-
tal field at the source altitude of 150 km. We will only consider time-independent fields with spatial varia-
tions of the form EH = Eo cos(kxx) cos(kyY). We use 160 homogeneous layers to approximate the
anisotropic region between 70 km and 150 km, while the isotropic region below 70 km is divided into
three layers with exponentially varying conductivity. The basic equations and their solutions for both
regions are given in our companion paper. Eqs. [5] and [7] ofthat paper apply here as well except that
the Bessell function J o(kr) must be replaced by cos (k x x) cos (kyY) because of the coordinate system
change. The boundary conditions are also similar, but in the present case we specify the potential at
150 km as the uppermost boundary condition.
140
QUIET NIGHT
120
100
0.6 1.0
MAPPING FACTOR
Fig. 5. Mapping factors for horizontal ionospheric electric fields with selected values of spatial wavelength
Fig. 5 shows the mapping factor as a function of altitude for the quiet night conductivity model.
The effective wavelength, A., is defined by
A. = 2n .
Vk; + k;
It is evident in Fig. 5 that electric fields with A. > 200 km map down to the lower atmosphere with
little reduction in magnitude, whereas smaller scale fields are attenuated rapidly. Similar results have
been obtained by Kellogg and Weed (1969), Mozer (1971), Bostrom et al. (1973), and Chiu (1974). Because
electric fields map more efficiently in the direction of decreasing conductivity, the mapping factors
we obtain here are many orders of magnitude larger than the corresponding factors for upward mapping
case in our companion paper. This fact has been used to good advantage in many balloon experiments
to infer ionospheric electric fields from measurements made at 30 - 40 km altitudes (Mozer and Serlin,
1969; Mozer and Manka, 1971).
Effects of Conductivity Anisotropy

We show in our companion paper that conductivity anisotropy is extremely important in calculating
upward propagating electric fields above ~80 km. To fmd out how anisotropy affects downward
mapping, we repeated the calculations of Fig. 5 with ap made equal to all. The results are shown by
solid curves in Fig. 6a. The dashed curves are reproduced from Fig. 5 for reference. The effects of ani-
539
sotropy is to decrease attenuation at large altitudes where the geomagnetic field lines approach equi-
potentials. Thus, for large scale (A. ~ 100 km) electric fields, the effective source altitude is lowered to
~ 80 km, where (111/(1p ~ 10. This is better illustrated in Fig. 6b. The solid curve was obtained by placing
the source at 80 km and using isotropic conductivities. This agrees well with the dashed curve (reproduced
from Fig. 5) which assumes the source at 150 km but includes anisotropy above 70 km.
100
E 80
"'"
N
60
40
20
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

MAPPING FACTOR
Fig. 6a. Mapping factors for horizontal ionospheric electric fields with (dashed curves, reproduced from Fig. 5)
and without (solid curves) the conductivity anisotropy introduced by the geomagnetic field
140
120
100
E
=
80
N
60
40
20
0.1 0.2 1.0
Fig. 6b. Mapping factors as in Fig. 6a except that in the isotropic case (solid curve) the source altitude is lowered
to 80km
540
Effects of Conductivity Changes
Since the etTective source is at ~ 80 km for ionospheric fields with A ;;:; 100 km, conductivity changes
above that altitude are not expected to influence mapping factors. It turns out that even during PCA
events which cause large conductivity enhancements at much lower altitudes, the mapping factors
remain relatively unatTected. Fig. 7 compares mapping factors calculated for quiet night and PCA
conductivity profiles of Fig. 4.
140
PCA
120
100
E 80
"""
N
60
40
20 ~
/'
/
./
~.-
0L-~~~~~~~~~~~~~
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
MAPPING FACTOR
Fig. 7. Mapping factors for quiet nighttime condition (dashed curves, reproduced from Fig. 5) and for polar cap
absorption condition (solid curves)
During auroral activity, conductivities become comparable to the PCA values above -100 km.
Although auroral x-rays are known to penetrate to balloon altitudes, they are not expected to compete
with PCA's in increasing conductivities there. Thus we conclude that conductivity modulations by
geophysical disturbances do not significantly change downward mapping of large-scale (A ;;:; 100 km)
ionospheric electric fields, provided that such modulations occur over areas much larger than the
scale size of electric fields involved.
We assumed no horizontal conductivity variations in our analysis. If there are small scale conductivity
irregularities at low altitudes, as might be the case when discrete auroral forms are present, then electric
field distortions due to such irregularities must be considered. At present no experimental data are
available on conductivity structures in the polar atmosphere.
Polar Cap Atmospheric Fields

We saw in the previous section that large-scale horizontal electric fields in the ionosphere map down
to low altitudes quite efficiently. The mapping factor decreases with descreasing scale-size so that fine
structures in ionospheric fields tend to get smeared out. However, gross features of polar cap iono-
spheric fields illustrated in Fig. 3 should map down to balloon altitudes of 30 - 40 km without sutTering
significant distortion. As we approach the ground level, however, even large-scale fields get attenuated
severely so that ground-based measurements of horizontal electric fields do not appear to be promising
for the purpose of inferring ionospheric fields.
Since large-scale ionospheric fields are not shorted out by horizontal currents, it follows that vertical
electric fields at low altitudes should faithfully follow the overhead ionospheric potential. For example,
vertical electric fields should have the same dawn-to-dusk variation across the polar cap as the potential
541
variation illustrated in Fig. 3. If measurements are made at a ground-based station, we expect diurnal
variations with a dawn maximum and a dusk minimum. (Recall that magnetospheric convection
pattern illustrated in Fig. 2 is fixed in the solar-magnetospheric coordinate system, with the earth rotating
underneath it.) In addition, there will be universal time variations as both the size of the polar cap
and the potential drop across it change with the changing state of the magnetosphere. Auroral effects
on vertical atmospheric fields have been reported by several experimenters (Olson, 1971; Freier, 1961;
Lobodin and Paramonov, 1972), but it is not clear whether they are related to the effects discussed here.
Because ground-based measurements are influenced by local meteorological conditions, it is difficult
to infer ionospheric electric fields from measurements at a single station. However, if vertical fields
are measured simultaneously at a latitudinal chain (or several chains) of stations, it should be possible
to separate local and global effects by statistical means.
Conclusions
Magnetospheric convection electric fields are expected to significantly affect fair-weather atmos-
pheric electric fields in the polar region. Balloon measurements of horizontal electric fields have been
successfully carried out and magnetospheric electric fields inferred from them. It appears that ground-
based measurements of vertical electric fields can also be used to infer magnetospheric fields. In addition
to the polar cap electric fields considered here, electric fields associated with magnetospheric substorms
and the ionospheric dynamo may also have important implications for atmospheric electricity at
middle and low latitudes.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the National Science Foundation, Atmospheric Sciences Section under grants
GA-28042 and GA-28042 A 2.
References
1. Aggson, T. L., Probe measurements of electric fields in space, in Atmospheric Emissions, ed. B. M. McCormac
and A. Omholt, p. 305 (New York, 1969). - 2. Akasofu, S.-I. and S. Chapman, Solar-Terrestrial Physics, (Oxford,
1972). - 3. Axford, W. I., Rev. Geophys. 7, 421 (1969). - 4. Axford, W. 1. and C' O. Hines, Can. J. Phys. 39, 1433
(1961). - 5. Banks, P. M., J. R. Doupnik, and S.-I. Akasofu, J. Geophys. Res. 78, 6607 (1973). - 6. Bostrom, R.,
U. Fahleson, L. Olansson, and G. Hallendal, Theory of time-varying atmospheric electric fields and some applica-
tions to fields of ionospheric origin, Tech. Rept. TRITA-EPP-73-02, Royal Institute of Technology (Stockholm,
1973). - 7. Carpenter, D. L., K. Stone, J. C. Siren, and T. L. Crystal, J. Geophys. Res. 77, 2819 (1972). -
8. Carpenter, D. L. and C. G. Park, Rev. Geophys. and Space Physics 11, 133 (1973). - 9. Chiu, Y. T., J. Geophys.
Res. 79, 2790 (1974). - 10. Dungey, J. w., Phys. Rev. Lett. 6, 47 (1961). - 11. Freier, G. D., J. Geophys. Res. 66,
2695 (1961). - 12. Gurnett, D. A. and L. A. Frank, J. Geophys. Res. 78, 145 (1973). - 13. Haerendel, G. and R.
Lust, Electric fields in the ionosphere and magnetosphere, in Particles and Fields in the Magnetosphere, ed.
B. M. McCormac, p. 213 (Dordrecht, 1970). - 14. Heppner, J. P., Planet. Space Sci. 20, 1475 (1972). - 15. Kellogg,
P. J. and M. Weed, Balloon measurements of ionospheric electric fields, Planetary Electrodynamics, ed. S. C.
Coroniti and J. Hughes, Vol. 2, p. 431 (1969). - 16. Lobodin, T. V. and N. A. Paramonov, Pure and Applied
Geophys. 100, 167 (1972). - 17. Mozer, F. S., Pure and Appl. Geophys. 84',32 (1971). - 18. Mozer, F. S. and
p, Bruston, J. Geophys. Res. 72,1109 (1967). - 19. Mozer, F. S. and R. Serlin, J. Geophys. Res. 74, 4739 (1969). -
20. Mozer, F. S. and R. H. Manka, J. Geophys. Res. 76, 1697 (1971). - 21. Olson, D. Eo, Pure and Appl. Geophys.
84, 118 (1971). - 22. Volland, H., J, Geophys. Res. 77, 1961 (1972). - 23. Wescott, E. M., J. D. Stolarik, and J. P.
Heppner, Auroral and polar cap electric fields from barium releases, in Particle Fields in the Magnetosphere,
ed. B. M. McCormac (Dordrecht, 1970).
Discussion
With the potentials which map down from the ionosphere in polar regions there are horizontal electric fields
associated and also conduction currents. Can you give us any idea how the horizontal conduction current maps
down in polar regions?
542
Park, Stanford, California, USA:
The conduction current is simply related to the electric field through the conductivity. So, the current mapping
would be identical to electric field mapping except for multiplication factors due to conductivity profile.
In one of your slides (Fig. 3) you showed the potential difference in the ionosphere near the polar cap, and you
said that the fields were mapped down to the ground. Could you give us the value of the vertical fields that we
could measure at the ground? Let's say you are at the best place, at 70° or 75° latitude. What would be the
difference between the dusk and dawn vertical fields at the ground?
Park:
In this particular case illustrated here, you would have more than a 3: 1 difference in vertical electric fields
measured at dawn and dusk.
Kasemir:
I would like to clarify this a little. The absolute value is important insofar as we have a superposition of the
ordinary fair-weather field and the ionospheric field. The question would therefore be: can we detect the
ionospheric field against a fair-weather field of, say, 50 V1m at the ground?
Park:
The potential pattern I showed does include the average ionospheric potential of 200 kV with respect to the
earth. So the total vertical electric field you see at dawn and dusk would differ by a ratio of more than 3: 1.
I think we have continuous measurements of the potential gradient in Spitzbergen and other places at about
75 degrees. As I remember, no clear deviations from the global daily variation occur in these measurements. Do
you have an explanation for this?
Park:
Of course, there are daily variations of the average ionospheric potential in addition to the dawn-to-dusk
potential difference. The latter is also known to be quite variable so that if you look at the data from one station
you may find a pattern dominated by the global daily variation depending upon the relationship between the
universal time and the magnetic time at the station. If we want to look for the magnetospheric effects, I think we
need simultaneous observations at multiple stations.
Authors' address:
Radioscience Laboratory,
Stanford University
Stanford, California, 94305
USA
543
Thundercloud Electric Fields in the Ionosphere
Abstract
We consider the problem of electric field mapping around thunderclouds, with particular emphasis upon iono-
spheric and magnetospheric implications. Calculated electric field strength at large heights depends critically on
atmospheric conductivities as well as on cloud parameters. It is extremely important to include the effects ofthe geo-
magnetic field above -70 km altitude. At night, horizontal d c electric field above a bipolar thundercloud may exceed
10- 4 Vim at 100 km altitude. Time-varying fields due to lightning discharges are also considered. The recovery
time following lightning decreases rapidly with increasing altitude until at 100 km the electric field waveform
appears as a sharp pulse with -0.1 sec duration. The peak pulse amplitude may easily exceed 10- 4 V/m. In the
daytime, both de and ae fields are weaker by 1 to 2 orders of magnitude as a result of higher conductivities above
- 50 km. We conclude that thundercloud electric fields are probably too weak to produce significant electro-
dynamic effects on the daytime ionosphere, but the nighttime values border on being significant.
Introduction
If we wish to investigate electrical coupling between the troposphere and the ionosphere, we must
abandon the classical Faraday-cage model of atmospheric electricity, which allows no electric field
to exist in the ionosphere. We replace it with a more realistic model illustrated in Fig. 1b. In this new
model, electrical conductivity along the geomagnetic field becomes infinite at ionospheric heights,
but the transverse conductivities remain finite. Thus equipotential geomagnetic field lines replace
the equipotential electro sphere in the classical model as the upper boundary condition. We will see
that conductivity anisotropy cannot be ignored above", 80 km, because without it electric fields reaching
these altitudes from below would be underestimated by several orders of magnitude.
A question of particular interest to us is whether thundercloud electric fields can reach the ionosphere
with sufficient strength to cause significant electrodynamic effects such as formation of field-aligned
electron density irregularities or excitation of geomagnetic pulsations. We considered this question
in two earlier papers (14,4) and concluded that under favorable conditions thunderclouds could play
an important role. Here we will give some further considerations to this problem based on improved
calculations.
(0) (b)
Fig. 1. Sketches illustrating two different conceptual models of geoelectricity. (a) The classical picture in which the
earth and the electrosphere, both perfectly conducting, form a leaky spherical capacitor within which atmospheric
electricity is confined. (b) A new model in which geomagnetic field lines are assumed to be perfect conductors but the
conductivities across field lines remain finite. This model allows electric coupling between the troposphere and the
ionosphere/magnetosphere
Atmospheric Conductivity'
Fig. 2 shows mid-latitude conductivity profiles for daytime and nighttime conditions. all is the
conductivity along the geomagnetic field, and ap is the Pedersen conductivity. Above '" 60 km, a II and
544
(Jp are calculated from recent electron density data (8) together with the U.S. Standard Atmosphere
(16). The nighttime model is intended to represent the lowest values to be expected near local midnight.
The conductivity profile below 40km is based on a number of in situ measurements (15,10,11,12,1).
The region between 40 km and 60 km has been filled in to join the upper and the lower curves smoothly.
150
100
MIDLATITUDE
--NIGHT
----- DAY
50
Fig. 2. Midlatitude conductivity profiles for nighttime and daytime conditions
DC Electric Fields
The basic equations to be solved are
V-j=O [1]
j = (JE [2]
and
E = - V<P [3]
where <P is the electric potential, E is the electric field, j is electric current density, and (1 is the con-
ductivity tensor. If we assume a vertical geomagnetic field, eqs. [1], [2], and [3] can be combined to
yield
02<p + ~~ + _1_~((J11~) = o. [4]

or2 r or (J p oz . OZ
The z-axis points vertically upward, and an azimuthal symmetry has been assumed.
Isotropic Region
We divide the isotropic atmosphere below 70 km into several slabs with exponentially varying
conductivity. For each such slab, we write (JI
= (Jp = (Joe(z-zo)", where the subscript 0 refers to a ref-
erence altitude. The solution to eq. [4] for this case can be written as [see (14)]
<P(r,z) = Jo(kr)[Ale mIZ + A2e m2Z ] [5]
where
mi = - _1 _
20:
V(_l)2 +
20:
k2, m2 = _ _
1
20:
+ V(_l)2 +
20:
k2 .
J 0 is the zero-order Bessel function of the first kind, k is the spatial wave number, and Al and A2 are
constants to be evaluated from boundary conditions. Electric fields are obtained from Er = - o<Pjor
and Ez = -o<Pjoz.
545
Anisotropic Region
e%!·11 and O"p oc e<iop , it is still possible to find analytical solutions to eq. [4] (14).
If 0"11 =f:. O"p, but 0"11 oc
However, in this case the solutions may involve Bessel functions of fractional order, and this method
becomes impractical if more than two or three layers are required to adequately represent the conduc-
tivity profile. Here we use an alternative approach which allows more accurate calculations with greater
economy. We divide the anisotropic regions into a large number of thin (1 km thickness has been found
satisfactory) homogeneous layers so that within each layer eq. [4] can be rewritten as
02<p + l.~ + ~ 02<p = O. [6]

or2 r or 0"p OZ2
This equation has the solution
<P(r,z) = Jo(kr) [Ble~k% + B 2 e-~kz] [7]

which involves only simple exponential functions of z. Bl and B2 must be evaluated for each layer
from boundary conditions. Although this method requires a large number of layers, numerical cal-
culations are generally easier than in the case of exponential conductivity. Electric fields are again
obtained from Er = -o<P/or and E% = -o<P/oz.
Boundary Conditions
Eqs. [5] and [7] are subject to the following boundary conditions: (i) <P = 0 at z = 0, (ii) E% = 0
at 150 km, (iii) E z jumps by an amount Q/I'.o where the cloud charge Q is located, (iv) Er is continuous
across all layer boundaries, and (v) J z is continuous across all layer boundaries. Details of mathematical
derivation and boundary condition matching can be found elsewhere (3).
Results
Electric fields are calculated for three different thundercloud models. Model A has + 50 coulombs
at z = 10 km and - 50 C at z = 5 km. In model B, the lower charge at 5 km is increased to -195 C
while the upper charge of + 50 C remains at 10 km. This is done to make the magnitude of charge
proportional to local resistivity so that currents flowing from these charges will be equal (6). Model C,
with + 50 C at 15 km and - 50 C at 5 km, is intended to represent unusually tall clouds that may extend
from a few km to 20 or more km [e.g. (17,18)].
Er at z=40 km
NIGHT, CLOUD MODEL A
10'
10-'o~-"'-----'2;;;'0;-----'--;;4;;-0-~---;6;';;0:-----'
r (km)
Fig. 3 a. Horizontal electric field strength at 40 km altitude plotted as a function of horizontal distance from a
model thundercloud. (See text for details)
546
Ez at z=40 km
NIGHT. CLOUD MODEL A
10'
r(km)
Fig. 3b. Vertical electric field corresponding to Fig.3a
Fig. 3 shows plots of E, and E. at z = 40 km. E, is positive along the radius vector r, and E. is
positive when directed upward. The curves marked (+) and (-) show electric fields due to ± 50 C
at 10 km and 5 km, respectively. When the (-) curves are subtracted from the (+) curves, the resulting
unmarked curves represent net electric fields due to cloud model A. If the ionospheric potential is
assumed to be 200 k V with respect to the earth, then we predict a downward "fair weather" field of
4 x 10- 2 Vim at z = 40 km. (Columnar resistance is 1.3 x 1017 ohms from Fig. 2.) Comparing this
with Fig. 3b, we see that "foul weather" should be indicated as far as - 80 km horizontal distance
from the thundercloud.
Er at z= 100 km
NIGHT. CLOUD MODEL A
10··0~-"----:':20:---L--4!:0:---'------:6';:-0-......J
r (km)
Fig. 4. Horizontal electric field at 100 km altitude corresponding to Fig. 3
Fig. 4 shows E, at z = 100 km in the same format as Fig. 3a. The magnitude of E, is greatly reduced,
but its horizontal distribution is much broader than at z = 40 km. Fig. 5 shows how the maxima of
E, and E. vary with altitude. An important feature to note here is that E,.max becomes almost constant
above - 80 km altitude. This is due to the conductivity anisotropy introduced by the geomagnetic
field. Without the geomagnetic field, E,.max would continue to decrease rapidly with altitude following
a curve parallel to the E •. max curve.
547
110
"-
'""",
NIGHT, CLOUD MODEL A
90
...........
-..........
-........... ,E z, max
E 70
\.
~
N
Er, max
\
50 \
\
\
3~0-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 10° 102
E (Vm-I )
Fig. 5. Plots of maximum horizontal and vertical electric fields as a function of altitude above a model thundercloud.
(See text for details)
Table 1 summarizes E.,max and Ez,max for different cloud and conductivity models. There is very
little day-night difference in E.,max and E"max at 40 km altitude, but at 100 km the daytime values are
about 2 orders of magnitude less than the corresponding nighttime values. We conclude from these
results that in the daytime1dc thundercloud electric fields are too weak to produce significant effects
on the ionosphere. The nighttime picture, on the other hand, is quite different. It was shown by Park
and Helliwell (13) that electric fields of only 5 x 10- 4 Vim in the ionosphere can form ducts for radio
waves in ~ 1 hr. Since this level is approached at night by cloud models A and C, thunderclouds cannot
be ruled out as a source of localized electric fields in the nighttime ionosphere.
Table 1. Maximum horizontal (E.) and vertical (E.) field strength at various heights for various models of cloud
and conductivity
Cloud E,.max at z = 40 km E •. max at z = 40 km E,.max at z = 100 km

Model Day Night Day Night Day Night
Model A 4.3 Vim 4.4 Vim 24.6 Vim 24.4 Vim 1.8 X 10- 6 Vim 1.9 X 10- 4 Vim
ModelB 1.6 1.6 8.2 8.2 5.0 x 10- 7 6.3 x 10- 5
ModelC 13.6 14.0 74.7 74.3 4.9 X 10- 6 4.9 X 10- 4
Time-Varying Electric Fields

For time-varying fields of the form eiw', we write the Maxwelfs equations as
V x E = -iwJloH
V x H = tiE + iW/JoE.
From these equations, we obtain an inhomogeneous wave equation
V2 E + (k 2 - iWJlotl)E = V(V· E). [8]
Isotropic Region
Below 70 kIll, we again divide the atmosphere into several layers within which we can write
0'11 = O'p = O'oe(z-zo)!a. With this approximation, eq. [8] can be solved analytically [see (4) for details
of mathematical analysis J.
Anisotropic Region
In this case, eq. [8] is more difficult to deal with than in the isotropic case, but it turns out that the
problem can be greatly simplified if we are interested in frequencies not much greater than 10 Hz.
Dejnakarintra (3) used a perturbation method to solve eq. [8] by writing
548
and
H = Ho + HI + H2 +...
The zero-order fields, Eo and Ho,are electrostatic fields, while the higher order terms are due to induction
and radiation. It was shown that in the altitude and frequency ranges of our interest lEt/Eo I does not
exceed ~0.01. We can therefore reduce eq. [8J to a set of electrostatic equations by ignoring all terms
involving w. After the electric fields have been found by the method of the previous section, we can
"tack on" the time variation eiw'. At much higher frequencies, higher-order terms have to be included
[e.g. (3, 5, 2)].
Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions are identical to the de case except that in condition (iii) EAw) and Q(w)180
must be matched for each Fourier component.
Results
It can be shown that the atmosphere transmits electric fields upward more efficiently as the frequency
increases (4). As a result, high frequency components become more prominent as the disturbance
propagates upward. In the time domain, this means that when the electric field waveform is synthesized
the recovery time following a lightning discharge decreases with altitude. Such behavior has been
observed at balloon altitudes (1,9).
Cloud-fo-ground (b)
20 sec
Introcloud (a)
""u,! /V/~"
Fig. 6. (a) Waveform of E, at r = 40 km and z = 100 km due to intracloud discharges. (b) Waveform of E, due to
cloud-to-ground discharges. (c) Assumed time variation of cloud charge
Fig. 6 illustrates the results of sample calculations for nighttime conditions. Fig. 6c shows assumed
time variations of cloud charge centers: a lightning discharge occurs in 0.18 second, followed by an
exponential recovery with 7-second time constant. Intra-cloud discharges remove + 20C at 10 km
and - 20C at 5 km simultaneously, while cloud-to-ground discharges remove - 20C at 5 km, leaving
the upper charge undisturbed. In both types of discharges, electric fields at 100 km altitude appear as
sharp spikes of ~ 100 msec duration with peak amplitude of ~ 3 x 10- 4 Vim. Similar waveforms
are obtained for daytime conductivities, but the corresponding amplitudes are about an order of magni-
tude less. These fields should be investigated further as a possible source of hydro magnetic waves,
which after entering the magnetosphere can be amplified by energetic particles and produce the phe-
nomenon called geomagnetic pulsations [e.g. (7)].
Discussion and Concluding Remarks

It appears from the sample calculations that ordinary daytime thunderclouds cannot produce
significant electric fields in the ionosphere, but there is a possibility that unusually energetic clouds
combined with low nighttime conductivities can cause significant perturbations in the ionosphere and
magnetosphere. It would seem worthwhile to look for such effects experimentally. More efforts should
also be made to measure electric fields and conductivities above thunderclouds so that the parameters
needed to calculate electric fields at higher altitudes can be better defined.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the National Science Foundation, Atmospheric Sciences Section under
grant GA-28 042.
549
References
1. Benbrook, J. R., J. W. Kern, and W. R. Sheldon, submitted to J. Geophys. Res. (1974). - 2. Bostrom, R., U.
Fahleson, L. Olansson, and G. Hallendal, Tech. Rept. TRITA-EPP-73-02 Royal Institute of Technology (Stock-
holm, 1973). - 3. Dejnakarintra, M., Ph. D. Thesis, Tech. Rept. No. 3454-3, Radioscience Laboratory, Stanford
University (Stanford, 1974). - 4. Dejnakarintra, M. and C. G. Park, 1. Geophys. Res. 79,1903 (1974). - 5. Einaudi,
F. and J. R. Wait, Can. 1. Phys. 49, 447 (1971). - 6. Holzer, R. E. and D. S. Saxon, 1. Geophys. Res. 57, 207 (1952). -
7. Jacobs, J. A., Geomagnetic Micropulsations (New York, 1970). - 8. Maeda, K., 1. Geomag. Geoelect. 23,
133 (1971). - 9. Manka, R. H. and F. S. Mozer, personal communication. - 10. Morita, Y., H. Ishikawa, and
M. Kanada, J. Geophys. Res. 76, 3431 (1971). - 11. Mozer, F. S., Pure and Appl. Geophys. 84, 32 (1971). -
12. Paltridge, G. W,1. Geophys. Res. 70, 2751 (1965). - 13. Park, C. G. and R. A. Helliwell, Radio Science 6, 299
(1971). - 14. Park, C. G. and M. Dejnakarintra, 1. Geophys. Res. 78, 6623 (1973). - 15. Sagalyn, R. C. and
D. R. Fitzgerald, in Handbook of Geophysics and Space Environments, Office of Aerospace Research, U.S. Air
Force (1965). - 16. U.S. Standard Atmosphere Supplements, U.S. Government Printing Office (Washington,
D.C., 1966). - 17. Vonnegut, B. and C. B. Moore, Recent Advances in Atmospheric Electricity, ed. L. G. Smith,
399 (London, 1958). - 18. Workman, G. J., Problems of Atmospheric and Space Electricity, ed. S. C. Coroniti, 296
(New York, 1965).
Discussion
Is your model one- or two-dimensional, and is the magnetic field, as assumed, constant in slope and magnitude?

This is a 3-dimensional model, although the conductivity varies only with altitude. Magnetic field lines are
assumed to be straight; we do not take their curvature into account. We also assumed constant magnetic dip
angle.
Ruhnke:
What latitudes do you assume for these calculations?
Park:
Although we have solutions that apply to any dip angle, we have shown results for vertical field lines only.
If one goes to lower latitudes where the dip angle is less than 90°, then one gets slightly different numbers.
Ruhnke:
I hope you realize that in the polar regions there are not many thunderstorms.
Park:
The dip angle is close to 90° even at middle latitudes. For example, in northern U.S. and Canada, where
there is considerable thunderstorm activity, the magnetic field lines are close to being vertical. Of course, one will
get slightly different numbers if one puts in the tilt angle, but I don't think it is important compared to other
variables unless one gets close to the equator.
Milhleisen, Ravensburg, West-Germany:

In your last slide you mentioned penetration of field jumps due to lightning into the ionosphere. In the
earlier paper of Bostrom we could see some damping of waves with different frequencies downwards. If I under-
stood your slide and the calculations of Bostrom's correctly, then we have a different damping downwards and
upwards. Is this correct and what is the explanation?
Park:
That is true. Electric fields are transmitted more efficiently in the direction of decreasing conductivity, so
mapping down is much more efficient than mapping up. In the time-varying case, Bostrom showed that higher-
frequency electric fields are damped more severely coming down. When mapping up, one finds the reverse
situation: damping decreases with frequency.
550
In your calculation, did you consider the source, that is the thunderstorm, to be a function of time?
Park:
Yes, we did. We assumed a time variation of cloud charges, Fourier-analysed it, and then calculated electric
fields due to each Fourier component. Finally, we summed them all up to reconstruct the wave form.
Authors' address:
Radioscience Laboratory
Stanf@rd University
Stanford, California, 94305
USA
551
Three-Dimensional Electric Fields and Currents in the Stratosphere
T. Ogawa, Y. Tanaka, A. Huzita and M. Yasuhara
With 4 figures
Abstract
Nine balloon measurements of electric fields and currents in the stratosphere in Tohoku (L = 1.4) and at
Syowa Base (L = 6.1) in eight years revealed several important time and space variations: (I) The ionosphere
is nearly equipotential between middle and high latitudes, and the air-earth current density is larger in high
latitudes due to an increase of air conductivity by cosmic rays. (II) Diurnal UT variations of the vertical field and
current density at nearly constant levels over the ocean are those expected from worldwide thunderstorm activity
in the first approximation, but superposed fluctuations are very large, the origin of which remains not clear.
(III) Vertical field and current density are increased over land apparently because of a reduction of columnar
resistance (Land effect). (IV) Horizontal fields are created in the stratosphere depending on the topography under-
neath (Mountain effect). (V) Midlatitude horizontal electric fields measured on a magnetically disturbed day
are interpreted to be originated in the plasmasphere; its plasma does not simply corotate with the earth and it
is decelerated in the local nighttime and is accelerated in the daytime by 200 - 300 m/sec, and there are expected
inward and outward plasma flows. (VI) At Syowa Base, large electric fields and current densities were observed
in the stratosphere as well as on the ground associated with the occurrence of an auroral substorm (Substorm
effect). (VII) One hour averages of about 30 mV/m of the horizontal field at Syowa Base give similar convection
patterns in the ionosphere and in the magnetosphere as reported in previous works.
Introduction
There exist several electric field systems in space such as the atmospheric electric field (total potential
is about 280 kV), corotational field (about 90kV), ionospheric dynamo field (Sq & L: about 15kV),
magnetospheric convection field (DP2: 50-100kV), polar convection field (S~: 50-100kV), auroral
electric field (DP1: 50-100 kV) etc. These electric fields have been investigated by direct measurements
with balloons, rockets, and scientific satellites as well as by indirect measurements of natural and artificial
plasma drifts with backscatter radars and optical cameras (refer Fig. 1 of Ogawa etal., 1975b). The
stratosphere has become a very important region where the above described several electric fields
superpose on each other, and the balloon measurements of electric field in this region have attracted
much attention in the recent years. In this paper, we discuss such three-dimensional electric fields
measured in the stratosphere on local and global scales.
Brief Description of Instrumentation, and Outline of tbe Measurements

Long wires were used for the electric field antennas in the early stage of measurements (Ogawa, 1973).
Most recently, a pair of circular plates and/or cylinders coated with carbon were used. The first meas-
urement was made in 1966. Since 1968 observations have been made once a year at the Pacific coast
in Tohoku district (L = 1.4), northern part of Honshu. In addition, two flights were made at Syowa
Base (L = 6.1) in the Antarctic in 1972. As the stratospheric electric field is much influenced by weather
and the orographic conditions underneath, the measurements were tried to be made over the ocean
more than about 200 km away from the land and only in fair weather.
Results
Vertical profiles
In Fig. 1 are shown the altitude profiles of vertical electric fields, current densities and conductivities
measured over the sea near Tohoku and near Syowa Base. Diurnal amplitudes and their average values
during level flights are also shown in the figure. The electric field profiles surprisingly coincide with
each other both in Tohoku and at Syowa Base, while the conductivity is about twice as large at Syowa
Base as in Tohoku. This is because of the latitudinal effect of cosmic rays on ionization in the atmos-
phere. The vertical currents seem to be almost constant with altitude, and larger at Syowa Base than
552
VERTICAL FI ElD Vim CONDUCTIVITY x1612 Ulm
.1 .2 .4 .6B1 2 4 .4.6.81 2 4 6810 20
~72A2 ...H72A2
1972A1 19J2A1
1970r-<
f
f---'o---j
1969
,
t ,
,r
,
I
w '.,
o ,,
::::l ,
r-
6<r
••••• SEP 20 1966 }

8 --
-
SEP
SEP
11968
81969
--,-- SEP 241970 TOHOKU
OCT 71971
OCT 161973
4 NOV 28 1972A1 } SYOWA
DEC 29 1972A2 BASE
OL-~~LLL-~~LUL-~~LU _ _L-~LU_ _~
.4.6B1 2 4 12 2
VERTICAL CURRENT x10 Aim
Fig. 1. Altitude profiles of vertical electric fields, current densities and conductivities measured over the sea in
Tohoku and at Syowa Base. Diurnal amplitudes and their mean values at nearly constant levels in the stratosphere
are also shown. U = mho = l/ohm
in Tohoku by the same amount as the conductivity. It is roughly concluded from these profiles that
the ionosphere is nearly equipotential between the middle and high latitudes, and the air-earth current
flows down from above the stratosphere in these instances.
Diurnal variations
In Fig. 2, diurnal variations of the vertical electric fields measured at nearly constant levels in the
stratosphere are shown. There can be seen a UT (= GMT) diurnal variation common to all meas-
urements with peaks at around 20 UT, which is understood as caused by the worldwide thunderstorm
activity. Short period fluctuations are quite large, having periods ranging from 4 hours to 10 minutes.
It remains unsolved whether these fluctuations are a direct effect ofthe worldwide thunderstorm activity,
an effect of some other aspect of space electricity, or a local effect in the atmosphere where the antenna
exists.
Land effect on the vertical fields

In Fig. 3 are shown the results of a flight in 1969. Both electric field (E) and current density (i) increased
almost simultaneously with abnormally large increases between 11 and 17 UT. The period in which
these abnormal increases were observed corresponds to the period in which the balloon flew across
Honshu Island. It can reasonably be assumed that these abnormal increases were caused by the reduction
of columnar resistance over mountains on the island.
553
0.6
5EP I 1968 (2I.km)

0.5
.§ 5EP 8 1969 (26 km)
::- SEP 21. 1970 (27km)
OCT 7 1971 (28km)
a OCT 1& 1973 (27 km)
--' 0.4
w
L:
u
a::
t- 0.3
u
W
--'
W
...J
«
u 0.2
;:
a::
w
::-
0.1
NOV 28 1972Al (3 1 km)
DEC 29 19 72 A2 (32 km)
O ~~--~--L-~--~---'~~ __ ~~ __- L_ _ ~~ _ _~_ _~~_ _~_ _ L---'

o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
UT
Fig. 2. Diurnal variations measured at nearly constant levels in the stratosphere. "L" indicates the land effect,
and "S" the sub storm effect
20
~1.8 0.6
"E 10
"-
0. U
~1.5 0.5 O~
"b ::::>
~
p ~ E -10 t:{
b4
~
~ 1.2
w
cr
~0.4
0 -20 ~
cr ...J
>- ::::> w 1-
53 009 LL03 -30,::.
F
0
0
cr: cr:
::::> °
0 b 1- -40
52 ~O6 &3
...J0.2
w
°b w... w
-50
0.3 0.1 -60
B B B -70
I I I
0 0 0' I I I I I I I I
9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 (UT)
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 I 2 3 (JST)
PACIFIC OCEAN OVER LAND ) JAPAN SEA
Fig. 3. Land effect on the vertical electric field (E) and current density (i) measured across Honshu Island.
Calculated conductivity (0" = i/E), the balloon height (H) tracked by radar, and air temperature (T) are also shown
Mountain effect on the horizontal fields

During a flight in 1972, the balloon flew over three masses of mountains while decreasing its heIght
from 24 km to 16 km in the stratosphere. The measured horizontal electric fields are cIearlyinfluenced
554
by mountains; the field vectors of 20 to 60 mV/m in magnitude direct almost toward the mountain
peaks of 1.6 -1.9 km heights and are larger between masses of mountains than just over mountains.
These results are fully understandable in the light of the calculations by Atkinson et al. (1971) and
Hoppel (1971) (Ogawa et aI., 1975a).
Plasmaspheric convection fields - mid-latitude horizontal electric fields

During a flight on 16/17 October 1973, three-dimensional electric fields were measured at an altitude
of about 27 km over the Pacific Ocean about 200-400 km distant from Honshu Island, in a mag-
netically disturbed period. The average horizontal electric field thus measured is about 10mV/m,
and the electric field vectors made clockwise semidiurnal rotations rather than diurnal. The daily
variation of this electric field was compared with data at L = 2.7 -3.5 published by Mozer (1973) and
was found to be very similar. This suggests that these electric fields are of common origin in the plasma-
sphere. From this, it is estimated that the plasmaspheric convection is decreased in the nightside and
is increased in the dayside by 200 - 300 m/sec, and that there is an outward flow in the first half of
the afternoon and an inward flow in the plasma bulge region of about 500 m/sec (Ogawa et aI., 1975b).
Substorm effects
At Syowa Base, large electric field and current densities in the stratosphere as well as on the ground
were observed at the time of an auroral substorm of 18 UT on 28 November 1972. (Refer also to a
contribution by Ogawa during the General Discussion of this session.) Also, characteristic damped
oscillations with a period of about 15 minutes were observed at the maximum phase, associated with
magnetic oscillations.
Large scale convection fields

Horizontal electric fields measured at Syowa Base on 28 November 1972 were mapped into the
ionosphere and in the magnetospheric equatorial plane, and the results with magnetic local time are
shown in Fig. 4. The average electric fields are about 30mV/m in the ionosphere and about 1 mV/m
in the equatorial plane of the magnetosphere. The plasmaspheric convections expected from these
electric fields are also shown in Fig. 4. Although numbers of data cover less than half a day, estimated
general patterns of plasma convections are in good agreement with the previous works.
SUN SUN
12 12
-
o Os
-
-+ ELECTRIC FIELD -
50mV/m 1mV/m
CONVECTION
1 km/s 2 0km/s
Fig. 4. Large scale electric fields and convections in the ionosphere and in the magnetospheric equatorial plane
estimated from the horizontal electric fields measured in the stratosphere at Syowa Base on 28 November 1972,
SP = South Pole
555
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Professors J. Nishimura and H. Hirosawa and their staff members of the
Institute of Space and Aeronautical Science, University of Tokyo, for their great help for the balloon launching
and the data teiemetering. Result (III) is contributed by T. Ogawa and Y. Tanaka, (IV) by T. Ogawa, M. Yasuhara,
and A. Huzita, and (VI) and (VII) by Y. Tanaka, T. Ogawa, and M. Kodama.
References
1. Atkinson, W, S. Lundquist, and U. Fahleson, PAGEOPH 84, 46 (1971). - 2. Hoppel, W A., PAGEOPH 84, 57
(1971). - 3. Mozer, F. S., Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 11, 755 (1973). - 4. Ogawa, T., Analyses of measurement
techniques of electric fields and currents in the atmosphere, Contributions of the Geophysical Institute, Kyoto
University, 13, 111 (1973). - 5. Ogawa, T., M. Yasuhara, and A. Huzita, J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 37, 841 (1975a). -
6. Ogawa, T., Y. Tanaka, A. Huzita, and M. Yasuhara, Planet. Space Sci. 23, 825 (1975 b).
Discussion
Williamsoll, San Diego, California, USA:
How did you measure the conductivity?
We used a switching system, so we measured the current and the field alternatively with the same antenna.
Would you say that your vertical air-earth current density is constant with height or not?
Ogawa:
I said: it is constant.
Authors' addresses:
T. Ogawa and Y. Tanaka A. Huzita M. Yasuhara
Geophysical Institute Earth Science Laboratory Inst. of Earth Science
Kyoto University Konan University Kyoto University of Education
Kyoto 606 Kobe Kyoto
Japan Japan Japan
556
Review of Planetary Electrical Models - Analogies to Earth·)
R.H.Manka
With 4 figures
Abstract
The earth is discussed in the context of planetary electrical systems. Planetary systems can be classified in order
of increasing complexity, with bodies such as the moon having a rare atmosphere and no solar wind-bow shock
being simplest, planetary bodies such as Mars having a modest atmosphere and low intrinsic magnetic field being
an intermediate case, while planets such as Earth with a dense convecting atmosphere and significant magneto-
sphere being the most complex. In these papers we discuss the basic physics of global systems and then make
applications to special planetary and primitive atmospheres.
A number of basic questions in atmospheric electricity relate to the earth's global electrical system. Some of
these are: is the earth-ionosphere capacitor model correct, are there asymmetries, and how are earth-ionosphere
currents related to the earth's potential? Some of these questions can effectively be studied by analogy to other
planetary bodies, which in some cases have simpler environments than Earth. We review briefly the results of
very recent planetary missions, which indicate that the planets are likely to have a fascinating variety of electro-
dynamic environments.
We know from the Apollo program that the moon has an environment greatly different from Earth, but in
some respects simpler and surprisingly analogous. Unlike the earth, the moon has a very thin atmosphere, and an
ionosphere that extends to the surface. However, for certain problems the moon can be considered a "prototype"
environment of the earth. The moon has two sources of charge: external and surface-generated. The external
currents to the surface are provided by the plasma environment in the solar wind or the (terrestrial) geomagnetic
tail; the surface currents derive from photo- and secondary electrons. For example, when the moon is in the solar
wind, the surface potential is determined by the balance of current from incoming flowing solar wind protons,
thermal solar wind electrons, and outgoing photoelectrons emitted from the surface. In the solar wind, it is likely
that the potential is 5 to 10 volts positive at the sub-solar point, remains positive over most of the sunlit face, but
becomes about 40 volts negative at the terminator and possibly goes to large negative potentials on the dark side.
The associated lunar surface electric field exists within the plasma sheath near the surface, in some cases extending
only meters or tens of meters above the surface. In the solar wind, there is an external electric field Esw =
- V.w x Bsw, due to the motion of the interplanetary magnetic field past the moon, superimposed upon the
local surface electric field.
With this example in mind, we look at the basic physics of the charging of a planet and the analogy to Earth.
Currents generated near the surface, such as the lunar photo current, are analogous to terrestrial thunderstorm
currents; similarly, the solar wind plasma current has analogies to the ionospheric return current.
There are likely to be asymmetries in the earth's electrical system due to external potential as well as to local
charging. Again further understanding is suggested by the moon, which sustains large variations in its local
surface potential. Finally, instruments appropriate to measure planetary electric fields, are discussed briefly.
Introduction
The earth can be studied in the general context of planetary electrical systems. In this paper, planetary
global electrical models are reviewed, especially that of the moon with analogies to Earth. The electro-
dynamics of the global interaction of the planetary body with its environment are discussed. Eden (1974)
discusses the electrical processes in the lower atmosphere of planets, and their analogies to terrestrial
atmospheric electricity, in his companion paper "Review of Electrification Processes in Planetary
Atmospheres".
Several concepts are introduced and discussed in this paper:
- It is proposed that all of the planets are likely to be charged.
- That the planets can be classified in order of increasing complexity of their interaction with the
solar wind, (or the complexity of their neutral atmospheres as discussed by Eden).
- That the spherical capacitor model of the earth (planet)-ionosphere electrical system is only a first
approximation; significant asymmetries exist.
*) Invited Paper, presented by Manka in common with the next paper by Eden.
557
- Planetary electrodynamic systems can be treated as limiting cases of electrodynamic models, allow-
ing us to isolate certain key parameters, but recent explorations indicate fascinating variations
beyond our imagination.
This paper is a somewhat personal review of the planets; it summarizes some recent thinking, but
does not discuss all important recent work. We do attempt to mention some of the most exciting new
results of planetary missions, and the ways in which these are relevant to the atmospheric electricity
of the earth. The electrodynamics of global models, and the effects of magnetospheric electric fields,
have been well discussed by a number of authors, among them Dolezalek (1972), Pierce et al. (1973), Webb
(1969), Reiter (1971), Obayashi and Nishida (1968), and Volland (1974, at this conference). Planetary
electric fields and solar wind interaction have also been discussed by a number of authors including
Cloutier et al. (1969), Michel (1971) and Manka (1973).
Recent Planetary Exploration

It is interesting to mention a few of the exciting new results of recent planetary missions, which indicate
their varied electrical environment. Our first detailed look at another planetary body, the moon, came
with the Apollo program. The moon is discussed in more detail in a later section, but suffice to say
that the moon represents that case of solar wind interaction which is most different from the earth'~.
Jupiter
From Pioneer 10, it is apparent that Jupiter has a very large magnetosphere, highly distorted from
the dipole configuration into a disk-like shape (Smith et aI., 1974). Upon approaching the Jovian magneto-
sphere and throughout the interior, intense fluxes of high energy particles were detected (Simpson et aI.,
1974a). The physics of the charging of a body by its surrounding plasma are developed in detail later
in this paper, but we can immediately make some application to the natural satellite 10: The orbit of
10, at about 6 R j , is in the peak of the energetic particle distribution around Jupiter, and thus will be
subject to a large flux of very hot plasma, tending to create a strong surface potential. It also appears
that 10 has a significant ionosphere.
The rapid rotation of the Jovian magnetic field, particularly at large radii, will produce an associated
strong, motional electric field in a relative "fixed" frame ofreference. Further, the magnetosphere under-
goes large fluctuations (Wolfe et aI., 1974) and both protons and electrons are strongly accelerated in
the magnetosphere and at its bow shock (Simpson et aI., 1974a). Thus it appears that the Jovian environ-
ment contains a number of strongly interacting electrodynamic systems: however, the simpler global
models developed here for the moon and earth allow us to understand some aspects of the Jovian
environment.
Mercury
Further surprises were in store when Mariner 10 flew by Mercury. Perhaps most surprising is the
fact that Mercury creates a bow shock in the solar wind, possibly, though not certainly, due to an intrinsic
large-scale magnetic field (Ness et aI., 1974). Some previous models of Mercury had assumed that it
would be more moon-like with no large scale magnetic field, and that the solar wind might impact
the surface. It was also found that large fluxes of accelerated electrons showed coherent 6-second fluc-
tuations (Simpson et aI., 1974b), and in some cases proton bursts are in phase with these oscillations.
Simpson et al. suggest that the likely sources of this particle acceleration are a magnetosphere and
magnetotail, though due to the phase coherent oscillations of the accelerated particles, more stringent
conditions may apply than in the case of the earth's magnetosphere.
From just these two planets, Jupiter and Mercury, we see examples of the varied electrodynamic
environments that are possible. They are significant to atmospheric electricity of the planets because
the type of solar wind interaction directly affects the planet's atmosphere and ionosphere. Secondly,
the space electric fields around the planet may map down into the ionosphere and atmosphere. Just
as electric fields in the earth's magnetosphere drive currents and winds in the ionosphere, then so
might the strong fields around Jupiter, but in powerful ways that we do not yet envisage.
558
Types of Planet-Solar Wind Interactions
It is useful to look at the possible types of interaction between a planetary body and the solar wind.
Fig.1 (from Ness et aI., 1974a) summarizes these interactions. When the planet is an obstacle in the
solar wind, whether a shock is created is basically determined by whether the obstacle allows a sufficient
current to flow to block the interplanetary magnetic field and thus creates a hydromagnetic shock
condition.
o FIELD PERTURBATIONS:
180 +68 0 1 > I +
IBol <I -
PENUMBRAL
---- INDUCTION IN
PLANETARY
INTERIOR
MODE
(NESS a WHANG,1971)
®
® ORBIT OF MOON
I
NEUTRAL
SHEET
PLASMA TAIL
MAGNETOPAUSE
IONOPAUSE
EARTH'S MAGNETOSPHERE AND TAIL
LATERAL FLOW OF
IONOSPHERIC PLASMA
(BANKS et 01 , 1971)
Fig. 1. Four possible cases of solar wind interaction with the solar wind (Ness et aI., 1974). Case A is the weakest
interaction where the body, such as the moon, lacks sufficient intrinsic magnetic field, atmosphere, or interior
conductivity to create a shock wave in the solar wind. In the other cases, a shock forms when the hydromagnetic
shock conditions can be met and the solar wind is deflected. In Case B, the ionosphere of the planet (e.g., Mars)
is a sufficiently conductive obstacle. In Case C, the sufficiently conductive body impedes the solar wind, and in
Case D, the extended planetary magnetic field forms an obstacle to the solar wind
Case A, the weakest interaction, occurs when the planet has no large-scale magnetic field capable of
deflecting the solar wind, and in addition the conductivity of the body is sufficiently low that the inter-
planetary magnetic field, Bsw, is not blocked by the planet. This condition can be looked at in two ways:
either the conductivity is too low to allow sufficient currents at the front surface which greatly change
Bsw; or, that the characteristic time of diffusion of Bsw, through the body does not exceed either the
flow time of the solar wind past the body or the time between major fluctuations in Bsw. This is the
559
case of the moon; the solar wind impacts directly on the sunlit face leaving a partial plasma void behind
the moon. The interplanetary magnetic field apparently diffuses readily through the moon; thus in
the rest frame of the moon, there is a motional electric field
[1]
which is the vector cross product of the solar wind velocity and magnetic field. As discussed later, this
is a very real field that controls the dynamics of the lunar ionosphere, and causes the principal loss of
the lunar atmosphere (Manka and Michel, 1971).
Case B is for a planet with no large-scale magnetic field, but with a sufficient atmospheric density
to deflect the solar wind. This is the case of Mars, where the incoming photons and solar wind ionize
the upper atmosphere, creating a layer which conducts a sufficient current to block Bsw, and hence
the solar wind. A consequence of this interaction is that the atmospheric loss to the solar wind is reduced
(Cloutier et ai., 1969). It is possible, however, that Mars has an intrinsic magnetic field.
Case C is simply a modification of Case A. Here the interior of the planet is sufficiently conducting
to prevent Bsw from diffusing through, and a shock is created. This type of interaction was considered
to be a possibility for the moon until the Apollo experiments showed otherwise. It is one possible
explanation for the bow shock observed at Mercury.
Case D is the well- known magnetosphere, such as the earth's, where a strong intrinsic magnetic field
deflects the solar wind. However, solar wind effects are still felt within the magnetosphere: some plasma
enters and creates the various plasma regions within; electric potentials and fields exist across the
magnetotail; and the dynamic properties of the magnetosphere, such as magnetic substorms, appear
to be caused by solar wind conditions. A number of these effects propagate down into the upper atmos-
phere, so that even in this case the solar wind affects the planetary atmosphere! Jupiter is another
example of this case, though as discussed earlier, Jupiter appears to have a massive, highly dynamic
magnetosphere with a dipole magnetic field that is distorted into a disk-like shape.
The Moon: Examination of an Electrical System

It is readily seen, by looking at the hierarchy of possible solar wind interactions discussed above,
that for many considerations the simplest electrodynamic environment exists in the moon-like case,
A, and that it would be useful to examine this system. In particular, the moon has an environment
which is greatly different from Earth, but in some respects with fewer undetermined parameters and
surprising analogies to the terrestrial problem; furthermore the lunar environment has been well
dermed by the Apollo program. Unlike the earth, the moon has a very thin atmosphere, and an iono-
sphere which extends to the surface. However, for certain problems the moon can be considered a
"prototype" environment of the earth.
Lunar atmospheric species, except hydrogen and helium, are gravitationally bound (have lifetimes
against gravitational escape much greater than against ionization) and thus form part of the equilibrium
lunar atmosphere. The density of each species decreases approximately exponentially with height
n(r) ~ noe-(r/h)
where h is the scale height for the species given by h = kT /mg and no is the density per unit volume
at the surface, k is the Boltzmann constant, T and m are species temperature and mass, and g is the lunar
gravitational acceleration. As stated before, an external electric field exists in the lunar frame, due to
the relative motion of the interplanetary magnetic field
Other, more complicated intermediate electric fields, such as exist in the earth's magnetosphere, are
not present so that we have to deal only with this one external field. However, there are fields and
potentials at the surface of the moon, and existing a short ways up into its atmosphere and ionosphere.
When an ion is formed in the lunar atmosphere, whether it escapes the moon or is accreted to the sur-
face will depend on the interplanetary electric field, Esw, and in some cases on electric and magnetic
560
fields at the lunar surface. For an ion formed at rest in the lunar frame and accelerated by E,w and B,w'
the trajectory is in a plane perpendicular to B,w and containing E,w and Y.t, where Y.t is the drift velocity
given by
The equations describing the ion motion have been discussed elsewhere (e.g., Manka and Michel,
1971). The initial motion of an ion is along E,w and as the ion gains energy the magnetic force curves
the ion in the direction of the solar wind flow with a resulting cycloidal orbit. The height of the cycloid
is much greater than lunar dimensions. Thus the ion's trajectory from formation to impact is the initial
part of a cycloid, and the motion is nearly parallel to E,w and most of the flux of lunar ions to the sur-
face is in a direction perpendicular to the solar wind flow. In general, ions formed in the lower sunlit
atmosphere are driven up (with respect to E,wl into the moon while ions formed at the equator and in
the upper hemisphere escape, as illustrated in Fig. 2. Depending upon the direction of B,w' the inter-
~ =90·
~ =0·
ATMOSPHERE
~ = -90·
Fig. 2. Sketch of orbits of ions formed outside the plasma sheath and at a distance h from the surface. (Actually
krypton and oxygen have different scale heights and hydrogen is not bound.) The sketch illustrates that ions
heavier than hydrogen will strike primarily the hemisphere into which they are driven by the interplanetary
electric field; when the polarities of B,w and E,w reverse, the other hemisphere is struck. The trajectories are
shown in a plane passing through the center of the moon and containing the drift velocity Va as well as E,w
planetary electric field is generally upward or downward out of the solar ecliptic plane; and, when the
direction of B,w reverses several times during each solar rotation (as is common due to the sector struc-
ture of the interplanetary magnetic field), the direction of E,w and the ion flux also reverse. The sketch
of Fig.2 illustrates, with some exaggeration, the trajectories of three ions of quite different mass.
Actually, hydrogen is not gravitationally bound, scale height does not have a meaning in the usual
sense, and most hydrogen ions are formed at much greater heights than for bound species. Thus the
lunar ionosphere is very different from its terrestrial counterpart. Rather than being in some sort of
relatively static termal equilibrium with the planet. at any instant is it strongly driven in a direction along
the interplanetary electric field and either impacts the surface with energies of tens to hundreds of
electron volts, or is lost into space.
561
The Lunar Potential
The body of the moon has two general sources of charge: either external or surface generated. The
external currents are provided by the lunar plasma environment during its passage through the solar
wind or geomagnetic tail. The sources of charge at the surface that we have considered are photoelectron
currents; or when the moon is in the plasma sheath of the geomagnetic tai~ there exists the possibility
of secondary electron currents (Manka, 1973).
The basic physical principle is: the local surface equilibrium potential of a planetary body is that
potential for which the net current goes to zero. If new charging mechanisms are introduced, then the
potential changes until the incoming and outgoing currents again balance.
The lunar potential has been treated quantitatively using plasma probe theory, considering the
moon as a body, or probe, immersed in a plasma. (The theory of probe in space plasmas is reviewed
by Fahleson (1967) and the detailed lunar theory treated by Manka (1973).) In the case of the moon
in the solar wind, the thermal and flow motions of the plasma must be included, while in the geo-
magnetic tail the thermal motion predominates. The local lunar surface will reach a potential such that
the net current to it is zero,
[4J
where Ie' Ii' I p and Is are the electron, ion, photoelectric and secondary electron currents, respectively.
Since these currents depend on the surface potential, the equation can be solved for the equilibrium
potential. The form of the expressions for currents as a function of potential depends on whether the
species described is attracted or repelled.
While all the plasma equations are not present in this paper, the equations for a few cases are discussed
below. For example, in the case of a positive potential, rjJ > 0, the current density due to repelled thermal
plasma ions is
Ii = ne Vi r
2nmi k T;
(-erjJ)
-"_ I _ exp - - = liOexp - -
k T;
(-erjJ) [5J
where n is the ambient plasma electron density, m is the species mass, k is the Boltzmann constant, and
T is the species temperature.
The current density due to attracted thermal plasma electrons is
Ie ~ -ne V kTe
2me
= leo' [6J
IiG and I eO are the flux currents when the lunar potential is at the plasma potential (i.e., zero).
On the other hand, for the flowing plasma, the thermal contribution to the current is interrelated
with the flow contribution, and for example the electron current becomes
Ie = ,l!:e [e- u. + V n Ue(1 + erf(U J

nev 2 ,;::
e )) [7J
2V n
where U = V cos (J/v m ; Vm is the species' mean speed, and V is the flow velocity.
The solar wind (flowing) ion current is simply given as
Ii ~ ne V cos e= liO cos e [8J
since the incoming proton energy greatly exceeds the expected surface potential. For the case of a
positive potential, the current density of photoelectrons can approximately be written
Ip = ip(COSe)exp ( -erjJ)
kTp
[9J
where ip is the photocurrent density from an area of the lunar surface at the plasma potential with
normally incident sunlight and e is the polar angle of the local surface with respect to the subsolar
562
point. This expression assumes an equivalent photoelectron temperature, Tp. However, in the case of
a negative surface the emitted photoelectron current density will be
[10]
The result of the calculation of the sunlit surface potential in the case of the moon in the solar wind
is shown in Fig. 3. The potential is shown from the subsolar point (8 = 0°) to the terminator (8 = 90°)
as a function of different "effective photoemissivities". The effective emissivity 60 is that emissivity which
would give a photocurrent equal to the current of 5 x 10- 5 amp/m 2 measured from metals exposed
to the solar spectrum. The other values up to two orders of magnitude greater to less, are chosen to
cover all likely values of actual lunar photoemissivity. Recent measurements of photocurrents from
lunar samples (Feuerbacher et aI., 1972) give an integral current of 4.5 x 10- 6 A m- 2 . This is almost
exactly one-tenth the metal photocurrent; thus the curve corresponding to 10 -1 eo is preferred and
subsolar potentials of the order of + 6 volts are expected. However, near the terminator, the solar
wind electron flux begins to dominate and the surface should be about 40 volts negative if a solar wind
electron temperature is 10 electron volts and about - 80 volts when the solar wind temperature changes
to 20eV.
+30
+ 20 102Eo
10 Eo
+ 10 Eo
10-IE o
...
<II
'0 0
> 10 100
., 10- 2 Eo
...c _ 8 - Angle from Subsolar
...
CD
0
10
Il..
- 20
-30
-40
-50
Fig. 3. Plot of the lunar surface potential as a function of angle from the subsolar point for the case of the moon
in the solar wind. Potentials are calculated for five effective photoelectric emissivities. The predicted values of
potentia~ + 5 to + 10 volts at the subsolar point, becoming about 40 to 80 volts negative at the terminator, agree
well with experimental indications from the Suprathermai Ion Detector (Fenner et ai., 1973)
The lunar surface potential when the moon is in the geomagnetic tail has been treated in a similar
fashion, but will not be described in detail here.
The electric field at the surface of the moon can be calculated using the surface potential and the
plasma density and temperature above the surface. The field decreases rapidly in the photoelectron
sheath at the surface, having a characteristic screening height of perhaps 30 to 50 cm at the subsolar
563
point. Any remaining field above the sunlit surface is screened by the solar wind, with Debye lengths
of the order of tens of meters.
However, the dark side potential is greatly different. It is likely that the nighttime potential goes to
large negative values, perhaps hundreds of volts, with very large screening lengths in the partial plasma
void behind the moon. This lunar potential distribution is sketched in Fig. 4. It is especially interesting
to note the very asymmetric distribution of the potential and surface field; further asymmetrics will
be introduced when the interplanetary magnetic field is considered.
-
SOLAR
WIND
-
Fig. 4. Sketch of the expected potential and electric field distribution when the moon is in the solar wind. Shown
are the positive sunlit face with a small but dense photoelectron sheath, and a dark side that is negative and has
an extended sheath in the plasma "void"
It should be noted that the potential calculations described here are in excellent agreement with
lunar surface potentials which have been deduced by Freeman and colleagues from the Suprathermal
Ion Detector data, taken on the moon (Fenner et aI., 1973).
Applications to Earth and Planets

The concepts developed previously in this paper can be generalized upon as we look at the various
planets and the earth.
Electrical System Analogies

Some interesting analogies can be made between the electrical systems of the moon and earth. The
charging current produced at the surface of the moon, the photoelectron current, is a surface-generated
current in analogy to terrestrial thunderstorm currents that flow to the ionosphere. Similarly, the
electron current from the solar wind plasma is analogous to the return current from the ionosphere.
While the physics is similar, the scales are drastically different: The earth-ionosphere potential drop
takes place over a hundred kilometers while on the sunlit face of the moon the potential exists for only
meters or tens of meters above the surface. Both of these systems are subject to external electric fields,
the moon is exposed directly to the interplanetary electric field, while the earth is subjected to electric
fields transmitted through the ionosphere. In the case of Jupiter, in relatively "stationary" frames of
reference, there will be a strong motional electric field due to the co-rotation of the plasma in the Jovian
magnetosphere; the field will appear to the Jovian satellites as an external electric field.
Planetary Charge
The conditions which determine potential were discussed for the moon. The basic condition, suitable
for any planet, is
L Ii (c/» = 0
i
[11]
which is a generalization of eq. [4] in the text. Is says that in equilibrium the net current to the
planetary surface must go to zero and the potential will vary until this condition is met. This does not
imply that the equilibrium potential, or field, will be zero.
564
Rather, it applies a high probability of just the opposite. As is discussed here, it is likely that all
of the planets, and their satellites, are electrically charged. This follows when one considers the prob-
ability that the conditions of eq. [11] will be met with rjJ = O. It is unlikely that the currents to and
from the surface would exactly balance, without any surface potential to aid this balance. The "potential",
used here is relative to some ambient plasma surrounding the body; zero potential would mean that
the body is exactly at the "plasma potential". In many cases, the ambient plasma in mind would be the
solar wind. For example, the lunar potentials quoted earlier were relative to the solar wind. However,
in the case of the earth, we usually think of the potential between the surface and the ionosphere. The
ionosphere may, or may not, be at the solar wind potential as there is significant evidence for electric
fields, and thus potential variations, in the upper ionosphere and throughout the magnetosphere. This
then leads us to consider the question of non-uniformities in the global electrical picture of a planet.
Asymmetries in Planetary Potentials

The equilibrium conditions on currents, given by eq.[l1], must hold locally around the surface of
a planet. Thus while the equilibrium net current wiIIbe zero at each point, the potential may vary from
point to point due to changing physical characteristics of the currents. A simple capacitor model of a
planetary electrical structure usually implies a uniform potential around the planetary surface, and
likewise in the surrounding plasma, which is unlikely in most planetary situations. For example, the
moon has an external electric field, and hence potential gradient, associated with the solar wind motion.
The moon also has large variations in its surface electric field:
a) both magnitude and sign of the potential vary, and
b) the plasma properties, which determine the characteristic screening distance for the surface field,
also vary widely. The result of these is the asymmetric potential distribution shown in Fig. 4 (The
transverse conductivity is sufficiently small, in both the surface and plasma, to allow these asym-
metrics to exist.).
This leads us to consider analogous variations on Earth. The thunderstorm charging is not uniform
over the earth, and while the surface is a relatively good conductor, there could at least be short term
variations in the ionospheric potential distribution. Further there are electric fields and currents as-
sociated with geomagnetic storms which map through the magnetosphere and down into the ionosphere
(Mozer, 1970; Volland, 1974).
Measurement o/Space Electric Fields

There are basically three types of instruments used in direct measurement of electric fields in space:
- field mills
- dipole Langmuir probes
- devices which detect the deflection of electron or ion beams.
There are also several methods which remotely measure the field, including:
- flying dipole probes on balloons, that measure fields that map down from the ionosphere,
- tracking the drift of plasma clouds, such as barium,
- use of incoherent scatter radars to measure drifts of the ambient ionosphere.
These last three methods are discussed in other papers on ionospheric and space physics. They have
significant promise for the atmospheric electrician as they are currently changing our concepts of
electric fields in the upper atmosphere.
The direct measurement techniques of field mills, probes, and charged particle beams have
been capably described by a number of authors. It is interesting to note that electric fields could
be very difficult to measure in some planetary environments. Anderson and Manka (1970) discussed
the necessity of an electron beam device to measure lunar surface electric fields. A field mill would
block off the sources of the surface charge, while the surface plasma sheath characteristics vary too
rapidly with height to allow the use of probes, so that the necessary instrument that was proposed used
two anti parallel electron beams traversing horizontally over open lunar surface.
565
Conclusions
As we consider the solar system, we see similarities, but also major differences, between the electrical
systems of the various planets and Earth. It is not difficult to think of a number of interesting problems
raised by such a discussion; among them are:
- What are the electrodynamics within the Jovian magnetosphere; how do the satellites interact with
the strong motional electric field associated with the co-rotating plasma?
- Is 10 highly charged, perhaps enough so to produce some of the observed Jovian effects that correlate
with the satellite?
- What are the asymmetries, the time and space variations, in the earth's electrical system? This in-
cludes the potential distribution as a function of time of day, geomagnetic actively, and position over
land and water.
- How is the complexity of a planetary neutral atmosphere related to the nature of its solar wind
interaction?
In conclusion, it appears useful to consider the atmospheric electricity of the earth, and planets, in
the framework of their total electrical systems and characteristic solar wind interactions. There are
analogies between the planets in terms of their charging mechanisms or their electrical asymmetries. -
But while the planets have given us some new ways to look at old terrestrial problems, they have also
created a number of new puzzles that will intrigue the atmospheric and space electricity community
for some time to come.
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge helpful discussions with F. C. Michel, F. S. Mozer, and H. Dolezalek. This work was
supported in part by Office of Naval Research Grant N 00014-67-A-0145, and by the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration Grant NSG-7032. Fig. 1 was kindly provided by N. F. Ness and his colleagues from their
preliminary Mercury paper.
References
1. Anderson, H. R. and R. H. Manka, Electric fields at the lunar surface, sources and methods of measurement, in
Electromagnetic Exploration of the Moon, Ed. WI. Linlor, p. 117 (Mono, 1970). - 2. Cloutier, P. A., M. B.
McElroy, and F. C. Michel, 1. Geophys. Res. 74, 6215 (1969). - 3. Dolezalek, H. Pure and App!. Geophys. 100, 8
(1972). - 4. Eden, H. F., Review of electrical processes in planetary atmospheres. (These Proceedings). - 5. Fahle-
son, U., Space Sci. Rev. 7, 238 (1967). - 6. Fenner, M. A., J. W Freeman, Jr., and H. K. Hills, Proc. Fourth Lunar Sci.
Conf., Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, Supp!. 4, 3, 2877 (Pergamon, 1973). - 7. Feuerbacher, B., M. Anderegg, B. Fitton,
L. D. Laude, and R. F. Willis, Proc. Third Lunar Sci. Conf., Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, Supp!. 3, 3, 2655 (MIT Press,
1972). - 8. Manka, R. H., Plasma and potential at the lunar surface, in Photon and Particle Interactions with Surfaces
in Space, R. J. L. Grard (ed.) (Dordrecht, 1973). - 9. Manka, R. H. and F. C. Michel, Lunar atmosphere as a source
of lunar surface elements. Proc. Second Lunar Science Conf., Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, Supp!. 2, Vo!. 2,
1717 (MIT Press, 1971). - 10. Mozer, F. S., Planet. Space Sci. 18, 259 (1970). - 11. Ness, N. F., K. W Behannon,
R. P. Lepping, Y. C. Whang, and K. H. Schatten, Science 185, 151 (1974). - 12. Obayashi, T. and A. Nishida,
Space Sci. Rev. 8, 3 (1968). - 13. Pierce, E. T., R. D. Hake, Jr., and W Viezee, Stratospheric electricity, Climatic
Impact Assessment Program (1973). - 14. Reiter, R., PAGEOPH 86,142 (1971). - 15. Simpson, J. A., D. Hamilton,
G. Lentz, R. B. McKibbon, A. Mogro-Campero, M. Perkins, K. R. Pyle, A. J. Tuzzolino, and J. J. O'Gallagher, Science
183,306 (1974a). - 16. Simpson, J. A., H. Eraker, J. E. Lamport, and P. H. Walpole, Science 185, 160 (1974b). -
17. Smith, E. J., L. Davis, Jr., D. E. Jones, D. S. Colburn, P. J. Coleman, Jr., P. Dyal, and C. P. Sonett, Science 183,
305 (1974). - 18. Volland, H., Global quasi-static electric fields in the earth's environment. (These Proceedings). -
19. Wolfe, J. H., H. R. Collard, J. D. Mihalov, and D. S. Intriligator, Science 183, 303 (1974).
Discussion
Since papers of Manka and Eden were presented in common by Manka, see the discussion after paper of Eden.
Author's address:
R. H. Manka
US IMS Coordination Office
c/o National Science Foundation
Washington, D.C. 20550
USA
566
Review of Electrification Processes in Planetary Atmospheres *)
H.F.Eden
Abstract
Although the dynamics of the atmospheres of the small planets have been studied considerably over the p~t
decade for comparison with Earth, there has been little discussion of the physical meteorology of these atmospheres.
Electrical phenomena are common in the earth's atmosphere and generally support the conceptual spherical
capacitor theory. Sufficient is known about other planetary atmospheres to allow discussion of possible similar
phenomena.
A hierarchy of complexity, from the point of view of atmospheric electricity, is presented by the atmospheres
of Moon, Mars, Earth and Venus. The rare lunar atmosphere is considerably ionized; the low-pressure
atmosphere of Mars is virtually cloudless but has ubiquitous dust storms. The hot, high-pressure atmosphere
of Venus has total cloud cover, and the earth has fractional cloud cover and regular thunderstorms. This paper
reviews recent work pointing to possible sources of charging, mechanisms of discharging and other aspects of
electrical phenomena in the lower atmospheres of these other planets and compared them to the phenomena
which govern the electrical budget of the earth's atmosphere.
The rationale for the study of planetary atmospheres has been that we cannot perform controlled
experiments on a large scale on the earth's atmosphere, but, by observing how planets not very dif-
ferent from earth behave we are lead to new ideas concerning our own atmosphere. Such major para-
meters as the rate of rotation of the planets, the distance from the sun, and the chemical composition
of the atmosphere can be "varied" in this way. Over the last decade, increased understanding of the
atmosphere of the planets has stimulated research in the dynamics of those atmospheres. However,
relatively little attention has been given to the physical meteorology of these atmospheres. One topic
which falls into this context is that of electrical phenomena in planetary atmospheres. In this survey,
we discuss aspects of the electrical behavior of the atmospheres of those planets for which there is suf-
ficient atmospheric information to make reasonable conjectures. This paper is limited primarily to
the lower atmospheres of the planets.
As in all electrical problems there are three topics to be considered in discussing the electrical behavior
of these atmospheres. These are: .
1. what charging mechanisms are available?
2. what is the conductivity of the atmosphere? and
3. what is the possibility of breakdown for either corona, glow discharge, or lightning?
Atmospheres Considered
The following atmospheres have been studied sufficiently to warrant discussions:
a) Moon
b) Mars
c) Venus
d) Earth's Present Atmosphere
e) Earth's Past Atmosphere.
We know very little about the outer planets although because of Mariner we know relatively much
more than one year ago and of course the two spectacular phenomena of Jupiter's Red Spot and Saturn's
rings have always excited attention.
For the earth, attempts to order most of the observed phenomena in a logical framework has resulted
in the spherical capacitor model, whereby, the potential difference between a relatively conducting
upper level layer and the negatively charged earth is maintained by thunderstorm pumping and is
rundown by fair-weather leakage currents elsewhere over the globe. There are serious deficiencies with
*) Invited Paper. This paper was presented by H. Manka in common with the preceding one.
567
this simplistic model as detailed by e.g. Dolezalek (1972~ but the concept of a global circuit remains,
however, indefmite. Vigorous charging is provided by thunderstorms and dust storms. Satellite evi-
dence (Sparrow and Ney, 1971) and tropical experience indicate that the thunderstorm activity is
primarily over the continents and a lesser degree over the oceans in a given zonal belt. The degree of
electrification of the deep convective clouds over the oceans is not known although we hope that field
mill measurements from the NCAR Electra aircraft in GATE will reduce this ignorance*).
The oceans provide a steady source of positive charge and volcanoes also provide irregular but
vigorous charging to this global circuit. The elements of this global circuit are then:
1. Persistent vertical current flow and associated potential gradient and space charge through the
atmosphere.
2. Regular thunderstorm activity.
3. A lower boundary which is a variable source of charged particles and ions and an ill-defined con-
ducting upper boundary.
4. Other sources of charge including dust storms, the ocean surface and volcanoes.
5. A continuingly fluctuating pattern of cloud, which on an average covers about half the surface,
and ill-defined regional haze layers.
The question arises whether study of other atmospheres, perhaps containing fewer variables governing
the global electrical budget can contribute to understanding the earth's global circuit and whether other
atmospheres pose defined questions on atmospheric electricity.
A hierarchy of complexity from the point of view of atmospheric electricity is presented by the atmos-
pheres of the small planets. The moon, as discussed by Manka in his (preceding) paper, represents the
simplest system in that the rare atmosphere is ionized considerably and the charging mechanism is
photoelectric charging at the surface. Below we consider the other atmospheres in more detail.
Mars
Mars, with a neutra~ almost cloudless, lower atmosphere, and a conducting upper atmosphere
provides the next level of complexity. As a result of the Mariner missions we know a considerable amount
about the Martian atmosphere, e.g. Leovy et al. (1972), Lyall (1974), Goody and Walker (1972). The
atmosphere near the surface of Mars is primarily carbon dioxide, at a pressure of about 10 mbar
(= 1 kPa). Surface daytime temperatures normally range from a global mean of about 210 K to an
equatorial maximum of about 290 K with, of course, diurnal changes much larger than on the earth. A
strong convective layer up to 15 kilometers develops during the day, however, there may be no region
of convective instability at night.
The polar caps are a major feature of the planet and fluctuate seasonally although the north polar
cap has never been known to disappear entirely. They consist of frozen carbon dioxide with associated
water. The atmospheric water vapor exhibits strong seasonal effects increasing in the spring as the
polar cap recedes and decreasing in the fall as the cap grows. Mariner 9 data indicated that at the edge of
the retreating north cap the water vapor abundance is highest and of the order of 20 to 30 micrometers.
Generally, the water vapor abundance in a vertical column in the Mariner 9 mission measured about
10 micrometers **).
Although relative to earth, Mars is virtually cloud-free, water-ice clouds occur in the Nix-Olympia
Tharsus Ridge area and associated with the edges of the polar caps (Curran et aI., 1973). In most cases,
the clouds in volcanic regions appear associated with the lower slopes of the caldera but some patches
of clouds do appear cellular and convective in character. The polar hood that forms over the polar cap
every spring is definitely clouds in the atmosphere and at least the more prominent clouds along the
edge of the polar hood are made out of water-ice crystals, Briggs and Leovy (1974). Temperatures in that
region as measured by Iris data are too high for the CO 2 ice. Further in towards the pole, the character
*) NCAR = National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado, USA; Electra = type of air-
craft; GATE = GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment 1974.
**) 1 J.lm Hg = 1.75 X 10- 4 Pa; 10 micrometers = 1.75 mPa.
568
of these clouds changes to a smooth and more diffuse structure which probably indicates carbon dioxide
ice clouds.
A major activity in the atmosphere is the dust storms consequent on the severe winds which sweep
the surface. Occasionally these dust storms are of global dimensions, Mariner 9 coincided with such a
storm, which may affect thermal structure of the atmosphere. The nearest analog on earth to such
storms is the hurricane, Gierasch and Goody (1972).
What then are possible charging mechanisms in the Martian atmosphere? Convective and oro-
graphic ice clouds occur. Obviously, the ice crystal content is diffuse, analogous to cirrus on earth,
and cirrus clouds are not highly electrified. However, Dye and Hobbs (1966, 68) have shown that the
splitting and electrical behavior of ice crystals depends strongly on the presence of carbon dioxide in
the ambient atmosphere.
Eden and Vonnegut (1973) have suggested that dust motion may be a source of charge in the Martian
atmosphere. Agitated dust is well-known to become highly electrified. Dust devils and storms are known
to be accompanied on occasion by point discharge from the earth, with typical values for the local
electric field of the order of 1000 volt/m and space charge concentrations up to 10 12 e m- 3 . Lightning
has been observed and photographed in volcanic dust clouds.
The potential difference required for breakdown in gases decreases with the gas pressure to a minimum
at very low pressures. Typical Paschen curves indicate that potential gradients of only a few tens of
kilovolts per meter are required for spark breakdown in gases at pressures of the order of 10 mbar (1 kPa)
(e.g. Cobine, 1958). The Martian atmosphere must be susceptible to electrical breakdown, possibly to
phenomena that might be classed as glow discharges rather than sparks. Eden and Vonnegut showed
in the laboratory that dust became electrified when agitated in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide at
10mbar pressure and that several modes of breakdown could be observed as a consequence including:
small sparks, discharges several centimeters long - both of these being relatively bright, and faint
extensive glow discharges.
The conductivity of the low atmosphere due to fast ions caused by cosmic rays must be analogous
to that of the earth's atmosphere at approximately 10 mbar. Photoionization will not be significant in
the low atmosphere. There is strong possibility of fast ions being captured by dust and so reducing
the conductivity.
An interesting possibility does, however, involve photoactivation of components of the dust layers.
Wallio (1974) has suggested the formation of a low level electron layer with ne of the order of 10 10 m - 3
at a maximum at about 10 kilometers above the surface of Mars resulting from sublimation of alkali
atoms from a permanent dust layer.
In summary, Mars presents an atmosphere in which there are clear possible charging mechanisms.
These are not, however, as regular or definitive as thunderstorm activity on earth. The diurnal variation
of strong convection during the day and strong stability of the lower atmosphere at night is a regular
mechanism for convective charge transfer from the surface. However, we do not know the amount of
radioactivity at the surface nor can we suggest an electrode effect as a source of net surface charge, for we
do not know whether Mars has a permanent atmospheric electric field. There is a possibility of a global
capacitor with an upper level conducting layer provided either by the ionosphere or possibly by the
mechanism suggested by Wallio. The conductivity of the lower atmosphere should be primarily due to
cosmic ray activity and should approximate that of the earth's atmosphere at that pressure. The sur-
face material itself is insulating, similar to the lunar surface (Olhoeft and Strangway, 1974). The giant
dust storms are unique phenomena rising to 30 kilometers in altitude and c9vering a large fraction
of the globe. These must represent major electrical events and at pressure of some 10 millibars (kilo-
pascals) the possibility of electrical breakdown is high.
Venus
Surprisingly there has been a considerably greater effort over the past 20 years related to possible
electrical effects in the Venus atmosphere. These related to the suggestion that electrical discharges
might account for aspects of the Venusian radio emissions. Krider, Dawson and Uman (1973) have
studied past literature on this topic and indicate that the first suggestions that discharges might occur on
569
Venus were by J. D. Kraus (1956) on the basis of observations of impulsive radio signals at a wavelength
of 11 meters. These signals appeared as a series of randomly spaced spikes, each of 1 sec or less duration
with a power flux density estimated to be about 10-21 W m -2 Hz- 1 . Unfortunately, terrestrial atmos-
pheric and bursts of a solar origin are very similar to planetary sporadic radio emissions (Zheleznyakov,
1970), and subsequent searches for transient emissions by other researchers with greater sensitivity
failed to confirm Kraus' results. In 1960, Kraus reported that the evidence was not yet sufficient to be
sure that noise radiation was observed, and the whole question of the existence of sporadic radio emission
from Venus still remains open.
In 1962, M einel and Hoxie suggested the presence of ionized atomic lines in the spectrum of the dark
hemisphere would be an unambiguous indicator of lightning activity on Venus. Several attempts have
been made to photograph the Venus night sky spectrum, but thus far no emission lines have been ob-
served (Levine, 1969). Owen (1968) made a special search for N; at 391.4 nm and a C II line at 427.8 nm
which might be produced by lightning (Meinel and Hoxie, 1962) without success.
Tolbert and Straiton (1962) suggested that a possible source of radio emission between 10 and 0.86 cm
from the Venus atmosphere might be the fluctuation of electrical charges on particles in the atmosphere.
Sartor's (1963) suggested laboratory observations of strong radiation from uncharged droplets colliding
with dielectrics supported that suggestion.
The surface temperature of Venus is of the order of 700K and the pressure about 80 atmospheres
(8 MPa). Theory suggests an adiabatic vertical lapse rate in a predominantly carbon dioxide atmosphere.
Relative to earth, Venus is almost totally cloud-covered. The analysis of gaseous absorption bands
implies temperatures around 250 K and pressure around 200 mbar (20 kPa) within these visible clouds.
An indefinite cloud top can be inferred at about 200mbar (20kPa; approximately 63 kilometers). The
clouds are now considered to be composed of droplets of sulphuric acid (Prinn, 1973; Young, 1974)
which are formed at the top by photolytic processes. They are composed of micrometer-sized droplets
and are presumed to be well mixed throughout their depth. Thus, they are analogous to the more tenuous
layer in the earth's stratosphere. Prior to this confirmation there were several discussions in the literature
of possible composition of Venusian clouds (Lewis, 1968 and 1969), broader reviews of available data
(Moroz, 1961) and applications of nucleation theory to estimate cloud base for different compositions
(Stauffer and Kiang, 1974).
We do not know what charging mechanisms are available on Venus either in the clouds or below
cloud base. However, the total cloud cover must affect the conductivity of the atmosphere. Assuming
that the particle density is of the order of 108 m- 3 (Hansen and Hovenier, 1974) and assuming that
the production rate, p, of fast ion pairs at cloud top (say 200 mb = 20 kPa) is primarily due to
cosmic rays and so approximates the same situation on earth we can, in a manner similar to Pierce's
analysis (Pierce, 1973) for the effect of stratospheric dust on conductivity in the earth's stratosphere,
estimate the effect of this aerosol in diminishing fast ion content.
In the absence of aerosol:
[1]
where Q is the ion pair production rate
a is the recombination coefficient
n is the ion density per unit volume.
Assuming that the ion production is primarily due to cosmic rays and so approximates that in the
earth's atmosphere at comparable pressure:
Q ~ 10 7 ion pairs m- 3 S-l .
Similarly, a ~ 10- 12 m 3 S-l (this is a more dubious assumption).
Then n ~ 3 x 10 9 m- 3 .
In the presence of an aerosol of number density N (~ 108 m - 3):
Q = ani + pn 1 N . [2]
Assuming p, the effective attachment coefficient for the combination of fast ions with aerosol particles,
to approximate p for 1 !lm diameter particles in the earth's atmosphere at 200 mbars (20 kPa):
570
(Zikmunda and Mohnen, 1972),
then eq. [2] yields
nl ~ 10 9 m- 3
and the aerosol cloud has reduced the fast-ion density by a factor of 3.
These estimates indicate that the haze layer of Venus may act as a relatively insulating layer between
the lower atmosphere and the upper conducting atmosphere.
In summary, Venus' atmosphere is relatively very hot and dense relative to the earth's. The chance of
electrical breakdown is limited by the high pressure atmosphere. A wealth of possible charging
mechanisms can be suggested because of the continuous cloud cover of well mixed particles of about
1 micrometer dimension. This also provides an insulating layer well below the ionospheric maximum
electron density at about 130 kilometers and which must isolate the atmosphere below cloud base
from any highly conducting region in the absence of any anomalous sources of ionization.
To summarize to present:
Moon - the rare atmosphere is considerably ionized. The obvious net charging mechanism is
photoelectric activity at the surface. Obviously no possibility for breakdown phenomena.
Mars - has likely charging mechanisms in a neutral atmosphere at low pressure. Possibilities for
breakdown phenomena exist.
Venus - no obvious charging mechanisms can be suggested to predominate. The high pressure
atmosphere seems unlikely to break down. A relatively insulating cloud layer tops the
clear atmosphere.
Earth's Primitive Atmosphere

It seems incomplete to end a review of planetary atmospheres without passing comment on the
primitive atmosphere ofthe earth. This warrants consideration, for like the other planets, it differs consid-
erably from the present atmosphere (e.g. Sagan and Mullen, 1972). The occurrence of lightning has been
suggested as a source of energy necessary for the formation of amino acids, e.g. Miller and Urey (1959),
and laboratory simulations have been attempted. However, there has been no discussion of what
electrical effects might have occurred.
There are indications that lightning occurred 250 million years ago from fossil fulgurites, Harland
and Hacker (1966), but at that time the atmospheric composition approximated today's.
The oldest rocks that provide information on the early hydrosphere and atmosphere are believed
to be somewhat more than 3.2 x 109 years old. They could not have originated in the absence of atmos-
pheric weathering and a substantial hydrosphere. These younger rocks and other geochemical evidence
imply that the early atmosphere was reducing and contained little or no free oxygen up to about 1.8 x 109
years ago. In this reducing atmosphere there was a significant abundance of hydrogen, carbon dioxide
and carbon monoxide possibly with small quantities of ammonia. (The early popular methane-ammonia
rich model of the primitive atmosphere receives little support from geochemical evidence.) It is likely
that the temperature of the primitive atmosphere decreased rapidly with height to reach a minimum.
With little free oxygen there was no stratosphere and very low temperatures may have been reached
with altitudes not much greater than 20 kilometers.
In the absence of ozone, ultraviolet radiation in the 200 - 300 nm wavelength region could penetrate
the lower atmosphere and either this radiation or electrical discharges have been invoked as a source
of amino acids. When oxygen releasing photo synthesizers arose, free oxygen was taken up by ferrous
iron in rocks and may not have occurred in the atmosphere until some 1.8 to 2 x 109 years ago. A
sudden big increase in atmospheric oxygen may have occurred as the biologically active ultraviolet
radiation was reduced by increasing ozone.
We can make the following comments on the properties of this atmosphere relevant to the questions
of electrification.
1. Convective water-ice clouds were certainly possible but they took place in a heavily reducing
atmosphere up to about 1.8 x 109 years ago when there may have been a rapid increase in free oxygen.
2. There was no ozone layer; however, the magnitude of the insolation is controversial for if the sun
571
is regarded as a star in the main sequence of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, its output may have
been less by almost 25%, 3 x 109 years ago.
3. Outgassing and volcanic activity may have provided a source of charging.
4. Considerations of half lives and present abundances of radioactive materials in the earth's crust
indicates that 3 x 109 years ago radioactivity in the crust would have been fractionally greater than
today. The conductivity of the lower atmosphere would be affected accordingly.
5. The oceans which are now regarded as a source of positive charge may have contained more organic
material than they do today.
Conclusions
The measurement of the atmospheres of other planets is one of the unique observational phases of
science. For the field of atmospheric electricity, considerations of the similarities and differences be-
tween these atmospheres suggest certain crucial scientific questions and secondly emphasize the pos-
sibilities offered by new measurement systems. The following points of emphasis emerge:
1. The role of the ocean surface in the earth's electrical budget and the degree of electrification of
the deep convective oceanic clouds over the ocean, such as those in the ITZ.
2. The role of the non-thunderstorm cloud cover ofthe earth in the global electrical circuit.
3. The possible existence of a permanent vertical potential gradient in the Martian atmosphere and
the effects of the diurnal change from strong convective un stability to strong stability throughout the
Martin lower atmosphere.
4. The electrical consequences of the giant dust storms on Mars.
5. Electrification processes in clouds in atmospheres with composition different from the earth's.
Secondly, the study of other planets highlights the role of remote sensing in studies of global phe-
nomena. High resolution satellites such as DAPP and GOES *), providing global overviews can now
identify individual cumulonimbus and in some cases lightning strokes in the earth's atmosphere.
The measurements planned for future planetary flybys or landings should be studied for evidence
which they might yield on electrical effects in those atmospheres.
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4. Dolezalek, H., Pure and Appl. Geophys. 100, 8 (1972). - 5. Dye, J. E. and P. V. Hobbs, Nature 209, 464 (1966). -
6. Dye, J. E. and P. V. Hobbs, J. Atmospher. Sci. 25, 82 (1968). - 7. Eden, H. F. and B. Vonnegut, Science 180, 962
(1973). - 8. Gierasch, P. J. and R. M. Goody, J. Atmospher. Sci. 29, 400 (1972). - 9. Goody, R. M. and J. C.
G. Walker, Atmospheres, Foundation of Earth Science Series (1972). - 10. Hansen, J. E. and J. W. Hovenier,
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years ago (1966). - 12. Kraus, J. D., Nature 178 (4523), 33 (1956a). - 13. Kraus. J. D., Nature 178 (4524), 103
(1965b). - 14. Kraus, J. D., Nature 178 (4525), 159 (1956c). - 15. Kraus, J. D., Nature 186 (4723), 426 (1960). -
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Science, 130, 254 (1959). - 24. Moroz, V. I., Soviet Phys. Usp. 14, 317 (1971), (see Nature Phys. Sci. 244,17 (1973),
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26. Owen, T., J. Atmos. Sci. 24 (4), 583 (1968). - 27. Pierce, E. T., R. D. Hake, Jr., and W. Viezee, Stratospheric
electricity, Climatic Impact Assessment Program (1973). - 28. Prinn, R. G., Science 182, 1132 (1973). -
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42. Tolbert, C. W. and A. W. Straiton, J. Geophys. Res. 67, 1741 (1962). - 43. Wallio, H. A., The characteristics
*) "DAPP" and "GOES" refer to particular U.S. American satellites.
572
of a possible low altitude electron layer in the Martian atmosphere (M.S. George Washington Univ., 1973). -
44. Young, A. T., Science 183,407, (1974). - 45. Zheleznyakov, V. v., Radio emission ofthe sun and planets, translated
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Discussion
The following discussion is dealing with both preceding papers (Manka and Eden) because they were
presented in common.
Fleischer, Schenectady, New York, USA:
I wonder if there has been any experimental evidence for the acceleration of ions such as you described in the
lunar atmosphere other than, of course, the well-known surplus of Argon 40 in the surface layers of the lunar soil.
Manka, Washington D.C., USA:
The Apollo experiments implaced on the moon included a Suprathermal Ion Detector of Freeman of Rice
University, which detects very directional lunar ions. We have analyzed these data in the light of the model I
described, which Michel and I developed; the data include an actual ion spectrum, that is, ion counts versus ion
energy. If one has a simple atmosphere with an exponential height distribution of density, and if the ions formed
above the surface are being accelerated in a uniform electric field, then one would expect to see just a simple
ionospheric ion energy distribution which is exponential. More ions form near the surface because the density is
greater there, and they have low energies. As one goes up in altitude, fewer ions are formed because the density
decreases, but the energy increases. And this general spectral shape, of a large number of low energy ions, and the
number decreasing as the energy increases, is just what the ion detector shows. There is also a second feature
that shows up very nicely in the data: One would expect a peak to exist at zero ion energy, since the maximum
number of ions forms right at the surface; but, this is altered when there is a surface potential. For example, some
data were taken right at the terminator where the potential is typically on the order of 40 volts negative. But what
one sees is almost no ions at very low energy, followed by a sharp increase in the ion flux indicating that all of
the ions come in with a minimum energy, in this case about 55 electron volts, yielding a sensitive measure of the
surface potential. There are many other cases where the Ion Detector shows correlation of ion fluxes into the
instrument with the interplanetary electric field pointing directly into the instrument. There are also many other
complicated ion accelerations in the vicinity of the moon, interactions with the earth's magnetosphere and
other effects which are not yet understood. But our model is certainly a model which tells us about the moon's
atmosphere. We can further calculate the density of the lunar atmosphere from the ion flux; it agrees with
measurements with the pressure gauge and with the mass spectrometer measurements made by the University
of Texas at Dallas.
(For a discussion of an ion spectrum which verifies the Manka-Michel acceleration model, by showing ions with
the proper energy and distribution to represent the lunar ionosphere, see R. H. Manka and F. C. Michel, Lunar
Ion Energy Spectra and Surface Potential, Proc. Fourth Lunar Sci. Conf., Geochim. Acta, Suppl. 4, 2987 (1973.)
Author's address:
H. F. Eden
National Science Foundation
1800 G Street N.W.
USA
573
Global Electric Fields Measured in the Stratosphere·)
R. H. Manka and F. S. Mozer
Abstract
In August, 1969, a total of 24 electric field detectors were flown in four separate balloon launches from six
Canadian sites; with each of the balloons in a group simultaneously returning data for up to one day. The
high impedance vector electric field sensors consisted of two horizontal and one vertical pair of orthogonal dipole
probes. The payload rotated every 25 seconds so that redundancy in the horizontal measurement was obtained.
The sensitivities to the three components were such that during fair-weather conditions, the vertical electric
field was recorded at half of full scale, while the slowly time-varying horizontal fields (often associated with
magnetospheric activity) were displayed in the other two channels; thus, fair-weather conditions, including diurnal
effects, can be studied. The fair-weather vertical field is typically found to be several hundred millivolts/meter at
these altitudes. During several flights where balloons passed over thunderstorms, the fields are strong enough
to saturate the continuous channels for the three components. The distinctive signature of thunderstorm
electric fields, in comparison to fair-weather fields is illustrated and these measured fields are compared to di-
polar fields. The appearance in the stratosphere of transient events, including lightning discharges, will be
discussed if time permits.
Discussion
When we want to measure the ionospheric electric field, calculations show that we should be about 100 km
away from the thunderstorm. According to your actual measurements, how far should we go from the thunder-
storm?
I can give you only an approximate answer, perhaps 50 or 60 kilometers, or a little more.
We made some calculations at 40 km altitude, and the results show that "foul weather" should be indicated up
to about 60 km from the thundercloud.
Dolezalek:
In some of your curves, the oscillations do not seem to be in the phase for north-south and east-west fields,
indicating that there is some rotational oscillation.
Manka:
There was a rotation of the payload. The payload was driven by a small electric motor to rotate, however,
that period was 25 seconds. So the 7 seconds you refer to would not come from that. We are very puzzled at this.
I might add to the mystery slightly. During his last campaign, I was with one of Mozer's crews at Hudson Bay,
measuring the electric field from an airplane at a little less than 5 km altitude during auroral conditions. On two
different nights I saw periodicities of about 5 sec in the vertical potential gradient that only lasted for an interval
of a few minutes and then went away. They were not evidently connected with the airplane; we tried changing
propeller synchronization but this was not the cause.

I see two interesting items. First, the field jumps measured from an instrument in about 30 km altitude. We found
such field jumps many years ago during balloon ascents at Weissenau, in the neighborhood of thunderstorms.
I can confirm your findings that the recovery time is larger up there than on the ground. I think, the reason for this
is the space charge density over the station on the ground. The production of space charge due to corona discharge
has another decay time as the field in the thundercloud. Therefore, I feel that the measurements with a balloon
in 10 to 30 km altitude give the recovery time correct, and the measurements on ground are not correct.
*) The paper was presented by Manka, and an extended discussion followed. After the conference, Manka had
no occasion to prepare the full text for its inclusion in these proceedings. Thus, only an abstract is given here, plus
the full discussion.
574
Now I would like to discuss the oscillations with periods of about 7 seconds. We had trouble with exactly the
same frequency. But this was during conductivity measurements, ion measurements, and sometimes during field
measurements. I would like to ask: was this at a constant level or during the ascent of balloons?
Manka:
This is at float. During ascent there seems to be a great deal of turbulence and oscillation.
Muhleisen:
I would like to mention a finding discovered in the last two years. In altitudes between 10 and 25 km, the
ascending balloon encounters different air resistivity and variable Reynold numbers, and goes up sometimes in
a laminal and sometimes in a turbulent way. This makes for a difference in the ascent speed with a ratio one to
two. This occurs nearly exactly with such frequencies. That means that you have for about 7 seconds a high speed
of the ascent and for about 7 seconds a lower speed of ascent.
Manka:
There could be some up and down motion of the balloon. This was when the balloon was presumably at altitude.
We tracked some of these balloons on radar. The newer flights have altimeters so that we could better look for
some of these effects.
Magana, Sapporo, Japan:
I have a question about the lightning discharge in your observations. Was the lightning due to air-earth dis-
charge or intercloud discharge?
Manka:
I am not sure. We are assuming that most of those lightning strokes are intercloud discharges, not cloud to
ground.
Authors' addresses:
R.H.Manka F. S. Mozer
US IMS Coordination Office Dept. of Physics
c/o National Science Foundation University of California
Washington, D.C. 20550 Berkely, California 94720
USA USA
575
A Study of Possible Correlation Between Fair-Weather Electric Field and Auroral Activity
G. E. Shaw and R. D. Hunsucker
With 4 figures
Abstract
We have analyzed simultaneous measurements of E and various parameters which relate to auroral activity.
The measurements were made at College, Alaska (65 0 N). Our analysis concentrated on looking for perturbations
in the field record associated with riometer 30 MHz absorption events since they relate to ionization in the D
region which is enhanced during some auroral substorms. In addition, we looked for possible variations that may
be associated with visual auroral activity, magnetic field changes and disturbed ionospheric parameters as deduced
from an incoherent-scatter radar.
The results from analyzing records obtained over a ten-month period show that there is'little obvious relation
between E and disturbed ionosphere or aurora and we conclude that the auroral effects on E, if they occur, are small,
probably less than 1 or 2 Vim.
Introduction
The possibility that aurora or aurora-related phenomena may affect the earth's fair-weather electric
field has been considered and discussed since the early days of atmospheric electricity. The first obser-
vations pointing to a connection were made by W(jkander (1874) at Spitzbergen in 1872 who indicated
that there was evidence that the onset of "northern lights" caused the air to become "negatively
charged". More tenable results were discussed by Andree (1890) who reported that the fair-weather Held
was reduced at first during active auroral periods, only to slowly recover to its original value some
hours later. Given these reports, other workers investigated the problem only to come up with what
can best be described as conflicting and confusing results. Since the early days, much work has continued
to be done but the problem is still not resolved, and there is still a question whether or not the aurora
has any detectable effect on the fair-weather electric field.
Israel, in his treatise on atmosphere electricity (1973), provides an excellent summary of studies
which have been made in connection with auroral-related phenomena, including recent work by Freier
(1961) and Olson (1971).
Experimental Program
Our search for auroral-related field perturbations was carried out at College, Alaska, which is located
near the latitude of maximum auroral occurrence. To date, ten months' data have been analyzed.
Electric fields were measured with a differential field mill developed by Evans and Peck at the Uni-
versity of Arizona. The instrument was located at the University of Alaska's campus (640 52' N, 1470 51'
W) on the extreme western end of a ridge at an elevation of 105 m above the Tanana Valley. The mean
westerly air flow generally carried effluents from the city of Fairbanks away from the measuring site.
There is a variety of instruments collecting data on auroral parameters in College; these include
all-sky cameras, 3-axis magnetometers, riometers, specialized photometers and an incoherent scatter
radar system. The radar can operate at altitudes down to approximately 65 km without ground-clutter
problems. The specifics of the system are described by Leadabrand et al. (1972). With this instrument
one can obtain continuous records of the height profile of electron and 10 IJlIl temperatures, electron
densities, E region neutral wind vectors and Joule heating rates.
Preliminary Result
We have chosen to select several periods for analysis during times when the ionosphere was disturbed
and when energetic precipitating particles and solar electromagnetic radiation reached relatively far
down into the atmosphere to cause ionization and possible space charge effects. Experience has indicated
that an excellent index of low-level ionization is provided by 30MHz riometer absorption of cosmic
noise (Hunsucker, 1974).
576
COLLEGE, ALASKA
SEPT. 2B, 1972 APRIL 16, 1973

1.1 1.1
ILl 1.0
~-------------------_J 1.0
0.9 0.9
=ON~O ;
=: _
0] ·
21 22
'b=, ,
~;zw---1' ,~
I- · ,'(J, , l
1.0"------'-------'-------'-----'
23
TIME (U.T.l Hrs.
24 01
1.0'------'-------'-------'-----'
10 II 12
TIME (U.T.l Hrs.
13 14
(0) (b)
APRIL IB, 1973 APRIL 21, 1973

1.1 1.1
ILl 1.0 I.O~--------------J
0.9 0.9r
~rJL..---....1..--:!j----'-----J
1.0
06 07 08
TIME(U.T.) Hrs.
(C)
09 10
:,E:' :"'1
12 13 14
TIME (U.T.) Hrs.
(d)
15 16
Fig. 1. Fair-weather electric field and 30 MHz rio meter absorption for four selected riometer absorption events
Fig. 1 illustrated typical records of the fair-weather electric field during ionospheric absorption
events. On 18 April 1973, Fig.lc, the total variation, is under 10V/m. We have more than a dozen
documented cases which show similar or smaller variations. As can be seen, there is no apparent correla-
tion of field changes associated with absorption features. It has been found (Hunsucker, 1974) that
energetic particles typically cause ionization down to around 60 km during riometer absorption events.
We suggest that if one is to find an ionospheric effect on the groundlevel electric field, it should have
a high probability of occurring during these riometer ··events" when ionization occurs in the D region.
The lack of correlation between rio meter absorption and E indicates that ionosphere-tropospheric
electric interaction is less than a few volts per meter.
Fig. 2 shows records of electric field, riometer absorption, and magnetic field during a magnetic
storm on 14-15 December 1972. At first inspection one might imagine that a distinct storm-related
effect may have occurred at 02:30 LST (12:30 UT); however, subsequent inspection showed that high
winds with blowing snow started up at almost exactly this time, and the perturbations in E are almost
certainly associated with the charged blowing snow. This example is given primarily to illustrate the
ambiguity that can arise, and it points out that data must be selected by stringent meteorological
criteria. Generally speaking, we have not found any obvious correlations between magnetic storms
and E, and we have cases on record where the onset of a sub storm, with attendant decrease in magnetic
intensity, had none or very little (less than perhaps ± 5 V1m) effect on E.
577
DEC. 15,1972
COLLEGE, ALASKA
200
100
Verticol Electric Field (Vim)
-100
30 MHz Riometer Absorption
1.0
Mognetic Field - H
08 09 10 II 12 13 14
TIME (U.Tl Hrs.
Fig. 2. Fair-weather electric field, College rio meter absorption and magnetic field, H
Fig. 3 shows a record of electric field during an intense visual aurora display and four frames from an
all-sky camera showing the aurora morphology. During the auroral display there was an auroral
breakup nearly overhead, and also from time to time westward traveling surges were observed. The
electric field was remarkably constant during this substorm, and if field perturbations exist they are
less than 1 or 2 Vim in magnitude. However, there are times when the atmospheric electric field under-
goes fluctuations during auroral displays, but one can also find these, statistically speaking, just as
often during aurorally-quiet times also. We have yet to find a situation (by form, color or type of aurora)
that consistently gives noticeable perturbations in the record of E. Pending possible contradictory
results, we are forced to conclude that ionospheric disturbances have little effect on E.
Fig. 4 shows an example of electric field, E g, and several parameters relating to ionospheric activity
as derived with the incoherent radar. A substorm event commenced at about 08 hr UT. During the sub-
storm the electric field was relatively constant with total variation of less than 5% of its mean value.
The increase in height-integrated Hall conductivity has no apparent effect on Eg.
Discussion
The data indicate that the electric field at ground level is not affected to a large extent by disturbances
in the upper atmosphere. If effects do occur they are small, probably under a few Vim, and it is difficult
to separate them from meteorologically-induced noise in the field record. We have documented
numerous cases when the field trace is smooth and steady during times when the ionosphere is disturbed,
and during times of violent auroral activity. However, it is entirely possible that auroral-related field
perturbations may occur in certain specialized cases.
578
IOA4 IOAB
Fig. 3. a) Fair-weather electric field during intense auroral display;

b) all-sky photos of aurora during the time period in 3 a
We believe that one must quantify as many of the upper-atmospheric parameters as possible in
studies like these. In addition, theoretical models should be extended to guide the experimenter. As
it is, the effects are not at all obvious from the records and to deduce unambiguous conclusions one
must analyze a large number of records to reduce the statistical uncertainties caused by meteorological
noise which tends to mask the effect of auroral-associated field perturbations.
References
1. Andree, S. A ., Meteor. Z. 7, 29 (1890). - 2. Freier, G. D., 1. Geophys. Res. 66, 2695 (1961). - 3. Hunsucker, R. D.,
Radio Science 9, 335 (1974). - 4. Israel, H ., Atmospheric Electricity, volume II, available from U.S. Department
of Commerce, National Technical Information Service (Springfield, 1973). - 5. Leadabrand, R. L., M. J. Baron,
and J. Petriceks, Radio Science 7, 747 (1972). - 6. Olson, D. E., Pure and Appl. Geophys. 84, 118 (1971). -
7. W ijkander, A., Beobachtungen tiber Luftelektrizitat in Spitzbergen 1872 -1873, Arc. des Sci. Phys. et Nat.,
Sept. (1874).
579
H
z
FI. Yukon Auroral Displays
Riometer
mv/m
O~~~~~~~~~~~7Tr.n7Tr.n~rn~TM~r-------4
24 04 08 12 16 20 24U:T.
APRIL 16. 1973

Fig. 4. H and Z components of magnetic field at Poker Flat, Alaska; 30 MHz rio meter absorption; ground level
fair-weather electric field Eg; ionospheric north-directed electric field, EN; height-integrated Hall conductivity
Discussion of the paper by G. E. Shaw and R. D. Hunsucker

I would like to mention that the maximum magnetospheric electric field is expected at the place where the field
reversal is, this is on the northern border of the aurora zone. If you expect to measure some electric field variation
from the magnetosphere, you should go to about 75 degrees latitude.
Shaw, Fairbanks, Alaska, USA:
We would like to make measurements at Barrow which is located at 72 degrees north. However, we found
that the winds there are very strong and there is quite often ice crystal precipitation in the atmosphere, both of
which would cause large electric field fluctuations which would mask magnetospheric or ionospheric effects.

I agree with your findings, that it is absolutely necessary to do a lot of meteorological work, to set aside any
kind of secondary influences; the same is true in our case. Now, it should be pointed out that there is not any dis-
agreement between your findings and ours. We found a significant increase of the potential gradient and air-
earth current or, in other words, a maximum of the ionospheric potential after solar flares with a maximum 2
or 3 days after the solar event. I shall have the opportunity to say something more about this in my paper on
Saturday. My opinion is that there exists a meteorological link between solar event and behavior of ionospheric
potential, and I do not believe that there is a direct causal chain between the solar event and the reactions of field
and current in our case. I think that this finding is not in disagreement with yours.
580
Shaw:
Yes. I agree that we are looking at two entirely different things: The disturbed ionosphere auroral type
phenomena versus the solar flare increase of the electric field at more moderate latitudes.
Bostrom, Uppsala, Sweden:
But there seems to be a disagreement between you and Olson in terms of the effects of overhead aurora.
Shaw:
It might be a bit dangerous to say that we disagree. I think that one should simply use a great deal of caution.
If one goes out and looks for perturbations in the field record associated with visual aurora one can very often find
these, and sometimes they are very distinct and quite remarkable. But one can just as often find these "events"
when there are no auroral displays, or when the ionosphere is not disturbed. This brings me back again to my plea,
that when measurements are made they should be completely documented, both meteorologically and iono-
spherically.
Authors' address:
G. E. Shaw and R. D. Hunsucker
Geophysical Institute
University of Alaska
Fairbanks, Alaska 99701
USA
581
Stratospheric Electricity and the Global Circuit
E. T. Pierce
With 2 figures
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to relate our present knowledge of stratospheric electrification to concepts of the
global circuit. The crudest feature of this circuit - a sharply bounded perfectly conducting upper layer - only
emerged in 1929. The earlier ideas of Wilson and Appleton were far more sophisticated and have much in
common with modem concepts. For example, a penetration of currents into the ionosphere to be there influenced
by geomagnetic fields was envisaged.
The precise profile of electrical conductivity is shown to be critical to the global circuit. A maximum in
conductivity due to a very small concentration of free electrons may exist at 50 kID. This would tend to channel
currents laterally rather in the manner conceived in the crude model of the global circuit.
Introduction
This paper is primarily supplemental to some of the invited review papers (17, 20, 28), in discussing
associations between the global circuit and stratospheric electrical measurements. It was originally
intended to present an updated summary of a report (13) published in 1973. This plan is now changed,
principally because the Guidelines for the Preparation of Papers indicate that a contributed paper should
be related in significance to the other conference papers. Also parts of the 1973 report have already
been published in revised form (14); the original report was widely distributed and consequently
constituted - in the eyes of some scientific colleagues - effective publication; and there are certain
copyright problems.
Historical Background *)
Wilson's paper (34) of 1920 is usually quoted (20) mistakenly as that in which the crude picture of
the global circuit was defined. In reality, the crude picture incorrectly attributed to Wilson (Fig. 1 of
Ref. 20) only began to evolve in 1929. The earlier ideas were sophisticated; the simplifications came later;
and modem thought has only recently reversed the trend, reviving in the process some of the concepts
of the pioneers. Among these, the major contributor was Wilson (33 - 37), with Appleton (1- 4) not far
behind; others (26, 27, 29, 30, 32, 38) added significant supplementary inputs.
By 1929 it was believed that storm clouds acted as a medium transferring current between the earth
and a conducting upper atmosphere (Heaviside layer). Above the thunderclouds positive charge
flowed upwards; the Heaviside layer was therefore maintained at a positive potential of about a mega-
volt**) with respect to earth, and thus was able to supply a current of 1000 A ***) to the fair-weather
areas. Variations in thunderstorm activity would cause associated changes in fair-weather potential
gradient.
In 1929, however, it was not considered that the upper conducting layer was the sharply bounded,
homogeneous, perfect conductor parallel to the earth, envisaged in the crude model. Specifically it was
believed that:
a) The conducting layer was not a perfect conductor and there could be large potential differences
within the layer (36). The highest potentials would be above the thundery regions (tropics) with lower
potentials in remote areas (poles).
*) A personal note: Appleton was my first research supervisor; Wormell was my second. Wormell was Wilson's
first research student; I, in turn, was Wormelfs first student. Watson-Watt and Wormell were my thesis examiners,
and during the preparation of the thesis I received advice from Wilson and Schonland. It is satisfying to be able
to place the contributions of my scientific forefathers in proper perspective.
**) The modern estimate is some 250 kV (20).
***) This value is almost identical with that presently recommended (20).
582
b) The conductivity in the conducting layer was greater along than across geomagnetic field lines.
Consequently, the potential gradient in a fair-weather area would respond preferentially toward storms
located along the same geomagnetic meridian (1, 35).
c) The conducting layer was never sharply bounded (2, 3). The lower parts were influenced by solar
radiations, but the upper portions maintained a high conductivity; consequently, the overall response
to solar radiations had only limited effects on the current carrying capability of the layer (29).
d) Electric fields above thunderstorms increased ionization in the conducting layer thus effectively
lowering the layer and facilitating the upward transfer of electricity (33). Solar influences also produced
variations in the morphology of the lower portions of the conducting layer. Thus the layer was never
strictly parallel to the surface of the earth.
By 1924, it had been realized that over oceans and in polar areas the diurnal maximum offair-weather
potential gradient occurred at the same universal time ( ~ 1800 UT). Appleton (1) showed from experi-
mental observations of atmospherics that global thunderstorm activity peaked near 1800 UT with the
main centers being in Africa and S. America. Others, by 5tudying meteorological statistics, reached
the same conclusion (30,32). Whipple (31), in 1929, compared in detail the curve of the universal diurnal
variation of potential gradient with that of global thunderstorm activity. He concluded that the curves
corresponded with no phase delay and that therefore "the Heaviside layer at its worst can be regarded
as a perfect conductor". This conclusion initiated the crude model of the global circuit.
Reevaluations have only emerged comparatively recently. Kasemir (16), for example, in a well-
reasoned paper, pointed out that current follows the path of least resistance; consequently, if the con-
ductivity increases with height no constraint impels the upward currents to diverge laterally, and they
will therefore penetrate the ionosphere to altitudes [> 80 km (28)J at which geomagnetic fields become
significant. This picture would not be unacceptable to either Wilson or Appleton!
The Prome of Conductivity

The variation of conductivity with altitude is critical in concepts of the global circuit. There is sub-
stantial experimental information for the height ranges 0 to 30 km and 70 to 100 km (13). Over both
ranges the variation is approximately exponential but the scale heights differ. Fig. 1 shows average
mid-latitude profiles of field and conductivity in the lower stratosphere; derived values are given for
air-earth current and space charge.
Many published conductivity profiles (10, 22, 28) extrapolate to cover the height range (30 to 70 km)
for which there is little data. The two exponentials join in a "knee" (Fig. 2). Cole and Pierce (9) have
shown theoretically that the knee is at the altitude where free electrons become significant.
Cipriano et al. (8) have recently made some most interesting measurements. The main feature (Fig. 2)
is a very sharp conductivity increase between 40 and 50 km; this is attributed to a detachment mechanism
for electrons from ions that sets in rapidly as altitude increases. Incidentally, in 1923 Wilson (36) suggested
50 km as the height at which conductivity suddenly increased!
A Digression on Nomenclature
There has been past reluctance (7) to identify the upper conducting layer with the ionosphere, since
many definitions (12) placed the base of the ionosphere at 70 km, and the conducting layer could be
lower. Accordingly, the conducting layer has been variously termed (15) the "Ausgleichsschicht" or
"equalizing-layer", and the "electrosphere". The latter name, suggested by Pierce (23), found some
favor (7), but is now increasingly applied to the space between the earth and the conducting layer.
However, by modern definition (11) the ionosphere is "the region of the upper atmosphere containing
significant numbers of free electrons". Thus, referring to Fig. 2, we have the neat solution that the iono-
sphere begins at 40 to 45 km (conductivity electron-dominated), while electrosphere can be applied to
the region below (conductivity ion-dominated).
Aerosols
The agreement between theory and experimentally measured profiles of conductivity and small ion
densities is improved when ion attachment to aerosols is considered (14). Aerosols also assist in ex-
583
CONDUCTIVITY - mho/m
AIR/EARTH CURRENT
28
\ 2 3 Ix 10- 12) A/m 2
\
\
24 \
\
\
E \
-" 20 \
I \
w
,
o \
::>
f-
\
~ 16
«
AIR/EARTH CURRENT
12 JAPANESE ANTARCTIC
DATA
FIELD -Vim
I I I
SPACE CHARGE - C/m3
LA-1724-11
Fig. 1. Average profile of some electrical parameters
plaining fine structure on the proftles, and long-term effects following major volcanic eruptions. Strato-
spheric electrification is proportionately more responsive to the smaller (radius r < 0.1 J.I.IIl) Aitken
nuclei, than to the larger (r > 0.1 11m) particulates; the perturbations due to aerosols are most plausibly
ascribed to Aitken nuclei at number densities of 108 to 1010 m -3. Aerosols in the lower stratosphere, by
diminishing the conductivity, increase the contrast above and below the ledge at 40 km (Fig. 2) and
therefore the validity of the crude global circuit model.
The effects of supersonic aircraft are presently of much interest. The direct injection of particles from
the exhausts of a fleet of supersonic aircraft would have insignificant influence on stratospheric conduc-
tivity. However, most exhaust emissions are in gaseous form, and can, it is believed, be speedily converted
into nuclei (6, 18). One such mechanism transforms S02 in the presence of water vapor and atomic
oxygen into hygroscopic H 2S0 4 • If this mechanism operates efficiently, an average stratospheric
concentration of nuclei approaching 1011 m - 3 could be produced by a supersonic fleet. This concentra-
tion would reduce the conductivity at 20 km by almost two orders of magnitude.
Air-Earth Current
According to all concepts of the global circuit tl}e air-earth current in the lower stratosphere should
be vertically directed and constant with altitude. Several profiles of the current are available (13, 17)
584
100 r-----------.-----------~----------._----------_r----------_r--------~_,
80
60
E
.>I.
w
o
::l
I-
~
<I:
40
20
- - - - CONVENTIONALLY ASSUMED PROFILE (partially extrapolated)
• • • MEASUREMENTS OF CIPRIANO, HALE, AND MITCHELL
• • • POSSIBLE PROFILE
o~--~----~~--------~----------~----------~----------~--------~
10- 14 10-8 10-6
TOTAL ISOTRO'PIC (parallel) CONDUCTIVITY - mho/m
Fig. 2. Conductivity profiles
but the best data are those recently obtained by the Japanese (21). An example has been inserted in
Fig.!. The value of the current is amazingly constant especially above 15 km.
Discussion
The more sophisticated concepts envisage that the currents flowing upward from a thundercloud
may penetrate well into the ionosphere and there be subject to geomagnetic influences. The crude picture
of the global circuit, however, permits little penetration of the upward currents; these are deviated
horizontally within a highly conducting layer between perhaps 40 and 60 km. The experimental in-
formation from 30 to 70 Ian is very scanty; it nevertheless suggests a sharp ledge of increased conduc-
tivity above 40 km (Fig. 2).
Kasemir (16) has argued convincingly that if conductivity increases monotonically with altitude
(Fig. 2) then the upward currents will continue to be vertically (radially) directed. However, the curve
of Cipriano et al. in Fig. 2 is almost constant from 50 to 60 km, and, given the experimental difficulties,
it is not impossible that the true profile might have the form of the third curve in Fig. 2. For this profile,
the conductivity actually decreases from 45 to 55 km; the upward currents would thus find it easier
to flow laterally than vertically; and the pattern of current flow would approach that ofthe crude model.
Theorists have argued that the conductivity profile might have a maximum near 50 km. Pierce (24)
pointed out that the extreme dependence of collisional detachment on temperature implied a conse-
585
quent sharp peak in free electron density (ionospheric C region) at the temperature maximum of the
stratopause. This peak would be intensified by any stratospheric warming. Although the peak electron
density might be only 10 5 m -3 (5) the effect on conductivity would be roughly equivalent (9) to that
of 10 9 ions m -3 - the typical ion concentration at 50 km (13). These theoretical ideas need reevaluation
in terms of more recent ideas on negative ion constitution (19).
At the Montreux Conference in 1963, the statement - unfortunately still true - was made that "we
know more of electrical properties at 400 km than we do at 40 km" (25). A true evaluation of the global
circuit demands precise knowledge of the conductivity profile - especially the contribution by free
electrons - between 40 and 60 km. Experimentally the problem is formidable; free electrons at concen-
trations of 10 5 m - 3 must be detected within the background of ion and neutral densities of, respectively,
109 m- 3 and 1022 m- 3 !
Acknowledgments
The preparation of this paper was supported by the U.S. Office of Naval Research under Contract N 00014-
74-C-0134. Accordingly reproduction in whole or in part is permitted for any purpose of the U.S. Government.
References
1. Appleton, E. v., J.I.E.E. 62, 366 (1924). - 2. Appleton, E. v., Proc. Phys. Soc. 37, 16 D (1925). - 3. Appleton,
E. v., Proc. Phys. Soc. 37, 48 D (1925). - 4. Appleton, E. v., R. A. Watson-Watt, and J. F. Herd, Proc. Roy. Soc.
111 A, 654 (1926). - 5. Banks, P. M., Radio Science 1, 1293 (1966). - 6. Bricard, J. and D. Vigla, Can. 1. Chem.
52, 1479 (1974). - 7. Chalmers, J. A., Atmospheric Electricity (New York, 1967). - 8. Cipriano, J. P., L. C. Hale,
and J. D. Mitchell, J. Geophys. Res. 79, 2260 (1974). - 9. Cole, R. K. and E. T. Pierce, J. Geophys. Res. 70, 2735
(1965). - 10. Dejnakarintra, M. and C. G. Park, J. Geophys. Res. 79,1903 (1974). - 11. Encyclopaedia of Atmos-
pheric Sciences and Astrogeology, Rhodes W. Fairbridge (ed.), 498 (New York, 1967). - 12. Glossary of
Meteorology, American Meteorol. Soc. 314 (Boston, Mass., 1959). - 13. Hake, R. D., Jr., E. T. Pierce, and W.
Viezee, Stratospheric Electricity, Final Report, SRI Project 1724, Stanford Research Institute (Menlo Park,
1973). - 14. Hake, R. D., Jr. and E. T. Pierce, Stratospheric Electricity, to be published in Proc. Conf. on Aero-
space Operations and the High Atmosphere, Bull. Am. Meteor. Soc. (1974). - 15. Israel, H. and H. W. Kasemir,
Ann. Geophys. 5, 313 (1949). - 16. Kasemir, H. w., PAGEOPH 84, 76 (1971). - 17. Kasemir, H. w., Invited
Paper, Fifth Int. Conf. on Atmospheric Electricity, 1974, see these Proceedings (Darmstadt, 1977). -
18. Kiang, C. S., D. Stauffer, and V. A. Mohnen, Nature Phys. Sci. 244, 53 (1973). - 19. Mohnen, V. A., Invited Paper,
Fifth Int. Conf. on Atmospheric Electricity, 1974, see these Proceedings (Darmstadt, 1977). - 20. Muhleisen, R.,
Invited Paper, Fifth Int. Conf. on Atmospheric Electricity, 1974, see these Proceedings (Darmstadt, 1977). -
21. Ogawa, T., Kyoto University, Japan, Private Communication. - 22. Ogawa, T. and Y. Murakami, Cont.
Geophys. Inst., Kyoto Univ., 13, 13 (1973). - 23. Pierce, E. T., Shell Aviation News, No. 246, 9 (1958). -
24. Pierce, E. T., J. Res. NBS 67 D, 525 (1963). - 25. Pierce, E. T., Problems of Atmospheric and Space Electricity,
S. C. Coroniti (ed.), 159 and 508 (Amsterdam, 1965). - 26. Schonland, B. F. J., Proc. Roy. Soc. 118 A, 252 (1928). -
27. Simpson, G. C., Nature 77, 12 (1912). - 28. Volland, H., Invited Paper, Fifth Int. Conf. on Atmospheric
Electricity, 1974, see these Proceedings (Darmstadt, 1977). - 29. Watson-Watt, R. A., Quart. J. Roy. Met.
Soc. 55, 15 (1929). - 30. Whipple, F. J. w., Meteorol. Mag. 59, 201 (1924). - 31. Whipple, F. J. w., Quart. J. Roy.
Met. Soc. 55, 1 (1929). - 32. Wigand, A., Phys. Z. 28, 65 (1927). - 33. Wilson, C. T. R., Proc. Roy. Soc. 92 A,
555 (1916). - 34. Wilson, C. T. R., Phil. Trans. 221 A, 73 (1920). - 35. Wilson, C. T. R., The Observatory, No. 583,
393 (1922). - 36. Wilson, C. T. R., Dictionary of Applied Physics, R. Glazebrook (ed.), Vol. III, 84 (London, 1923). -
37. Wilson, C. T. R., Proc. Phys. Soc. 37, 32 D (1925). - 38. Wormell, T. w., Proc. Roy. Soc. 115 A, 443 (1927).
Discussion
It is very interesting that we may have such a high conductivity at about 40 km. If we assume this is right, do
you think that this layer of very high conductivity, about two orders of magnitude higher as measured or
expected before, can act as a shield between the ionosphere and the earth? We feel after this session today, that there
is a discrepancy between measurements and theories.
I certainly agree that if it does exist it would act as a shield. But let me emphasize and emphasize over again,
that whether it exists or not is still quite speculative. And it may even exist at some times and not at others. Pos-
sibly an event like a stratospheric warming might lead to its transient existence.
586
I believe that Pierce here has touched on one of the very important problems of today. Namely, the distribution
of the current flow, from a thunderstorm to the fair-weather areas. The very important question is, if these currents,
at all, reach ionospheric levels. I think that this question is much more important than the ionospheric potential.
The conductivity maximum does not necessarily act as a shield. It depends on the thickness of the layer as well
as the peak conductivity value. When electric field encounters the region of increasing conductivity it will be
greatly attenuated. However, on the other side of the peak, where the conductivity is decreasing, attenuation is
now greatly reduced so that there is a chance to make up for the earlier loss.
Author's address:
E. T. Pierce
Stanford Research Inst.
333 Ravenswood Avenue
Menlo Park, California 94025
USA
587
General Discussion
With 2 figures
Bostrom. Uppsala, Sweden:
I would like to suggest that in this general discussion we should concentrate on the problems of atmosphere-
space coupling. We have heard several papers today, that have pointed out that the ionosphere is not an equi-
potential surface. The substantial potential differences, which exist in the ionosphere and which are caused by
ionospheric and magnetospheric phenomena, will effect the electric field in the lower atmosphere. So we should
expect to be able to see such extraterrestrial influences in the measurements made in the atmosphere at balloon
altitudes, or maybe even at ground level. At least for a start, we should in this discussion not talk about the details
of the models for the electric field distribution in the ionosphere or details of the studies of how these fields map
into the lower atmosphere. Rather, I should like to see here a discussion of the evidence in the observations for or
against extraterrestrial effects. Also, I should like to hear suggestions for how in the future we should study this
problem and what measurements should be done. In this context I remind you of what Shaw said of his somewhat
negative effects regarding the auroral influences on the atmospheric electric field. His findings should not be inter-
preted to imply that this field is not worth further studies. On the contrary, we should continue and look for such
auroral effects and see whether the results that Olson has reported earlier, or those that Shaw reported today, are
the most typical ones and under which conditions one or the other effect occurs.
In this context, I would also mention that the study of atmosphere-space coupling will be one of the re-
commendations in the Mid-Range Planning Effort. Especially, the importance of doing extended measurements
during years of the International Magnetospheric Study (IMS) in 1976 to 1978 should be stressed. A recommenda-
tion to this end was taken yesterday during the business meeting of ICAE. During this period of IMS extended
observations of various kinds, such as magnetic fields, auroras, riometer absorption, will be carried out. Thus
we shall have a very good coverage of the parameters with which the atmospheric electric field should be correlated.
I also emphasize that we should not only think about the direct electric field coupling discussed in some of
the papers today. There may also be other mechanisms that affect the atmospheric electric parameters. Beams
of energetic particles may penetrate rather deep into the atmosphere during auroral displays or polar cap absorp-
tion events. Also, bremsstrahlung X-rays will penetrate far down. These beams may effect the conductivity
distribution and might possibly give rise to space charges or polarization effects. To explain the very drastic
effects that Olson has reported, it seems that we need some other mechanism than the simple direct electric field
coupling. With this I shall open the general discussion for comments on experimental evidence for atmosphere-
space and space-atmosphere coupling, as well as suggestions for future theoretical or experimental work in this
field.
I would like to ask either Bostrom or Park to comment on the theoretical possibilities that a 60 kV potential
difference could exist between the equator and mid-latitude, as we heard reported for data gathered with an
apparently good instrumentation technique.
I should like to make an announcement which relates to what you have just said. During the 16th General
Assembly of the International Union of Geodetics and Geophysics in Grenoble on 30 August 1975, there will
be a full-day symposium on the extraterrestrial relationships in atmospheric electricity and space coupling.
To add some information to a point which Miihleisen has briefly mentioned before: There have been, indeed,
11 stations between 60 and 80 degrees latitude north or south (five of which were higher than 70 degrees) which
have at least for one full year made measurements of electric field and/or current; the results have been accu-
mulated taking only fair-weather hours. In these data we did not see the deviation at dusk and dawn. It should
show up, though, because it is supposed to be a regular feature, and because the global diurnal variation is in uni-
versal time, while this variation is in local time. The fact that we have these old data was one reason for our
proposal made in one of the business meetings in the evening, that we should do something to preserve these
old data.

May I answer to the question of Markson. I would like to repeat the results in more detail. We had made 15
balloon ascents simultaneously at the equator and in southern Germany. Ten of these simultaneous ascents gave
the same value of the potential difference between the upper atmosphere and ground. As mentioned in other
588
papers, the standard deviation of these results of 10 ascents without solar events is only 3 %; that is a very small
number and lower than the error of about 5 % that we normally indicate. However, in 5 cases which fit into an
interval of20 to 40 hours after a solar event (mainly a solar burst or a radio burst of type 4), we got differences. We
cannot assume that just in these 5 cases we made errors up to 20 or 40 percent. This is very unlikely.
I would like to add some comments to what Dolezalek and Markson said. The picture of magnetospheric con-
vection electric fields we draw for the purpose of ten minute papers is a highly simplified version of what actually
happens. These magnetospheric electric fields are not constant with time. The field strength as well as the size
of the polar cap vary with time. In addition, the average global ionospheric potential itself changes with time.
So, if we look at the data from any high latitude station we should expect to see very complicated patterns. But
we have made enough progress in ionospheric and magnetospheric research in recent years so that we can predict
when large dawn-to-dusk electric fields should occur. This would help us in sorting things out in future experi-
ments. It is my opinion that although many good and reliable measurements have been made near the ground
at high latitudes, the magnetospheric dawn-to-dusk electric fields have not been looked for systematically in a
proper manner. To add one comment to what Markson said, it does not surprise me at all that Muhleisen saw
60 kV difference in the middle latitude ionosphere. We know from measurements in the magnetosphere and the
ionosphere that electric fields of up to 100mV/m (at ionospheric heights) penetrate to middle latitudes during
magnetospheric substorms. If you integrate this over the scale size of these phenomena involved, you can easily
get potential differences of 60 kV. I do not know, however, whether Muhleisen's data are consistent with the known
patterns of substorm electric fields.
I would suggest that we look at these ascents from Muhleisen to see if the potential difference at different
altitudes stay the same or decrease with altitude. I think that is one of the criteria by which we really could decide
whether this difference comes from the lower region, below the balloon altitude, or from above. This would be the
first thing to check.
Dolezalek:
Just a word as answer to what Park said. The beauty these of old data is that they have been taken over long
periods of time. They show diurnal variations as an average taken over those long periods. One cannot flatly say
that all the irregular variations are canceled out by averaging. But, at least in part they are canceled and it may be
worthwhile to investigate which ones are canceled well because they are random. The fact that they show the
diurnal variation cancels the disturbance caused by the variation of the global contribution. With regard to what
Muhleisen said, the situation is even more interesting because sometimes the 60 kV difference was directed in
one way and sometimes in the other way. Is this true?
Muhleisen:
Yes, it is true.

I would like to make a comment about the effect of aurora on the electric fields in the stratosphere as well as
on the ground. Fig. 1 shows the vertical electric field at the ground, the vertical electric field and current densities
in the stratosphere, the horizontal electric field direction and magnitude, and geomagnetic activity. Around 18 UT
we see a very large electric field increase in the stratosphere as well as at the ground. This is just at the time of the
beginning of the geomagnetic substorm. The magnitude of the electric field increase in the stratosphere is some-
thing like 80 m V1m, and 80 V1m at the ground. Since the conductivity in the stratosphere is larger by 3 orders
of magnitude than on the ground, this electric field increase is apparently the result of the ionospheric potential
increase. During a period characterized by "DISTURBED BY KATABATIC WIND", the electric field went
out of scale at the ground, but no effect reached to the stratosphere.
Muhleisen:
Reiter now has so many cases of an increase of the electric field and the air-earth current density measured
on top of the Zugspitze, that I think we must accept the existence of an increase of the electric field or an increase
of the potential difference between the higher atmosphere and the ground. Therefore, for about 2 years we have
carried out measurements of this voltage by balloon ascents, by integrating the electric field up to 10 km or more
after a solar event, simultaneously with the continuous measurements by Reiter. In more than 3 or 5 cases of a
solar event, we could find an increase of the voltage 2 or 3 days after the event in agreement with the records of
589
~~ 260
G:l~ 220 f->DISTURBED BY

KATABATIC WIND
d~~
-J f- 180
<[to'
~g
w_
O::w <- NORMAL LEVEL
>LL
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00 E 260
/'V
_~ =- • I
~ 8' 220 'E 2.2

f-N
w(j) ;
zE
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5
~ W
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~g ~ 400 -------:y:--c~-V~~ 0.45b
ol!J v ' 0 U';(
ILL
lli ffi W 22 ~ 4
28 NO'J.. 1972 UT
Fig. 1. Substorm effect on electric fields in the stratosphere and at the ground observed at Syowa Base. Their
time variations are shown with geomagnetic field variations
Reiter on the Zugspitze. That means, here it comes slowly to a confirmation of what Reiter assumed: that the
increase of electric field is due to an increase in the potential difference between the upper atmosphere and ground.
I would like to mention this because this has still not been explained up to now, similar with respect to our findings.
Williamson, San Diego, California, USA:
Although we do not have very many measurements of conductivity above 30 km, we certainly know a great
deal about ionization rates above 30 km and from this knowledge we can say something about the expected
variation ofthe conductivity with altitude as a function of the varying known ionization. There are several different
mechanisms for producing time varying ionization rates above 30 km. One source is the precipitation of energetic
electrons in the auroral region. Also, solar flares often result in the precipitation of energetic protons in the auroral
regions and polar caps. Another source of time varying ionization (and therefore conductivity) is the variable
galactic cosmic ray flux. Time variations occur with the II-year solar cycle and on a much shorter time scale follow-
ing some larger solar flares. Solar modulation of the galactic cosmic ray flux can produce changes in the
ionization rate at all latitudes and all altitudes.
Data we obtained during a 42 km altitude balloon flight in Canada on 24 April 1973, show a rapidly changing
conductivity produced during an energetic electron precipitation event. The balloon-borne instruments included
an X-ray scintillation counter for X-rays above 20 keY and a blunt probe type instrument to measure positive and
negative ion conductivity. A ground-based A 2 absorption measurement was also made during the flight with a
30 MHz rio meter. The data for a portion of the flight are shown in Fig. 2. The top trace is the positive conductivity,
the second trace is the X-ray flux, and the lower trace is the galactic radio noise absorption at 3u ,\IIIL. 1he
conductivity was observed to change by a factor of 2 in a period of about 20 minutes; this was produced by the
large bremsstrahlung X-ray flux. We have other evidence from X-ray flights only at Byrd Station, Antarctica,
that changes of as much as an order of magnitude in the conductivity can occur in the height range from 40 to
590
Posidve Ion Conductivity 0+
,--1
I
,~,
,----j .. --*l .~
----_...r:=-..I""'l_ .......-J_______________ \_
\
5 lr1
Scintillator Count Rate E>20 Kev
n
~
104 a
f
!
:;::.425cts1_
103
4
30 MHz Absorption
3
6
! 2
o
0600 0630 0700
UT
Fig. 2. Data from a balloon flight in 42 km altitude from McMurray, Alberta, Canada, on 24 April 1973
50 km with periods as small as one minute. The earlier measurements at Byrd Station did not include a balloon-
borne conductivity probe.
The implications of changing conductivity, I believe, are several fold and a number ofthem have been mentioned
at this conference already. One aspect of the rapidly time-varying conductivity in the auroral zone is the high
degree of horizontal irregularities which can be expected to occur in conductivity. Auroral events are sometimes
confined to latitudes as narrow as a 0.1 degree in latitude. As a consequence of large horizontal gradients in the
conductivity, it is possible that the fair-weather vertical electric field will be tilted and appear as a horizontal
electric field in the neighborhood of the conductivity irregularity. Another aspect of recognizing that rapid changes
occur in ionization rates in the stratosphere is the opportunity presented to make in situ measurements of the ion/
neutral chemistry in the stratosphere under conditions of varying ionization rate.
Dolezalek:
Could you tell us a little about the technique of measurement of the conductivity at 42 km. Mobility is very
high and so it may be difficult to determine the critical mobility of your instrument.
Williamson:
The instrument we used to measure the positive and negative ion conductivity at the balloon is a blunt probe
type instrument. The instrument consisted of a guarded flat plate mounted vertically on the side of the payload
to which a voltage was applied and the current measured by a feedback electrometer. The geometry of the probe
was not all optimum and was designed primarily to determine the changes in conductivity. I might mention, how-
591
ever, that the absolute value which we derived for the conductivity is in very good agreement with the measurements
made by L. C. Hale using parachute-borne probes.
Markson:
In view of Park's and Williamson's remarks that evidently there can be great changes in the magnitude of the
ionospheric potential in a short period of time, what is the precision of the timing of Miihleisen's simultaneous
measurements?
Miihleisen:
If we say "simultaneously", then the measurements (or the launching time of the balloons) has been made in
an interval of about 10 minutes. I think in the case of the 15 balloon ascents only once it was one hour.
Bostrom:
I think we should conclude this discussion of variations in the ionospheric potential. May I just add one remark
about these large potential differences in the atmosphere. I do not think there would be many ionospheric
physicists who would object to the findings of a 60 kV potential difference between two distant points of the
ionosphere.
Dolezalek:
Manka has touched on the problem of the net charge of the earth. Under certain conditions which we are not
quite sure of whether or not they are fulfilled, a certain sphere, or roughly spherical body, the shape of which we
do not actually know, including the earth, and having a radius larger than the distance of the highest cloud of the
earth's center but smaller than the inner radius of the ionosphere, and probably smaller than the radius of the
layer of high conductivity (which I am tempted to call the Pierce layer) at 40 km has no net electric charge. The
conditions are the following:
1. the postulated enhancement of conductivity above thunderstorms should certainly not penetrate upwards
to this height;
2. there should be no runaway electrons in great numbers from thunderstorms which would carry negative
charge to great heights;
3. there should be no net influx of charged penetrating particles from above to the sphere's inside.
In other words, all the currents flowing across this spheroid body should be conduction currents. Further-
more, we make the obvious assumption that at least averaged over a certain time, the sum of all currents
flowing to this spheroid is zero; if it were not it would charge up the spheroid until the current would become
zero. Under these circumstances it can be shown that the charge on this spheroid is zero by a very simple
equation which is something like a link between the electrostatic equation for the surface charge under an
electric field and Poisson's law. Maybe this is not quite sufficient because, as we have just heard, the form
of this spheroid may change if conductivity changes: sometimes when the radius of this spheroid goes
higher at some places it will not incorporate all the space charges there and then it would have a charge.
But such a "breathing" goes up and down and if we can assume that on the average it cancels out then we
arrive again at the conclusion of zero charge. Thus, if earth including the ionosphere and magnetosphere is to
have a net conservative charge, it must sit either in the ionosphere or magnetosphere.
That is an interesting comment and again with my tendency to look at the moon it may be instructive to look
there for a moment at the charge distribution since some of the variables are removed. In the steady state con-
dition, whether one looks at the front side or dark side, the local surface does have a net charge; on the front side
there is a positive charge associated with the positive potential. This is in the equilibrium situation. Then in the
plasma just above it the electrons of the opposite charge are attracted and as one moves on up, then this screening
layer gradually increases the amount of charge included to equalize the surface charge. H one takes the moon
at the terminator, or the dark side of the moon, as a simple Langmuir probe, then the surface goes negative because
of the excess electron flux. There is a region of plasma that is positive above the surface, and as one draws the
surface further up then the net charge finally will balance. So, perhaps, in looking at the moon we can simplify
some of the problems for the earth.
Dolezalek:
I do not mean that what I said about the earth's charge could be applied to the moon because the condition
is that all the currents which are contributing to the charge should be conduction currents. This is certainly not
true for the moon. It may be true for some layers on Mars, Venus, or Jupiter but hardly on other planets which
have a tenuous atmosphere.
592
Let me follow up Dolezalek's comments. The Pierce layer already has a name in the literature: It is called the
ionospheric C-region. A further comment that has not really been touched upon yet: There is very substantial
- there are about 100 papers in the radio literature - experimental evidence, suggesting that thunderstorms
increase the ionization of the lower ionosphere above the thunderstorms at altitudes from about 70 to 120 km.
There are at least 6 physical mechanisms which have been postulated that might do this. Let me be quite honest.
There are also 100 papers in the radio literature that find no increase in the ionization in the lower ionosphere
above thunderstorms. But this does have a significant implication. In Park's paper, in particular, it may be invalid
to assume a fair-weather, in effect, conductivity in the lower ionosphere. One may have to assume increased con-
ductivity in the lower ionosphere above thunderstorms so that one always has something like a disturbed con-
ductivity which would make the penetration of the thunderstorm field up into the magnetosphere much more
difficult.
Manka:
I would like to add just one comment regarding the International Magnetospheric Study, and the opportunity
to use data during that time. Coordination offices have now been established in many countries. In the United
States, the Coordmation Office is to be housed in the National Science Foundation and staffed by a scientist
of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Likewise, the ESRO countries have coordinating
committees and coordinators, and during the IUGG meeting 1975, which Dolezalek mentioned, three will also
be discussions on the IMS. In particular, the electrical measurements using incoherent scatter radars may be
of interest as well as the other arrays that have been mentioned.
Bostrom:
Thank you for this announcement. May I just add that for the European countries much of the coordination
work for ground based and balloon experiments during the IMS is done by the CCOG Committee, headed by
Stoffregen in Uppsala.
Chairman's address:
R. Bostrom
Uppsala Ionospheric Observatory
S-75590 Uppsala 1
Sweden
593
Session 8a
PHYSICS OF LIGHTNING AND SFERICS

PART I
Chairman: R. E. Orville
(Acting Chairman during part of session: R. Reiter)
Remark by the Editors:
In the papers of sessions 8a and 8b, certain technical terms are used which may not be familiar to
all readers. For this reason, we are reproducing here, with M. A. Uman's consent, a few paragraphs
of pages 87, 88, 98 and 99 of his book "Lightning" (New York, 1969):
"We can distinguish between three general types of processes which may occur in the time interval
between strokes: (1) Continuing current flow between cloud and ground resulting in a transfer of
negative charge from cloud to ground, (2) the motion of charge within the cloud, and (3) the motion
of charge surrounding the cloud, including charge motion between the cloud and upper atmosphere.
Any hypothesis regarding the motion of charge will result in a predicted electric field variation measur-
able at the ground. In practice, measured field data are used to infer the existence of various charge
motions.
We will list now the labels given to the observed interstroke field changes: The C field change is a
slow, positive field change accompanied by channel luminosity. The indication is that the C change is
due to continuing current flow. The I field change is a slow field change which is negative for close strokes
and positive for distant strokes. The existence of a field-change reversal with distance indicates that
the I change is due to charge motion within the cloud. The F field change is a slow, positive field change
which may occur after the final stroke in a flash. It is apparently similar to the C change. The M field
change is a short-duration change associated with a luminous M component and is probably indicative
of a flow of negative charge to ground. The K field change is a short-duration field change probably
due to abrupt charge motion within the cloud. In addition to the above-named field changes, Malan
(1955 a) reports a slow, negative interstroke field change observed in South Africa at distances of 25 to
100 km. This field change is reported by Malan (1965) to comprise 44 percent of all interstroke field
changes measured in South Africa".
"Kitagawa and Brook (1960) have divided the cloud-discharge field change into 3 portions: (1) An
initial portion, (2) a very active portion, and (3) a later or I (junction) type portion. (1) The initial portion
is characterized by pulsations of relatively small amplitude with a mean pulse interval of about 680 Ilsec.
The duration of the initial portion of the cloud discharge ranges from 50 to 300 msec. Thus significant
differences are reported between the initial stages of cloud and of cloud-to-ground discharges: The
time interval between pulses in the initial portion and the duration of the initial portion of the cloud
discharge are reported to be significantly longer than the stepped-leader interpulse interval and time
duration. In contrast to this data Schonland et al. (1938) and Schonland (1956) report that the pulsa-
tions superposed on the slow electric field change due to a cloud discharge exhibit the same interpulse
time intervals as do the pulsations from the stepped leader. Kitagawa and Brook (1960) report that they
find the initial field-change characteristics of cloud and of cloud-to-ground discharges so different
that from the first 10 msec of the field records they can predict with over 95 percent certainty whether
a discharge will reach ground or will remain within the cloud. (2) The very active portion of the cloud-
discharge field change exhibits initially a relatively rapid field change on the electric-field meter and
corresponding large pulses on the electric-field-change meter. (3) The later or I-type portion of the
cloud-discharge field change is similar to the I portion of the ground discharge. K changes occur at
intervals from 2 to 20 msec. The frequency distribution of K-change intervals for 671 ground discharges
and for the I-type portion of 1,318 cloud discharges is plotted by Kitagawa and Brook (1960). The
distributions for the two types of discharges are almost identical, strongly suggesting that the in-cloud
discharge mechanism between strokes of a ground discharge and the later portion of a cloud discharge
are essentially the same. The field change in the I-type portion is not as rapid as in the preceding very
595
active stage. The J-type portion of a cloud discharge is very distinct in character from the initial and
very active portions. The difference between the initial and the very active portions, however, is not
always distinct, the transition from one to the other usually being more or less gradual.
Kitagawa and Brook (1960) report that out of about 1,400 cloud discharges studied, 50 percent
contained all three of the above mentioned portions, 40 percent consisted of very active and J-type
portions, and the remaining 10 percent lacked the J-type portion and consisted of either the initial
or very active portion, or both."
596
Calculation of the Electric and Magnetic Fields Produced by Close Lightning*)
M.A. Uman
With 5 figures
Abstract
Exact expressions for the electric and magnetic fields of an idealized lightning are developed. From these
expressions the current moment equation and the charge moment equation are derived, and their applicability
is discussed. For a transmission-line return-stroke model, formulas are developed relating electric and magnetic
fields to return-stroke currents and velocities. Application of the model to the determination of currents and
velocities from measured fields is considered. Computer calculations of return-stroke fields are presented and
compared with measurement.
Introduction
Thc first measurements of the electric field changes due to close lightning were made by C. T. R. Wilson
(1916,1920). Concurrently, Wilson developed an electrostatic model for the lightning discharge. In this
model, a point charge was assumed to move within the cloud or from the cloud to ground and the
electrostatic field change determined. This and similar electrostatic models have been widely used in
the analysis of later data, notable by Schon land and co-workers in South Africa (e.g., Schonland et aI.,
1938; Malan and Schonland, 1947), Pierce and Wormell in England (e.g., Wormell, 1939; Pierce, 1955)
and Brook and co-workers in the United States (e.g., Brook et aI., 1962; Ogawa and Brook, 1964). To
describe all three components of the total electric field, that is the induction and radiation fields as well
as the electrostatic field, a 'charge moment equation' approximation has generally been used (e. g.,
Schon land et aI., 1938; Morrison, 1953; Iwata, 1970). This approach is most accurate in describing fields
from lightning beyond about 50 km (McLain and Uman, 1971) and hence has been most often employed
to compute radiation fields (e. g., Dennis and Pierce, 1964; Hill, 1966). An exact expression for the electric
field at any distance from a straight, vertical lightning channel above a perfectly conducting earth was
first published by McLain and Uman (1971). Recently, sub-microsecond time-scale electric field meas-
urements (Fisher and Uman, 1972; Uman et aI., 1973a; Lin and Uman, 1973) and appropriate theory
(Uman and McLain, 1970; Uman et aI., 1973 b) have made possible the determination oflightning return-
stroke currents from measured electric fields.
Until the 1970's, essentially all measurements of the close magnetic fields due to lightning made on
a time-scale fine enough to record stroke properties were due to Norinder and co-workers in Sweden
(e. g., N orinder and Dahle, 1945). Unfortunately, the analysis they used to determine lightning stroke
currents from measured magnetic fields was in error (Uman and McLain, 1969). Recent theory and
measurements (Uman and McLain, 1969; Uman and McLain, 1970; Krider and Noggle, 1975; Uman
et aI., 1975a) have shown how this can be done properly.
In the present paper, we first develop exact expressions for the electric and magnetic fields due to an
idealized lightning channel. Next, these exact expressions are used to derive the 'moment equations'.
Third, lightning return stroke models are considered, and formulas developed relating measured fields
to return-stroke currents. Finally, computer calculations of predicted return-stroke fields are given and
compared with measurement.
Exact Expressions
A general solution to Maxwell's equations in free space for electric field intensity E and magnetic
flux density 13 is
~ ~ aA
E=-V4>-- [1J
at
[2J
*) Invi ted Paper.
597
where the scalar potential 4J and the vector potential A are given by
4J(r, t) = _1_ J p(r', t - Ric) dV' [3]
4n60 Y' R
A(r, t) = ~ J J(f, t - Ric) dV' [4]

4n Y' R
with
~ ~ 1 o4J
V·A+---=O [5]
c2 ot
and the geometry as shown in Fig. 1 (Stratton, 1941). In [3] and [4] p is the electric charge density,
J the current density, c the speed of light in vacuum, 6 0 the permittivity of free space, and Ilo the per-
meability of free space.
SOURCE
FIELD
POINT
Fig. 1. Geometry applicable to solution of Maxwelfs equations given in eq. [1]-[5]
TH
CONDUCTING
PlANE
1
I
-!-
or
I
I
.....I
Fig. 2. Idealized vertical lightning channel and its image. Definition of geometrical factors used in text
598
Consider a straight vertical lightning of height H above a perfectly conducting ground plane as shown
schematically in Fig. 2. Boundary conditions at the plane are satisfied by adding the image source shown
dashed in Fig. 2. The radius of the lightning cross-section is very small (centimeters) compared to the
wavelength of any radiation under consideration (tens of meters or more). The current at any height
will be assumed to be some arbitrary function i(z, t) which is zero everywhere at t = O. With the geometry
of Fig. 2,;" = za z , and the differential current source J(r', t - Rlc)dV' becomes i(z, t - Rlc)dzlL
The vector potential can now be found using [4], and the magnetic flux density found from the vector
potential using [2]. The details ofthis calculation are given by Uman et al. (1975 b). The resultant magnetic
field at a point on the plane a distance D from the base of the lightning is
J.!o H sinO J.!o H sinO 0
B",(D, t) =- S - 2 - i(z, t - Ric) dz + - S - - -0 [i(z, t - Ric)] dz. [6]
2n 0 R 2n 0 cR t
The first term on the right of [6] is the induction field, the second term the radiation field.
The electric field can be computed from [1] starting with A from [4] and using [5] in the form
t
cp(r, t) = - c2 S j7 . A dt' . [7]

o
The details of this calculation are also given by Uman et al. (1975b). The result is
EAD, t) = --
1 [HS (2 - 3 sin 2 0)
3
t
Si(z, 1: - Ric) d1: dz
2n8 o 0 R 0
HS (2 - 3 sin 2 0) . HS sin 2 0 oi(z, t - Ric) ]

+ 2 I(Z, t - Ric) dz - -2- 0 dz . [8]
o cR 0 cRt
The first term on the right of [8] is the electrostatic field, the second the induction or intermediate field,
and the third term the radiation field.
For the case that the same net charge passes through each point on the idealized channel, that is, an
effective point charge is moved from the top to the bottom of the channel, the final value for the electro-
static (and the total) field is derivable from [8] as
1 QH
Ez(D, OJ) = 2n8 o (H 2 + D2)3/2 [9]
where Q is the charge transferred. This is the electrostatic expression used by Wilson (1916,1920) and
others after him to determine the charge transferred in a lightning discharge.
Moment Approximations
We consider now two approximations to [6] and [8], the 'current moment' and the 'charge moment'
equations. For the first approximation, we consider the case D ~ H so that 0 ~ t and R in the denom-
inator of the integrals is roughly constant at D. Thus [6] and [8] become
B (D,t)~-
J.!o [MJt)
- - +1 -dMc(t)]
-- [10]
'" 4n D2 cD dt
1 [1 t Mc(t) 1 dMe(t) ]
Ez(D,t)~ - - - - - S M J r ) d 1 : + -2 - + - - - [11]
4n8 o D3 0 CD2 c D dt
where the current moment Me is defined as

H
Me = 2 S i(z, t - Ric) dz. [12]

o
Note that in evaluating [12] the distance R(z) to each current element is taken into account. Thus the
validity of [10] and [11] is independent of how rapidly as a function of time the current waveform
changes. Eqs. [10]-[12] are the current moment equations.
599
The second approximation to [6] and [8], the charge moment equations, is that which has been used
primarily in the lightning literature. These equations take the form
~~
B4>(D, t) - 41t
[_1_
D2
dM(t) _1_ ddt2M(t) ]
dt + cD
2
[13]
E.(D, t) ~ _ _1_ [M(t) + _1_ dM(t) + _1_ d 2 M(t) ] [14]

41t8o D3 CD2 dt c2 D dt 2
with the charge dipole moment defined as

H
M(t) = 2 J PI(Z, t - D/c) zdz [15]
o
where PI is the charge per unit length along the channel. McLain and Uman (1971) have derived detailed
criteria which must be satisfied if [13] - [15] are to be valid approximations to [6] and [8]. Reasonable
working criteria for the validity of the charge moment equations for the case of lightning return-stroke
fields are: (a) D ~ H and (b) the significant wavelengths generated by the channel current must be
greater than H 2 /2D. These criteria are less restrictive than those generally stated in the literature (e.g.,
Chapman, 1939; Uman, 1969). As a practical matter, [13]-[15] produce adequate approximations to
return-stroke fields produced by lightning at D > 50 km.
Return-Stroke Models
To compute return-stroke fields using [6] and [8] or the appropriate moment approximation equations
it is necessary to know i(z, t) and the return-stroke velocity v(t). In all models the return-stroke wavefront
is assumed to begin at the ground and propagate upward, the current being zero above the wavefront.
The available information on return-stroke velocity is meager (Schonland et aI., 1935; Schonland, 1956).
This information indicates that strokes subsequent to the first in multiple-stroke flashes have roughly
constant two-dimensional velocities ranging from 2.4 x 107 to 1.1 X 10 8 m/sec. For first return-strokes,
velocity is constant between major branches and generally decreases in the upward direction. A value
of 1 x 108 m/sec is typical near the ground and 4 x 10 7 m/sec near the cloud. Return-stroke wavefront
luminosity is roughly the same as a function of height for subsequent strokes and is roughly constant
between major branches of first strokes (Schonland, 1956). Wavefront luminosity is probably related to
return-stroke velocity.
The general features of the lightning return-stroke current at ground have been determined from
measurements made on instrumented tall structures which are struck by lightning (e. g., Berger and
Vogelsanger, 1965, Berger, 1972). The current rises to a peak value oftens of kiloamperes in microseconds
followed by a slower decay in tens of microseconds to half value, the total duration of the current being
of the order of 1 msec.
The first model of the return-stroke to be used for the ca1culationoflightning fields was due to Bruce
and Golde (1941). In the Bruce-Golde model the channel current is assumed uniform with height below
the return-stroke wavefront. Bruce and Golde (1941) also proposed analytical expressions for current
(the well-known double exponential) and for the first-stroke velocity (exponential decay with height).
While the Bruce-Golde model has the advantage of simplicity and has been widely used, Bruce and Golde
(1941) themselves pointed out that the actual return-stroke current could not be uniform with height
but rather must be a wave of current propagating up the channel. They further stated that their simple
model would yield essentially the same results, to the accuracy then desired, as the more realistic model.
Dennis and Pierce (1964) have modified the Bruce-Golde model to make it more physically reasonable
and have also briefly considered a current-wave or transmission-line model.
In the present paper calculations will be presented only for a transmission-line return-stroke model,
a model in which a fixed current waveshape propagates up the channel at velocity v behind the return-
stroke wavefront. In this model the initial current rise to peak is to be associated with the return-stroke
wavefront breakdown (and is related to the wavefront luminosity) while the current after peak is de-
600
termined both by the breakdown and by the charge previously deposited on the channel by the leader.
We use the transmission-line model because (1) it is the most physically reasonable of the available
models, and (2) it provides the best agreement with experiment (Uman, et aI., 1973a). For this model
and for the case of a constant velocity (apparently a good approximation for subsequent strokes and
perhaps for first strokes until the first branch is reached, roughly 10 I!sec)
i(z,t) = i(t - ~)- [16J
Consider the case where D p H. Then () ~ I, R ~ D, and the radiation fields in [6J and [8J are
dominant
flo 1 HS oi(t - zlv - D/c)
B.p ~ BRAD(D, t) = - - dz [17J
2n cD 0 at
1 1 H oi(t - zlv - Dlc)
E. ~ ERAD(D, t) = - - - -2- S at dz. [18J
2nco c D 0
Now, since v is constant,

oi(t - zlv) oi(t - zlv)
at =- v oz [19J
For t < Hlv + Dlc the upper limit to the integrals in [17J and [18J can be replaced by the maximum
height from which radiation can be seen at distance D at time, Zmax = v(t - Dlc). Above Zmax the current
is zero since the front of the current pulse has not passed Zmax at time t - DIe. Thus, using [19J, [17J
can be written
flo v Z=ax ~,,(t-D/c) oi(t - zlv - Dlc)
ERAD(D, t) = - - S dz [20J
2nD .~o fu
or
flo v .
ERAD(D, t) = - - - l(t - Dlc). [21J
2nD
A similar expression is obtained for the magnetic radiation field.
flo v
BRAD(D, t) = - - i(t - Dlc). [22J
2ncD
It follows from [21 J and [22J that the electric and magnetic radiation fields have the same shape as the
current pulse propagating up the channel as long as the pulse has not reached the top of the channeL It
is interesting to note that the more sophisticated transmission-line model predicts a simpler relation
between current and field than does the Bruce-Golde model (Uman and McLain, 1970).
For the case t > Hlv + Die, zmax = H, and [17J and [18J can be integrated to yield
BRAD = ~ [i(t - Dlc) - i(t - Hlv - Dlc)J [23J

2ncD
ERAD = - ~ [i(t - Dlc) - i(t - Hlv - Dlc)J. [24J

2nD
Thus, beginning at t = Hlv + Dlc the radiation field waveforms exhibit a negative excursion whose
shape is the same as the initial positive excursion. The result is the "mirror image" of the initial field
peak often seen for distant waveforms. In this analysis, we have treated the vertical channel and its
current as abruptly terminated at H. An essentially identical result to [23] and [24] is obtained if the
distant channel becomes abruptly horizontal at H. A more complex termination of the lightning current
can be treated in a straightforward manner. It is not known how the actual lightning terminates in the
cloud.
601
Calculated and Measured Fields
Assuming that the simple transmission-line model is valid and that the electric and magnetic field
waveforms are not distorted in propagating along the earth's surface (Fisher and Uman, 1972; Uman
et aI., 1973a), we can obtain current waveshapes from the measured radiation fields of distant lightning
using [21] or [22]. In principle, simultaneous measurement of electric and magnetic fields from a
given close lightning provides sufficient information to determine both v (assumed constant) and i(t)
from [6] and [8] using iterative computer techniques. In practice, v and i(t) can sometimes be determined
uniquely by only a close electric field measurement (Uman et aI., 1973b); and a given simultaneous
electric and magnetic field measurement often can be theoretically reproduced by a range of v's and i(t)'s.
e -3
_' .- .. _.. - .. - .. -
~
N -2 ............ -.. I
..
Q ~-~ I
.................... ,.
-
)( -I :~:::······-·················(·i
UJ ........ _._ .-._ .....
I: .......
0
+1 ,'i.L,.-.
.-.-.--
+2
12
10
8
(e)
N 6
e
.....
J:I 4
~
... 2
Q
)( 0
to
·2
.4
·6
i i i I I i i i i i ii'
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
TIME I,.sec)
Fig. 3. Calculated electric and magnetic fields at various distances for the transmission-line model, the return-
stroke current shown, and a return-stroke velocity of 8 x 107 m/sec. The field values scale linearly with the
peak current. Note that electric fields in the negative z-direction, the initial field direction due to the lowering
of negative charge, are plotted above the abscissa
602
Currents and velocities in lightning from primarily one storm at Kennedy Space Center, Florida,
have been given by Uman et al. (1973b). Uman et al. (1973a) also present calculations of electric field
as a function of distance and return-stroke velocity for typical currents observed in the Kennedy Space
Center area.
From thousands of close and distance lightning electric and magnetic field measurements made near
Gainesville, Florida, a representative return-stroke velocity and a representative current waveshape
(valid for and arbitrarily terminated at 60llsec) have been obtained (Uman et aI., 1975a). In Fig. 3,
electric and magnetic field calculations are shown for this representative current waveshape (the value
of peak current has been arbitrarily chosen) and a representative velocity of 8 x 107 m/sec.
Current waveshapes and velocities determined from the field measurements discussed above appear
to vary over roughly the same ranges as determined using other measuring techniques. Current risetimes
range from a fraction of a microsecond to a few microseconds, fall-times to half-value from a few micro-
seconds to several tens of microseconds. Velocities range from a few times 10 7 m/sec to essentially the
speed of light. Channels with non-vertical orientation and other departures from the idealized model
may contribute to this apparent range in velocities (Uman et aI., 1973 b).
Measured electric and magnetic field waveforms showing the mirror-image effect are given in Fig. 4.
The mirror-image effect does not alsways occur for distant (over 100 km) waveforms, presumably because
the actual channel termination is different from that of the assumed model. The mirror-image effect is
seldom seen in lightning closer than about 20 km. Work is in progress in an effort to understand this
observation.
DISTANCE- 10010 200km
Fig. 4. Return-stroke electric (E) field and magnetic (B) field waveforms for a two-stroke flash in the distance
range 100 to 200 km. Corresponding E and B fields are given the same number. The oscilloscope trace for an E
field waveform is indented relative to and above the trace for the corresponding B field waveform. The time
between return-strokes is best obtained from measuring the time between electric field triggers since the magnetic
field zero level fluctuates slightly due to 60 Hz pickup. The negative initial electric field polarity indicates the
lowering of negative charge (Eqs. [8] and [21]). The magnetic field polarity is determined by the location ofthe
lightning since the magnetic loop antennas are directional. The data were obtained with a dual beam
oscilloscope viewed by a streak camera whose film moved perpendicular to the ascilloscope sweep direction
In general, the measured waveforms at ranges further than a few kilometers are well predicted by
theory. Examples of typical measured waveforms from close lightning are shown in Fig. 5. The primary
apparent discrepancy between the transmission-line theory and measurement is the absence in most
of the very close measured electric fields of the pronounced humps predicted to occur at about 20 Ilsec
(Fig. 3). However, the number of very close flashes observed has been relatively small, and hence much
more data are needed before a definitive statement regarding very close field magnitudes and waveshapes
can be made. Computer calculations show that the predicted electrostatic humps can be made less
pronounced or eliminated by invoking a more complex transmission-line model in which the current
and the return-stroke velocity vary with height, effects which certainly occur in first return-strokes.
Computer calculations suggest that if electric and magnetic field measurements are made simul-
taneouslyat 1 to 10 km and at about 50 km from a given lightning the simple transmission-line model
603
.===
=~
;
}somsec U
:1fl! =cv~-_ _-=--
Time
~
Fig. 5. Return-stroke electric and magnetic field waveforms for a three-stroke flash at about 6 km. Comments
on Fig. 4 caption are applicable except that electric field due to the lowering of negative charge is displayed on
oscilloscope with initial positive polarity for purposes of clarity
can be tested and, if valid, a unique v and i(t) can be obtained. Measurements of this type are currently
being conducted by researchers at the University of Florida and the University of Arizona.
Acknowledgment
The researchers who have collaborated significantly on the work reported in this paper are D. K. McLain,
E. P. Krider, C. Noggle, R. J. Fisher, Y. T. Lin, R. D. Brantley, and J. A. Tiller. The research reported in this
paper was supported in part by funds from the National Science Foundation (GA-36835X), the Office of Naval
Research (NO 14-68-A-0173-0018), and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NGR-10-005-169).
References
1. Berger, K., Bull. Schweiz. Elektrotech. Ver. 63,1403 (1972). - 2. Berger, K. and E. Vogelsanger, Bull. Schweiz.
Elektrotech. Ver. 56, 2 (1965). - 3. Brook, M., N. Kitagawa, and E. J. Workman, J. Geophys. Res. 67, 649
(1962). - 4. Bruce, C. E. R. and R. H. Golde, J. lEE 88, 487 (1941). - 5. Chapman, F. w., Proc. Phys. Soc. 51,
876 (1939). - 6. Dennis, A. S. and E. T. Pierce, Radio Sci. 68D, 777 (1964). - 7. Fisher, R. J. and M. A. Uman,
J. Geophys. Res. 77, 399 (1972). - 8. HiI/, R. D., J. Geophys. Res. 71, 1963 (1966). - 9. Iwata, A., Proc. Res.
lnst. Atmos., Nagoya Univ., 17, 115 (1970). - 10. Krider, E. P. and C. Noggle, J. Appl. Meteor. 14,000,
(1975). - 11. Lin, Y. T. and M. A. Uman, J. Geophys. Res. 78, 7911 (1973). - 12. Malan, D. J. and B. F. J.
Schon land, Proc. Roy. Soc., London, Ser. A, 191, 485 (1947). - 13. McLain, D. K. and M. A. Uman, J. Geo-
phys. Res. 76, 2101 (1971). - 14. Morrison, R. B., Phil. Mag. 44, 980 (1953). - 15. Norinder, H., Ark. Geofys.
2, 423 (1956). - 16. Norinder, H. and O. Dahle, Ark. Mat. Astron. Fys. 32A, 1 (1945). - 17. Ogawa, T. and
M. Brook, J. Geophys. Res. 69, 5141 (1964). - 18. Pierce, E. T., Quart. 1. Roy. Met. Soc. 81, 211 (1955). -
19. Schonland, B. F. J., Handb. Phys. 22, 576 (1956). - 20. Schon land, B. F. J., D. J. Malan, and H. Col/ens,
Proc. Roy. Soc., London, Ser. A, 152, 595 (1935). - 21. Schonland, B. F. J., D. B. Hodges, and H. Col/ens,
Proc. Roy. Soc., London, Ser. A, 166, 55 (1938). - 22. Stratton, J. A., Electromagnetic Theory (New York,
1941). - 23. Uman, M. A., Lightning, 61 (New York, 1969). - 24. Uman, M. A. and D. K. McLain, J. Geo-
phys. Res. 74, 6899 (1969). - 25. Uman, M. A. and D. K. McLain, J. Geophys. Res. 75, 5143 (1970). - 26. Uman,
M. A., D. K. McLain, R. J. Fisher, and E. P. Krider, J. Geophys. Res. 78, 3523 (1973a). - 27. Uman, M. A.,
D. K. McLain, R. J. Fisher"and E. P. Krider, J. Geophys. Res. 78, 3530 (1973b). - 28. Uman, M. A., R. D.
Brantley, Y. T. Lin, J. A. Tiller, E. P. Krider, and D. K. McLain, J. Geophys. Res. 80, 373 (1975a). - 29. Uman,
604
M. A .. D. K. McLain. and E. P. Krider. Am. J. Phys. 43. 33 (1975b). - 30. Wilson. C. T. R .• Proc. Roy.
Soc., London, Ser. A., 92, 555 (1916). - 31. Wilson. C. T. R .. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., London, Ser. A, 221,
73 (1920). - 32. Wormell. T. w.. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., London, Ser. A., 238, 249 (1939).
Discussion
R. Hill, Montecito, California, USA:
In your moment equation you took care of the ground by a factor of 2. I didn't notice how you took care of
the ground in your first equations.
Uman, Gainesville, Florida, USA:
The ground was assumed to be an infinite conducting plane, and was replaced by an image line source beneath
the ground plane. We computed the fields from the channel plus the image. That is, we used the method of images.
R. Hill:
So you integrated from minus infinity to plus infinity?
Uman:
From minus H to plus H. where H is the channel height.
Horner, Slough, Bucks, England:
I wonder if Uman could say how the non-uniform current model fits in with Kirchhoff's law of current
continuity.
Uman:
The calculations satisfy the continuity equation. If the current out of a volume is more than the current into
a volume, there's some net charge which leaves the volume. Whether we remove all the charges that initially reside
on the leader channel may be your question. The answer is: We do not. When one uses the current pulse model,
the charges lowered are the charges under that current pulse, and are effectively transferred from the top to the
bottom of the channel. To be more realistic, we will have to add a current later on in time, say, after the 60
microseconds at which we now terminate the current in order to account for the charge that is initially deposited
on the leader.
Right now, we are really concentrating on the early part of the waveform and trying to determine the peak
current and current risetime. But what you say is right. We do not get all the charge off the leader channel.
I wonder if you could give us some idea of what you think the reason is that the mirror-image effect up close
seems to disappear.
Uman:
I wish I knew. Another thing that seems to happen is that mirror images show up on the magnetic fields more
clearly than on the electric fields. I do not understand that either. Mirror images would not be there at all if the
channel does not turn sideways, that is, if the channel just goes upward and divides into many parts. We originally
thought that when the channel gets very far away, the effect of the channel going up at, say, 25 degrees above the
horizontal looks more pronounced in the production of a mirror image than when the lightning is close. But the
effects we calculate, assuming non-vertical channel sections, do not seem to be strong enough to account for as
much disappearance of the mirror image as there is.

I have the feeling that there are two misleading concepts introduced in the mechanism of the return stroke
by your reference to the transmission line and the mirror effect. In the transmission line concept, the propagation
velocity of the return stroke up the lightning channel would be given by the capacitance, resistance and induct-
ance of the channel. With reasonable values for these parameters, the propagation velocity would come close
to the speed of light. The propagation velocity of the return stroke, however, defined as the speed of brightness
advancing up the channel, is usually only 1/3 to 1/10 of the speed of light. I think that the brightness is caused
by intense ionization as charge flows up the channel and the propagation velocity reflects the speed with which
the ionization progresses. This phenomenon belongs into the realm of plasma physics and the propagation speed
is governed more by plasma physics than by electrotechnic parameters. The second concept which you describe
as the mirror effect at the end of the lightning channel reminds me of a reflected wave on the open end of a
conductor. The term mirror effect as I know it originates in electrostatic and means that electric charges are
60S
mirrored on a grounded conducting plane. The influence of the plane can be calculated by superimposing the
electric field of the mirror changes over the electric field of the original charges. I have the impression that
your mirror effect is somewhat different from the electrostatic concept.
Uman:
It is not a reflected wave but a mirror image because the current turns off. The current is assumed to be
terminated perfectly at the top of the channel.
Author's address:
M.A. Uman
Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida 32611
USA
606
Lightning Ground Stroke Charge Location from
Multistation Electrostatic Field Change Measurements
P. Krehbiel, M. Brook, and R. McCrory
With 5 figures
Abstract
Charge and position determinations are presented for two lightning flashes to ground involving multiple
return strokes and continuing currents. The determinations are derived from quantitative measurements of the
electrostatic field change produced by the flashes at eight ground stations in the vicinity of the storm. The data
analysis is based upon a simple point charge model for the combined leader-return stroke process.
The total charge neutralized by each flash was greater than 45 coulombs, at a height of 4.5 to 6 km above local
terrain (1.8 km MSL). By comparison, the environmental 0 °C isotherm was at 3.2 km above terrain. The charge
neutralized by successive strokes within a flash exhibits substantial horizontal displacement of up to 7 km at
more or less constant elevation, both ascending slightly and descending. Continuing currents to ground of from
less than 95 up to 590 amperes were observed in the flashes.
Z-KM Y-KM
• CUTcrs IGHT
.~
~
•
BCONDOCK
ABANDONED
HOUSE
+5:
.~
•
GUT IERREZ
-5: 5: X-KM
•
STROZZI
•
KELLY
FLASH 188
STRDKE 3
G~9 • I COULOMB
TELEMETRY RECE I V I NG AND
•
REMOTE CONTROL SITE
WRTER CRNYON
-5:
•
Fig. 1. Map of station positions in plan view, and scatter diagrams of the position determinations for a typical
ground stroke, both in x - y plan projection (lower) and x - z projection (upper, z-scale upper left)
607
If one assumes that the combined leader-return stroke process of a lightning discharge to ground can
be represented as neutralizing a point or spherical charge distribution within the cloud, the field change
vs position on an ideal ground plane beneath the cloud would be given by
.dE. = _1_ 2Q zo [1]

, 4ne o [(xo - X;l2 + (Yo - yy + Z~]3/2
where X;, y; is the observer's location and x o, Yo, zo, Q are the equivalent point charge coordinates.
From measurements of .dE; at four locations (i = 1,4) one can analytically invert the eq. [1] to obtain
the charge and position coordinates associated with the stroke (Krehbiel, McCrory, and Brook; 1974).
If measurements are available from more than four locations, the additional information can be used to
check the validity of the model and in general to obtain a better estimate of the charge distribution.
In this paper we present the results of some ground stroke charge position determinations of the type
outlined above, based upon electrostatic field change data obtained from 8 ground stations. Previous
multi station studies aimed at obtaining solutions to eq. [1] (Workman, Holzer and Pelsor, 1942; Reynolds
and Neill, 1955) were somewhat successful in describing the relative orientation of charge "centers"
OUTOFSIGHT
X )1
X II
1300NDOCK
x)
GUTIERREZ
x I
STROZZI
x I
KELLY
x 3
FLRSH 188
Fig. 2. Electric field change vs time for Flash 188
608
involved in lightning flashes, but it is not possible to determine the effects of error considerations upon
their results. In the present investigation, particular attention is being paid to the minimization of errors
and to evaluation of their effects.
Ogawa and Brook (1969) review the studies of Malan and Schonland (1951) and others relating to the
location and motion of charge "centers" associated with lightning discharges. They conclude that the
evidence does not necessarily support the findings of Malan and Schonland that negative charge lowered
to earth in a flash to ground is distributed along a nearly vertical column, and cite the results of others
as well as their own which show that the charge displacement from stroke to stroke has a significant
horizontal component, often greater than the vertical component. Pierce (1955) reported interstroke
field changes (i-changes) that were predominantly horizontal, implying a horizontal displacement of the
negative charge. The discharges reported in this paper exhibit much greater displacement in the horizontal
than in the vertical, although there may well be vertical motion over short distances (~ 1 km).
Fig. 1 shows a plan view of the station locations. At each station an exposed plate connected to a
charge amplifier served as a sensor of the field change. Data from each station was telemetered to a
central recording site, from which it was possible to remotely control individual station sensitivities.
For a particular stroke to ground, different combinations of 4,1E values from the 8 available stations
of data result in a scatter diagram of position determinations such as shown in Fig. 1. The root mean
square (rms) scatter of the points is indicated by the ellipse. Points lying outside the main cluster are
Z-KM Y-KM
•
SD
STROKE I ~
*
a=9.S "-....
STROKE 3
2-"""(9
a=9.1~ •
STROKE
Q;r2."i ..........
• (ONT I NU I NG (URRENT (~)

GUT ~ -a-S.B (DUL IN I~ MSE( (~B1 R)
- a-I ~ • 2 (OUL SY 21 MSE( (~E'J R)
y/
~
-Q'22.~ (OUL SY ~2 MSE( (~36 A)
«UMULRT I VE)
-!; !; X-KI1
ST +
K
F'LASH 188
T= 12:!; I: 111111
GTDT=Y8 .!; CDUL
+
R[([ I V I NG S iTt
-!; W(+
Fig. 3. Position and charge determinations for Flash 188, both in x - y plan projection (lower) and x - z
projection (upper)
609
associated with combinations of stations that are sensitive to small errors in the measured liE's, usually
because the stations tend to lie upon a circle, which produces a singularity in the analytical position
solution.
Field change data from two multiple-stroke ground discharges that occurred over the network is
presented in Figs. 2 and 4. For this data, an upward liE is in the direction offair-weather field, indicative
of decreasing ( - ) or increasing ( + ) charge overhead. The discharges were part of a storm which was
situated over the Strozzi, Gutierrez and Abandoned House Stations and which caused heavy rain to
fall at those stations (25 - 50 mm accumulation). Radar echoes from the storm extended to 10 km above
terrain, tilting westward and southward with increasing height in response to a small wind shear from
the east that existed at upper cloud levels.
Position and charge determinations vs stroke order for the individual ground strokes of these flashes
are shown in Figs. 3 and 5. Only the ellipse indicating the rms scatter of points and an asterisk of size
proportional to the charge value are plotted for each stroke.
For flash number 188, initial breakdown within the cloud culminated in a stepped leader to ground
39 msec before the first return stroke. The leader contacted ground in close proximity to the Abandoned
House (AH) Station, as evidenced by the sharp negative excursion on the field record of that station in
OUTOFSIGHT
X 311
s:
I
HOUSE
X3
GUTIERREZ
X I
STROZZI
X I
FLRSH 2a9
Fig. 4. Electric field change vs time for Flash 209. (The (-) excursion on the Windmill record is an artifice)
610
response to approaching (-) charge overhead. The first three return strokes of the flash neutralized
charge above and to the southwest of this station. The fourth return stroke, which neutralized charge
4 Ian displaced from that of the third stroke, was preceded by a stepped leader of 10 msec duration.
The final fifth return stroke maintained a long continuing current, with m-components easily visible
on the AH record. Charge position determinations reported for the continuing current are cumulative,
i. e. they represent mean values from the beginning of the continuing field change.
The second flash, number 209, neutralized charge in a slightly downward spiraling pattern, starting
in the region active during the final phases of the 188 flash. Stepped leaders preceded each of the first
two return strokes, which went to ground in a southwesterly direction giving rise to similar field change
patterns over the network.
Minimum scatter of the position determinations was obtained for measurements of the combined
leader-return stroke field change, made by extrapolating the incoming and outgoing interstroke j-
changes to the time of the return stroke itself. For continuing current field changes, extrapolation ofthe
incomingj-change as a baseline for LIE measurements vs time resulted in the least scatter. This indicates
that the junction breakdown process causing the j-change continues independently during a leader-
return stroke event.
Z-KM Y-KM
.005
/B® 3
~
Ii!!:W"
-8s
•
I!D
R~ tS
•
6UT
STROKE 3 (ONTI NU I N6 (URRENT ('0

( ;"S.7 ;1"""&-2.7 (OUL IN 17 IISE( (IS9 R)
;"3.9 (OUL I!Y 'U 115E( (9S R)
/ /
STROKE 2", t:i::\ «UIIULRT I VE )
a-!l.3 ~~ ._
-S c:Y. S X-KM
~
STROKE 1 /
a-2&.7 FLASH 21119
T=12:S2:36
!lroT>Y3 . S CDUl
•
R[(EIVIN6 SITE
-S
Fig. 5. Position and charge determinations for Flash 209. The well-defined L1 E changes result in fairly consistent
position determinations
611
One of the striking features ofthe results is that the charge involved in strokes to ground was situated
at more or less constant elevation (~ 5 km above terrain) and that stroke-to-stroke motion of the dis-
charge had substantial horizontal components. The environmental ooe isotherm during these storms
was 3.2 km above terrain, placing the charge at roughly the -lOoe isotherm inside the cloud. The
first stroke of flash 188, reported to be centered at ~ 3.2 km above terrain, is not necessarily an exception
to this because those results were obtained using LIE measurements for the return stroke (step) change
only, exclusive of the stepped leader. Since the stepped leader has distributed (-) charge down the
channel, a lowering of the center of gravity of charge and a departure from the assumed point charge
distribution would be expected, both of which are observed. (Attempts to include the stepped leader
change into the data Were unsuccessful, presumably due to the complex initial breakdown and long
duration of the stepped leader.)
Of primary concern in the data analysis has been the question of validity of the point- or spherical
charge distribution model. Examination of the model validity is made difficult by the presence of random
measurement errors (~ few percent). For large amplitude field changes the errors are limited by un-
certainties in the relative station sensitivity caused by slight differences of field geometry at each sensor
plate. Within the limits of error, the field changes as measured are reasonably consistent with the point
charge model, although not entirely so.
It appears that charge "center" determinations based upon multistation electrostatic field change
measurements can provide a useful tool for investigation of the electrical structure of thunderstorms.
It is hoped that such results can eventually be related to the physical and dynamical structure of the
storm to yield greater insight into the origin and effects of cloud electrification.
Acknowledgments
The work reported herein was supported by the National Science Foundation under Grants GA-32591 and
GA-18664, and by the Office of Naval Research under Contracts Nonr Nooo 14-67-A-0267-Q004 and Nonr 815(03).
References
1. Krehbiel, P., R. McCrory, and M. Brook, The determination of lightning charge location from multistation
electrostatic field change measurements. Preprints of Tucson Conference on Cloud Physics (Boston, Mass.,
1974). - 2. Malan, D. J. and B. F. J. Schonland, Proc. Roy. Soc., London, A, 209, 158 (1951). - 3. Ogawa, T.
and M. Brook, Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc. 95, 513 (1969). - 4. Pierce, E. T., Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc. 81, 229
(1955). - 5. Reynolds, S. E. and H. Neill, J. Met. 12, 1 (1955). - 6. Workman, E. J., R. E. Holzer, and G. T. Pelsor,
The electrical structure of thunderstorms. Nat'! Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Tech. Note 864, 47 pp. Available
from National Technical Information Service (U.S. Dept. Commerce) (Springfield. 1942).
Discussion
I would like to know if any attempt was ever made to estiinate the horizontal distance using the well-known
lightning to thunder delay method.
Krehbiel, Socorro, New Mexico, USA:

Thunder data were not recorded. It would certainly be nice to compare charge center locations with channel
reconstruction techniques utilizing thunder (Few, Holmes) and VHF radiation pulses (Proctor) for a given dis-
charge.
Magaziner, Boulder, Colorado, USA:

You show the scatter you got in the position of the lightning. Could you say something about the scatter and
the values of Q?
Krehbiel:
The root mean square scatter in Q values is typically 10 - 20 % for strokes whose electric field change data
is reasonably consistent with the point charge model, such as in Flash 209. In general, the greater the scatter in
the position determinations, the greater is the fractional root mean square Q scatter, as would be expected.
612
I would like to say that Krehbiel has possibly underestimated the accuracy of his determinations. The various
station sensors have not been corrected for small differences in sensitivity. I think that the scatter, in the determina-
tion of the 70 different combinations of field values taken four at a time will be reduced when that is done. We
did not yet have the time to do it.
Authors' addresses:
P. Krehbiel M. Brook
New Mexico Institute of Mining New Mexico Institute of Mining
and Technology and Technology
Socorro, New Mexico 87801 Campus Station
USA Socorro, New Mexico 87801
USA
R. McCrory
Research and Development
New Mexico Institute of Mining
and Technology
USA
613
On Lightning Discharges in Winter Thunderstorm *)
T. Takeuti and M. Nakano
With 6 figures
Abstract
Observations oflightning discharges in winter thunderstorms were made during 1972/73 and 1973/74 at Unoke
near Kanazawa. The main characteristics observed are as follows.
A diurnal variation of discharge frequencies does not show peak activity in winter afternoon.
The thunderstorms are divided into two groups with respect to number of discharges a day. One group is
characterized by the discharge number of one or two and the other by about ten times the former.
The polarity of field change does apparently not change with the distance between the observing site and the
discharge, this points to a horizontal channel of cloud discharge.
Only one out of ten ground discharges brought down a negative charge from cloud to the earth, as usual ground
discharges do in summer, and the other nine lowered a positive charge.
When a very cold air mass originated at Siberia passes over the Japan Sea towards the Japan Islands,
the lower part of the air mass is supplied by Tsushima Warm Current water vapor and heat. This is
a cause ofthunderc1oud development in winter at the coast of the Japan Sea. At Unoke near Kanazawa
which is situated at the coast of the Japan Sea and in a region of frequent thunderstorm activity, our
first observations of winter thunderstorms were done during 1972/73. Some results were already
reported (Takeuti et aI., 1973).
However, because discharge frequency in winter thunderstorms is lower than in summer storms,
we have not obtained sufficient data in this first observation. For this reason, similar observations
were repeated in winter 1973/74 at the same site. The following dis9ussion is based on data obtained
during both winters.
~ 100
>-
~
0 80
~
cr 60
0
I-
(J)
cr
w 40
0
z
::::>
I 20
I-
0
-I 0 2 3
DAY
TIME FROM FRONT PASSAGE
Fig. 1. Occurrence probabilities of thunderstorms after frontal line passages
Thunderstorm activities
Fig. 1 shows a relationship between occurrence probabilities of thunderstorms within about 20 km
from the site and frontal lines passed through the site. Within 24 hours after the front passages, thun-
derstorms appeared with such a high probability as about 90 % and between 24 and 48 hours after the
*) The paper was presented by M. Takagi.
614
passages the probability is about 60 %. Thus, the winter thunderstorms are frontal ones, which can
also be proved by Fig. 2 showing no peak activity in the afternoon in contrast to the summer storms.
From Fig. 3, which shows a number of discharges per day observed within about 20 km from the site,
we can divide the winter storms into two groups. The weaker group is characterized by the discharge
number of one or two a day and the other intensive one is about ten times the former. The time intervals
between successive discharges are on the averge 3 min as shown in Fig. 4; the second peak in this
figure may reveal a time interval between successive cells.
5
{/)4
>-
~3
u.
02
o
ZI
6 12 18 24
JST
Fig. 2. Diurnal variation of thunderstorm activity. The ordinate is the number of days with thunderstorms at the
hour indicated on the abscissa in Japan Standard Time (= GMT + 9 hrs.)
5
4
~ 3
<l
a 2
LL.
0
I
0
z
0.
I , , 33
2 4 16 ex>
NO. o.F DISCHARGES / DAY
Fig. 3. Number of discharges per day observed within a distance of about 20 km from the measuring site
30.
(I)
l&J
Co!) 20.
a::
<l
:I:
U
(I)
0 10.
u.
0
0
z
MIN.
TIME INTERVAL BETWEEN DISCHARGES
Fig. 4. Time intervals between successive discharges
Characteristics of Discharges
The relationship between intensities of field changes due to lightning discharges and distance from the
site to the discharge points deduced by thunder observations is shown in Fig. 5, in which we cannot
find any apparent difference compared with the summer storms.
615
If most individual cloud discharges have vertical channels and the same dipole polarities, the polarities
of field changes due to those discharges should be inversed at some distance between the site and the
discharge points. Considering that the polarities of field changes due to ground discharges in winter
storms are in general negative, upward vector, as will be described afterwards, we can infer from Fig. 6
that the polarities of the field changes due to cloud discharges do in general not inverse with distance.
This fact is thought to reveal rather horizontal channels for most cloud discharges in winter storms.
....>E
30000
... ..'.
If)
IJJ
..: .
<!)
z 10000
<t
r
u
~
0 3000
...J
IJJ
u:: 1000
0.1 0.5 I 5 10 50
DISTANCE km
Fig. 5. Relationship between intensities of field changes due to discharges and distances from the site to discharge
points
en 5 0 - 0 POSITIVE
w ....... NEGATIVE
(!)
z 4
<[
x
u 3
Q
...J
UJ 2
u:
~
0
zd
DISTANCE km
Fig. 6. Relationship between polarities of field changes due to discharges and distances from the site to discharge
points
In general, negative charge in a thundercloud is brought down to the earth by a ground discharge.
The percentage of occurrence of the other case where a positive charge is brought down to the earth
has been reported to be only 3.4% in summer in Japan (Ishikawa, 1961). On the contrary, nine out often
ground discharges observed in those two winter seasons have brought down positive charges from the
cloud to the earth. This fact seems to be the highlight of this discussion.
The number of return strokes in the four ground discharges were always one and we could not
determine the multiplicities of the other six discharges because of saturations on the recording charts.
Acknowledgment
We are grateful to the members of the Ishikawa-ken Sand-dune Agricultural Experimental Station in Unoke
for their help with these observations.
References
1. Ishikawa. H.. Proc. Res. Inst. Atmos. Nagoya Univ. SA, 92 (1961). - 2. Takeuti. T .• M. Nakano. M. Nagatani.
and H. Nakada. J. Met. Soc. Japan 51, 494 (1973).
Discussion
Stringfellow, Lianferres, Mold, United Kingdom:
Would you give us some idea as to whether the winter thunderstorms occurred completely above the zero
degree isotherm?
616
Takagi, Toyokawa, Japan:
I'm not sure. But I think the reason for the difference is based on the fact that the ground surface temperature
is quite different between summer and winter. If the surface temperature is below zero, the structure of thunder-
clouds may be different. .
Since about 4 years we investigated winter thunderstorms. It is very interesting to see some differences between
the winter thunderstorms in Japan and the winter thunderstorms in Middle Europe. Each case of a winter thun-
derstorm was reported by all weather stations in a region about 100 kilometers round our station. That means,
all these weather stations could hear thunder. But in our station at Weissenau we heard, in most of these cases.
thunder only once or twice. That was one strange feature of our winter thunderstorms. The second observation
was that the field changes in all these cases were very small, much smaller than reported in the paper by Takeuti
and Nakano. The lightning counter in our institute, in many of these winter thunderstorms, did not count light-
ning at all. In most of the cases of winter thunderstorms the temperature near the ground was plus five degrees
Celsius just before the front passage and about zero degree after front passage. That means, in agreement with
the very low field changes, that the minus 10 degrees level was low and the charge conducted to the earth was
also low.
I see from your map that your station was close to the coast. Did the thunderstorm occur over the ocean, i.e.
the Sea of Japan or over land?
Takagi:
Usually thunderstorm activity begins on the coast and no thunderstorm activity is in the mountain area during
the winter season. I do not think that there is any storm activity over the sea surface. It is only over the coastal
land.
Authors' address:
T. Takeuti and M. Nakano
Res. Inst. of Atmospherics
Nagoya University
Toyokawa Aichi-ken 442
Japan
617
The Triggering of Lightning by Corona from Ice Hydrometeors or Colliding Raindrops*)
J. A. Crabb, R. F. Griffiths and J. Latham
Abstract
The mechanism by which a corona discharge, leading to the initiation of lightning, can be produced in the
intense electric fields of a thundercloud has not been revealed by previous studies. The process which has been
most generally favoured, in which corona is initiated by large individual raindrops, appears to require fields
which are considerably larger than those measured in thunderclouds.
Experiments have been carried out to determine the electric field, Ec, required to obtain corona from both ice
particles and colliding drop-pairs. In the former case it was found that corona currents of about 0.1 itA and above
could be obtained from ice particles a few millimeters in length for Ec ~4 x 10 5 V m -1 for values of tempera-
ture and pressure likely to occur in the mid-regions of a thundercloud. These currents were drastically reduced
if the temperature was below -18°C, owing to the reduction in surface conductivity suffered by the ice sample.
In the second set of experiments a pair of water drops, of radii R = 2.7 mm and r = 0.65 mm, collided with
a relative velocity 5.8 m s -1. Values of Ec ranged from ~ 5 x 10 5 V m -1 for head-on collisions to ~ 2.5 X 10 5
V m -1 for glancing collisions which produced, momentarily, long liquid filaments. This work shows that corona
may be produced in fields of the magnitude known to occur in thunderclouds by these two mechanisms, either
of which may provide the means of initiation of a lightning stroke.
The Problem of Lightning Initiation

A major difficulty in explaining the initiation of lightning lies in the fact that in order to account
for the development of the stepped leader one requires the existence of electric fields of about 2 x 106
V m -1 (Phelps,1974), whereas the largest reliably measured values of the electric fields existing in the
mid-regions ofa thundercloud do not exceed a value of about 4 x 10 5 V m- 1 (Wlnnet al.,1974). Clearly,
some means of intensifying the ambient field is required in order to explain this discrepancy. Many
investigators have favoured the suggestion that lightning is triggered by corona discharges emanating
from the surfaces of raindrops that are highly deformed by electrical forces (Loeb, 1966; Dawson and
Duff, 1970; Pierce, 1957). This mechanism was investigated experimentally by Richards and Dawson
(1971) who suspended large drops in a vertical wind tunnel at a pressure of about one atmosphere
in the presence of an electric field, and found that corona was induced by hydrodynamic instability
at the top surface of the drop under the influence of the electrical forces. For uncharged drops of radii
greater than 2 mm the critical field for corona onset was - 9.5 x 10 5 V m - 1. If the drop carried a
large charge of the appropriate sign, this value was reduced to - 5.5 X 10 5 V m -1. Further support
for the suggestion that corona could be the triggering mechanism came from the work of Phelps (1971,
1974) who showed that, at NTP, positive corona streamers will propagate indefinitely if the ambient
electric field is - 4 x 10 5 V m -1, and will intensify if the field exceeds this value. In the lower pressure
environment of the thundercloud, the value of the field required to just permit propagation is probably
around 3 x 10 5 V m - 1.
However, some difficulties still remain. Because the corona from single drops at a pressure of one
atmosphere is initiated by hydrodynamic instability, the corona onset field remains roughly constant
with reduction in pressure until the point is reached below which the pressure-dependent pure corona
onset field determines the critical value (Dawson, 1969,1970). The pressure at which this change takes
place corresponds to an altitude of about 4.5 km for positive corona. These results suggest that the
incidence of corona from single raindrops in a thunderstorm may be rather infrequent, unless the
drops are highly charged.
Dawson and Duff (1970) devised a computer simulation model of the initiation of cloud-to-ground
lightning strokes and showed that a large concentration of raindrops in corona could give the required
field intensification if the lower negative surfaces of the drops were to emit large numbers of small
negatively charged droplets. Such emission had been observed by Dawson (1969) for water surfaces
at the tips of capillary tubes, but Richards and Dawson (1971) found that this ejection does not occur
*) Paper presented by R. F. Griffiths.
618
from the underside of free drops falling at terminal velocity, since aerodynamic forces increase the
stability of the lower surface. A further restriction lies in the fact that since the mechanism requires
positive corona to emanate from the top side of the drop, it will not readily occur in regions where the
electric field vector is directed downwards.
Experiments on Alternative Sources of Corona

In this section we describe experiments designed to investigate the conditions under which corona
may be produced from two further possible sources. The first, following a suggestion by Richards and
Dawson (1971), involves the collision of a pair of raindrops in a strong electric field, producing, tem-
porarily, an elongated filament of water, which provides a favourable site for the initiation of corona.
The second examines the conditions under which corona may be initiated from the pointed extremities
of ice hydrometeors, a possibility previously discounted by many workers on the assumption that
the electrical conductivity of the ice was too small to permit the flow of corona currents of the mag-
nitude considered to be of importance in lightning initiation. Both these studies have been described
in full by Crabb and Latham (1974), and Griffiths and Latham (1974a), and only a brief account is given
here.
In the first set of experiments, conducted at a pressure of one atmosphere, pairs of water drops were
caused to collide in a region of strong vertical electric field between two parallel plate electrodes. The
larger of the two drops was allowed to fall vertically through a hole in the upper electrode. The release
of this drop was used to trigger the ejection of a smaller drop upwards through a hole in the lower
electrode from a small wind tunnel located beneath the electrode system. The two drops could be
made to produce different types of collision by varying the relative trajectories. Measurements were
made of the value of the electric field, Ec, required to initiate corona from the colliding pair. For two
drops of radii R = 2.7 mm and r = 0.65 mm colliding with a relative velocity of 5.8 m s - 1 (a value
close to the difference in terminal velocities for drops of these sizes falling in air) it was observed that
the large drop went into the "bag-mode" for central collisions, whilst for more glancing collisions a
liquid filament, typically several times R in length, was drawn out between the separating drops, and
eventually collapsed. The values of Ec decreased with increasing values of L - the length of the com-
bined drop-pair in the direction of the field at the moment of separation - which itself increased as
the collisions became less central. Ee ranged from about 5 x 105 V m -1 for head-on collisions to
about 2.5 x 10 5 V m -1 for glancing collisions producing the longest filaments. A small number of
corona pulses, each carrying about 10- 10 C of charge, accompanied each corona producing collision.
Subsidiary experiments with model drops reinforced the conclusion that corona arose initially from
the production on the drop surface of a point of liquid resulting from the disruption of the surface by
mechanical and/or electrical forces.
The experiments on corona from ice particles were performed in a low-pressure chamber in which
the ice sample under test could be suspended by freezing it onto a quartz fibre which was located so
that the ice sample was centrally located between two parallel-plate electrodes across which a known
voltage could be maintained, thereby providing a region of uniform electric field. The temperature
and pressure within the chamber could be maintained at any desired values in the ranges 0 °C to - 80°C,
and 2 x 104 Pa *) (200 mbar) to 10 5 Pa (1000 mbar) respectively. The ice samples were grown from
the vapour in diffusion chambers, and particular crystals could be selected for investigation. Artificial
hailstones could be produced by freezing successive layers of water onto an ice pellet which had been
attached to the quartz fibre. Having located the ice crystal, which was typically a few millimeters in
length, the electric field was slowly increased until the point was reached at which corona was initiated
from the extremities of the ice sample. The value of this field, Ec, was noted. The corona discharges
could be monitored on either an oscilloscope or a sensitive ammeter, and could also be seen with the
dark -adapted eye, the experiments being performed in a darkened room.
Using this method, values of Ee were determined for a large number of ice crystals of various types
(needles, prisms, plates, and dendrites) and rough ice spheres approximating hailstones, as a function
*) = 20 kilopascals.
619
of pressure and temperature. Other variables studied included size, shape, purity, and orientation
in the field. It was found that the current at the onset of corona was about 0.1 JlA in all cases studied,
independent of pressure, and also of temperature in the range 0 DC down to - 18 DC, below which tem-
perature a drastic reduction in the magnitude of the corona current was observed. This was examined
in some detail, and it was concluded that this effect was due to the fact that at this point the surface
conductivity of the ice sample fell below the value required to permit the currents needed for con-
tinuous corona, the bulk electrical conductivity being inadequate at all temperatures to permit such
currents to flow. Positive and negative corona occurred simultaneously from opposite ends of the
ice crystals, and the magnitude of the current was determined as a function of the applied field E above
Ee. Details of the transitions of the corona from one form to another were also determined as a function
of this excess field.
In further work (Griffiths, 1974) the dependence of Ee on the electric charge initially carried by the
ice crystals was examined, and an explanation proposed for the different discharge forms observed.
It was found that charges of the order of 10- 10 C carried by the specimens reduced the value of Ee
by as much as 20%. Additionally, Griffiths and Latham (1974b) established that the temperature below
which substantial corona currents were inhibited by surface conductivity reduction was related to
the purity of the ice sample, the value falling from -18 DC to - 25 DC when the surface of a pure sample
was contaminated with a solution containing 4.5 mg of ammonia per kilogram of water.
It was found that Ee was a linear function of pressure for any particular ice sample, typical values
being about 4 x 10 5 V-m -1 at 5 x 104 Pa (500 mbar) pressure, and 8 x 105 V m -1 at 10 5 Pa (1000
mbar) for crystals of a few millimeters in length. No clear-cut relationship between Ee and crystal
length was found, and it was concluded that the surface structure at the discharging tips of the ice crystal
on the microscale was more important than length in determining the value of Ee.
Application to Lightning Initiation

These experiments demonstrate that both colliding water drops and ice crystals can give rise to
corona discharges in conditions likely to occur in the mature stages of thundercloud growth. Of course,
not all corona discharges will necessarily lead to a lightning stroke. The fate of ions produced by corona
that do not subsequently give rise to lightning will be to affect the ionic conductivity of the cloud.
Griffiths, Latham and Myers (1974) have shown that in the case of corona from ice crystals, a concen-
tration of one discharge site per meter 3 will be sufficient to increase the equilibrium ion concentration
within the cloud to values comparable with those in clear air at the same altitude. However, in the
case of colliding drop-pairs, the frequency of collisions and the quantities of charge released per event
are not sufficient to affect the ionic conductivity significantly.
On the question of lightning initiation, the types of corona event described here have a number of
features which appear to be particularly conducive to the production of systems of propagating and
growing positive streamers that probably constitute the embryo lightning stroke. Colliding drop-
pairs can give corona in fields considerably less than those required by any other known mechanism
that could occur in a thundercloud. However, the quantities of charge released are restricted to values
similar to those released by single-drop corona. Additionally, a considerable fraction of such discharges
will occur in fields which are less than those required to permit positive streamer propagation. On
the other hand, it is evident that where fields greater than the propagation field exist, colliding drop-
pairs can give rise to very vigorous discharges, since the ambient field must then be considerably in
excess of the minimum corona onset field.
In considering the properties of ice particles as corona sources, one of the most important features
is the fact that both polarities of discharge can occur simultaneously, so that the quantity of charge
released is not limited either by the accumulation of charge on the hydrometeor, as it is in the case of
a single drop, or by the short duration of the source's existence, which may be a limiting factor for
colliding drop-pairs. Because of this property, ice particles can produce large numbers of the highly
mobile positive streamers at one end, whilst the less mobile negative ions are produced at the other
end; it will be recalled that the model proposed by Dawson and Duff (1970) required just this behavior
from the participating hydro meteors in order to function satisfactorily.
620
It was noted earlier that aerodynamic forces affect the production of corona from single drops, and
that positive streamers were initiated more readily in regions where the electric field vector was directed
upwards. This restriction does not apply in the case of corona from either ice hydrometeors or colliding
drop-pairs, and their effectiveness as lightning triggers will not be affected very much by the direction
of the field vector.
Conclusions
In order to formulate realistic models of lightning initiation involving these various sources of corona,
it would be necessary to have more information on a number of questions, for example, under what
conditions will positive streamers propagate and grow in cloudy air, and how will these conditions
be modified by the presence of electric charge on the cloud droplets; what are the mechanisms whereby
a system of streamers may intensify the ambient electric field sufficiently to give rise to the stepped
leader, and can such systems be triggered by a single corona event, or is a population of such discharges
required? Further, we need to know the distribution of electric fields and the nature of the charge
carriers that exist in real thunderclouds. Whatever the answers to these questions may be, it appears
likely that corona discharges from both ice hydrometeors and colliding drop-pairs will be of considerable
importance in the triggering of lightning.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported principally by two studentships provided by the Natural Environment Research
Council, and in part by the National Science Foundation under grant number A 041166.
References
1. Crabb, J. A. and J. Latham, Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc. 100, 191 (1974). - 2. Dawson, G. A., J. Geophys. Res.
74, 6859 (1969). - 3. Dawson, G. A., J. Geophys. Res. 75, 2153 (1970). - 4. Dawson, G. A. and D. G. Duff,
J. Geophys. Res. 75, 5858 (1970). - 5. Griffiths, R. F., J. Electrostatics, in press (1974). - 6. Griffiths, R. F.
and J. Latham, Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc. 100, 163 (1974a). - 7. Griffiths, R. F. and J. Latham, J. Met. Soc. Japan
52 (1974b). - Griffiths, R. F., J. Latham, and V. Myers, Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc. 100, 181 (1974). - 9. Loeb, L. B.,
J. Geophys. Res. 71, 4711 (1966). - 10. Phelps, C. T., J. Geophys. Res. 76, 5799 (1971). - 11. Phelps, C. T.,
J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 36,103 (1974). - 12. Pierce, E. T., Sci. Progr. London 45,62 (1957). - 13. Richards, C. N.
and G. A. Dawson, J. Geophys. Res. 76, 3445 (1971). - 14. Winn, W. P., G. W. Schwede, and C. B. Moore, J.
Geophys. Res. 79, 1761 (1974).
Discussion
I would like to congratulate the authors on their very nice set of experiments. The measurements of the col-
liding water-drop system were such that one drop was near the maximum size of raindrops and normally found
within thunderclouds, and which usually occur at very low concentrations. I would like to ask how applicable
are the results of this limited range of drops in the colliding drop experiment to the initiation of corona in thun-
derclouds?
I agree that the population of such large-size drops will be small. However, one redeeming feature is that we
do not require the drop to collide with another large drop but only a considerably smaller one. I further agree
that it would be nice to carry our experiments for a range of drop sizes. However, I suspect that work which
has been previously carried out on colliding drops, such as some of your own work, would provide us with in-
formation on the length of filaments produced by such collisions. I expect that we could obtain corona from
collisions between drops smaller than we used in our experiments in electric fields of the size that Winn has
measured.
It is perhaps worth pointing out that we also have some reliable measurements with our spherical field meter
in clouds at an altitude of about 4200 meters, where we have repeatedly measured electric fields at the surface
of the sphere with intensities in excess of 1.3 megavolts per meter. This would give field intensities in excess of a
megavolt per meter for distances of more than 5 cm out in the cloud. The fields were a result of charge on
621
the sphere plus the ambient field intensified at the surface of the sphere. Nevertheless, these intense fields did
not cause any sparklike breakdowns.

What do you think is the effect of the velocity of interaction on the triggering potential since in your previous
work as well as in our work, we found that the electric field and the charge on the drops reduce their fall velocity
and, therefore, reduce the velocity of interactions. How will this effect influence the triggering potential?
Griffiths:
I would expect that the wind would alter the magnitude of the current, if we had a continuous current, as in
the case of ice particles. I don't expect that the field required to initiate the discharge would be substantially altered
by this effect, since we are dealing in lightning initiation with a very short time-scale corona discharge.
Winn, Socorro, New Mexico, USA:
The maximum reliable fields that have been mentioned a few times in the last two papers cannot be taken
as representative of the maximum fields that may exist, because the probability of placing an instrument in a
cloud at the right place at the right time is very low. Furthermore, as the field gets more intense in a cloud, it
also gets much more difficult to measure because the instruments do not work as well.
Griffiths:
I concur with Winn's remarks in this respect, but I would like to reiterate what Phelps said to the effect that
the presence of hydrometeors would tend to reduce or provide a limit to the field which we could find. Where
hydro meteors are not present, I agree we could expect to find much higher fields.
Authors' addresses:
J. A. Crabb and J. Latham R. F. Griffiths
Physics Department 32 Trafford Road
UMIST Alderley Edge
P. O. Box 88 Sackville Street Cheshire
Manchester M 60 1 QD England
England
622
Radar Study of Precipitation Development in Thunderclouds
c. R. Holmes, C. B. Moore, R. Rogers, and E. Szymanski
With 4 figures
Abstract
A sudden growth of precipitation has often been observed in association with lightning in electrified clouds.
The quantitative assessment of this process has been hampered by the lack of resolution and slow scan rate of
most meteorological radars, by the absence of rain intensity data necessary to define the rain shaft at the ground,
and by lack of definition of the lightning channel in structure and time with respect to the rapidly growing region
of precipitation.
This paper presents our most recent data obtained from a high resolution digital radar and a network of rain
gauges spaced at 300 meter separation.
Introduction
An apparent close association between the occurrence of lightning, a rapid subsequent growth of
precipitation particles in the cloud as inferred from intensification of the radar echo, and the sudden
onset of heavy precipitation at the ground beneath the cloud a few minutes after the lightning as de-
scribed by Vonnegut and Moore (1960, 1962, 1964), and others forms the basis for the thesis that the
coalescence of cloud droplets into precipitating particles of rain or hail may be greatly enhanced by
intense electric fields and high charge densities in the vicinity of the lightning channel. As proposed
under the mechanism there can be a rapid, transitory growth in number and size of liquid precipitation
particles subsequent to a lightning stroke which could contribute materially to the "gushes" of rain and
hail frequently observed with vigorous thunderstorms. Increases in the precipitation rate as a result
of electrical breakdown processes accompanying a lightning stroke may produce an intensification
in the radar echo of greater than 20 db min -1. Under this theory, however, initial intensifications of
the radar echo would probably occur within a time frame of a few tens of seconds. Rapid intensifications
would be observed only if the radar scan plane were through the intensifying region during this time
frame. In the usual case, with a continuously scanning radar, the particle growth may be essentially
complete between successive radar scans through the intensifying region; then the average rate of
intensification determined from the radar data would be much less (in the order of 5-10dbmin- 1 ).
Rapid initial intensifications following a lightning discharge should also occur over cloud dimensions
of the order of a few hundred meters. In order to resolve these transitory bursts of particle growth the
sensing devices must have this order of spatial resolution before the lightning channel can be identified
with the growing region of precipitation. In addition, echo intensification must be resolved over the
pertinent time interval. A cloud physics radar then should have this order of time resolution to permit
a quantitative determination of the rate of intensification of the cloud echo.
Instrumentation
In our attempt to obtain both resolution and quantitative data on the proposed precipitation mech-
anism, we have installed a dense network of over 60 telemetering, tipping bucket rain gauges around
Langmuir Laboratory in New Mexico with a grid spacing of 300 meters between gauges. We are also
recording acoustic data from three 3-station networks of microphones for reconstructing the lightning
channel in space by cross-spectral analysis.
Quantitative values of cloud reflectivity are obtained with a digitally recording radar operating at
X-band*) with these characteristics: A pulse repetition rate of 1000pps**), a pulse length in space
of 300 meters with a 1.6° beam, and a return time of the scan plane to the same azimuth of 2.3 min.
The radar antenna scans in the vertical plane once every 2.64 second; and is advanced 10 "millicircles"
in azimuth each time the beam is below the horizon.
*) X-band: 5.2 -10.9 GHz; 2.75 - 5.77 cm.

**) Pulses per second.
623
RADAR RECEIVER
Fig. 1. Block diagram of the radar receiver showing major components
Fig. 1 illustrates the receiver section of the radar. The radar echo is sequentially gated into 30 range
storage bins, each with a gate width of 2 I-lsec in the summing averager. The summing elements in the
range bins are capacitors which are gated and cleared by FET*) switches. After the returned signal
has been averaged in time over 12 pulses, and in space over one beam width in arc, the range bins are
read by an analog-to-digital converter and the results are stored in a temporary memory. The digitized
data are subsequently transferred onto magnetic tape for permanent storage. The read-into-memory
cycle occurs between pulse transmissions at fixed azimuths to permit precise orientation of each reso-
lution volume in space. This in turn permits intensity "differencing" for the same resolution volumes
from successive scans at any particular azimuth. The dynamic range of the digital presentation is about
70 db.
Data
In Figs. 2 through 4 we present some of the results of data obtained in the study of a thunderstorm
that occurred on day 230, 1974 (18 August). The analysis completed to date represents only a small
fraction of the data we have recorded. We have not yet completed an analysis of the rain intensity
and acoustic data for these storms; although this is being continued to add later to the radar information
reported here. Our preliminary results indicate large changes in thundercloud echo reflectivities over
small volumes immediately following lightning.
Fig. 2 shows the precipitation intensity at one of the rain gauges beneath a developing thundercloud
on day 230, 1974. The rain intensity was very low (less than 2 mm hr- 1) at all of the gauges until a
lightning discharge occurred over this gauge whereupon the cloud echo intensified and an intense
burst of hail fell shortly before 11: 15. The location of the lightning was recorded by observers and
was confirmed by the acoustic data. A precipitation intensity of 64 mm hr - 1 was recorded before the
gauge became plugged with hail before 11 : 17 MST and therefore we do not know the peak intensity
for this fall. None of the adjacent gauges reported high intensity precipitation; the hail fall occurred
over a small area as shown in the indicator photographs from the vertically scanning radar (Fig. 3)
during the early part of this sequence.
Fig. 4 shows the intensification associated with the development of the hail from the thunderstorm.
The cloud echo reflectivity contours are for constant values of Z with units of mm 6 m- 3 . The cloud
remained essentially stationary during its lifetime with the storm center a few km north-north east
of the radar site.
*) FET = field effect transistor.
624
,, ,
NW
,
North
<. " "" III "II" "".,,"" ""1 1111" "
100
'"
Gouge--l
~
E
g
>
~
Vi
z
UJ
I-
Z
0
1100
M. S.T.
Fig. 2. Precipitation intensity and lightning occurrence on day 230, 1974 at rain gauge 1 located 2 km north
of the radar. Tpe first lightning in the thundercloud developing over this rain gauge occurred at 11 : 10 : 56 MST.
The gauge became plugged with hail just before 11 : 17 MST so that the subsequent intensity indications are not
representative (MST = GMT - 7 hours)
1109: 23 1111 : 34 1113 :44 M.SJ.
Fig. 3. Indicator photographs from an attenuated vertically-scanning 3.2 cm radar beneath a thundercloud on
day 230, 1974. The first photograph taken shows a vertical cross section of a thundercloud before the first light-
ning in this region. The maximum equivalent echo reflectivity is about 3100 mm 6 m - 3 if we assume that the echo
is produced by liquid precipitation. The range rings have a 2 km spacing and the arc is the lower edge of the digital
record. - The first lightning in this storm occurred at 11 : 10: 56. An intense precipitation echo has developed in
the second photograph with a maximum equivalent reflectivity in excess of 11000 mm 6 m - 3. Since intense hail
fell to earth from this region of the cloud about 3 minutes later, the precipitation growth was probably well
in excess of that indicated. In the third photograph the strongly echoing region has spread and has increased to an
equivalent reflectivity of 25000 mm 6 m - 3
These repeatedly observed, abrupt intensifications of the cloud echo and the fall of appreciable
precipitation over a small area following the first lightning in this developing thundercloud support
the idea that electrical discharges may aid in the formation of precipitation in some clouds. With our
present data, however, a causal relation cannot be established for we do not have adequate time reso-
lution in the successive radar scans and the solid angle that must be kept under surveillance is too
great for a conventional radar to cover, particularly if an adequate number of pulses is to be averaged.
These data indicate :
1. That the effective echo intensity developing in thunderclouds prior to the first discharge is often low.
2. That there are often abrupt changes in precipitation regime associated with lightning.
3. That much of the precipitation falling from our New Mexican clouds occurs in slender shafts covering
relatively small areas on the earth. Despite the small size of these rain shafts much of the annual precipi-
tation that falls on our arid land originates in association with lightning.
In order that any understanding of these processes can be developed, we need better measurements
and better instrumentation. M. Brook's fast-scanning radar offers appreciable hope for rapid measure-
625
zenith
Maximum reflectivity 7
range Z = 3,000 /
Cloud echo
boundary
clear air~
Fig. 4a. Quantitative radar map in a vertical plane of the thundercloud echo reflectivity over Langmuir Labor-
atory at 11: 09: 23 MST on day 230, 1974 just before lightning occurred in this cell. Surface rain gauges in the
area were reporting maximum rain intensities of less than 2 mm hr - 1
South North
Fig. 4 b. Radar map of echo reflectivity in the same vertical plane as above but at 11: 11: 34 MST. Lightning
occurred about 2 km north of the radar in this region at 11: 10: 56 MST
Fig. 4c. Radar map of the same region on the next scan at 11: 13: 44 MST
626
ments of the changes in cloud echo reflectivity. Longer wavelength radars are needed both for the
avoidance of attenuation effects and for location of lightning relative to the precipitation-producing
volumes. Doppler radars are needed to determine if cloud particles are accelerated away from the
lightning channels.
The results reported here suggest that interesting and significant associations exist between light-
ning and the development of precipitation in thunderclouds and that there is some chance of untangling
them.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported under Grant GI 33372 X as part of the research on Cloud Electrification and its
Modification, sponsored by the Weather Modification Program, RANN, U.S. National Science Foundation,
and by the Atmospheric Sciences Program of the Office of Naval Research, under Contract N 00014-67-A-
0267-0006.
References
1. Vonnegut, B. and C. B. Moore, Phys. of Precip., Am. Geoph. Un. Mono. 5, 287 (1960). - 2. Moore, C. B.,
B. Vonnegut, J. H. Muchado, and H. J. Survilas, J. Geoph. Res. 67, 207 (1962). - 3. Moore, C. B., B. Vonnegut,
E. A. Vrablik, and D. A. McCaig, J. Atm. Sci. 21,646 (1964).
Discussion
In Hawaii we also have very strong rainfall, but this is warm rain with no strong electricity. The maximum pre-
cipitation intensity is about 100 mm per hour. This is due to the downdraft. The downdraft is produced at the
cloud boundary and propagated to the center of the cloud. The high water content at the center is then poured
down due to the downdraft. Therefore, there is strong precipitation. I have not found positive evidence between
strong precipitation and strong lightning.
Holmes, Socorro, New Mexico, USA:
Takahashi's comment appears to be based on observations of warm cloud precipitation and may not bear
directly on the 'rain gush after lightning' which is characterized by a sudden onset as well as a high rate of
intensification. We often observe this sudden onset of high-rate precipitation following lightning, unaccompanied
by strong downdrafts.
Do you see any evidence of these phenomena in more extensive storms?
Holmes:
No, with this particular radar set-up we have not had the opportunity to look at more than a few storms. We
looked at a storm or two from last summer's data, and this and another storm for this summer's data. Each of
these storms that we have analysed so far is what I would call a relatively small thunderstorm. This particular
storm reached an altitude of 10 km. Data for extensive storm systems have not yet been analyzed.
Authors' address:
C. R. Holmes, C. B. Moore, R. Rogers, and E. Szymanski
Department of Physics .
New Mexico Institute of Mining
and Technology
USA
627
Advances in a Decade of Thunder Research
A. A. Few, T. L. Teer, and D. R. MacGorman
With 2 figures
Abstract
Techniques have been developed during the past decade that use the analysis of thunder for the investigation
of lightning processes. Because the thunder signal propagates through the cloud without significant loss of in-
formation, these acoustic techniques will be as important to the study of intracloud lightning as photography
has been to the study of the visible lightning.
We have several investigations underway using these techniques to explore the intracloud lightning structure
and processes. In all cases we have found extensive horizontal development of both cloud-to-ground and intra-
cloud lightning near the freezing level. In all cases the apparent source of lightning activity is a relatively thin
(2 Ian) volume (-160 km 3 ) closely associated with the freezing level (O°C to -10°C). Lightning channels from
this region extend into a much larger volume (-1600 km 3 ) of the cloud, but we have no definitive examples
of the vertical intracloud discharge that one expects from the simple vertical dipole model of the thunderstorm.
Frequently the intracloud lightning activity which follows cloud-to-ground lightning acts to extend the channels
of the previous lightning to other cloud regions. In one study we have found the regions of greatest lightning
activity to be those with smallest radar reflectivity.
Introduction
If one uses as a general definition of thunder all acoustic emissions from a thunderstorm, then the
scope of the research interests and the problems covers a wide range of phenomena and a broad acoustic
spectrum (e.g. Georges, 1973; Dessler, 1973). Some progress has been made in all of these areas, but
there remain theories requiring experimental verification and observations requiring quantitative
explanations. If, however, the more restrictive definition of thunder, which is the acoustic emissions
from lightning channels, is employed, then we can point to this decade as being one in which great
progress has been made in the understanding of thunder. This paper will be confmed to the results
obtained from this second and more restrictive use of thunder; a description of the origin and com-
position of this thunder signal has been recently given by Few (1974a).
An examination of the earlier publications on the subject of thunder during this decade indicates
that there was little agreement among the scientists regarding 1. the power spectrum of thunder,
2. the length of the lightning channels, 3. the significance of reflections, 4. the preferred geometric
form for describing thunder propagation, or 5. an accounting of the detailed signature of thunder.
It is my opinion that a consensus has formed during the last several years on all of these questions,
although there remain details requiring further research.
The most important development associated with this improved understanding of thunder is the
use of this acoustic radiation for the investigation of intracloud lightning. Because thunder signals
with wavelengths 3 m to 30 m can propagate from the inside of the cloud to the ground without large
losses due to attenuation and scattering, we are provided at the surface with information on the intra-
cloud lightning activity. Acoustic techniques have been developed to analyse these acoustic signals
and extract the desired information. These acoustic techniques will be as important to the study of
intracloud lightning as the camera has been in the study at visible lightning.
The Source and Spectrum of Thunder

The subject has been recently reviewed (Few, 1974a); the theoretical discussion of the source and
spectrum of thunder are given in Few (1969) and the most extensive set of published thunder spectra
are given in Holmes et al. (1971). Without repeating these arguments here, we wish to point out that
earlier papers reporting the dominant spectral component of thunder as being either infrasonic (fre-
quencies < 10 Hz) or above 100 Hz now appear to be in error for most lightning events. The peak
in the spectrum of thunder should occur in the frequency range 10Hz to 100Hz; the spectrum is broad
and has significant and measurable components outside these limits.
628
Experimental measurements of the spectrum of thunder are extremely difficult. The lower thunder
frequencies « 10 Hz) are frequently mixed with low frequency pressure perturbations produced by
atmospheric turbulence. A second problem that limits the determination of the source spectrum is
attenuation. Molecular and classical acoustic attenuation are strong functions of temperature and
humidity; because of the variations in these parameters in the thunderstorm environment between
the source and the receiver the quantitative accounting of attenuation is nearly impossible. Attenuation
below 100 Hz has as a major contribution the scattering resulting from atmospheric turbulence; the
quantitative evaluation of this effect along the many thunder ray paths is also impractical. Our data
indicate that this attenuation is the major factor influencing the measured spectrum of thunder for
long propagation paths.
The Structure and Source of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning

In the remaining sections ofthis paper we describe various observations ofthe properties of intracloud
lightning that we have made using acoustic techniques for lightning channel reconstruction inside
thunderclouds. The pertinent papers on this subject are Few (1970), Few and Teer (1974), Teer and
Few (1974), and Few (1974b).
The typical structure of cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning has a vertical channel to ground from an
altitude region near the -10°C isotherm; from the top of the vertical part of the channel, the channel
abruptly becomes predominately horizontal often forming multiple horizontal branches. Fig. 1 shows
only one projected view of a typical CG lightning channel; this one exhibited horizontal channels
t-
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+ + +. ..1'+
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RANGE (NClRTHl • KI1 89 - (2001,1 -- 2091l
Fig. 1. Structure of a typical cloud-to-ground lightning flash. This is a projection of the lightning channel geo-
metry onto the north-vertical plane. Note that the horizontal scale is shortened relative to the vertical scale on
this figure. The actual extent of the horizontal channel projected here is 13 km
10
E QJr:?rro:jIl I
~
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ti: 5
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-5 0 5 0 5 10
EAST (km) NORTH (km)

Fig. 2. Distribution of cloud-to-ground lightning sources. The numbers enclosed by the outlined regions denote
the number of contiguous source volumes within the boundary of that projection
629
13 km in extent. In most cases the length of the horizontal structure exceeds the vertical length. In all
cases the horizontal extent of horizontal part of the channel exceeds the thickness of the horizontal
region.
For the CG lightning channels we can easily identify the region of the cloud representing the most
likely source of the lightning discharge as a region at the top of the vertical channel where the horizontal
branching is most pronounced. In a study that included all lightning flashes during the final thirty
minutes of a thunderstorm we have identified the sources of all of the CG flashes. Fig. 2 shows the
positions and distributions of these sources. We see that a horizontal disk 2 km in thickness centered
at an altitude of 5 km with a radius of 5 km will include portions of all of the identified CG lightning
sources. The O°C isotherm is located near 4 km and the -10°C isotherm near 6 km; these were meas-
ured by radiosonde outside the thunderclouds. If we associate the thunderstorm electrification volume
with this region of CG lightning sources then we conclude that the charging mechanisms occur in a
160 km 3 volume coincident with the freezing zone between O°C and -10°e. The data from this partic-
ular storm are consistent with all of our observations of lightning activity to this date.
The Structure and Function of Intracloud Lightning

Intracloud (IC) lightning can be divided into three types:
1. long, horizontal, well-defined channels similar to the horizontal parts of the CG lightning channels;
2. many interconnected short channels that tend to fill a restricted region of the cloud; and
3. short isolated channels.
It is somewhat surprising that we have never observed a definitive example of a long vertical lightning
channel between the negative and positive charge centers frequently depicted in the dipole description
of the charge thundercloud.
One apparent function of the IC discharges is to redistribute the charge generated in the disk
described earlier to wider regions ofthe cloud. In this sense the thundercloud behaves more as a monopole
with a diffuse dome of the opposite charge than as a dipole.
Relationships Between Sequential Lightning Events

An examination of the individual lightning events in the sequence used to produce the figures in
this paper (Teer, 1973) reveals that sequential CG lightnings have intracloud source regions which
are non-coincident in space. We found that in most cases sequential CG lightning sources alternated
between the two most active parts of the source region shown in Fig. 2. In contrast to this observation,
IC discharges were frequently contiguous to preceeding CG and IC discharges, although they were
never coincident in space. One apparent function of some of the IC lightning activity is to extend the
previous activity into new areas.
Lightning and Radar Reflectivity

In one storm that we have studied (Few, 1974b) we had available radar (10cm) reflectivity contours
for comparison with the ligthning channel locations. This research has revealed a strong correlation
of the source region (very similar to the one illustrated in Fig. 2) with a region of the thundercloud
having low radar reflectivity.
In this experiment we also found several situations in which a region of low reflectivity and lightning
activity would show a higher (by 10 db) reflectivity on the subsequent sweep of the radar through the
region.
Conclusions
The practical use of the information contained in the thunder signal can be a valuable tool in the
research of intracloud lightning processes. The past decade has been one in which we have advanced
our understanding of the thunder signal; the next decade should be one in which we make strides
630
toward a better understanding of cloud physics. Thunder research when used in collaboration with
other research aids will be a valuable tool for this purpose.
Acknowledgments
Our research has had the support of the Atmospheric Sciences Section of the National Science Foundation
(NSF Grant GA-31951 and DES 74-14456) and the Atmospheric Sciences Program of the Office of Naval
Research under contract N 00014-67-A-0145-0004. Additional travel funds to attend the Fifth International
Conference on Atmospheric Electricity were made available from an NSF travel grant GA-44276 and the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration Grant NGL 44-006-012.
References
1. Dessler, A. J .. J. Geophys. Res. 78, 1889 (1973). - 2. Few, A. A .. J. Geophys. Res. 74, 6926 (1969). - 3. Few.
A. A .. J. Geophys. Res. 75, 7517 (1970). - 4. Few. A. A., EOS Trans. AGU 55, 508 (1974a). - 5. Few. A. A ..
Lightning sources in severe thunderstorms. Reprint Volume Conference on Cloud Physics (1974 b). - 6. Few.
A. A. and T. L. Teer. J. Geophys. Res. 79. 5007 (1974). - 7. Georges, T. M., Rev. Geophys., Space Phys. 11,
571 (1973). - 8. Holmes. C. R .. M. Brook. P. Krehbiel. and R. McCrory. J. Geophys. Res. 76, 2106 (1971). -
9. Teer, T. L., Lightning channel structure inside an Arizona thunderstorm, Ph. D. thesis, Rice University
(Houston, Texas, 1973). - 10. Teer. T. L. and A. A. Few, J. Geophys. Res. 79, 3436 (1974).
Discussion
Magaziner, Boulder, Colorado, USA:
Could you tell me roughly, what the temperature was at 5 km on your vertical cross sections?
In the first group of slides the temperature was less than 5 degrees at 5 km. We had radiosonde flights in the
environment around this storm; however, we don't know exactly the temperature inside the storm.

Coud you indicate the extent to which the radar intensity contour is representative of heights above and
below 5 km?
Few:
The 10 cm radar had a one-degree beam-width. This storm was at a range of 50 km; thus, the beam-width
was approximately 1 km at that point. We are now trying to produce a vertical cross section from the radar
data, but we have not completed this. I have seen the 4 km sweep and the 6 km sweep, and I think they were very
similar to this one.

First, I was wondering if you have electric field change data for the ground discharge channel reconstruction
which you presented that would indicate whether the flash involved one or more return strokes to ground and/or
significant cloud break-down activity. Second, could you comment upon the errors involved in your acoustic
reconstruction of the lightning channel?
Few:
For high altitude points, which arrive at the microphone array with high angles, the position error is approx-
imately plus or minus five percent, even if we don't know anything about the wind structure of the storm. If
we have supporting data on the wind and temperature structure in the storm environment, this improves some-
what. The accuracy decreases very rapidly when one goes down close to the horizon and is more like plus or minus
10 or 15 percent for distant flashes close to the horizon. The information recorded here, which is at 5 km, is
typically l.'lus or minus 5 percent. In answer to your first question, we do have electric field change measure-
ments, but we have not examined these data in detail yet.

All your evidence (that is listening to the thunder) would indicate to you that while the discharge takes place
in a certain direction, depending on the topography of the area, you could receive a reflective component from
an opposite direction. What arrangements did you make to eliminate this?
631
Few:
The reflected energy from acoustic waves is proportional to the solid angle subtended by the reflecting
body. Unless one is in a valley or canyon where one has some obstacle presenting a large solid angle towards
one, the reflections are going to be much smaller than the primary waves out of the cloud.
Authors' addresses:
A.A.FewandD.R.MacGorman T. L. Teer
Dept. of Space Physics and Astronomy Shell Development Co.
Rice University Houston, Texas 77001
Houston, Texas 77001 USA
USA
632
Spectroscopic and Electric Current Measurements of Lightning
at the Monte San Salvatore Observatory, Lugano, Switzerland
R. E. Orville and K. Berger
With 5 figures
Abstract
During the summers of 1967, 1969, and 1970, an experiment was performed to correlate the time-resolved
spectral characteristics of the lightning flash with the electric current characteristics of the same flash. The data
from this experiment include - a) several unique time-resolved spectra of a downward propagating stepped
leader, and dart leader spectra from a multistroke c1oud-to-ground flash, and b) time-resolved spectra in the
visible region correlated with c1oud-to-ground (tower) return strokes and their associated electric current
oscillograms.
During the summers of 1967, 1969, and 1970, an experiment was performed to correlate the time-
resolved spectral characteristics of the lightning flash (Orville, 1968a) with the electric current char-
Wavelength in nm
H-9 lpho
6~~3 i6~~5 ,~~i3
NI 01 Nl NI NI 01
528,1 54,~7 5~2 ,562,.3 60Q8 615,7 900
'I ) 'I ( I I I r
800
700
600
500
400
Time
in
300 J-L sec.
200
100
100
200
I I I I
5680 5942 616.3 656.3 300
Nil Nil 01 H-alpha
Wavelength in nm
Fig. 1. Streaked spectrum produced by the spectral emissions from a section of the lightning stroke channel.
The return stroke phase is preceded by the spectral emissions from a stepped leader.
633
acteristics of the same flash (Berger, 1967). Correlated data were obtained in each of the experimental
summers. In addition to acquiring these data, spectra of a stepped leader and dart leaders were obtained,
although not from flashes involving the instrumented Mte. San Salvatore towers. Brevity requires
that we only summarize the salient spectral observations of the stepped leader, dart leader, and return
stroke-electric current correlations.
Spectrum of the Stepped Leader
In 1967, a Beckman and Whitley model 318 high-speed streaking camera was modified to a slitless
spectrograph and operated on Mte. Bre, 5 km from the Mte. San Salvatore Observatory. The stepped
leader spectrum was recorded on August 3,1967, and has been analyzed and reported in detail (Orville,
1968b). We will only summarize the results.
Fig. 1 is a reproduction of the stepped leader spectrum. The emissions from a step are characterized
by strong singly ionized nitrogen lines, weak continuum emissions, and a weak H -alpha emission.
Subsequent to the first emissions from a step, the channel exhibits a pulsating emissivity as the leader
propagates toward the ground. The pulsations show decreasing intensity of singly ionized emission
lines (N II) and increasing intensity in the H-alpha radiation. This observation is consistent with a
channel excitation temperature which is decreasing from the estimate of 30,000 K; a value obtained
for the step (Orville, 1968b).
Spectrum of the Dart Leader
In 1970, three Beckman and Whitley 351 high-speed streaking cameras were modified to slitless
spectrographs and operated in Aldesago, just 4 km from the Mte. San Salvatore. They utilized Bausch
and Lomb replica gratings and 200 mm, f/3.5 objective lenses to focus the spectra on a horizontal slit
with a vertical width of 0.53 mm. The inverse spectral dispersion is 7.2 nm/mm. Kodak 2485 high-
speed recording film was used in this experiment and it was processed in MX 642-1 developer at 32 °C
for four minutes. The film was calibrated with a xenon flash lamp whose light passed through stepped
filters of known density increments. The spectrograph was operated at 69.5 rps (rotations per second)
to produce a writing rate of .059 mml jlsec. This produces a time resolution of 10 jlsec.
On 15 August 1970 at approximately 04: 55 local zone time (03: 55 GMT) a c1oud-to-ground flash
struck near the Mte. San Salvatore at a distance of 5.5 km from the observation point. A 14 m section
160
120
(j)
o
z
80 8
w
(j)
o
40~
:2
40
399.5 444.7 463.0 50QI

NIT NIT NIT NIT
Wavelength in nm
Fig. 2. Streaked spectrum similar to Fig. 1, except that the return stroke spectrum is preceded by the spectral
emissions from a dart leader
634
of the channel was isolated approximately 600 m above the ground contact point. This flash produced
13 return stroke spectra and 5 dart leader spectra. The most intense return stroke spectrum is not
preceded by a recorded leader spectrum (stepped) but it is presumably the first return stroke. The
next five most intense return stroke spectra are preceded by dart leader spectra. The remaining return
stroke spectra are faint and their leader spectral emissions were not recorded.
Fig. 2 is a reproduction of one dart leader spectrum preceding the return stroke spectrum by ap-
proximately 20 Jlsec. The spectral emissions in the 395 - 510 nm region are all attributed to singly
ionized nitrogen. A line distinguished by its absence is the H-beta emission of 486.1 nm. This line is a
characteristic of return stroke spectra (Salanave et aI., 1962) and another line in the Balmer series,
H-alpha, is prominent in the stepped leader. No neutral emissions have been positively identified
in the dart leader spectrum.
Note in Fig. 2 that the emissions from the channel do not cease after the passage of the dart. Singly
ionized emissions continue to occur in the interval between the passage of the dart and the intense
overexposure produced by the return stroke. Fig. 3 shows a relative intensity trace as a function of
time in the 450 nm continuum region. This trace was obtained by recording the density profile on a
video densitometer and then correcting the profile for the nonlinear response of the film determined
from the calibration curve. The resulting relative intensity trace indicates that the return stroke - dart
leader emissions in this spectral region have a ratio of 9: 1. Similar data could be obtained by using
a photo diode and the appropriate interference filter for this spectral region (Krider, 1966).
30
>-
!:::
en
z 20
w
~
w
> 15
~
w
a::
10
081570
2ADI
5 4500 REGION
40 10 20 30 40
MICROSECONDS
Fig. 3. Relative intensity of spectral emissions in the 450 nm region as a function of time. This trace was obtained
by correcting a video densitometer profile for the non-linear response of film
Fig. 3 indicates that the dart propagated along the isolated section of the channel approximately
20 Jlsec before the return stroke reached the same point. The total path length of 1200 meters was there-
fore traversed at an average velocity of 6 x 107 m/sec. It is not possible to uniquely separate this average
velocity into the dart and the return stroke velocities. However, if one assumes a maximum return
stroke velocity of 1.4 x 10 8 m/sec (Uman, 1969, p. 4) then the minimum dart leader velocity was
3.9 x 107 m/sec, a value which is among the highest dart leader velocities to be reported.
635
Return Stroke Spectra and Their Associated Electric Current Traces
A few minutes after the multi-stroke flash produced the dart leader - return stroke spectra sequence,
a downward-propagating negatively-charged leader struck Tower 1 at 0458. This initiated a three
stroke sequence which produced three return spectra and three current osci1\ograms.
en
o
~
<.J
W
en
o
0:
2
~
568p 59~ ~
N II NIl H - olpha
WAVELENGTH nit!..
Fig. 4. Streaked spectrum produced by a 10 meter section of a return stroke striking Tower 1 on
Mte. San Salvatore
MICROSECONDS
140
~ ;~ __8_,o___IO_'0___12_,0_
I
Fig. 5. Current oscillogram for the same retum stroke that produced the time-resolved spectrum in Fig. 4.
The spectrum of the first return stroke is reproduced in Fig. 4 and its current oscillogram in Fig. 5.
The spectral recordings are from a section of the channel approximately 150 m above the tower top.
Spectral emissions are recorded from 540 nm to 670 nm and include prominent N II lines and the
H-alpha line. The time resolution is 10 jlsec and the spectral recordings last for nearly 300 jlsec. The
spectral emissions beginning in the 568.0 - 594.2 nm region at 220 jlsec are from another flash.
Fig. 5 indicates that the negatively-charged stroke attained a peak current of approximately 25,000 A
and decreased to a value of 11,000 A in 70 jlsec. The corresponding spectral emissions are heavily
636
overexposed in the first 100 fLsec but are suitable for quantitative analysis beyond this time. Space
does not permit the reproduction of the second and third stroke spectra and their associated oscillo-
grams, however, they are not overexposed and therefore suitable for quantitative analysis for the dura-
tion of the stroke. Separate papers will report a detailed time-resolved analysis of these spectra for
excitation temperature using the relative intensity of N II lines (Prueitt, 1963) for electron density
using the Stark effect on the H-alpha line (Uman and Orville, 1964).
Acknowledgments
We are indebted to H. Binz for obtaining the current oscillograms. This research was made possible by the
support of the Swiss High Voltage Research Committee and the Swiss National Research Foundation and by
the support of the Atmospheric Science Section, U.S. National Science Foundation, NSF grants A 0-35395 X
and GA-ll 048.
References
1. Berger, K., J. Franklin Institute 283, 478 (1967). - 2. Krider, E. P., J. Geophys. Res. 71, 3095 (1966). -
3. Orville, R. E., J. Atmospheric Sci. 25, 827 (1968 a). - 4. Orville, R. E., J. Geophys. Res. 73, 22,6999 (1968b). -
5. Prueitt, M. L., J. Geophys. Res. 68, 803 (1963). - 6. Salanave, L. E., R. E. Orville, and C. N. Richards,J. Geophys.
Res. 67, 1877 (1962). - 7. Uman, M. A., Lightning, 264 pp. (New York, 1969). - 8. Uman, M. A. and R. E.
Orville, J. Geophys. Res. 69, 5151 (1964).
Discussion
With 5 figures
I have a question on the optical depth of the channel. How deep into the channel do you think you are
receiving this information on H -alpha?

I don't know. We assume it is optically thin.
Few:
The reason I raise this question is because we expect from theoretical models of lightning channel formation
from the shock wave, that the temperature gradient will be very steep going into the channel.

Is there a difference in the duration of the spectra taken on lightning to the mountain vs. lightning to normal
ground? It looks like the currents on the mountain would last an awful long time.
Orville:
The spectra usually last for 150 to 200 microseconds. The currents last longer. We do not report spectra from
return strokes for currents much below 10000 amperes. But that is very much a function of the atmosphere be-
tween the observer and the tower, the type of film used, and perhaps another factor that I have not mentioned.
I would like to follow this up. On the oscillograms you show the currents relax after a hundred microseconds
from 20 kiloamperes to 10 kiloamperes which is still a huge current and a lot of charge. But what I was wonder-
ing about is a point related to the last paper, by Hill: what photograph did he use? Do you have the current
oscillogram of that? Does it show the current shutting right otT or did it persist, in which case for 10 kA? I am
not surprised that one finds H -alpha after 100 microseconds.
Orville:
The spectrum that Hill has was taken in Tucson, Arizona, in 1966, and there is no current oscillogram to go
with it. However, the same equipment that obtained that spectrum in Tucson in 1966 was used in 1967 in the first
San Salvatore experiments. We only recorded H-alpha emissions when the current was higher than 10 kA.
Therefore, in the spectrum used by Hill, we can conclude that the current did not shut otT, but remained above
10 kA after 100 microseconds.
637
Berger, Zollikon, Switzerland:
It was possible to study lightning to and from Monte San Salvatore near Lugano (Switzerland) during 30 years
and it may therefore be of interest to give a short summary of observation results about all classes of lightning
flashes and of their development. Especially I would refer to an evaluation of 40 typical oscillograms of positive
flashes which led to an interesting result.
Fig. 1 shows the four possible cases of lightning flashes regarding polarity and progression of leaders.
'.-- - ----
I'
;"",;;,,,,,,
+++ ••••••
3
~
~
"';; JJ!7,,;;, ,,,,,;;It,~;;;;;

.......... +.+ ----------
Fig. 1. The four cases of lightnings regarding polarity of lowered cloud charge and progression direction of
leader stroke
a)
1...-..----1 ms ------'
b)
L Q,3 ms ---l
Fig. 2. a) Progression of a downward stroke from a negative cloud, first example
b) Progression of a downward stroke from a negative cloud, second example:
left : streak-camera photo. "A" : junction point between downward and connecting leader;
"B" : branching point of connecting leader.
right: still-camera photograph
638
No.1 and 2 represent the flat country with downward leaders,
No.3 and 4 high conductive towers or mountains like San Salvatore with upward leaders.
In No.1 and 2, current and electric charges in the leader are of the same polarity, which is that of the cloud.
Upward leaders as in No.3 and 4 have opposite sign of electric charge as compared to current and cloud charge.
Fig. 2a is an example of the first case: progression of a downward stroke from a negative cloud. This case has
been discovered by Schonland in the 1930's already. The streak camera photo shows progressing in about
1 millisecond in this example. Just before the negative leader reaches the tower, an upward leader meets it. This
is the beginning of the fast return stroke which is so brilliant as to veil a part of the film. The upward connecting
leader is charged positively. In accordance with observations made in the high voltage laboratories of the
"Renardiere Group", its luminosity is much smaller than that of the negatively charged downward leader. It
therefore cannot be detected in this figure.
Fig. 2 b is another example to the first case. The upward connecting leader is detectable in this example by
the upward branching in the sharp bent "B" of the return stroke channel.
Fig. 3a is a usual photo to case 2: Downward stroke from a positive cloud to the flat shore of lake Lugano.
The picture shows the famous "loop" which proves an upward connecting leader.
Fig. 3 b shows the corresponding streak camera photo of leader progression.
I must add: This case 2 is a very rare case over flat country. On the contrary, we have about 50 oscillograms of
such positive flashes but to the towers on Monte San Salvatore. The development of positive flashes to flat country
and to high conducting objects (such as towers) is quite different; before discussing this, we will show an example
to case 3.
a)
b)
lE
8
lZ!
~--------1ms--------~
J
Fig. 3. a) Downward progressing stroke from a positive cloud to flat country near Lake Lugano.
left : still·fiIm photo from Monte San Salvatore
right: still·fiIm photo from Lugano
b) Downward progressing stroke from a positive cloud to flat country near Lake Lugano, as in (a): streak·camera
photo, taken from Monte San Salvatore
639
a)
b)
Fig. 4. a) Two simultaneous upward strokes from towers 1 and 2 toward a negative cloud
b) Corresponding streak-camera photograph
Fig. 4 a is such an example of an upward leader or stroke towards a negative cloud. It is the most usual lightning
flash on Monte San Salvatore: Out of 1026 oscillograms, 732 were of case 3. The figure shows 2 simultaneous
flashes to both measuring towers, photographed from Lugano.
Fig. 4 b is the corresponding streak photo. Two leaders develop at the same time. According to their positive
charge, the luminosity is very faint and they do not show distinct steps as compared to negatively charged leaders.
It is very regrettable that in this most usual case 3 it is very rare to obtain a good streak camera photo. For future
work it would be necessary to use photo-multipliers as they were used in the laboratory by the Renardiere Group.
Now we come to the last case 4, which is the most famous one from theoretical and practical points of view.
Fig. 5 represents the positive flash to the towers on Monte San Salvatore. By field measurements on the moun-
tain it is clearly evident that the beginning of the lightning discharge is within a cloud. This discharge raises the
electric field above the towers to a value able to initiate an upward leader. This is charged negatively and therefore
640
well visible in the streak photo. This leader progresses in most cases during 5 to 25 ms. With a measurable mean
progressing velocity of about 2.5 x 10 5 mis, this corresponds to about 1.3 to 6.5 km height. The current
oscillogram then shows a sudden increase and an impulse discharge of about 27 kA in Fig. 5 which brings much
more positive charge from the cloud than was deposited in the leader. Regarding progression of the leader, this
type of a positive flash should be called an upward positive flash. Regarding the much heavier downward return
stroke from the cloud to the earth we call it a downward positive flash.
1 E
a
$2
Fig. 5. Positive flash to the tower on Monte San Salvatore: upward leader, downward return stroke. Above:
streak-camera photograph; below: oscillogram of the current
Theoretically this case 4 is extremely interesting because of the very long connecting leader from the towers to
an existing lightning channel within a positive cloud. The practical interest lies in the fact that the highest current
amplitudes, impulse charges and energy-integrals or i-sQuare-impulses S ;l dt are measured in class 4. The whole
electric charge which is reached by the connecting streamer is lowered at once. With few exceptions there is only one
stroke in a positive flash, its effect is worse than that of negative strokes. I therefore think positive flashes merit some
further consideration.
Authors' addresses:
R. E. Orville K. Bel"l/a
Dept. of Atmospheric Sciences Gstadstrar:le 31
State University of New York Ch-8702 Zollikon
at Albany Switzerland
USA
641
Stepped Leader Initiation Via Positive Streamer System Intensification
C. T. Phelps
Abstract
A stepped leader initiation mechanism is elaborated. This mechanism is based on the propagation properties
of positive corona streamers deduced from laboratory experiments in which a 0.65 meter uniform field gap was
employed. When the ambient electric field strength within a portion of a thundercloud exceeds roughly
3 x 10 5 V m -1, a positive streamer system, once initiated by corona from a hydrometeor, can be expected to
intensify as it advances in the direction of the local electric field (toward negative space charge). Because the
positive streamer system is charged conservative and expands as it propagates, the net result is the separation of
a substantial quantity of charge in which negative charge is concentrated while the positive charge is dispersed.
This effectively redistributes cloud negative space charge in a way that increases the ambient field strength in
part of the discharge region. Under appropriate conditions a sequence of such discharges, each one operating
in the enhanced field produced by its predecessor, can be regenerative, leading to dielectric breakdown over a
distance of several meters and the beginning of a stepped leader. These results are significant in that a plausible
link is provided between corona from hydrometeors and the transient production of the very intense and
relatively long-range electric field required to initiate a stepped leader within a thundercloud.
Introduction
Most theories of the lightning stepped leader require an electric field having a magnitude approxi-
mating the dielectric strength of the ambient air (;;;; 2 x 106 V m -1) over a distance of the order of
the diameter of the emerging channel. Only Loeb (1966, 1968) and Dawson and Duff (1970) have pre-
viously elaborated in detail mechanisms for the production of this locally very intense field. Loeb pro-
posed that the field strength at the base of an upward-expanding positive streamer system, produced
by disrupting water drops, increases rapidly due to funneling of negative charge as the streamers ad-
vance in a diverging pattern.
In the hypothesis of Dawson and Duff, raindrops, because of their considerably different thresholds
for positive and negative corona, acquire and immobilize negative charge. This leads to the possibility
of a type of potential gradient wave propagating through the distribution of large drops, carrying
negative charge away from the region of predominantly negative charge within the lower part of the
cloud. A computer calculation indicated that if the raindrop number density were sufficiently high
such a wave could become self-propagating and regenerative. In this case the electric field associated
with the wave would continue increasing until dielectric breakdown of the air occurred. The required
raindrop number density, is, however, too large for this mechanism to be a satisfactory explanation
for lightning initiation in many situations.
Richards and Dawson (1971) have shown that hydrodynamic instability of single large drops can be
expected for an ambient field of 9.5 x 105 V m -lor more (5.5 x 105 V m -1 for highly charged large
drops). Griffiths and Latham (1974) have found that the corona threshold for ice crystals, at pressures
appropriate to the lower part ofa typical thundercloud are in the range 4-5 x 10 5 V m- 1 • The corona
current resulting from these processes probably precludes quasi-static fields greater than 5 x 10 5 V m -1,
and certainly those above 106 V m - 1. Thus, the leader initiation mechanism must produce a transient,
four-fold or greater, local enhancement of the ambient field independent of the overall thundercloud
electrification process.
In this paper, a stepped leader initiation mechanism which is based on the propagation charac-
teristics of positive corona streamers, is developed within the broad framework of Loeb's theory cited
above. The positive streamer type of electrical corona is comprehensively treated by Loeb (1965, pp.
51-234), who provides many references. We will use the terms positive streamer and positive corona
streamer interchangeably in the same sense as does Loeb. Experimental investigations that have revealed
the unique propagation properties of positive streamers in a uniform electric field have been reported
by Acker and Penney (1969) and by Phelps (1971, 1974). The results from this work form the basis for
the hypothesis presented herein, and we refer the reader to these papers for the experimental details.
642
Stepped Leader Initiation Mechanism
The primary result derived from the most recent ofthe experimental work cited above is that a positive
streamer system, propagating in a uniform electric field whose strength exceeds approximately
4 x 10 5 V m -1 at NTP C;; 3 x 10 5 V m -1 in the lower part of a thundercloud assuming a linear de-
pendence on pressure) increases exponentially its luminosity, and by deduction, the quantity of net
positive charge it carries. Theoretical considerations based on an energy budget for the streamer system
yield the following expression for the intensification
Q =
<q) (Ea - Eo)x]
Qo exp [ <u)
where Q is the total net positive charge of the system, Qo is the initial net charge, <q) and <u) are the
average streamer tip charge and potential energy, respectively, Ea is the ambient field strength, Eo is
the critical field strength for energy balance, and x is the distance the system has advanced.
Dawson (1965) and Dawson and Wznn (1965) have shown that positive streamers propagate in a
charge conservative fashion, that is, charge is not supplied to the propagating tips by conduction through
the ionized channels left behind the tips. Because of this, any increase in the positive charge carried
by the tips must be balanced by negative charge deposition along the channels. Thus, intensification
of a positive streamer system results in a separation of charge along the direction of propagation. This
charge separation, in turn, results in regions where the electric field strength is higher than the original
ambient value. This enhancement of the ambient field will be especially pronounced in a region adjacent
to and behind the deposited negative charge (on the side opposite the direction of streamer propagation)
since the streamer system expands laterally as it propagates.
One can expect exponential intensification of a positive streamer system only initially when the
positive charge being propagated forward is small. As this charge and the negative charge being left
behind increase, the perturbation to the ambient field created by these charge concentrations becomes
increasingly important. The effect will be to reduce the rate of intensification and to increase the lateral
expansion of the streamer system. At this point a significant portion of the excess energy acquired
by the streamer system as it interacts with the ambient field is appearing as potential energy associated
with the gross charge separation. Ultimately nearly all of the excess energy will be used to separate
charge, and the propagating tips will be operating in an effective ambient field only slightly above Eo.
That is, the presence of the negative charge being continuously deposited behind the tips will have
approximately cancelled that portion of the ambient field strength in excess of the critical field strength,
t'lE = E" - Eo.
Eventually, the propagating streamer system will encounter a decreasing original ambient field
and the system will gradually die out, effectively dispersing the positive charge it has been carrying.
The negative charge, on the other hand, is immobilized, remaining essentially where it was deposited.
An exact description of the negative charge configuration and its perturbation to the ambient field is
impossible, given our present incomplete understanding of positive streamer propagation. Roughly,
however, we should expect the original ambient field immediately behind the bulk of the deposited
negative charge to be enhanced by the same amount as it is diminished ahead of the negative charge,
that is
E. = Ea + t'lE = E" + (E" - Eo) = 2E" - Eo,
where E. is the enhanced field strength.
If a new streamer system is initiated and develops in the region characterized by E., its intensification
will be more rapid and vigorous than if it had developed in the original ambient field. The peak field
strength associated with its deposited negative charge will be greater than E•. In principle a sequence
of such positive streamer system discharges can be regenerative, building up the field strength to the
dielectric breakdown limit (or dissipative, leading only to a local increase in conductivity). For instance,
if Eo = 3 x 10 5 V m - 1 in the cloud and Ea = 4 x 10 5 V m - 1, a sequence of four streamer system
discharges would be required. The presence of suitably positioned corona-producing hydrometeors
643
is, of course, required. This should not normally be a difficult requirement to satisfy since the increasing
field strength after the first discharge will make an increasing fraction of the hydrometeors potential
sites for corona.
A more significant requirement concerns the dimensions of the enhanced field regions produced
by the streamer systems. From the experimental results of Norinder and Salka (1950) and Stekolnikov
and Skilev (1963) it can be deduced that the production of a strongly conducting leader channel requires
a potential difference across the active volume of 3 x 105 volts or more, allowing for the reduced pres-
sure in the lower part of the thundercloud. Hence, the dielectric breakdown field, 2 x 10 6 V m - 1,
must be established across a minimum distance of 0.15 meter. This sets a minimum dimension for the
enhanced field volume associated with the negative charge deposited by the last streamer system in
a sequence of such discharges. Qualitatively it is clear that the typical dimensions of the streamer systems
must decrease through the sequence. If there is, as above, a sequence offour streamer system discharges,
and we assume a 3 : 1 size reduction for each successive system, then the original ambient field strength
(4 x 10 5 V m - 1) must extend over at least 10 meters for leader initiation to be possible. Although this
estimate is likely to be low, since a generous value for I!E was assumed, the requirement is unlikely
to exceed 100 meters.
Order of magnitude estimates for the quantities of deposited negative charge can be made by as-
suming spherical distributions having radii equal to the required minimum field dimensions. For the
case we have been considering, the net negative charge deposited by the first and fourth streamer systems
is 10- 4 C and 4 x 10- 6 C, respectively. These values are almost surely underestimates, since they are
derived from minimum dimension requirements and because the charge distributions are probably
not spherical. In any event, the amount of charge separated decreases through the sequence.
Discussion
The mechanism for leader initiation proposed above is analogous in some ways to the mechanism
advanced by Dawson and Duff. Streamer channels take the place ofraindrops as repositories for negative
charge. The sequence of streamer systems takes the place of the continuously propagating potential
gradient wave of Dawson and Duff as the regenerative process that rapidly increases the electric field
in a restricted region. Since we require only one triggering corona source for each streamer system in
the sequence, we avoid the requirement of a substantial number density of hydrometeors, which is
implicit in the Dawson-Duff approach.
Observations of electric field changes (Uman, 1969) make it clear that the initiation of the stepped
leader and its propagation to the ground are really two parts of a quasi-continuous breakdown process.
This overall process has been subdivided by Clarence and Malan (1957) into the B, I, and L phases.
The B phase is an initial rapid field change, which lasts 2 -10 msec. During the I phase that follows,
there are slow and irregular field changes over a period of up to 400 msec. The L phase corresponds
to the descent of the photographically identified leader. Malan (1955) reports that light is emitted
from within the cloud for periods of the order of 100 msec prior to the descent of the stepped leader.
The observations of Harris and Salman (1972) appear to confirm the correlation of light emission and
field changes during this period of pre-leader activity. As noted above, the first streamer system of the
sequence can be expected to separate the most charge and may account for the observed initial break-
down (B) phase. It is not unreasonable for the subsequent discharges, since they are triggered by different
hydrometeors, to account for the I phase, producing bursts of luminosity during a period of the order
of 100msec.
The mechanism we have described requires an electric field strength of roughly 3 x 10 5 V m - 1
within a portion of the lower part of a thundercloud. This is compatible with the largest values obtained
by Wznn et al. (1974) with instrumented rockets. These exceptionally high field strength values were
found within regions having a spatial extent limited to a few hundred meters, which is also consistent
with our requirements.
The stepped leader initiation process described here is dependent upon the unique characteristics
of positive streamers. There appears to be no analogous process involving negative streamers. This
644
parallels the asymmetry found by Barreto (1969) in his experimental work with discharges to high-
charge density aerosols. This mechanism is probably applicable to the initiation of dart leaders and
intracloud strokes. It is expected that the majority of these strokes originates with the propagation
of a positive streamer system in the direction from a positive charge accumulation to a negative one.
This is in agreement with the findings of Ogawa and Brook (1964) for intracloud strokes.
Acknowledgments
The author is grateful to E. Barreto, R. F Griffiths, and B. Vonnegut for their very helpful comments and criti-
cisms. He is especially indebted to Prof. L. B. Loeb, with whom he has had many fruitful discussions, and whose
work provided the framework and inspiration for the research reported herein.
This research was supported by the U.S. Army Research Office at Durham.
References
1. Acker, F. E. and G. W. Penney, J. Appl. Phys. 40, 2397 (1969). - 2. Barreto, E., J. Geophys. Res. 74, 6911 (1969). -
3. Clarence, N. D. and D. J. Malan, Quart. 1. Roy. Met. Soc. 83, 161 (1957). - 4. Dawson, G. A., Z. Phys. 183,
172 (1965). - 5. Dawson, G. A. and D. G. Duff, 1. Geophys. Res. 75, 5858 (1970). - 6. Dawson, G. A. and W. P.
Winn, Z. Phys. 183, 159 (1965). - 7. Griffiths, R. F. and J. Latham, Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc. 100, 163 (1974). -
8. Harris, D. J. and Y. E. Salman, 1. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 34, 775 (1972). - 9. Loeb, L. B., Electrical Coronas, Univ.
of Calif. Press, 694 (1965). - 10. Loeb, L. B., 1. Geophys. Res. 71, 4711 (1966). - 11. Loeb, L. B., 1. Geophys. Res.
73,5813 (1968). - 12. Malan, D. J., Ann. Geophys. 11, 427 (1955). - 13. Norinder, H. and O. Salka, Arkiv for
Fysik 3.347(1950). - 14. Ogawa, T. and M. Brook, J. Geophys. Res. 69, 5141 (1964). - 15. Phelps, C. T., J. Geophys.
Res. 76, 5799 (1971). - 16. Phelps, C. T., J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 36, 103 (1974). - 17. Richards, C. N. and G. A.
Dawson, J. Geophys. Res. 76, 3445 (1971). - 18. Stekolnikov, I. S. and A. V. Skilev, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR,
Tehn, Fiz. 151, 837 (1963). - 19. Uman, M. A., Lightning, 264 (London, 1969). - 20. Winn, W. P., G. W. Schwede,
and C. B. Moore, J. Geophys. Res. 79, 1761.
Discussion
I am wondering why would the negative charge form such a pointed body, and the positive charge spread out.
What's the reason for that?
Basically a streamer system - this is observed experimentally - spreads out as it propagates. In the laboratory
experiments the angle, actually the cone angle, is not that great, 5 or 10 degrees. However, I drew the diagram in
an increasing angle, because as the charge that's being separated increases, there will be a tendency to blow apart
the positive tips. You see, the lab experiments all were involved with propagating charge that was still small
enough to be neglected so that the field could be neglected compared to the ambient field. But, of course, in a cloud
this is going to go to bigger values, it is going to tend to blow itself apart.
Are the propagation fields mentioned in your abstract those determined in your experiments, or some
corrected values to take account of the lower pressures existing within thunderclouds?
Phelps:
This value is variable, reduced to account for reduction in pressure in the bottom of a cloud. At normal
temperature and pressure it is about 4 x lOs Vim. We may estimate for the bottom of the cloud a value of
about 2.5 x 10 5 Vim, depending on the height.
Author's address:
C. T. Phelps
National Institute for Telecommunications
Research Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research
P.O. Box 3718
Johannesburg 2000
Rep. of South Africa
645
The Onset of Long Electrical Discharges in Clean Air *)
E. Barreto and H. lurenka
Summary
Understanding ofthe propagation of electrical discharges leading to a stepped leader process requires knowledge
of discharge mechanisms that can operate over long distances in the absence of metal electrodes. However, as
normally studied in the laboratory, the different stages in a long air discharge are known to be strongly influenced
by the metallic properties ofthe electrodes used. This study reports on the formation and propagation of discharges
that avoid the use of metal surfaces. It is shown that local thermalization ofa section of the discharge region in the
air, is a prerequisite for the propagation of ionization over distances of the order of 0.1 m. Lack of thermalization
leads to charge redistributions that lower the electric stress and stop the discharge. Conversely, the thermaliza-
tion process inherently produces impulse high voltage waves with rise times in the order of 10 nsec. These waves
result in further ionization that extends the range of the discharge. Using water and polyester surfaces, it is shown
that the procurement of a critical electron density required for thermalization is controlled not directly by the
local electric field but by the availability of charge from regions located outside the channel that becomes ther-
malized. The critical thermalization condition of 1023 m - 3 electrons is verified using oscilloscope recordings
of the current in the discharge in conjunction with the ignition of propane-air mixtures. The technique is ap-
proximate but much easier than time-resolved spectroscopic observation of the discharge.
Authors' addresses:
E. Barreto H. Jurenka
State University of New York Atmosph. Science Res. Center
at Albany State University of New York
130 Saratoga Road at Albany
Scotia, New York 12302 1400 Washington Avenue
USA Albany, New York 12222
USA
*) Paper was accepted by the Executive Panel, but it was not presented. Full text of paper was not available,
see, however, the paper "Ignition of hydrocarbons and the thermalization of electrical discharges" by E. Barreto,
s. I. Reynolds, and H. Jurenka, in: Appl. Physics 45, 8 (1974).
646
Anomalous Behavior of H Lines in Lightning Spectra
R. D. Hill
With 2 figures
Abstract
The time variation of hydrogen lines in lightning spectra is different from other lines such as N II, 0 II, N I and
o I. Some of these differences can be understood in terms of the characteristic behavior of the lightning channel
plasma, others are anomalous. In this report evidence is adduced for a second radiation source from lightning
comprising the corona sheath surrounding the channel.
Introduction
Because the rates of processes involving hydrogen, such as: radiation, recombination, ionization,
etc. are amenable to theoretical calculation, it is not unreasonable to expect that spectroscopic data
of H-atom emissions should provide excellent information on plasma conditions in the lightning
channel. However, there are a number of puzzling aspects of H-atom emissions that have been reported.
In the following, we first describe briefly the existing information on H-atom emission lines in light-
ning spectra. Then from observed lightning channel data and from the inferred channel plasma con-
ditions we predict the expected characteristics of H-atom emissions. From the discrepancies of H-line
observations and predictions we attempt to draw conclusions concerning the nature of the lightning
radiation source.
Existing Observations
At the 3rd Conference on Atmospheric Electricity in 1963, Salanave (1965) stated that Dufay made
the first measurements of Stark broadened Hp lines in lightning spectra. Salanave also reported on
his own observations that Hp line intensities were weaker when associated with higher lightning channel
temperatures. In discussion, Israel (1965) inquired if there was any ready explanation of his own
observation that seemingly intense lightning flashes sometimes had strong H spectra and at other
times H spectra were entirely absent.
At the 4th Conference in 1968, Salanave (1969) showed a spectacular photograph of a time-integrated
(but stroke resolved) lightning stroke in Ha light. This photograph exhibited extreme intensity fine
structure, both along and across the channel. It was not resolved in the discussion whether the structure
across the channel was attributable to Stark broadening or spatial broadening.
In 1965, Connor (1967) obtained time-integrated, but stroke-resolved, lightning spectra using both
slit and slitless spectrographs. The measurements of the Ha lines are of particular interest because
they showed that the lines observed with slitless spectrographs were at least twice as wide as the lines
observed with slits. Connor suggested that the spatial profiles of lines observed with Ha light were
considerably wider than those observed in other light. For example, he observed that the brightness
of three N II lines fell to half maximum brightness in ~8 meters from channel center, while for a Ha
line the half central brightness was measured out to ~ 34 meters. He attributed this emission at much
larger distances than channel radii to lateral corona currents.
Orville (1968) was the first to time resolve spectra within individual lightning strokes. These spectra
were obtained with slitless spectrographs. Although many photographs with H-atom lines were obtained,
only two were suitable for quantitative analysis. In one photograph the peak Ha intensity was observed
at 50 Ilsec after return stroke onset. In the second photograph two peaks of comparable intensities
were observed at approximately 18 and 42 Ilsec. Stark broadened Ha widths were measured and electron
densities in the channel were inferred.
Return Stroke Channel Characteristics

Through a combination of temperature measurements and theoretical hydrodynamic calculations,
a reasonably consistent model exists of the lightning channel plasma. Model calculations that account
647
reasonably well for the observed channel temperatures show that practically all of the air that is going
to form the return stroke channel has been designated by electrical conductivity conditions in a few
microseconds and that thereafter the size of the luminous channel is determined by the hydrodynamic
expansion of this air. This is an important consideration in the following discussion because calculations
of Ha intensities will be based on the assumption that the total amount of hydrogen per unit length
of channel is essentially constant.
The Ha emission line intensity, Ia [joule/(sec· m 2 • sterad)], measured per unit area at the spectro-
graphic entrance pupil is given by:
[1]
where A32 is the Einstein transition probability for transitions between the p = 3 and p = 2 states,
g3 is the statistical weight of the p = 3 state, U is the H-atom partition function, n(1) is the number
density of H-atoms in the p = 1 state, hv is the Ha photon energy offrequency v, L is the optical length
of the Ha source, and exp( -E3/kT) is a Boltzmann factor of the p = 3 state of excitation energy E3
above the ground state.
Essentially only three quantities in eq. [1]: n(1), L and temperature T, vary with respect to time.
Most ofthe analysis is involved with determining n(1), and T is assumed from experiment. The variation
of L is found to be minor; we will first show that L actually diminishes by a factor of 40 percent in
30 Ilsec.
Model lightning channel properties
3x10-*
'"E
I
2- E
.S -
....
E
1x10-*
0 5 Time ,j-Lsec 20 30
Fig. 1. Lightning channel properties vs time. Curve r: channel radius. Curve m: mass per unit area for optical
path across channel diameter. Data from model parameters (Hill, 1971)
Model calculations by Hill (1971) and by P/ooster (1971) show that the channel is sharply defined
by a relatively high temperature region, where the electric current is conducted, and a steep outer
boundary where the temperature falls rapidly to a plateau which is weakly heated by an advancing
shock front. Since the temperature in the plateau region is well below that at which Ha is excited, we
assume the radius, r, of the channel from which Ha is emitted is defined by the high temperature bound-
ary. The variation of r as a function of time for a typical stroke is shown in Fig. 1. It will be seen that
r increased by a factor of approximately 6 from 2 to 30 Ilsec.
In the model calculations performed by the author, a Lagrangian technique was employed whereby
the hydrodynamic expansion was allowed to take place in a fixed mass set of cylindrical zones. For
the typical example shown in Fig. 1 the calculation showed that the high temperature boundary pro-
gressed outward through zones numbered: 9, 12, 12, 13 at the times equal to: 2, 10,20 and 30 Ilsec,
respectively. The optical thicknesses, L, of these channels are proportional to the sums of the products
of zone densities and zone thicknesses across a diameter of the channel at particular times, and these
sums (in kg/m 2 ) are shown as a function of time in Fig. 1.
648
Hydrogen Atom Emissions
Since ion-ion and ion-atom reactions are much slower than electron-ion and electron-atom reactions,
the H + and H atom reactions with other ions and atoms of air, such as N +, 0 +, etc. can be ignored.
We assume therefore that hydrogen in a lightning plasma, even though it is probably present to only
a few percent of air, can be treated independently as long as the proper density of electrons corresponding
to the whole plasma is taken into account. Bates, Kingston and McJVhirter (1962) in a classical paper
have prepared basic tables for hydrogen plasmas from which densities of H-atoms and H+ can be
obtained as functions of electron densities, N., and plasma temperatures, T. Ionization and recom-
bination processes have been generalized to include both radiative and collisional processes in what
are termed "collisional-radiative recombination coefficients", a,(N., T), and "collisional-radiative
ionization coefficients", S(N., T).
According to Bates et al.,if the mean thermal energy of a hydrogen plasma is much less than the first
excitation energy of the H-atom (which for T ~ 10000 to 30000 K, a lightning plasma certainly is),
and if N. is not greater than 1020 +w per m 3 , where w is given by (w + 10) = (3,3310g 10 T), (and this
condition is also met by a lightning plasma), then an equilibrium population oCH-atom states and H+
is established essentially instantaneously. In the case of an optically thin plasma, Bates et al. show
the ratio of n(1) to n(H+) is equal to the ratio of a,(N., T) to S(N., T). Values of a, and S are given in
the papers of Bates et al.
Ha
INTENSITIES
-3
10 0·1
10-4
o 10 Time,#sec 50
Fig. 2. Comparison of experimental and estimated H. intensities vs time. T curve: Observed (Orville, 1968).1. expo
curves: Experimental observations (Orville, 1968). 1. curve: Estimated relative H. intensities on basis of eq. [1 J.
A(T), B(T), N(T) curves: Factors in eq. [1]
649
Ratios ofn(1) to n(H+) can be connected to ratios ofn(1) to no, where no is the total density of hydrogen
atoms and its ions present in the plasma at any time. In order to carry out this connection it is necessary
to evaluate the appropriate partition function U(N., T) at any particular temperature and electron
density. The technique outlined by Richter (1968) was used to do this. For values of T and N e taken
from Orville (1968) for a typical stroke, the values of n(1)/no are shown for an optically thin plasma
as a function of time in Fig. 2. (For the sake of brevity, similar curves for the optically thick case are
not shown. The analysis for a Lyman Series thick plasma does not lead to different conclusions, in
fact, the results for an optically thin plasma appear to conform rather better with observations than
do those for optically thick plasma.)
According to eq. [1], and if for simplicity we assume L constant, the product of the following factors
will determine the relative H. intensities as a function of time:
N(T) = n(1)/no, B(T) = exp(-E3/kT), and A(T)
which is an appropriate absorption factor for H. determined in previous calculations by Hill (1972).
These factors are shown in Fig. 2, together with their normalized product, indicated by the curve I •.
Two normalized experimental curves of I. measured by Orville (1968) are also given in Fig. 2. At
times less than of the order 10 Ilsec, the observed H. intensities are significantly less than predicted.
Some of this discrepancy is probably due, as Orville suggested, to the smearing of a wide H. line into
the continuum. At late times of the order of more than 30 Ilsec, there is a second, larger, discrepancy
between experiment and theory. Because the observed channel temperatures are lower and have been
assumed, consistent with experiment, to continue to fall off beyond 30 Ilsec, the theoretical H. intensities
also continue to diminish strongly, mainly because of dependence on the Boltzmann factor. At 45 Ilsec,
the predicted H. relative intensity is approximately three orders of magnitude less than is observed.
HIS/ H{J Ratios

Measurements of HJH p ratios emitted from small admixtures of hydrogen added to plasmas in
the laboratory have been used successfully for plasma temperature determinations.
If the levels above the ground state of a hydrogen plasma are in Boltzmann equilibrium, as they are
according to Bates et al. when the conditions given in the previous section are satisfied, then the ratios
of intensities of H. to Hp in an optically thin plasma are given by:
IJl p = 2.18 exp(0.66/kT) [2]
where kT is in eV (1 eV ~ 11600 K).
Unfortunately, HJHp ratio data from lightning spectra are not abundant. In fact the only information
that seems available is given in unpublished reports by Connor (1967). Connor's spectra are not time-
resolved; they are time-integrated over single strokes. His data are given in terms of time-integrated
fluxes in ergs/A - cm 2 • With some diffidence 1 have derived from Connor's data very rough values
of IJlp by integrating under the identified cases of H. and Hp lines.
From Connor's cases, I derive the following IJlp values: 3.5, 11, 11, 16, 13 and 21 for slitless spectra,
and 11 for the one case of a recognized Hp in a slit spectrum. (Many other cases occur in which Hp
lines are not recognized and in which therefore the HJHp ratios are clearly quite large. The charac-
teristics of lightning spectra generally seem to be that the Hp lines are of very weak intensity.) From
the above values and eq. [2] we may therefore obtain the following plasma temperature~: 15000,
4650, 3700, 4300, 3250 and 4650 K, respectively. It is clear that these temperatures (with the possible
exception of the first) are too low to represent H-atom emissions from lightning channels. The reason
is, that although the channel can certainly assume these temperatures late in development, it is impossible
for the small spatial extent of the channel to emit the total observed H intensities at late times if the
channel has only these low temperatures. In fact, from the time-integrated temperature versus time
curve given by Krider (1973), and adapted from Orville, it is 'found that the optical length for the H.
emitter in the interval from 40 to 50 Ilsec would need to be 10 3 times thicker than the actual channel
is at this time.
650
Conclusions
From the experimental evidence that the intensest H. emission in lightning is usually observed
after a period of 30 ~sec following stroke onset, and from the evidence that the time-integrated H -atom
radiation is emitted from a relatively low temperature source, we are led to conclude that H-atom
radiation is predominantly emitted, at least after 30 ~sec, from a source other than the lightning channel
itself. In view of Connor's observation that the half central brightness of the lightning channel, measured
in the H. spectral line, was approximately 34 meters from the channel center, it is very likely that there
is an intense H-atom source constituted in the corona shell surrounding the lightning channel.
In view of Israel's observation that H-atom emissions are more intense sometimes than at others
we believe that the intensity of the corona may show considerable variation from one stroke to another.
As a comment to Salanave's observation that the Hp line is less intense for higher temperature channels,
we point out that this is precisely the reverse of what one should expect from higher temperature emis-
sions from a channel but that it might be understood if high temperature channels are in some way
associated with low-temperature, or low-intensity coronas.
It is indicated from this analysis that there must be strong contributions to H-atom line intensities
from wide, low temperature sources. Precisely what is the spatial extent and what is the time duration
of the corona source must be determined in future experiments.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by the Atmospheric Sciences Program of the U.S. Office of Naval Research.
References
1. Bates, D., A. Kingston, and R. McWhirter, Proc. Roy. Soc. London A 267, 297 (1962). - 2. Connor, R., Los
Alamos Report LA-3754 and Addendum, unpublished (1968). - 3. Hill, R., J. Geophys. Res. 76, 637 (1971); 77,
2642 (1972). - 4. Israel, H., Problems of Atmospheric and Space Elecy., Ed. S. Coroniti, p. 386. - 5. Krider, P.,
Nuc. Insts. Methods 110, 411 (1973). - 6. Orville, R., J. Atmos. Sci. 25, 827, 839, 852 (1968). - 7. Plooster, M.,
Phys. Fluids 14, 2124 (1971). - 8. Richter, J., Plasma Diagnostics, Ed. W. Lochte-Holtgreven, pp. 20, 156. -
9. Salanave, L., Problems of atmospheric and Space Elecy., Ed. S. Coroniti, p. 371. - 10. Salanave, L., Planetary
Electrodynamics, Vol. I, Eds. S. Coroniti and J. Hughes, p. 449.
Discussion
How can you expect to observe H-alpha from corona when the probable neutral gas temperature would be
very low in the corona? You wouldn't expect dissociation of H 2 0 molecules or any other molecules for that
matter.
Hill, Montecito, California, USA:
Not unless there is some electrical excitation, through the discharge itself. And I really do not know what the
answer is to that.
I think the point is that in a corona spectrum, there is no H-alpha at all. You will see nitrogen and maybe oxygen
lines, but there are no H-alpha lines.
Hill:
I am willing to accept what the experts say about this. I'm looking for an explanation of where this contribution
of H-alpha comes from. What I am confident about is that the H-alpha from the channel should decay quite
strongly before 60 microseconds. I don't see an easy explanation for this discrepancy.
Author's address:
R. D. Hill
P. O. Box 5484
Montecito, California 93108
USA
651
Some Statistical Features of Discharging Processes in Thunderclouds *)
St. Lundquist, V. Scuka, and D. Yedda
Abstract
A) For twelve thunderstorms of different type, duration and intensity, the times of occurrence of 1900 lightning
flashes have been recorded with different methods:
1. the Cigre lightning counter with standard antenna and 5 Vim sensitivity,
2. horizontal L-antenna of 5 m height and 15 m length, oscilloscope traces recorded on rotating film, light-
ning recognition at 5 V1m field change, time resolution 1 s,
3. spherics counter with high frequency response and high sensitivity,
4. visually.
The average value T of the time intervals between flashes and the standard deviation u has been calculated for
each storm and the variation coefficient V = ulT has been determined. T has a large range of variation
- 4 to 35 s - whereas the variation coefficient is limited to the range 0.56 to 1.06.
The skewness and the peakedness of the distribution has been tested according to a method given by Pearson,
parameters bl and b2 calculated from second to fourth moment. For several storms the distribution is close to
a normal distribution while the rest shows a considerable scatter around the gamma type of distribution. It has not
been possible to find any clear systematic trend in the analysed materia~ except possibly the lack of extreme values
of skewness or peakedness.
B) Using the method listed under A2. but with a time resolution of 1 ms, the distribution of 1900 time intervals t
between individual strokes in negative and positive multiple flashes has been analysed and the standard devia-
tions u and the variation coefficient V have been determined. Typical time intervals are about 55 ms for negative
and 35 ms for positive flashes with a variational coefficient of 0.8 and 0.6 respectively.
_ Introduction
Lightning is characterized by a balance between charging and discharging mechanisms. In an ideal
situation where the mechanisms are completely regular and without fluctuations lightning discharges
would probably occur separated by constant intervals, the length of which would depend on meteorologic
and orographic parameters, among others. In a real situation fluctuations are always present. Eddy
diffusion caused by turbulence effects the generation and dissipation of electric charge as well as its
distribution inside and below the cloud. The electric field strength will consequently fluctuate in time
and space, which affects the conditions for electric breakdown and hence the onset and propagation
of the predischarges of lightning.
The study of the fluctuations in the time intervals between major lightning events - flashes and
return strokes - reported in this preliminary paper was started with two different purposes in mind:
1. Knowledge of the statistical distribution ofthe time intervals between lightning flashes and between
return strokes in mUltiple flashes is needed in dealing with safety problems occurring in electronic
and electric power systems.
2. Furthermore, it is believed that a study of the fluctuations could, as our knowledge in other fields
increases, contribute to the gradually improved understanding of the complex phenomena of lightning.
Observations
For the intervals between flashes, observations made by different methods at different places and
times of the day have been selected and the main information about the material has been summarized
in Table 1. The data from Canada have been obtained by Professor Rama Murty, The University of
Western Ontario, who kindly put his observations at our disposal.
The time intervals between the return strokes have been measured from oscillograms of the electric
field changes obtained during an expedition to Lugano, Switzerland, organized by the late professor
D. Muller-Hillebrand in 1963. The time resolution of these measurements is better than 1 ms (5).
*) Due to lack of time, this paper was not presented at the Conference. Consequently, there are no discussions
related to this paper.
652
Table 1. Time intervals between flashes
Place Date LMT RM N T(s) O"(s) V = O"IT bl b2
Canada 720517 14 S.c. 85 21 15 0.73 0.85 2.7

1 Canada 720517 14 L.c. 72 25 16 0.64 1.7 4.7
2 Canada 720514 23 L.c. 105 27 19 0.71 0.55 2.5
3 Capri 731012 8 L.c. 90 24 13 0.52 2.6 8.3
4 Capri 731014 8 L.c. 20 35 19 0.55 0.0 1.5
5· Vitemolla 730707 10 L.c. 169 20 16 0.82 6.5 12.
6 Sweden 730707 12 L.c. 34 10 7 0.67 4.6 8.3
7 Lugano 630727 20 E 36 35 35 1.1 3.0 5.4
7a Switzerland 630531 17 E 437 9 10 1.04
8 Switzerland 630804 5 E 134 19 3 0.81 2.3 7.2
8a Switzerland 630804 9 E 12 92 70 0.76
9 Switzerland 630804 14 E 320 4 3 0.67 2.2 5.7
10 Switzerland 630807 17 E 310 11 9 0.85 3.3 7.2
11 Switzerland 630807 18 E 73 19 15 0.80 2.5 6.7
12 Vitemolla 730722 16 V.O. 9 47 10 0.22 0.10 1.8
Explanation: S.c. sferics counter, L.c. Cigre lightning flash counter, E Electric field changes recorded from
oscilloscope with a time resolution of 1 ms; V.O. visual observation of flashes from cloud to sea surface; T mean
value of time intervals in seconds, 0" standard deviation; V = O"IT variational coefficient; b l measurement of skew-
ness of distribution; b 2 measure of peakedness of distribution; N number of flashes; RM recording method;
LMT local mean time.
Fig.!. Peakedness b 2 and skewness b l for time intervals between successive flashes in the thunderstorms
listed in Table 1. In the diagram are shown the following theoretical distributions: N normal distribution,
E exponential distribution, U uniform distribution, LN log-normal distribution, G gamma distribution,
I impossible area
Analysis
For all series of time intervals the mean value f, the standard deviation (J and the variational coeffi-
cient V = (JIT have been calculated. Furthermore, sample estimates of the measures relative to the
spread of the skewness (bd, of the distribution and the peakedness (b z) have been calculated as follows:
bl = m3 . ml" 3/Z, bz = m4 . ml" z, where m2, m 3, m4 are estimates of the central moments of the distri-
bution (2).
The parameters b l and b2 indicate if the distribution of time intervals is close to any particular
theoretical distribution, such as the normal distribution, (b l = 0, b2 = 3), the exponential distribution
(b l = 4, b2 = 9) etc. A convenient program getting all those parameters has been developed for a
653
WANG 452 Calculator with 320 program steps. The calculated values are given in Tables 1- 4 and
corresponding (b I , b2 ) - plots in Figs. 1-4.
Table 2. Time intervals between successive return strokes in a multiple ground flash for the thunderstorm in
Lugano, CR. 630804 (i.e., 4 August 1963)
Rij Nij Tij (Iij Vij b lij b2ij
1-2 164 56 44 0.77 6.12 12.97

2-3 117 57 48 0.84 4.06 7.34
3-4 83 57 44 0.76 3.07 5.83
4-5 48 63 59 0.92 4.76 8.55
5-6 34 51 36 0.70 4.03 8.20
6-7 25 72 71 0.98 4.03 5.68
7-8 17 93 83 0.89 6.78 9.12
8-9 8 70 79 1.13 4.37 5.72
Data obtained by D. Muller-Hillebrand, V. Scuka and others in Lugano, 1963. Explanation: Rij return stroke; Nij
number of intervals; Tij mean value of Nirintervals between return stroke i andj, in ms; crij standard deviation; Vij
variational coefficient; bIij , b2ij relative measure of skewness and peakedness of the distribution.
2 3 4
-b,
Fig. 2. Peakedness b2 and skewness b i for time intervals between successive return strokes in a multiple ground
flash for the thunderstorm referred to in Table 2. The numbers indicate the order of the interval
Table 3. Time intervals between successive return strokes in a multiple ground flash for the thunderstorm in Lugano,
CR. 630807
Rij Nij Tij aij v,j b lij b2ij
1-2 47 63 44 0.70 2.93 6.48

2-3 22 50 29 0.58 0.52 2.60
3-4 13 39 19 0.48 0.36 3.03
4-5 10 67 38 0.56 0.D1 2.01
5-6 9 73 58 0.79 0.49 2.44
6-7 5 40 14 0.34 0.08 2.48
7-8 4 70 46 0.65 0.01 1.61
8-9 3 73 89 1.21 0.44 1.5
Explanation see Table 2.
654
Fig. 3. Peakedness b2 and skewness b i for successive time intervals between return strokes in a mUltiple ground
flash for the thunderstorm referred to in Table 3. The numbers indicate the order of the interval
Table 4. Time intervals between successive return strokes regardless of the order in multiple flashes for some
thunderstorms in Lugano
k Date N T(ms) u(ms) v

1 603807 113 58 41 0.70 2.39 5.96
2 630704 496 59 50 0.84 6.19 11.19
3 630529 1248 55 42 0.76 2.89 5.89
k number in the diagram of Fig. 4.
023
_b,
Fig. 4. Peakedness b2 and skewness b i for all time intervals between successive return strokes regardless of the
order. 1. Thunderstorm 630704; 2. Thunderstorm 630807; 3. Thunderstorm 630529-31
In the analysis leading to Table 1, a few extreme intervals in the beginning and the end of the storm
have been omitted in some cases. The truncation has been made in such a way that the obtained values
do not depend critically on the exact point of truncation.
Comments
Many physical phenomena are governed by a large number of parameters with different kind of
statistical fluctuations. According to the central limit theorem such phenomena obtain a distribution
approaching the normal distribution. In another situation - the failure of complex equipment where
655
each component has its distribution of life time, the time intervals between failure of the system is
approaching an exponential distribution (1).
In a time to failure model the gamma distribution is representative for a case where failure takes
place as soon as exactly k independent events have occurred. For large values of k the gamma distribution
approaches the normal distribution. It appears that none of the simple distributions is well suited to
approximate the observed distributions. If a theoretical distribution is used, e.g. for extrapolation,
great caution must be taken in particular for the extreme values (4).
A common feature for the time intervals between flashes is that the variational coefficient is not
far from unity. An exception is thunderstorm 12, visually observed over the surface of the sea about
5 km from the shore. The more regular rate of flashing for this storm could possibly be connected with
the lack of point discharge generated space charge over the sea, a fact which was also observed to produce
a higher electric field strength (up to 30kV/m) over the sea (3). Perhaps the gamma distribution offers
the best approach to the observed intervals between flashes, which could be connected with the stepped
leader process.
Acknowledgment
This investigation has been partially supported by grants from the Swedish National Board for Technical
Development.
References
1. Drenick, J. Soc. Industr. Appl. Math. 8, 4 (1968). - 2. Hahn-Shapiro, Statistical Methods in Engineering, 6
(New York, 1967). - 3. Lundquist, S., H. Ryzko, and V. Scuka, Simultaneous measurements of the atmospheric
electric fields at the ground level over the land and over the sea during some thunderstorms, Institutet fOr
hogspanningsforskning Uppsala (1966). - 4. Lundquist, S., V. Scuka, and D. Yedda, Some statistical features of
discharging processes in thunderclouds, Institutet fOr hogspanningsforskning Uppsala (1974). - 5. Scuka, V.,
Measurements of the electric fields of thunderstorms, Institutet for hogspanningsforskning Uppsala (1965).
Authors' address:
St. Lundquist, V. Scuka, and D. Yedda
lust. for Hogspanningsforskning
UppsaJa Universitet
S-75950 Uppsala
Sweden
656
General Discussion
Chairman: R. E. Orville
Eriksson, Pretoria, South Africa:
Could Uman, perhaps, enlarge on his chosen representative current wave form. I am intrigued by the
comparison of his wave, which is approximately one 1/11 microsecond wave, with Berger's wave form results.
Recent analysis by Kroninger of Berger's records has shown that negative first strokes wave forms are 6/85 micro-
seconds and subsequent stroke waveforms something like 1/30 microseconds. Does Uman feel that in the
absence of tall structures, negative strokes to ground differ very little whether they are first or subsequent strokes,
and does he have much experimental evidence to support this?
I am not really sure that currents do fall off very rapidly. The rise times are generally 2 or 3 microseconds and the
current derived from the field measurements seems to be down to half value by 20 microseconds. In deriving
these rise and fall times, I am believing in the transmission line model. The model is probably not adequate to
derive current after a few tens of microseconds, because we do not properly take account of all the charge that
is initially placed on the leader. So, I would tend to believe maybe the first 10 or 15 microseconds of our current
wave forms and not be too overconfident about what goes on after that. Along the same line, I also want to
comment that we have done calculations of what happens if the channels are not straight and vertical; it
makes a significant effect on the electrostatic field values. The field for lightning within 10 km is predominantly
electrostatic after 10 or 20 nicroseconds. So, one can make large errors in derived return stroke properties by
assuming the lightning is straight and vertical if in fact it is not. - I should like to answer Kasemir's
question about calling the model that we use the "transmission line model". I think he ·objects on historical
grounds. There has been an earlier transmission line model which involved the circuit elements R, L, and C and
was used in an attempt to explain how a wave could run up the channel. We use the term "transmission line"
only to indicate that we have a current pulse that does not change its shape as we send it at constant velocity up
a line. No more than that should be read into it. - My last comment is that Bruce and Golde, in the 1941 paper,
started the whole business of calculating fields by invoking the constant current model. But, at the end of
their paper, they say that it is not a good mode~ one should use a transmission-line type model instead. So I think
there is a lot of precedent right in the beginning to do what we are doing now.
I should like to comment on Uman's mirror images. I think that many of Uman's mirror-image pulses have
nothing to do with the transmission line model but are reflections from the ionosphere. We know, and we shall be
hearing more from Harth this afternoon, that an "atmospheric" can be regarded as composed of a ground pulse
and many successive reflected pulses from the ionosphere. Let me consider the first sky pulse, or once reflected
pulse, only. Within distances of about 200 kilometers the ground pulse and the sky pulse come down the same
polarity. But when one gets beyond about 200 km, the sky pulse suddenly reverses in polarity and it comes down
exactly like a mirror image as shown by Uman. Furthermore, the polar-diagram of the lightning radiator is
such that the farther one goes from the source, the stronger relatively become the sky pulses. I think that Uman
should not be making any precise interpretations without an exact knowledge of the distance of the individual
lightning flashes. By "exact" I mean something like the order of plus or minus 10 km. Now in Britain - I am
speaking as an ex-Briton - for about 30 years we had the CRDF (Cathode-Ray Direction Finding) network
of the British Meteorological Office which would locate the positions of individual lightning flashes with a
precision of something like 10 km for distances within 500 km. I now understand from Stringfellow that there are
two such networks in Britain, an added advantage perhaps to working in Britain. I have now worked for many
years in a country which is said to be more advanced. But there is no such facility in the USA. Until thereis, and
Uman can locate the positions of his individual flashes fairly exactly, his interpretations should be regarded with
extreme caution, especially as regards the mirror-image effects.
Uman:
I think, Pierce got a good point. A lot of the distant wave forms we see, that look like they have the mirror image
effect, are sky waves. We do see some, however, that have the mirror image, and then following the mirror image
there is a complete sky wave. Exactly how many real mirror images there are in nature, that is, how often the
lightning turns horizontal abruptly at its top, I do not know. We cannot sort out, if we look at distant wave forms,
what are the sky waves and what are the mirror images. We are trying very hard right now to do the accurate
distance ranging by using a 200 km baseline with one station at each end, and recording strokes close to one station
and far from the other. I hope to have some better information on this subject pretty soon.
657
Could you do experiments in the vicinity of the Mt. San Salvatore Observatory in Switzerland?
Uman:
I would be a little worried about the effects of the mountainous terrain.
R. D. Hill, Montecito, California, USA:
I should like to return briefly to the comment I made this morning. Uman is doing such a refined calculation
on these fields that it seems to me that probably he could take the reflection into the ground a little differently.
There can be a time lag between the image part and the above-ground part. With the peak current cases he is now
discussing, I believe, this may change the situation somewhat.
Uman:
I am not sure I understood that completely. We have taken into account all of the reflections off the ground
by using the method of images. We are not allowing any reflections off the ionosphere.
Pierce's suggestions can be faulted simply on the grounds of extra delay. The ionospheric reflection from a
near lightning flash would be delayed by about 1.3 milliseconds. If the distance changes from one to 100 kilo-
meters, the delay in the direct wave changes by 330 microseconds.
Pierce:
Uman has an example in his invited paper as distributed before this Conference in which the flash is said to be at
about 200 km, and the delay is 60 microseconds. That is exactly what you would expect from a lightning flash at a
distance of 300 km. Also, I do not think Uman's estimate of the 200 km distance is precise. I think he is uncertain to
a factor of a hundred kilometers. I recommend that Proctor may work at that example in U man's invited paper.
Uman:
We cannot be sure where the lightning was. But on that day, the radar showed that at that time there were
two storms, one over Tampa, and one over Tallahassee. They were both between 100 and 200 km distant. One
can never be sure that there were no storms 3 times as far away that were not detected by the radar. But all wave
forms at that time look like the one I showed. Thus, we feel reasonably confident that is where they were coming
from.
Pierce:
This is my last comment this morning. I have been very interested in the initiation of lightning by. upward
leaders from structures connected to the surface of the earth. These show a common phenomenology in that the
upward leader appears to be started when the particular object has a positive potential of something like 2 mega-
volts relative to the surrounding air. Now, I am not able to translate this in terms of field because the object may
be the top of the column of water resulting from the depth charge (as in a famous experiment some years ago -
Editor); it may be a wire at the end of a rocket; it may be the tower on Monte San Salvatore; it may be certain
towers carrying radio antennas; it may be the Empire State Building. Thus, it is hard to translate that
potential difference into a field distribution. But I would like to ask Phelps: is this 2 megavolt difference reason-
ably compatible with Phelps' quantitative ideas about the initiation of lightning?
Yes, I agree. I would estimate the voltage perhaps a little lower. I was using a value of something like 300 to
500 kV, allowing for the reduction of pressure in the cloud. And, of course, the negative charge accumulation
one gets is performing the same function as an induced charge, say, on the end of a tall building or the plume from
a depth charge, or whatever, in that it is generating a field over a distance and one gets the total potential drop
of values on the order of a million volts.
Do you have any evidence or speculations concerning the likely influence on your propagation field, of the
presence of hydro meteors in the vicinity of the discharge?
Phelps:
I have really not done very much in terms of looking at how streamers propagate into a cloud. Really, the only
thing I can say is that if one makes a Lichtenberg figure, where one lets the streamers propagate along a dielectric
sheet, and previously spray this sheet with small droplets, one finds, that one has to have an enormous number
658
density on the surface before one really cuts down the streamer lengths from what they would be without any
droplets at all. Thus, I suspect that in a cloud the propagation will not be altered very much. Also, there are not
very many large drops. When a streamer hits one of those it is usually stopped. When streamers encounter little
droplets, 20 to 40 micrometer or so, they often tend to more or less ignore them in that they just pass over them
and engulf them. Only when one has really high densities on a film, to the extent where it is wet, one cuts down
the lengths very much.
I should like to add a comment to Phelps' reply to Latham's question. In Phelps' Lichtenberg figures the droplets,
as I believe, were uncharged. I would expect that in a real cloud, where we have charges on cloud droplets, we may
expect to find some effect that would alter the value of the propagation field.
I should like to comment also in reference to Latham's comment. If one wants to extrapolate to little aerosol
particles, we have shown that a positive streamer that meets a negative aerosol is actually enhanced. This is
precisely what would be expected because it is easier for the breakdown process to procure free electrons. The
opposite is not true, that is, a positive streamer system does not propagate and actually avoids a positive cloud.
Orville:
I would like to move on to the four papers Krehbiel, Few, Holmes, and Takeuti, et al. These papers dealt more
with constructions of the horizontal channels, the location of initiation whether it is in the high radar reflectivity
or low reflectivity regions. May I ask now for a series of comments or questions on these four papers.
I should like to ask Krehbiel, if he has made any theoretical examination of the effect of replacing his spherical
charge by, say, an ellipsoidal charge. And, in fact, more generally what is the ultimate limit to the accuracy of this
electrostatic method?
Now that we have some idea of how consistent the data is with a spherically symmetric or point charge model,
we will be looking at higher order models for the charge distribution. There are two problems in doing this, how-
ever: First is that solutions of the field change equations associated with more complex models will probably
have to be obtained numerically rather than analytically as in the point charge mode~ and may exhibit problems
of uniqueness. Second, more general models involve a greater number of unknowns, therefore leaving fewer
redundant measurements for checking consistency of the data with the model. A generalized ellipsoid, for example,
requires nine variables for specification, which is not possible from our present eight stations of data, so that
the ellipsoid would have to be constrained in at least one and probably more degrees of freedom.
The ultimate limit to the accuracy of the electrostatic method of lightning charge location undoubtedly lies in
being able to properly model the distribution of rearranged charge. The complexity of the model will be limited
by practical considerations such as above, and further refinement beyond a "center of charge" description is likely
to be more qualitative than quantitative.
Eriksson, Pretoria, South Africa:
I should like to address another question to Krehbiel. I am intrigued with the horizontal displacement of
several kilometers for multistroke flashes that he reports. Has this been a current feature of your records and have
you had any photographic measurements of the same flashes that support this discplacement?
Krehbiel:
For the four multiple-stroke discharges that have been examined, stroke to stroke displacement of the charge
centers, as determined from electric field change data, was predominantly horizontal. Photographic confirmation
of this is generally not possible because of the obscuring cloud, and the only photographic data we obtained was
time-lapse photography of cloud motion, which did not capture the lightning. Electric field change data is
available for all of the discharges of the storm, and it will be interesting to see if constant height locations are ob-
tained for the remaining multiple and single return strokes.
I should like to address my first question to Holmes and ask him how sure he is that lightning flash no. 4, which
he showed in his Fig. 2 occuring about 4 minutes before the precipitation increase, did in fact originate within
the cloud that produced the precipitation.
659
Holmes, Socorro, New Mexico, USA:
We had implemented our network with acoustic ranging device, just for answering this question. Un-
fortunately, we have not had the time to analyze these data There was a visual observation of the stroke;
however, that was within the vicinity of the cloud. I cannot say, of course, that it was in the intensifying region
of the cloud.
Ryder:
Could Few give an equivalent precipitation intensity for the radar contour on one of the slides*) he presented,
showing lightning flash positions together with radar precipitation echoes?
No, I am sorry, I cannot. These data were supplied to me by the National Center for Atmospheric Research
simply as contours from the 10 em radar. I have no additional data on system calibration or parameters **). But,
I would like to continue answering the question that you asked of Holmes, and that is that we have seen in the
same storm, that I described, several instances of intensification following lightning flashes, and in these cases
we do know where the lightning flashes occurred in the thundercloud and we know where the intensification
occurred. So, we do have the spatial resolution; the time resolution is not very good, though, because we only
go through this particular volume of the cloud every five minutes with the radar system.
Albrecht, Wachtberg-Werthhoven, West-Germany:

I would like to address a question, again, to Holmes regarding the spatial resolution which came up in the
recent question. The network of rain gauges spaced at 300 m separation is generally, I think, not regarded to
result in an adequate accuracy in spatial resolution. I do not know or do not recall the radar frequency Holmes
used, I would like to ask him whether he believes that it is possible (and if he has not been in a position to do so
far, whether it should be possible) to localize areas within a rain cell or within a band of rain cells where such
correlation, as he has mentioned, can occur. And I would like to know whether he has any comment on it.
Holmes:
Yes, it would be possible within our rain gauge network. The cloud of this particular storm was over the
edge of the network. We did have a heavy increase in precipitation, as the rain gauge has shown. An immediately
adjacent rain gauge showed almost no precipitation. The edge of the precipitation shaft was very sharp. We
fee~ with our radar, neglecting attenuation effects, we do have the spatial resolution necessary to locate the preci-
pitation region beneath the cloud rather closely.
I was impressed by Takeuti's and Nakano's paper. They suggested that the electric structure in small clouds in
snow thunderstorm might be completely different from the thunderstorms in summertime. As far as the
dynamics is concerned, it is the same. Just before the shower we have a wind shift and a pressure rise and
everything is similar. But when we observe the electric structure in Hawaii, we have a negative charge accumula-
tion and the electric structure is opposite. When we observe the electric charge distribution of snow crystals by
radiosonde in Japan, we have positively charged particles in the cloud. Also, this positive charge structure was
shown by Tamura. So, I wonder, is this just due to the geographical difference?
I am not about to respond to Takahashi. I did not really quite fathom what his comment was. The comment I
wanted to make is on the paper he was commenting on. The 9 out of 10 positive currents that were reportedly
measured in strokes to the ground in Japan, were measured with a field mill, according to Takagi, who gave the
paper. He was actually not really sure of how these were measured, so before we get all excited about a new
"beast", I want to be sure that the measurement and interpretation are correct. And here is a caution: with a field
mill one will see the field change, and if one is observing visually one will see a stroke to ground. But field changes,
as we all know, do not only come from the return stroke process. They come from the return stroke and the
leader, and a large amount of rearrangement of charge or neutralization in the cloud itself. In order to be certain
that these return strokes brought positive charge to earth, one should also identify the initial leader and then,
following that, the leader field change, and then following that, the return stroke field change, and then show
that the return stroke field change is not in the usual direction of lowering negative charges to earth. Kitagawa
*) Not reproduced in these Proceedings.

**) Since the conference, Few has obtained these data. Interested readers may write to him.
660
and I found a number of strokes which seemed to be of upside down polarity; but upon closer examination turned
out to be of normal polarity. They were imbedded as ground strokes (single) in a very large field change associated
with a cloud discharge which could easily be mistaken for the ground flash field change. So, I caution that, until
we have better information about the flashes, these "positive strokes" may not quite be as interpreted in the
paper. It would seem to me, also, that the authors would have told us something about the leaders, too, if their
measurements had time resolution greater than that is possible with field mills.
I wonder if Takahashi could give any information on the rates of radar echo intensifications associated with the
large rain rates that he mentions so that we could compare them with our own.
Takahashi:
We had a U.S.-Japan cooperation program in 1965. At that time the University of Illinois did the radar
observations. And right now the NHRE (National Hail Research Experiment) project is doing very well. We can
get information from them. I am glad to help you.
Orville:
Thank you very much. I would like to move on to the last two papers and ask if there are any comments.
Hill:
I would like to add a postscript to the paper in reply to the questions that Phelps and Barreto raised. There is some
evidence from the photographs by Connor of a considerable emission of H-alpha in the region surrounding the
channel. He attributed this to corona. It was on this basis that I suggested it may be the possible extra emission
source of H-alpha.
In reply to a second point that I heard raised by Brook, with respect to Orville's H-alpha spectrum, I would
like to say that the current in the stroke is not essential to be measured, if one measures the temperature as a
function of time. The temperature function alone is perfectly adequate for model computation. In this respect,
the temperature at Orville's H-alpha event was similar to the average values that I gave in my figure. Thus, I
do not believe that a lack of information on the current can be responsible for any anomalies in explaining the
H-alpha behavior*).
Chairman's address:
R. E. Orville
Dept. of Atmospheric Sciences
at Albany
USA
*) R. Orville does not agree with this statement but had no chance to present a response during the Conference.
661
Session 8b
PHYSICS OF LIGHTNING AND SFERICS

PART II
Remark by the Editors: for more information on some problems discussed in this session, see the papers
by Changnon, Clayton and Polk, Kolokolov, and by Mackerras in session 6.
The Propagation of Atmospherics *)

W. Harth
With 14 figures
Abstract
Fundamental problems in atmospherics research are sketched. Breaking the subject down into three natural
divisions: sources, propagation medium, and receiving technology, it is shown that, as a rule, only a statistical
analysis of the received impulses leads to interpretable and significant results, and that the propagation conditions
in the terrestrial wave guide (Earth-Ionosphere) must be taken into account. These propagation conditions also
essentially determine the selection of the parameters to be measured from the atmospherics spectrum. Some of
these parameters are discussed. The changing propagation conditions of the terrestrial wave guide are presented
with the help of measurements of these parameters. With a knowledge of these propagation conditions on the
received parameters one can determine the mean location and thus the global distribution of the atmospherics
sources. Furthermore, these localizations of storm centers can serve in the future to better determine the intensity
of the individual atmospherics sources. A newly developed method of attack is applied for the purpose of ascribing
small scale and large scale dynamics to the various atmospherics sources. A few brief remarks on the observation
of global atmospherics activity are offered in order to point out that this project is not so much a scientific problem
as it is one of logistics.
Introduction
Over the last decade atmospherics research has achieved a state-of-the-art, from which its previously
disadvantageous position between the separate branches of geophysics and meteorology has elevated
it to an attractive tool in terrestrial research. This situation has arisen from rapid progress in the under-
standing of propagation conditions of electromagnetic waves in terrestrial wave guides as well as an
expanding technology in high quality electronics. This development presents us today with the pos-
sibility of more directly addressing the problems of atmospheric electricity with the help of atmos-
pherics research.
If we assume that lightning is the cause of atmospherics, then atmospherics observations should
give us an overall picture of the global thunderstorm distribution together with its yearly and daily
motions. These observations could also better our understanding of the role of the thunderstorm as
a possible "generator" of the atmospheric electric field (Dolezalek, 1972). Furthermore, the incorpora-
tion of thunderstorm activity studies into the field of atmospheric dynamics opens up the possibility
of explaining the previously recognized interaction of the upper and lower atmosphere (Harth, 1973).
The development of atmospherics research over the last decades is not so much characterized by
significant solo successes as by a large quantity of contributions, which have not begun to present us
with a complete explanation of this phenomenon, but rather have underscored the complex nature
and the diverse difficulties of the discipline.
*) Invited Paper.
663
It is not the purpose here to list and describe the detailed contents of the vast quantity of papers in
this field. This has already been done in many review articles appearing at the general conference of
URSI in the reports of Commission VIII: "Atmospherics and Radio Noise", or in occasional
publications and monographs (e.g. Norinder, 1953; Israel, 1958; Revellio, 1956; Israel and Ries, 1966;
Pierce, 1969; Jean, 1970; Jones, 1971, 1974; Harth, 1972; Horner, 1972; Taylor, 1963).
This present work is therefore limited to results of articles of the last years that are concerned with
the propagation conditions of atmospherics inside the terrestrial wave guide. Whistlers and VLF
emission are not treated here. The reader is referred to the exemplary work of Rycroft (1972) on these
phenomena. We restrict ourselves further to consideration only of the radiation contribution to the
disturbance of the electric field. Results of investigations of the field discontinuity and the contributions
due to induction are handled elsewhere in these proceedings (Uman). A comprehensive description
of the techniques of atmospherics observation and thunderstorm localization has been given by
Horner (1972).
In order to better explain the meaning of the propagation problem to readers working in adjacent
fields of interest, the phenomenology of the atmospherics and a description of the influence of the
terrestrial wave guide on the received signal will be presented in two introductory sections. The section
following these, briefly describes some parameters that can be derived from the received atmospherics.
It is then shown with the help of a long series of measurements of these parameters how the propagation
conditions affect the parameters. The last section before the conclusion is an interpretation of the ob-
servational results with respect to geophysical and meteorological aspects, i.e. localization and dynamics
of atmospherics activity as well as an assessment of intensity estimates of thunderstorm activity. A con-
sideration of the present possibilities of worldwide monitoring of atmospherics activity and associated
logistics problems conclude this paper.
Phenomenology of Atmospherics; Breakdown into Spectral Ranges

Not considering occasional discharges in snow or sandstorms, in clouds over erupting volcanos,
or even in the clear atmosphere, the source of lightning is the thunderstorm cloud. The discharges can
be roughly divided into three groups: inside of a cloud, from cloud to cloud, and cloud/earth lightning
discharges (Uman, 1969).
Associated with the discharge is the vertical electric field disturbance
E(t) = _1_{Ms(t) + dMs/dt + d2Ms/d2t}
41t80 r3 cr2 c2r
which contains a "field discontinuity" (first term1 a contribution from "induction" (second term), and
a contribution due to "radiation" (third term). Ms(t) is the charge moment, r is the distance from the
source, c is the speed of light, and 80 is the dielectric constant in vacuum (Israel and Ries, 1966;
Chalmers, 1967; Jones, 1971).
The electromagnetic radiation is distributed over the entire frequency spectrum with maximum
spectral energy in the ELF (f < 3 kHz) and VLF (3 < f < 30 kHz) ranges. For large distances this
is the dominant contribution and the pulse or wave profile is a product of the source mechanism and
propagation effects. In the following we refer to the contribution from radiation simply as the "atmos-
pheric".
The average source spectrum shows a maximum at 6 kHz and a fall-off inversely proportional to
the frequency over the range from 100kHz to 10GHz (Horner, 1964; Jones, 1967a, 1967b).
One may divide the atmospheric into three classes according to their spectral distribution: the normal
and predominant VLF atmospheric, the ELF or "slow tail" atmospheric, and the VLF "echo train"
atmospheric. The ELF atmospheric contrasts with the usual VLF atmospheric because of its higher
intensity at low frequencies, which is viewed as a contribution from the source. The VLF "echo train"
atmospheric is observed primarily at night and is characterized by extreme propagation conditions.
In this case "echo pulses" appear, which follow the first pulse at millisecond intervals according to the
source distance (Jones, 1971).
664
Spectral analysis provides an amplitude spectrum that shows several characteristic ranges:
ELF Range: The amplitude falls with increasing frequency. The zero order mode*) of the TM wave
dominates and attains maximal attenuation between 2 - 4 kHz, at which point the first order mode
takes over.
Lower VLF Range: The amplitude rises with increasing frequency according to the reduction in the
attenuation of the first order mode.
Remaining VLF Range: The finite lifetime of the impulse causes a decrease in the amplitude spectrum
with increasing frequency.
In the range from 5 - 50 Hz, the earth's surface and the ionosphere serve as a resonance cavity that
is excited b the atmospherics activity. The resonant frequencies or "Schumann frequencies" given by
f = fl n(n + 1)/2 occur here at 8, 14, 20 ... Hz (for n = 1,2,3, ... ). Up to seven types of oscillation
can be ascertained from the spectra (Madden and Thompson, 1965; Galejs, 1965; Fellman, 1970).
The breakdown into spectral ranges is shown schematically in Fig. 1.
0
.~
.
~
0
E
.c
u
~ II ill
-
I
=
~
100Hz 3kHz 10kHz
Fig. 1. The mean atmospherics amplitude spectrum in the megameter range (schematic)
The Terrestrial Wave Guide as a Propagation Medium
The electromagnetic disturbance, beginning in the discharge channel of the lightning stroke,
propagates outward and interacts with the neutral atmosphere, the earth's surface, and the iono-
spheric plasma. For the problem of the localization of atmospherics sources one is interested in that
frequency range where interaction with the neutral atmosphere is unimportant. The earth's surface
acts normally as a good electrical conductor and thus as a metallic reflector. On the other hand, the
ionospheric plasma has a very complex behaviour with respect to its interaction with electromagnetic
waves. Depending on frequency and angle of incidence of the incoming radiation, part of the energy
will be reflected and part will penetrate through the ionosphere into exospheric space.
We restrict our attention to that radiation energy reflected between Earth and ionosphere, so that
the space in this region may be viewed in the technical sense as a wave guide, directing electro-
magnetic waves from sender to receiver.
*) Types of electric and magnetic field configurations within the wave guide. TM: transversal magnetic wave
(TE: transversal electric wave).
665
Fig. 2 schematically illustrates the situation. The impulse enters the propagation system, which here
is the terrestrial wave guide bounded by the ionosphere and the earth's surface. The pulse's spectrum
is modulated in the propagation path to arrival at the receiver.
In the following, a brief description of the received impulse and the elimination of the terrestrial
wave guide modulation of the received pulse profile will be given.
/fuJIffffIlJ///Jo///?l7itfl/)/11111///)UI
Source Receiver
Fig. 2. Model of the terrestrial wave guide

The Received Impulse
If we register, for example, the vertical component of the electric field (whip antenna) of the incident
impulse, this can be described by the Fourier integral
J A(w,p,EPs.EPT)exp(iwt)dw.
+00
E,(t,p,EPs,EPT) =
-00
The complex analytic signal A(w,p,E Ps,E PT) is a product ofthe source spectrum q and the propagation
function T of the terrestrial wave guide
A(w,p,EPs,EPT) = q(w,EPs ) T(w,p,EP T)
where w is the angular frequency (w = 2nf), p is the propagation distance (source to receiver), EPs
and EP T represent the sum of the parameters describing the discharge and the terrestrial wave guide
respectively.
Whereas information about the source spectrum q can only be obtained experimentally, the
behaviour of the propagation function T can be extracted to large extent from measurements with
standard frequency transmitters.
Description of Reflection Coefficients at the Ionosphere and at the Earth's Surface

Since the interaction of the electromagnetic waves with the neutral atmosphere has been excluded,
one expects effects on the signal only from the reflecting boundaries at the ionosphere and the .earth's
surface. This interaction is described through the use of reflection coefficients. The reflection coefficient
is the ratio of the reflected to incident electric field component parallel to the plane of reflection. The
ratio of transmitted to incident field is similarly defined as the transmission coefficient:
R = reflected field component 1 - 15
incident field component 1 + 15
D = transmitted field component 215
incident field component =T+"b
where
Z2cos (92
for E waves (TM)
15 = Zl cos (91
Zl cos (92
for H waves (TE).
Z2 cos (91
666
8 1 is the angle between the direction of propagation of the incident (or also the reflected) wave and the
normal to the plane of reflection. 8 2 is the angle between the transmitted wave and the normal to the
reflection plane. The factors Zl and Z2 (wave impedance) are defined for the two mediums separated
by the plane of reflection. Here the index 1 = vacuum and the index 2 = ionosphere.
Zl = Vllo/eo Z2 = Vlloll/eoe
where 110 and eo are permeability and dielectric constant in vacuum, respectively. If we set the relative
permeability II = 1, we are left with (e.g. Volland, 1968)
ia
e=e,---.
QJeo
Here, Br is the relative dielectric constant, QJ = 2nf is the angular frequency, and a is the electrical
conductivity.
If the conductivity in the reflecting medium is isotropic, the reflection coefficient will also be iso-
tropic via the factor Z. This situation is valid for the earth's surface. However, in the ionosphere the
geomagnetic field causes an anisotropic conductivity and therefore a directional dependence in the
reflection coefficient. A conversion of E to Hand H to E waves occurs, and the reflection coefficient
becomes a matrix
with
I RI = Reflection coefficient of the E wave
l.R I = Reflection coefficient of the H wave,
I Rl . = Conversion coefficient of H to E wave,
l.RL = Conversion coefficient of E to H wave.
The practical determination of the reflection coefficient is made difficult because of the variation
with altitude of the plasma (electronic and ionic) densities as well as the collision frequency of these
components with the neutral atmosphere. Therefore, the values of e and a cannot be assumed as
constants. The layer model of the ionosphere has proven itself to be a usable solution in this case.
The ionospheric parameters are considered constant for layers thin in extent compared with the wave-
length of the incident radiation. The computed value of Z for a given layer is used as a boundary value
for the following adjacent layer etc. (Wait and Walters, 1963, 1964; Galejs, 1972; Ries, 1964; Volland,
1962, 1964).
The pivotal question is still, however, how these parameters vary with height, and how do they
change on a daily and yearly basis. Furthermore, the geomagnetic field and the parameters display a
pronounced dependence on geographical location (Thomas, 1971).
For propagation paths extending over an entire quadrant of the earth's surface (e.g. pole to equator),
these variations can be considerable. One can, of course, break up the propagation path into small
segments and then assume an average ionospheric state for each one of these, but the use of many
reflection coefficients is a severe complication of the subsequent calculation of the electromagnetic
field (e.g. Berry and Chrisman, 1965; Wait and Spies, 1968; Frisius, private communication).
Representation of the Field in the Terrestrial Wave Guide

With the reflection coefficients R i, Rg (Ri: ionosphere; Rg: ground) one can represent the electro-
magnetic field (e.g. dipole radiation) at any arbitrary location. One utilizes the following two techniques
for this purpose:
Source and receiver are widely separated

The solution by separation of variables of the vector wave equation for the electromagnetic field
with given boundary conditions (in this case the reflection coefficients) is known in general in cylindrical
667
or spherical coordinates. In both cases the field is expanded into two partial fields, each of which is
derived from a scalar function that is itself a solution of the wave equation. This method is termed
scalaring the vector wave equation. The development is particularly easy for an electric field associated
with a Hertz vector for which only the radial component in a spherical coordinate system is non-
vanishing. The field is represented here with the transformation ll, = ur (ll, is the radial component
of the Hertz vector, while u is the scalar Debye potential) by an infinite set of solutions to the homo-
geneous wave equation and one solution to the inhomogeneous wave equation (Sommerfeld, 1928):
(17 2 + k2 )u s = 0
(172 + k2)U p = t5 .
The solution of the homogeneous equation is considered to be secondary excitation - Us - and
that of the inhomogeneous equation is the primary excitation - up -. t5 indicates the disturbance
term (dipole) and k is the wave number.
The primary and the secondary excitations can be developed in a series of spherical wave functions.
This series converges very slowly for long wavelength. This weakly converging series for the potential
can be transformed by an integral representation into a quickly converging series of the residues of
the integrals (well-known Watson transformation). The terms in this new series expansion are viewed
as parts of the field and are called modes:
u = Us + up = 1: spherical wave functions (weak convergence)
-+ J residues (mode eigenvalue problem)
-+ 1: modes (rapid convergence) .
In practice it is found that few modes contribute to the field for large propagation paths (for example,
at f = 10kHz essentially only one mode contributes at a distance over 2000 km). The smaller the pro-
pagation distance is, the more modes will significantly contribute to the field and the more slowly the
above series expansion converges.
Source and receiver are close to each other

An alternative representation is better suited for this near region. As in optics, one assigns a direction
to the wave number vector in vacuum that gets reflected on the boundaries. This approach has certain
geometrical significance in contrast with the purely mathematical formulation of modes as partial
fields. As the distances in this geometrical-optical ray representation are decreased, fewer and fewer
reflected waves contribute to the field. Similarly as the distances grow larger, correspondingly more
rays must be taken into account for an acceptable convergence (Budden, 1962; Volland, 1960, 1968).
Both approaches are essentially equivalent for the field description. However, whenever higher order
terms become necessary for the representation, relatively large errors are encountered due to the
insufficiently precise determination of the reflection coefficients and the appropriate wave guide height
(distance between ionosphere and earth's surface). In the practical evaluation one should therefore
carefully assess which approach - the theoretical mode series or the optical ray representation - is
more appropriate for a given frequency and distance.
One may see from these short remarks about some aspects of wave propagation, that the pro-
pagation conditions are to be very carefully monitored during the evaluation of parameters from atmos-
pherics observations. Only intensive study and a well-founded knowledge can prevent erroneous
interpretations.
Interested readers should also refer to a new work by Jones (1974), in which other possible field
representations are briefly sketched. These representations (zonal harmonics and wave-hop theory)
are basically equivalent to those discussed here.
Parameters Derived from Atmospherics

The broadband reception of atmospherics and a subsequent spectral analysis yield the complex
analytic signal with amplitude and phase spectra. For certain atmospherics sources one can determine
668
mean spectra from a sufficiently large statistical quantity of atmospherics registrations (e.g. Watt and
Maxwell, 1958; Taylor and Sao, 1970; Alpert et aI., 1967).
One is, however, not normally interested in all of this information, but rather only in a certain sample
of the entire spectrum.
The Spectral Amplitude "SA"

If one is interested, for example, in the number of atmospherics produced in a source, it suffices to
make a narrowband measurement of a few hundred Hz bandwidth. The total discharges of the given
atmospherics source can then be deduced from the amplitude statistics (e.g. Ishida, 1969; Volland, 1968).
The voltage across the input of the tuned circuit is proportional to the magnitude of the spectral
amplitude:
The Spectral Amplitude Ratio "SAR"

When two circuits tuned at different frequencies are excited, the ratio of the resulting voltages is a
quantity from which, in an average sense over many atmospherics, one can make an estimate of the
source distance (especially in the VLF range):
SAR = f( IA(WbP,EPs,EPT)I) = f( Iq(WbEPS)1 . IT(WbP,EPT)I).

IA(wz,p,E Ps,E PT)I Iq(wz,E Ps)1 I T(wz,p,E PT)I
Explicitly expressing the ratio as a logarithmic quantity, it is seen that the measured SAR is composed
of a source controlled and a wave guide controlled part (Croom, 1964; Pierce, 1966; Heydt, 1966; Milhl-
eisen et aI., 1970; Jayendran, 1971).
It should also be noted that this ratio becomes dependent upon threshold value through the
process of threshold selection at a given frequency (Falcoz, Hofmann, private communication).
The Group Delay Time Difference in the Lower VLF Range, "GDD" (Heinrich-Hertz-Institut method)
The terrestrial wave guide causes a high dispersion in the range 3 -10kHz. This fact has been
exploited at the Heinrich-Hertz-Institut by deriving a quantity from the phase spectrum of the complex
analytic signal that is porportional to the delay time difference of two spectral groups (Heydt and
Volland, 1964; Heydt, 1966; Frisius and Heydt, 1968). The following quantities are defined from the
phases of three equidistant frequency groups (for example, 5, 7, and 9 kHz):
t (8 kHz) ~ tp (9 kHz) - tp (7 kHz)

g - N(2kHz) ,
t (6 kHz) ~ tp (7 kHz) - tp (5 kHz) .

g - N(2 kHz)
The group delay time difference is then formed from these propagation times of the groups at 6 and
8kHz:
GD D = (8 kH ) _ t (6 kHz) ~ tp (9 kHz) - 2tp (7 kHz) + tp (5 kHz) .
tg z g - N(2kHz)
The spectral phase tp is composed of the phase tps of the source and phase tpT from the wave guide.
The measured GDD contains therefore an intrinsic dispersion from the source that can be only experi-
mentally determined and a contribution controlled by the wave guide:
GDD = GDDSource + GDDTerr.wave guide .
Since the source spectrum varies from impulse to impulse and assumes a meaningful statistical form
only over a sufficiently large set of measurements, one can also only determine statistically measured
and evaluated SAR's and GDD's, if they are to be physically significant.
669
Thus, a single atmospherics measurement provides no information. In Fig. 3, the distribution of the
GDD for ca. 2000 atmospherics registrations from a certain source is presented in a histogram. A
multicomponent Gaussian analysis has then been applied to determine the mean values. An exact
evaluation of this distribution, or the meaning of the various components, should the distribution be
Gaussian, has not yet been completed due to lack of manpower. It has been shown, nevertheless, that the
mean value of the dominant component yields reliable locations of the atmospherics sources with the
help of established propagation models, and that the intrinsic dispersion or curvature of the source
phase spectrum can essentially be neglected.
200
...J
~
a::
w
I-
Z
::: 100
w
If)
...J
~
a..
:::.:
o 125 250
GDD (fls)
Fig. 3. The statistical distribution of the delay time difference (GDD) of the spectral groups at 8 to 6 kHz for
one or several atmospherics sources. The distribution is fitted with three Gaussian components. 2000 impulses
were registered from these sources over a ten minute recording interval
The Delay Time Difference oJSpectral Groups in ELF and VLF Ranges
The dispersion observed in the VLF range assumes, as expected, high values whenever the spectral
groups lie in the ELF and VLF range. This was observed as early as 1937 by Watson-Watt et al. (1937).
This characteristic has been used in a new application at the Research Institute for Atmospherics in
Tojokawa, Japan (Sao and lindoh, 1974). The received impulse in the VLF range is applied to a circuit
(it is not revealed in the publication how frequency range and bandwidth were selected). This time is
compared with the arrival time of the first maximum of the ELF ("slow tail") component and then
displayed. This time difference yields a value for the propagation distance through the use of a
propagation model. The optimistic assumption that this method can produce source distances from
single impulses is, however, not valid. The intrinsic dispersion is, in this case too, different from impulse
to impulse, so that only a statistically significant series of pulses can yield a mean location for the
atmospherics source.
The Wave Impedance Spectrum in the Schumann Resonance Range (3 -50 Hz)
In the Schumann resonance range one may also derive parameters that enable a study of the
propagation characteristics of the terrestrial wave guide and also a localization of the source. Jones
and Kemp (1970) present a method by which this information is obtained from measurements of the
wave impedance spectrum
Z(w) = Er(w) .
H<1J(w)
670
E,(ro) is the radial component of the electric field and Hcb(ro) is the magnetic field component parallel
to the earth's surface. The crucial assumption in this method is that Z(ro) should be independent of
the source characteristics (Jones, 1971).
An asymptotic expansion of the field equation provides values for Fn with the conditions shown
in Fig. 4.
V
Fn = n(n + 1)/2(L - 2D) v(ro)
with
Zmax (ro) = f{lX(ro),D}
Zmin
where v(ro) is the phase velocity, lX(ro) is the propagation damping, D is the propagation distance, and
L is the circumference of the earth.
4-
1
Z
2
60Hz
Zo
1 0'5
0'25
Fig. 4. The "wave impedance" method (see Jones and Kemp, 1970; Jones, 1971)
Parameters for Localization of Lightning Sources in the Near Region

The measurement of wave impedance can also be used at higher frequencies (e.g. VLF range) for a
determination of source location in the near region. At the origination point E, and H<b are phase-
shifted by 90° and agree in phase only at some distance from the source (for example, this occurs at
ca. 60 km for f = 2.4 kHz). Atmospherics originating near or far from the receiver can be selected out
by measuring the phase difference. All atmospherics at 2.4 kHz whose phase difference E,/H<b is greater
than 45° are denoted "nearby" « 20 km), whereas smaller values of the phase difference indicate a
distance over 20 km (Heydt, 1973). The magnitude of the wave impedance varies greatly at these
frequencies in the first 100 km from the source and can thus also be utilized for such selection
measurements (Ruhnke, 1971, 1972).
The Direction of the Incident Wave

From the magnetic field component of the incoming wave, which for sufficiently distant sources lies
parallel to the earth's surface (dipole field), one may produce a voltage across two perpendicular loop
antennas to which one may assign a direction of incidence of the received signal. A comparison of the
phase with the derived electric field eliminates the associated 180° directional ambiguity. These
bearing measurements, aside from the amplitude perhaps the most traditional parameter in atmos-
pherics research, is measured nowadays as a rule at the same time as the other parameters discussed
here. One must also be aware, however, that only a statistical average of impulses will provide a physic-
ally meaningful result, as was the case with the other parameters. The different orientations of each
different lightning channel will also result in a varying polarization of the wave (Ries, 1964; Galejs,
1972). Fig. 5 shows over 4600 atmospherics registered within 10 minutes broken down into 40 classes
over all directions of incidence. The Gaussian analysis indicates the existence of at least 4 sources. It
is clear that single impulses here can contain a sizeable directional error.
671
600 ,---.,.---,.--....,---,---,----,,--,----,
STOCKERT
APRIL 17.1973
...J
« 2210- 2220 UT
&: 400
w
t-
Z
"
Vl
W
Vl
1i
...J
200
~
E S W N S
AZIMUTH
Fig. 5. The statistical distribution of the direction of incidence of the incoming pulses at 10 kHz. At least four
different sources can be resolved. 4600 impulses were registered from these sources over a ten minute recording
interval
The Experimental Proof of Varying Propagation Conditions with the Help of Atmospherics Parameters
Atmospherics are the only potent natural source of electromagnetic waves in the frequency range
f< 10kHz (Omega standard frequency). Whereas in the VLF range (3-30 kHz) and above the pro-
pagation the behaviour of the wave guide can be adequately studied with standard frequency trans-
mitters, this role must be assumed in the ELF range by the atmospheric alone. One is thus relegated to
a trial-and-error method, which must first determine the source location of the atmospherics and
then also deduce the propagation conditions.
Some results of the measurements will be shown in the following, which illustrate the frequency and
directional dependences, and also the diurnal variation of propagation conditions in the terrestrial
wave guide. A comprehensive report of the latest results (especially in the ELF range), which for the
sake of brevity will not be given here, has been presented recently by Jones (1974).
3 TI
Attenuation 1/
WE
01----~--1--+-+~~~----~---+--~
10 30 50 70 100 300 500
Freqllency, Hz
Fig. 6. The frequency and directional dependence of the attenuation in the ELF range (Taylor and Sao. 1970)
672
Frequency and Directional Dependence of Propagation Constants
Taylor and Sao have observed "slow tail" atmospherics over the Pacific Ocean since 1966. The atmos-
pherics are simultaneously recorded in Japan and in the USA (Colorado). From spectral analyses in
the ELF range, different propagation constants (phase velocity and damping) could be determined for
the propagation direction E-W with respect to W-E (Fig. 6). Although the values deviate from those
obtained later with similar measurements by Hughes and Theisen (1970), the same differing behaviour
for phase velocity and damping as a function of the frequency and direction was found. One is referred
here to the careful field calculations of Barr (197011, 1970b, 1971 a, 1971 b, 1972), with which one can
verify spectra over the entire ELF range up to the VLF. The directional dependence of the propagation
characteristics in the terrestrial wave guide can also be established in the VLF range. The delay time
difference (GDD) of the spectral groups at 6.3 and 7.7 kHz should, according to model calculations,
be larger for westerly sources than for those that lie south of the receiving station. As shown in Fig. 7,
this is indeed the case. The source locations for southerly atmospherics (in Niger-Congo regions) are
verified with the isotropic model (Q = 0) for N-S/S-N propagation of Wait and Spies (1964), whereas
the sources in the west coincide with the model for which Q = -1 (W-E propagation).
270
1 WSW23So 2.5.67
_ 2 H 211-5 29.*. H
fm=7kHz,llf=1,IIkHz
-If
J SSW 203 3.5./1
S 186 22.4./1 /3=0.5 , ITo-CO
5 SSW 205 7.5. 11
- 6 1/ 209 6.5./1 i
- 8
7 WNW 275 28.4."
II 276 10.4." 9Y
/[11
9 WSW 259 22.4./1
180 -10 H 1/ 27.4." .n-.b-~
slTg1"..:r
11 261 9.5. 11
//
H
-12 1/ 25* 26.'+.11

n=-1,./
17/-'''
~ ~//
H=85km }'#~ p<"j2=0
/~~~'Xokm
-'5 /
90 //L~ ~
1{~
.1
~!"If
*~~
/.~
/
/ 2 4- 6 8 10xfulkm
Distance
Fig. 7. The group delay time difference at 8 to 6 kHz for various sources. The source distances were determined
from satellite photographs. Whereas the southerly activity centers are fitted in agreement with the model when
Q = 0, the sources to the Wand WSW can be interpreted using the model with Q = -1. Here H is the reference
height of the reflection coefficient, P is the fall-off factor for the electron density, and (J9 is the conductivity of
the earth's surface (Wait and Spies, 1964)
673
A good confirmation of the model calculations could also be achieved for sources east of the
station, for which the GDD is required to exhibit a ratio of W-E to E-W of about 1.7 (Harth, 1972;
Harth and Peiz, 1973, 1974).
The Day/Night Variations of Propagation Conditions with an Undisturbed Ionosphere

The plasma of the lower ionosphere (D layer), from which ELF and VLF waves are mainly reflected,
recombines during the night so that reflection takes place at higher levels. Experience has shown that
typical reflection altitudes, upon which the reflection coefficient is based, are about 70 km during the
day and 85-90km at night (Wait, 1962; Wait and Spies, 1964). For long-lasting thunderstorms,
which are distant enough that the spatial extent of the storm region can be neglected, one should
measure daily variations of the parameters in accordance with the variable propagation conditions
such as the wave guide height (ionosphere-earth's surface). Fig. 8 displays the daily variation of the
GDD of 8 to 6 kHz for long-lived sources. It has then been attempted to verify these daily changes with
the theoretical values for day and night propagation conditions (Harth, 1970). The day/night transition
along the propagation path was broken down into simple segments using day and night propagation
conditions as appropriate. As one sees, this simple model can be applied here only for the case of pure
day or pure night propagation. Much more complicated models and assumptions, such as mode
coupling and changing solar effects upon the propagation path, must be taken into account for the
transition regions (Harth, 1972; Peiz, 1973).
50 ••• west - east propagation

GOD
~
•• • Toyokawa
1000km • Berlin
40
•
•
30
.• .• • • cu. .
~
...
~~+ +~.
OJ
;E+
•
.. •
e·
• •
>
'0;
• ••
-
+ C c::
VI •
+u • .::s u
~
~ !: ~
20 <
<II
<
<II
::J
<II
::J
<II
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
local time
Fig. 8. The daily variation of the GDD for 6 and 8 kHz normalized to two sources in W of the observing station.
Plotted points represent measurements. The solid line gives the model of a simple day-to-night transition (Peiz,
1973) SA = sunrise; SU = sunset
Disturbed Propagation Conditions

It is well-known that strong propagation disturbances are observed during strong solar flares. These
SID's (Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances) assert themselves in the VLF range as sudden changes in
the amplitude and phase of the signal received from normal frequency transmitters. One observes a
similar behaviour for the atmospherics parameters such as GDD and SAR (Harth and Heydt, 1968).
GDD and SAR increase during a strong flare. The parametric variations during a flare of importance
3 B can be clearly recognized in Fig. 9. Interpreting these increases in a simplified model with variable
reflection height, one obtains a lowering of this height of about 15 km. How one evaluates the real
physics of such an assertion becomes clear in a model study, in which realistic disturbances ofthe iono-
spheric D layer are simulated with at least a 3 parameter model. Since only the two measured parameters
GDD and SAR are available (or amplitude and phase with the VLF observations), the results become
unavoidably ambiguous (Harth, 1971; Sao et aI., 1970).
674
l
211,5 X
:l:: X ~ X)jKXX X
E x
xX \0 )g( ':/.;<
x x.,.xX X
';::j
<:!,216 X
)(Xx )I(
x
X X ~~)QG(:x
)()(XX ~
Fxx lOOC
100
July 8,1968
x
'~~.x
-5
CO
1)
c::
.~
C( -3
<;{
V)
14 16 18 20 22
Time of Day{LT)
Fig. 9. The effect of a solar flare of importance 3 B on the parameters SAR and GDD
(Harth, 1971; Harth and Heydt, 1968)
Higher Mode Effects

As mentioned previously, the influence of higher modes must be taken into account for small pro-
pagation distances. Model studies reveal that this influence is also dependent upon the propagation
direction and local time (day/night conditions). Higher modes are evident for the parameter GDD
(6 - 8 kHz) for WoE nighttime propagation up to 3000 km, but are important only up to 1000 km during
the day. The experimental proof of these effects could be ascertained for the parameters SAR and GDD
with propagation distances from 300-1000 km (Harth, 1973).
Variable Propagation Conditions as Source of Error for Bearing Measurements

We are aware of the dependence of the direction of incidence measurement upon local time and
propagation direction from observations of VLF transmitters (Ries, 1964; Heydt, 1966). A theoretical
treatment has been presented by Shimakura (1972) that confirms these theoretical and experimental
findings. Such investigations with atmospherics can only be undertaken with a multiple station network
and should be of great importance for future global localization of atmospherics activity (Israel and
Ries, 1966; Muhleisen and Fischer, private communication).
Evaluation of Atmospherics Parameters in View of Geophysical and Meteorological Aspects

When the critical unknown, the source location of the atmospherics activity, has been determined,
propagation studies as discussed in the preceeding sections can be undertaken. The sources can also
675
be pinpointed from meteorological data (synoptic reports), or from satellite photography (Volland
et a!., 1967; Harth and Pelz, 1973; Pelz, 1974). If one produces an acceptable description of the propaga-
tion conditions from these studies, one can work backwards as mentioned earlier, and make a valuable
contribution to the understanding of the still unsolved problems of earth sciences through the localiza-
tion of the storm center and the determination of its intensity.
Diurnal and Annual Variation of Atmospherics Activity - the Fundamental Problem of

Atmospheric Electricity
An unambiguous confirmation of Wilson's (1920) hypothesis, namely that thunderstorm activity
generates the atmospheric electric circuit, has yet to appear (Dolezalek, 1972; Muhleisen, this issue).
Even the vast quantity of atmospherics observations over the last decades have not shed further light
on the problem, other than enhancing the probability of this connection. This problem serves to
demonstrate that the section of research in atmospheric electricity today and in the past is not so much
a problem of scientific interpretation as it is one of organization or logistics. A partial observation of
atmospherics activity, whether it be temporally or spatially limited, only leads us to a confirmation
of the problem's infeasibility (e.g. Lugeon et aI., 1960; Whipple and Scrase, 1936; Israi!/ and Ries, 1966).
A new approach to these difficulties has been undertaken with the establishment of an international
network of standardized VLF atmospherics analysers. These instruments, developed at the Heinrich-
Hertz-Institut, register both the total omnidirectional activity and also in sectors of 12°/2' each over an
hourly cycle at 5 kHz. In addition, various angular sectors and various distance ranges inside of these
sectors (geographic regions subdivided according to their activity) can be observed. Besides the atmos-
~o---+---+~-+---+---+~~---+--~---+---+£--+---+~-+---+---+-
60---+---rr-~~+---~~---+--1---+---~~---+---r~~--+-
Fig. 10. The distribution of atmospherics sources derived from GDD measurements taken at the Berlin station
from 1 June to 30 September 1971. The localization of the sources was determined without considering the
transition conditions from day to night along the propagation path (Heydt, 1971)
676
pherics rates Ntotal> Nsecto" and Nwindow, measurements are also recorded of the parameters of the
spectral amplitude distribution at 7 kHz; i.e. the spectral amplitude ratio SAR from 5 to 9 kHz, and
the delay time difference of the spectral groups (GDD) from 6 to 8 kHz. Such stations are presently in
operation at the following locations:
Argentina: San Miguel, Trelew, La Rioja
USA: near Washington, D.C.
Canada: Toronto
Japan: Toyokawa
Switzerland: Payeme
F.R. Germany: Berlin, Bonn, Weissenau.
The preliminary results of the first operational phase (Washington-SanMiguel-Berlin-Toyokawa)
have been presented by Heydt(1971) and Heydt and Frisius (1972) and refer to an observational period
from Dec. 1970 to Feb. 1971. The locations of atmospherics sources are given by Heydt in "map
plots" obtained from bearing and GDD measurements. The areas south of the Gulf of Panama, the
Amazon, the Hawaiian Islands, and regions of the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranian Sea were seen
to be sources of enhanced atmospherics activity.
These preliminary investigations were supplemented by a sampling over a larger observation time
(Heydt, 1972). The dominating source regions are even more evident in the evaluation of the measure-
ments over 4 summer and 4 winter months at the Berlin and Washington stations. The temporal variations
~n be followed via atmospherics recordings in the various angular sectors. The daily run of the atmos-
pherics rates indicate that the regions in Central America, West Africa, and the Amazon are mostly
thermal thunderstorms, but that activity regions on the American East Coast and in the Mediterranian
Sea are primarily bound to fronts. A map plot from this work is shown in Fig. 10. The locations derived
from the GDD measurements are denoted by squares, the size of which is a measure of the intensity
ofthe storm center.
(: f)) ~"l
1·0
\... -..... i ~ \ . ftc ....1

~"J ~t
·8
J .,.
\ I'
::. I
~I ¥~
...
"
oj. '
~ , \ I ,1
·6
.- ~ I\..· '-.
. j
~, ." + I
'. of.
II
.4- *- •• , "'"'
.
t~ i(
I""
.,. .,..~ . ~:~)I
·2 )I ".
febrero d
00 Z If 6 8 to 1Z til- 16 18 20 22 ZII-
- - - San Miguel,Argentina
+ + + ++ Waldorf, EE. UU. Local Time
- -- --Toyokawa,]apon
Fig.11. The omnidirectional activity averaged over one month during 1971 at the stations San Miguel,
Washington, and Toyokawa. The times at Washington and Toyokawa have been shifted to the L.T. of San
Miguel (Hofmann, Fa/coz, and Pagano, 1972). (Waldorf == Washington; febrero = February; EE· UU. = USA;
Japon = Japan)
677
With the assistance of these results it is no trouble to explain the monthly averaged diurnal variation
of the omnidirectional activity. A comparison of the atmospherics rate in the months Feb.-Mar. 1971
with the same time span in the year 1972 showed a qualitative agreement in the characteristics, but
often considerable difference in the absolute rate. The same daily variations as observed with the
instrument of the station network Berlin-Bonn-Weissenau in 1967 could also be verified (Heydt and
Raupach,1972).
Fig. 11 shows an evaluation of the Argentine group Hofmann, Falcoz, and Pagano (1972) of the monthly
averaged daily variations of the omnidirectional activity for the stations Washington-SanMiguel-
Toyokawa in 1971 (LT). Further investigations are necessary in order to catalog these results into
the maps of world activity distribution (Pierce, 1958; Whipple and Scrase, 1936).
Amplitude Statistics - the Intensity of Individual Storms

The number of impulses recorded from one group of sources, for example from one selected direction,
says nothing about the actual lightning occurrence frequency. The receiving threshold and propagation
conditions modify the recording rate. An appropriate assumption about the statistics of the spectral
amplitude can bring the goal closer (e.g. Nakai, 1960; Galejs, 1972; Volland, 1968; Harth, 1968; Frisius,
1969), but it is still a long way from a quantitative determination of the discharge rate at the storm
location. Even if the source location and the propagation conditions are known and satisfactory statistics
of the spectral amplitude are available, one still cannot extract a value for one last variable of interest:
the rate of cloud discharges. New work on impulse spectra and impulse rates shows a way of recognizing
the type of thunderstorm and the form of the discharge. Taylor concludes from the appearance of
"burst spectra" of atmospherics, whether the thunderstorms observed are associated with tornados.
Sao and Jindoh (1974) differentiate between cloud or ground lightning occurrences from "slow tail"
atmospherics.
,3·5
II Hepburn/Pierce / /
'
~
1953) //
3·0
//
'/
//
.,Z'5 Wait //
e, (1960) ///
III
eZ'O ""'~/ / /
:;::: /")/
//
0/
/' //
/ /
./J' ~ 0 Hepburn (night)(1957)

Y • Taylor/Sao (night)(1970)
0·5 [J Hepburn (day}(1957)
• Emerson (day)(f958)
fl HU9hes (day)(1967-1968)
O~--------~r----------+----------~
o 5 10 f5
Distance I fV1m
Fig. 12. Localizations of sources using delay time difference measurements in the ELF and VLF ranges
(Sao and Jindoh, 1974)
678
Localization of Atmospherics Activity
Triangulation with at least three stations is up to now the best known and most reliable method of
location determination of atmospherics activity (Challinor, 1967). The technological demands are
relatively few, but expense can become high because of the need for continuous intercommunication
between the participating stations. A localization measurement on a global scale is hardly feasible.
However, with the aid of the parameters discussed above, a trustworthy single station localiza-
tion can be performed. Meteorologists are 'thus equipped with a tool, which can deliver quick and
helpful synoptic information in the age of satellite technology. Fig. 12 shows localization measurements,
which have been determined with the dispersion measurements in the VLF and ELF ranges. It should
be stressed here, however, that whenever any VLF groups are measured, one must account for the
influence of higher modes for short propagation paths. The fact that the ELF component is represented
by only one mode does not necessarily require that this also holds for the VLF contribution.
Furthermore, narrowband measuring is to be preferred in the VLF or ELF range, because as already
mentioned, the damping and phase velocity depend strongly upon the frequency, the propagation
direction and the local time.
Mesoscale and Large Scale Thunderstorm 1racking
Beyond the important information about the geographic distribution of the atmospherics activity,
the single station technique should also provide us with a clue whether the mean activity displacement
~//~ ,-'-
~~.-,
'/, ,----
..
JULY 10, OOUT/ IV/ ,-'-
. /..- '.~
,
/ /
/ / / '~7 ./
// '// /".I. 'lI~'£'T"'/'-'
'/
J
. /
'
/ /' /./
/ / /.' //
~ .(" ,/.)
~// .
. ;/, ~JI '
.Yp' ,/;'~~' ./
\ . '///'/ /
" / ,I
,-',/ /, /y'
\,
" ,1/, '
.. -- ./,/'/'
'_.-/ '10/
/ . '/, /
1=,- ,././
./ /
.
-'- ---'
._,../" / ' JULY 11, OOUT
Fig. 13. Thunderstorm dynamics: Wavelike excitation of the mean atmospherics activity within an extended
thunderstorm region over the Bay of Biscay and western France. The period is about six hours, The numbers
at the beginning and end of an activity wave denote - dark solid lines - the time (UT), Within the upper part
the.waves start at 14 UT on 10 July and follow to the next day to the last wave from 16 to 19 UT - lower
part -. The dashed lines define the barographic field at 500 mb at 00 UT on 10 July - upper part - and at
00 UT on 11 July - lower part -
679
inside of a large thunderstorm region is purely statistical or if it behaves some as yet unknown pattern
of regularity. Another question along this same line is whether the global activity, particularly that of
the known activity centers, contains any kind of temporal interconnection. In view of the previous
work on this problem, it can be asserted that in all probability the excitation of atmospherics sources
on the mesoscale as well as on the large scale is controlled by still unknown dynamical processes.
On the mesoscale (larger contiguous storm regions) one obtains atmospherics displacements from
recordings of the GDD used to determine the mean l()cations of atmospherics sources. These displace-
ments have an oscillating character with a period of20 minutes to 2 hours; i.e. the range in which we fmd
natural gravity waves (Harth, 1972). In one large storm region over the Bay of Biscay and Western
France (Harth, 1973), wavelike displacements with periods of about 6 hours were found for the mean
locations of the atmospherics source (see Fig. 13).
\ ~.
I
~~
I
\
~ t?r:: -
~ ,
--r ~vir~ i~'Y-,

.- -1 !
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.,
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L
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(
Fig. 14. Large scale thunderstorm excitation: The indicated trajectories connect storm activity centers from the
west African to the south American continent. The displacement velocity is approximately 160 km/h. (Cloud
pictures, 14 December, 11 UT, are indicated as dark solid lines and are taken from ESSA satellite observations;
a jet stream exists from Egypt to the Persian Gulf)
An initial attempt to produce a global connection of atmospherics activity has led to very encouraging
results (Harth, 1973). Fig. 14 shows a projection of a path that connects the locations of sources of
atmospherics with each other from the west African to the south American continent. The numbers
which are not circled represent the date (Dec. 1966) and circled represent VT. Thus the locations are:
13 Dec., 21 UT; 14 Dec., 6 UT and 14 Dec., 21 UT.
680
Conclusions
This communication cannot be understood as a review article in the usual sense, since the entire
complex subject could only be given justice in separate more compact reviews. The absence of a partic-
ular reference should therefore not be interpreted as an example of the unfortunately ever increasing
ignorance of the scientific contributions of others. What we hope to have accomplished here is an out-
line of the fundamental problems and the difficulties associated with atmospherics research. It has
further been attempted to point out the great potential of atmospherics research in new fields such as
atmospheric dynamics. This may well be a critical application of this branch of research in the near
future, by which workers in the field can eradicate the chronic deficit in publishable and (above all)
useful results.
As mentioned, there has been up to now primarily a lack of organizational work, and a particular
deficiency in capacity, desire and foresight toward realization of international cooperation beyond the
level of general suggestions and recommendations. A worldwide observation of atmospherics activity
is attainable only with a network of receiving stations. Since no sponsor of such an investigation has as
yet materialized, this must be attempted on an inter-institute basis using already available equipment.
References
1. Alpert, A. L., D. S. Fligel, and Michailova, J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 29, 29 (1967). - 2. Barr, R., J. Atmos. Terr.
Phys. 32, 977 (1970). - 3. Barr, R., J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 32, 1781 (1970). - 4. Barr, R., J. Atmos. Terr. Phys.
33,343 (1971). - 5. Barr, R., J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 33, 1577 (1971). - 6. Barr, R., J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 34,
411 (1972). - 7. Berry, L. A. and M. A. Chrisman, NBS Techn. Note 319, US Department of Commerce (1965). -
8. Budden, K. G., The Wave Guide Mode Theory of Wave Propagation (Printice Hall, 1962). - 9. Challinor, R. A.,
J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 29, 803 (1967). - 10. Chalmers, J. A., Atmospheric Electricity (Second Edition) (London,
1967). - 11. Croom, D. L., J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 26, 11, 1015 (1964). - 12. Dolezalek, H., PAGEOPH 100, 8
(1972). - 13. Fellman, E., in: Progress in Radio Sci. 1966 -1969, URSI (Brussels, 1970). - 14. Frisius, J., Tech-
nischer Bericht 110, HHI (Heinrich-Hertz-Institut), (Berlin-Charlottenburg, 1969). - 15. Frisius, J. and G. Heydt,
Radio Sci. 3, 10, 1004 (1968). - 16. Galejs,l., Radio Sci. 69D, 1043 (1965). - 17. Galejs,l., Terrestrial Propaga-
tion of long Electromagnetic Waves (London, 1972). - 18. Harth, W., Dissertation, Universitat Bonn F.R.
Germany (1970). - 19. Harth, W., in: Proc. VLF-Symposium, Sandefjord, Norway (1971). - 20. Harth, w.,
Z. Geophys. 38, 815 (1972). - 21. Harth, W., Kleinheubacher Berichte Bd. Nr. 17 (1973). - 22. Harth, W. and
G. Heydt, Kleinheubacher Berichte Bd. Nr. 13 (1968). - 23. Harth, W. and J. Pelz, Radio Sci. 8, 2, 117 (1973). -
24. Heydt, G., Technischer Bericht 90, HHI (Berlin-Charlottenburg, 1966). - 25. Heydt, G., Technischer Bericht
136, HHI (Berlin-Charlottenburg, 1971). - 26. Heydt, G., Kleinheubacher Berichte Bd. Nr. 17 (1973). -
27. Heydt, G. and J. Frisius, Kleinheubacher Berichte, Bd. Nr. 15 (1972). - 28. Heydt, G. and R. Raupach,
Technischer Bericht 115, HHI (Berlin-Charlottenburg, 1972). - 29. Heydt, G. and H. Volland, J. Atmos. Terr.
Phys. 26, 780 (1964). - 30. Hofmann, C., H. Falcoz, and M. Pagano, Informe No.1, CNEGH (San Miguel,
Argent., 1972). - 31. Horner, F., in: Advances in Radio Res. 2, 122 (1964). - 32. Horner, F., Proc. URSI XVII
Conf. (Warszawa, Poland, 1972). - 33. Hughes, H. G. and S. F. Theisen, J. Geophys. Res. 75, 2795 (1970). -
34. Ishida, T., in: Progress in Radio Sci. 1966-1969, URSI (Brussels, 1970). - 35. Israel, H., in: AusschuB fUr
Funkortung, Ed. L. Brandt (Dusseldorf, 1958). - 36. Israel, H. and G. Ries, Forschungsber. des Landes Nord-
rhein-Westfalen Nr. 1570 (KoIn-Opladen, 1966). - 37. Jayendran, A., J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 33, 13 (1971). -
38. Jean, G., in: Progress in Radio Sci. 1966-1969, URSI (Brussels, 1970). - 39. Jones, D. L., in: MF, LF, and
VLF Propagation, 204-207, lEE (London, 1967). - 40. Jones, D. L., J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 29, 1037 (1967). -
41. Jones, D. L., in: Proc. VLF-Symposium (Sandefjord, Norway, 1971). - 42. Jones, D. L., in: IEEE, April
Issue (1974). - 43. Jones, D. L. and D. T. Kemp, J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 32, 1095 (1970). - 44. Lugeon, J.,
A. Junod, P. Wasser/allen, and J. Rieker, Inst. Suisse Meteorologie (Zurich, 1960). - 45. Madden, T. and W.
Thompson, Rev. Geophys. 3, 211 (1965). - 46. Muhleisen, R., T. Takeuti, and H. J. Fischer, Meteorolog. Rund-
sch. 23,4, 110 (1970). - 47. Nakai, T., Proc. Res. Inst. of Atmospherics (Nagoya, 1960). - 48. Norinder, H.,
in: Thunderstorm Electricity, Ed. H. R. Byers (Chicago, 1953). - 49. Pelz, J., Kleinheubacher Ber. 17 (1973). -
50. Pelz, J., Meteorol. Rundsch. 27,4,2 (1974). - 51. Pierce, E. T., in: Recent Advances in Atmospheric Elec-
tricity (London, 1958). - 52. Pierce, E. T., Report for the National Acad. Sci. (1966). - 53. Pierce, E. T., Radio
Sci. 4, 661 (1969). - 54. Revellio, K., Mitt. Nr. 8, MPI fdr Physik der Stratosphiire (Lindau, 1958). - 55. Ries, G.,
Dissertation, Techn. Hochsch. Aachen (F.R. Germany, 1964). - 56. Ruhnke, L., NOAA Techn. Report ERL
195-APCL 16, US Dept. of Commerce (1972). - 57. Ruhnke, L., NOAA Techn. Report ERL 239-APCL 23,
US Dept. of Commerce (1971). - 58. Rycroft, M. J., Radio Sci. 7, 9, 811 (1972). - 59. Sao, K. and H. Jindoh,
681
J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 36, 261 (1974). - 60. Sao, K., M. Yamashita, S. Tanahashi, H. Jindoh, and K. OtOO, J.
Atmos. Terr. Phys. 32, 9, 1567 (1970). - 61. Shimakura, S., J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 34, 5, 807 (1972). - 62. Som-
merfeld, A., in: Differentialgleichungen der Physik, Ed. Frank u. von Mises (Braunschweig, 1928). - 63. Taylor,
W. L., in: Problems of Atmospheric and Space Electricity, Ed. Coroniti (Amsterdam, 1963). - 64. Taylor, W. L.,
J. Geophys. Res. 78, 36, 8761 (1974). - 65. Taylor, W. L. andK. Sao, Radio Sci. 5, 1453 (1970). - 66. Thomas, L.,
J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 33, 157 (1971). - 67. 'Iroger, U., in: AGARD Cont: Proc. No. 33, Technivision Services,
Slough, UK (1967). - 68. Uman, M. A., Lightning (New York, 1969). - 69. Volland, H., Radio Sci., 65 D,
4,357 (1961). - 70. Volland, H., Arch. Elektr. Obertragung 16, 328, 515 (1962). - 71. Volland, H., Arch. Elektr.
Obertragung 18, 95, 181 (1964). - 72. Volland, H., Die Ausbreitung langer Wellen (Braunschweig, 1968). -
73. Volland, H., G. Heydt, and W. Harth, in: AGARD Conf. Proc. 33, Techn. Servo (Slough, UK, 1967). -
74. Watt, A. D. and E. L. Maxwell, Proc. IRE 45,787 (1957). - 75. Watson-Watt, R. A., J. F. Herd, and F. E.
Lutkin, Proc. Roy. Soc. 162, 267 (1937). - 76. Wait, J. R., Electromagnetic Waves in Stratified Media (New
York, 1972). - 77. Wait,!. R. and L. C. Walters, J. Res. NBS (Radio Science) 67D, 361 (1963). - 78. Wait,!. R.
andL. C. Walters, Radio Sci.68D, 95 (1964). - 79. Wait,J. R. andK. P. Spies, NBS Techn. Note 300, US Depart-
ment of Commerce (1964). - 80. Wait. J. R. and K. P. Spies. Radio Sci. 3. 8. 787 (1968). - 81. Wilson, C. T. R ..
Phil. Trans. A 221, 73 (1920). - 82. ffilipple, F. J. W. and F. J. Scrase, Geophys. Mem. Met. Off. 7, 68 (1936).
Discussion
May I ask whether the data in Fig. 14 that you showed was continuous with time or whether it was made up
of a series of observations, made once per day, for example?
Harth, Bonn, West-Germany:
The measurements shown in Fig. 14 cover 20 days - 2nd to 21st December 1966. 5 different parameters were
measured once every hour and the direction of arrival of each impulse. One of these parameters was the delay
time of spectral groups between 6 and 8 kHz from which the source distance can be determined.
In a period of extended semi-coverage of the earth by satellites do you ever use satellite data to verify in fact
that you at least have clouds where your report signal sources?
Harth:
All locations shown in Fig. 14 were compared with evaluated satellite cloud pictures and agreement with these
locations was found. This was also done for the locations shown in Fig. 7.
R. B. Anderson, Pretoria, South Africa:
I would like to ask whether the use of lightning flash counters might be considered to confirm the position of
sources.
Harth:
To investigate a systematic displacement of atmospherics activity within extended thunderstorm areas light-
ning flash counter observations would be Vf~ry useful. However, for the events analysed to date, no lightning
flash counter measurements were available.
Author's address:
W. Harth
Max-Planck-Institut flir
Radioastronornie
Auf dem Htigel69
D-5300 Bonn 1
West-Germany
682
The Fine-Structure of Electric Field Changes Produced by Lightnings
H.-J. Fischer, H. Kosche, and R. Muhleisen*)
With 3 figures
Abstract
Changes of the electric field (field jumps) caused by near lightning flashes have been recorded with three systems
of different resolution times from 0.2 I1S to 0.5 s. Visual observations and photographs were taken in order to
correlate recorded field changes with the type of the lightning observed.
As a preliminary result, we obtained two different ranges of rise-times for different types of flashes, namely
50 I1s - 2 ms for ground flashes and 50 ms -1 s for cloud to cloud or intra-cloud flashes. Furthermore it was
found that the polarity of field jumps for ground flashes farther than 3 km was mostly positive as expected, but
negative for those nearer than 3 km, a surprising result.
The variations of the air electric ground field during a lightning discharge, the field jumps, show
complex fme structures at a short resolution time. The fme structure may depend on parameters of the
lightning discharge as magnitude and velocity of the electric charge transported by the lightning channel,
the kind of discharge etc. Therefore, one expects information about these parameters from an analysis
of the course of a field change as a function of time. This kind of investigation is important for the better
knowledge of the physics of lightning development and lightning discharge and for the conception of
lightning counters.
Since summer 1973, the fine-structure of field changes from nearby lightnings has been recorded
with instruments of different resolution time. At the same time the lightnings have been observed
visually in order to get a correlation between the recorded field course and the observed kind and struc-
ture of the lightning. For these measurements the following instruments have been used (see Fig. 1):
a) A field mill with an ink recorder, resolution 6 s/mm.

b) A plate antenna, a dc-amplifier and a thermosensitive recorder, resolution 20 ms/mm.
c) A plate antenna with 2 parallel or in series connected digital Transient-Recorders with 2 x 1000
values; selectable resolution: 400 ns - 20 ms/mm.
Results
In the years 1973 and 1974, 125 flashes could be recorded and observed simultaneously. From the re-
cordings first the rise-times for the total field change (minimum - maximum) as well as for parts of the
recordings which include 1/3 or more ofthe amplitude of the change offield strength have been evaluated.
Such a preliminary evaluation led to the histogram in Fig. 2. One can distinguish clearly three groups
of rise-times. The group with rise-times of 30 ms -1 s (that means the longest rise-times) belong
apparently to cloud flashes. This group is clearly separated from the medium group which goes from
approx. 1/20 ms to 5 ms. This group of rise-times occurs only in the case of ground flashes; it can happen
that each partial discharge of multiple flashes shows a rise-time which belongs to the medium group.
Again clearly distinguished from the previous ones is the group with the shortest rise-times. They
reach from 0.2 to 10 Ils. These rise-times belong to parts of field changes and occur at both flash types
that means during ground flashes as well as during cloud flashes.
Our results, especially those which are characterized by the first two groups of rise-times, are in agree-
ment with older measuring results of Wichmann (1943), Kitagawa and Brook (1960) and Fisher and Uman
(1972). These measuring results have been doubted, also, they have not been published before in that
clear manner. Also, in attempts for the construction of lightning counters which should only respond
to ground flashes one did not pay much attention to the old results. Their response sensitivity has a
*) Paper presented by R. Muhleisen.
683
a)
sy.-tem u......,.. cao.s. 1. . 1

slow-system:
'-~uttOn 3&10.5"'.,""
47M 0.22,*
b)
medium system: ....- "a.II_lIma

1u. I
relQtuhon 10m,/O-SrNft
10M
c)
_1IIooc:_ 1-1
1rMls..,,1 reccw"r
P-.~or"'M''''' UV- recorder
eOfV'ecled
fast system:
Fig. 1. Measuring devices with different resolution times for the recording of atmospheric electric field changes
and typical records
maximum for rise-times which lies between the first two groups. This is the reason why we repeated
with modern means the investigation on lightning fine structure. A comprehensive evaluation with
Fourier analysis will be carried out in the near future. It is expected, however, that this will not change
much the character of the results of the preliminary evaluation. Interesting and new are the results
with the smallest rise-times, which occur at all flash types. Here exists still no clear agreement with
measurements of American lightning scientists (Fisher and Uman, 1972).
In order to get further information, the measuring equipment has to be tested and compared and
if possible extended for recordings of even smaller rise-times.
684
rei. frequency
% per group
50
ground cloud
40 discharges discharges
30
20
10
t
1 5
Fig. 2. Distribution of the measured rise-times of field changes of identified ground and cloud flashes
Besides these results, some more remarkable results have been obtained. One of them should be
mentioned here, too. In Fig. 3 the relative field jump amplitudes in function ofthe distance for 150 ground
flashes, which have struck in different distances from the place of measurement, are presented. One
can see immediately that the typical characteristic for far flashes, the positive sign and the amplitude
increasing with decreasing distance, point to ground flashes, which transport negative charge towards
the ground. As it is well known this is the most frequent case and corresponds to a normally polarized
thundercloud. But amplitude and sign of near flashes at 1- 2 km distances do not agree with this con-
ception. These deviations are not random. Also in the meantime this statement has been confirmed
by verbal communication with other colleagues. First, one thought about influences of induction of
the near flash channel on the measuring system. But another explanation has to be found because still
kV/m
12
10
,. .:
4 ":
2
T . .!.
+
0
~ .
: I .!. I • •
• 10
•
12 •
14 km
4 • I
6
E
8~ ,I : IyI~ I~ III ',' 1-1'1'1'1' 1'1' I "'ltl
10
Fig. 3. Amplitude and polarity of field jumps of near cloud to ground flashes during 1967 -1973 as a function
of the distance
685
not published observations in England and USA have shown the same result with different measunng
equipments. Already the very old thunderstorm investigations of Simpson and Scrase (1937) have
shown that a mature thundercloud has a small positively charged area at its bottom side. It is possible
that this positively charged area will be caught and distroyed by all ground flashes. As the center
of this positive charge is positioned probably at a much smaller height than that of the larger negative
charge, the disappearance of positive charge influences more the measuring instruments on ground
than the disappearance of negative charge. For a field measurement in larger distance however - as
it can be shown theoretically - the influence of the negative higher lying charge and its disappearance
by a ground flash is decisive.
If this attempt of an explanation will be confirmed than it could be a proof for the frequent existence
of a positively charged area always shortly before a ground flash. This may possibly be the initiating
factor. In this case, one can assume the maximum field strength to be associated with the area between
the positive and negative charges.
It is remarkable that the dependance of the sign of field jumps of ground flashes on the distance
striking place - measuring device has been discovered not until now. This statement however gives
very important information about the generation of charges in thunderclouds and therefore one
should do some effort in order to clear up the striking phenomenon.
References
1. Fisher, R. J. and M. A. Uman, J. Geophys. Res. 77, 399 (1972). - 2. Kitagawa, N. and M. Brook, J. Geophys.
Res. 65, 1189 (1960). - 3. Wichmann, H., Gerlands Beitr. Geophys. 59, 299 (1943). -. 4. Simpson, G. C. and
F. J. Scrase, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A 161, 309 (1937).
Discussion
Prentice, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia:
Miihleisen has suggested that about 10 kHz is an appropriate central frequency for a lightning flash counter
intended to discriminate against cloud flashes and this view is endorsed by R. B. Anderson (South Africa). How-
ever. the C.C.I.R. counter (a type developed for radio noise studies) has also a central frequency of 10 kHz and
its intention is to count all types of lightning flash within a range of about 30 km. Would you comment on the
apparent anomaly?
I think I will be able to answer this question only after evaluation and full analysis of our records. Up to now
our evaluation was only preliminary. According to my feeling, the frequency band width is different in the case
of these two counters.
Additional remark requested by the author after correction of the galley proof:
As I know Andersons counter has a frequency-response near 10 kHz resp. rise-time of 251ls. It lies therefore
near the middle group of rise-times of the ground discharges. The c.c.I.R. counter has a very broad band-
width and is therefore able to count both types of flashes.
Authors' address:
H.-J. Fischer, H. Kosche, and R. Miihleisen
Astronomisches Institut
der Universitat Tiibingen
Au/3enstelle Weissenau
West-Germany
686
Results of the Global VLF-Atmospherics Analyser Network
G. Heydt and T. Takeuti
With 11 figures
Abstract
A worldwide network of 8 stations has been established to observe the sferics activity in the lower VLF range.
The stations are equipped with a VLF-Atmospherics-Analyser which provides automatic facilities for directional
rates measurements and for single-station localizing. Monthly mean values of sferics rates as functions of the
azimuth and of daytime for different stations are shown and discussed. A comparison between meteorological
storm data and storm locations obtained by the single station technique demonstrated the influence of the day-
night boundary on the location method and yielded possibilities to consider diurnal and seasonal variations.
To complete the network in order to get a global coverage, a few more stations, positioned about 5 Mm east
of the main storm regions, would be necessary.
Introduction
Within the last years, eight stations came into operation to observe the atmospherics activity in the
lower VLF range. The stations are located in the USA (Naval Research Laboratory, Waldorf, Mary-
land), in Germany (Heinrich-Hertz-Institut, Berlin-West), in Japan (The Research Institute of Atmos-
pherics, Toyokawa), in Argentina (Observatorio Nacional de Fisica Cosmica, three stations: San
Miguel, Trelew, La Rioja), in Switzerland (Laboratoire de radiometeorologique Payerne) and in Canada
(Atmospheric Environment Service, Toronto). They are equipped with a VLF-Atmospherics-Analyser
(VLFAA) which was developed by the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute and which operates at the frequencies
9,7 and 5 kHz.
The maximum receiving range of these instruments is a few Mm at daytime and about 10 Mm at
night. The limited receiving range and the fact that the stations are not uniformly distributed on the globe
permit not yet a globale coverage. However, the observation results obtained till now show that a global
coverage could be attained by completing the network by a few, well positioned stations. In this
paper, a few examples of evaluation results are given to demonstrate the possibilities of the observation
techniques. For more results see the Proceedings of the Waldorf Conference (8) and (2,4,5).
Results of Directional Rates Measurements

An essential component of the VLFAA is its direction rmding unit, which bases on the same physical
fundamentals as a cathode ray direction finder (CRDF) (3). The main advantage of the VLFAA direction
finder is its adaptability to the requirements of data processing and data reduction: it provides both a
single voltage analog output and - at a new type of the instrument - a digital output and readout.
This gives the opportunity to combine the direction finder with facilities for data reduction inside the
instrument. One of these facilities is a scanning circuit which provides an azimuthal dependent histo-
gram of the number of sferics by classifying the sferics by their direction of arrival into 30 sectors of
12° each. These sector rates can be easily stored and processed, so as for instance to obtain monthly
surveys on the receiving situation at different stations.
Figs. 1-6 show surveys of that kind for the stations Toyokawa, Waldorf and Berlin*) for one
summer and one winter month respectively. According to the similar geographic situation of the stations
Waldorf and Toyokawa with an ocean at their one side and a continent at the other, the surveys for these
stations look similar, too. In July, the minimum activity occurred at about local noon in Toyokawa
and at about 2 hours before noon at Waldorf. The main activity lasted from the afternoon till shortly after
sunrise and is concentrated at directions around west i.e. towards the continent at both stations. In
December, the pulse rates were considerably lower and the ocean side gave a noticeable contribution.
The corresponding surveys for Berlin show some other characteristics: in July, the sector rates were
*) Station Waldorf sometimes also called Station Washington.
687
somewhat lower than in Waldorf and Toyokawa but rather evenly distributed on the azimuth. Maximum
rates occurred during the evening hours in southwest and during the late night in westnorthwest. In
December, the Berlin station received remarkable high rates from westerly directions in the night
hours. These rates are caused by the very active sferics sources of the northern part of South America
and of the Caribbean.
N!~----------------------------'
Toyoklwl Ju1.1971
E·
4 6 8 16 18 20 22 24
Fig. 1. Monthly mean values of sferics rates as functions of azimuth and of time. Figures at contour lines in
number/minute for a sector of 12° width. Threshold ~ 1 n V/(Hz' m). SR, SS marks sunrise and sunset at ground
at the receiving stations. Toyokawa July
NI~-----------------------------
Toyoklwl
NT-----------------------------,
Waldorf Jul. 1971
E E
N+-~~--~~~~--~~~~~~
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
TimeinGMT
Fig. 2. The same, Toyokawa December Fig. 3. The same, Waldorf July
N~----------------------------~ NT-------------~--~--,_----~
Waldorf 00c.1970 Berlin
E
l'
.~
'&s
.~
ioW
NO 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 21,
Timo inGMT Time inGMT
Fig. 4. The same, Waldorf December Fig. 5. The same, Berlin July
688
N~----------------------------~
Berlin 00c.1970
E
~
:.
'0 5
ioW
22 21.
Fig. 6. The same, Berlin December
Storm Localizing by Means of Statistical Sferics Parameters

The sferics activity is a function of both propagation influences and thunderstorm activity. Thus,
observations of the number of sferics cannot be used as a direct measure for the thunderstorm activity.
On the other hand, just the propagation effects provide possibilities for storm localizing by single
stations.
In the lower VLF range, the propagation attenuation varies considerably with the frequency. Thus,
the frequency spectrum of a far-away originated sferic is mainly determined by propagation influences
i.e. among other influences by the length of the propagation path. In the VLFAA, two spectral sferics
parameters are derived to conclude from the sferics spectra to the distance of the sources: the Ratio
of the Spectral Amplitudes of 9 and 5 kHz (SAR) and, derived from the phase spectrum, the Group
Delay Difference between 8 and 6 kHz (GDD) (3).
It has been experienced that these parameters show considerable variations for single sferics because
of the variations in the sources. On the other hand, the parameters produce marked mean values for dif-
ferent sources if a great number of events is collected, for instance on photographic records.
Such photo records have been carried out at the stations automatically by means of the VLFAA
photo control unit. Generally, the interval between a set of photos was 3 hours, but during Intensifi-
cation Intervals of the Ten Year Program, a continuous program was executed.
Fig. 7. GDD-Locations, receiving station Berlin. Observation interval 21:00 - 21: 10 GMT, observation period
Dec. 70 - Mar. 71. Nighttime propagation model, ionospheric height 86 km
Fig. 7 shows a plot at which location results were collected for a 4 months period, using mean GDD
values and bearings obtained in Berlin at 21 GMT. The locations were calculated by means of a simple
one-mode propagation model for nighttime conditions.
689
The applicability of this model is limited: near to the receiving station ( < 500 km at day, < 1500 km
at night), multi-mode propagation causes an interference pattern which makes localizing not impossible
but difficult (1). Further, the parameters can behave rather irregular when the day-night boundary
shifts along the propagation path.
This problem has been treated by Pelz (6). He compared for one summer month GDD locations, which
were obtained at 0 GMT in Berlin, and corresponding bearings obtained at Waldorf with meteorological
data for the eastern part of North America. This area had been selected, because it is well covered with
weather stations, it lays on a west-east propagation path with low attenuation and includes the
Waldorf station.
10 Correlation factor =0.8
/
./
E ~.~/"
.=.
::::E
. y'
u
. ):-.!
\ij 5 ~'·7·:- ..
1;; ./.
c
5 /
~u /
o /
~
/
/
5 10
Storm Distance inMm
Fig. 8. Comparison between storm distances obtained by meteorological observations and distances obtained by
means of the GDD-Iocation method (night-t.ime propagation model)
Fig. 8 shows a comparison between storm distances and localized distances where the night condi-
tion model has been applied. The locations show a considerable spread of about ± 1 Mm. This spread
is due to the influence of mixed propagation conditions, as demonstrated in the following:
Fig. 9 shows, that only propagation paths with an azimuth of lower than 278 had complete night 0
conditions, whereas all paths which run more northerly had an increasing part under day conditions.
Therefore Pelz made up classes of the azimuth and determined for each class a factor which indicated
~ Interval of confidence
mind propagation complote nighttime

conditions conditions
.-
1.5 25f'Ni9ht
•u !:c 50% Night
c •
';:; -:.--~, l
:; c
E
~
.2 II
.
:!
III ....
..........
~-. . . . ~
75% Night
-, +
I
"'':I:... _- -
"-
1.0
n~ 10
305 275
Azimuth related to Berlin in degrees
Fig. 9. Distance error as functions of azimuth and of night-time percentage of propagation path
(n: number of storms within the respective class of azimuth)
690
the mean locating error that occurred when the night model had been applied. Using this factor, he
corrected the locations of Fig. 8 and got results which are shown by Fig. 10. The spread is much lower
now and thus, a rather good calibration of the localization has been achieved. It must be pointed out,
that a correction by simple adding of night and day model results gave no reasonable results. The
empirically obtained correction factor works just in the other direction as that method does. As a
further step, Pelz used data of the 3 hourly measurements of a whole year and of intensification periods
and evaluated by means of climatological data the diurnal and seasonal dependence of the normalized
GDD, i.e. the GDD/Mm, for the sector 270° - 290° (7). He obtained a contour map of the normalized
GDD which is shown by Fig. 11. Maps of this kind, for all sectors, are to be evaluated to consider the
diurnal and seasonal propagation influences. To provide this, an intensive measuring program by means
of on-line computer evaluation is under preparation in Berlin.
10 Correlation factor =0.91

"/'
·.;l>Y.··:
).-'
/,':'
('
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
10
Storm Distance in Mm
Fig. 10. Comparison between storm distances and located distances under application of the correction factor
shown by Fig. 9
FEB MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OKT NOV DEC JAN
Fig. 11. Contour map of normalized ODD as functions of time and of season for azimuth sector 270°-290".
Figures at contour lines in Ils/Mm. Sunrise and sunset lines indicate sunrise and sunset at the height of ionosphere
691
Concluding Remarks
To cover the main part ofthe global storm activity, additional stations should be located about 5 Mm
east of the main storm activity centers, for instance in India to receive the activity of the southern part
of Africa and at Hawaii for the western part of Indonesia. These regions are not yet covered by the
present network.
Acknowledgments
The research reported in this paper was supported in part by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Germany.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the help of all cooperators of the network.
References
1. Harth, W., Der EinfluB hi:iherer Modes auf VLF-Atmosphericsparameter, Forschungsber. Astronom. Inst.
Bonn, 71-04, 71-05 (1971). - 2. Heydt, G., Ergiinzung der Ergebnisse statistischer Auswertungen fotografischer
Registrierungen von VLF-Atmosphericsparametern durch Monatsmittelwerte richtungsabhiingiger Atmos-
phericsraten, Technischer Bericht Nr. 154 des Heinrich-Hertz-Instituts (Berlin-Charlottenburg, 1972). -
3. Heydt, G., Peilanlagen zur Messung von spektralen Amplitudenverteilungen, Amplitudenverhiiltnissen und
Gruppenlaufzeitdifferenzen von Atmospherics, Technischer Bericht Nr. 90 des Heinrich-Hertz-Instituts (Berlin-
Chariottenburg, 1967). - 4. Heydt, G. and R. Raupach, First Results Obtained during the Program X 4 of the
VLF-Atmospherics-Analyser Network, Technischer Bericht Nr. 155 des Heinrich-Hertz-Instituts (Berlin-
Charlottenburg, 1972). - 5. Heydt, G. and T. Takeuti, Beobachtungen von VLF-Atmospherics beim Auftreten
groBriiumiger Wirbelstiirme, Technischer Bericht Nr. 167 des Heinrich-Hertz-Instituts (Berlin-Charlottenburg,
1973). - 6. Pelz, J., Kleinheubacher Ber. 17,449 (1973). - 7. Pelz, J., Personal communication, J. Pelz, Inst.
Meteorol. Univ. Berlin (Berlin, 1974). - 8. Proceedings, Waldorf Conference on Long-Range Geographic
Estimation of Lightning Sources, 11-16 September 1972, ed. by R. V. Anderson, R. B. Bent, H. Dolezalek, and
F. Kelly; NRL Report 7763, July 1974, X + 503 pp. U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (Washington, 1974).
Discussion
Bent, Indialantic, Florida. USA:
I seem to remember at the Waldorf Conference in 1972, that I discussed the large errors that existed when
reducing the photographic recordings; the main problem here being obtaining the center of gravity or some
similar point from which you can compute the distance of the storm center. Now, neglecting the problems of the
theoretical reduction which itself has major errors, I still thought there were errors of, at times, many thou-
sands of kilometers just because of the inadequacy of the eye to pick up the center of this large mass of points.
I wonder if you could explain what work has been done in the last 2 years to improve this reduction and what sort
of errors you expect now, particularly during daytime propagation.
Heydt, Berlin, West-Germany:
I agree with Bent that there are at time cases where it is difficult to read the center of the clusters with sufficient
accuracy. Generally. this is due to overexposure of the photos i.e. the time of exposure was not well adapted to
the frequency of sferics. Therefore, the data reduction by means of a computer as carried out by R. V. Anderson
at Waldorf will be certainly more suitable than recording and reading of photos. On the other hand, the reading
accuracy of the photos is in general sufficient: a test carried out by different persons, which read the same photos
for several times, yielded a mean accuracy of the GDD reading of 5115 i.e. 150 km distance error for nighttime
conditions and east-west propagation. This is confirmed by Fig. 7 of my paper: the locations in South America
could not be clustered on that limited area if the distance error due to the photo reading would exceed a few
hundred km.
Kimpara, Aichi-Ken, Japan:

I found on the last figure that the distance to read the time into the GDD is limited. So, from the standpoint of
practical use it is important to know the range of distance to determine the delay. What is the distance range
to be determined by your equipment? On your last figure, the point is gathered in some rate, so that I would
like to ask you the range of distance to be determined by your system.
Heydt:
The reliable range of distance is limited, of course, by two values. The one value is the receiving range that may
be in the order of 12000 km in the night. And the other limit is that multimode range and that would begin at,
692
let us say, 2000 km. But this is only a very rough estimation because it depends on the direction of arrival and
on diurnal variations.
Krider, Tucson, Arizona, USA:
Another question which came up at the Waldorf Conference: Have you had any chance to examine whether
the location you compute is the same for different return strokes within the same overall flash?
Heydt:
Until now, we evaluated only photos records which do not allow a distinction between different strokes.
I think I can perhaps shed a bit of light on that. We have implemented with our Analyzer the digital recording
of atmospherics on a stroke by stroke basis which also will be implemented shortly on a trial basis in Berlin;
and, without making any intensive analysis of the results there have been occasions when I have observed what,
obviously, were multiple return strokes. Without going into any elegant or extensive analysis, it did not appear
that there were gross differences in the location parameters from one to another of these successive return strokes.
Authors' addresses:
G. Heydt T. Takeuti
Heinrich-Hertz-Institut fUr Res. Inst. of Atmospherics
Nachrichtentechnik Nagoya University
Einsteinufer 37 Toyokawa Aichi-ken 442
0-1000 Berlin 10 Kyoto
West-Germany Japan
693
VHF Radio Pictures of Lightning
D. E. Proctor
With 3 figures
Abstract
VHF radio pictures of lightning which have been obtained by locating the sources of large numbers of pulses
are shown. RMS errors in the measured Cartesian coordinates of each source were typically 25, 25, 140 m. In
some cases the source of each separate pulse could be found. Data concerning positions, extents, and directions
of flashes are presented, as well as data concerning source size and step length. Differences between sferics emitted
by positive and negative streamers are noted. K changes have been found to accompany at least two classes of
event involving positive streamers. Sources have been located in regions of high radar reflectivity as well as in
space that was sensibly devoid of large hydrometeors. Many flashes either began at or else terminated on the
edges of strongly reflecting regions.
Introduction
A previous paper by Proctor (1971) described a system capable of locating the positions of a large
number of VHF sferic pulses from which time-resolved pictures could be constructed. The resolution
in three Cartesian coordinates was typically 25 x 25 x 140 m.
This paper describes briefly a few results obtained by means of this system. Only 18 flashes have been
analysed completely.
Cloud Flashes and K Changes
Cloud flashes emit pulsed radiation at VHF during their initial and VA phases, but in the final stages
they radiate long finely-structured trains, up to several hundred microseconds in length, at intervals
ranging from 5 ms to a few hundred milliseconds. These trains resemble noise waveforms that ac-
company return strokes of ground flashes except that they begin gradually and are usually very much
weaker than return stroke noise. Short trains lasting from 5 to about 200 microseconds may occur
also during the VA stage. We have chosen to call these continuous trains Q noise. They almost in-
variably accompany K changes which are delayed 20 to 70 microseconds after the start of the noise.
Although their sources are difficult to locate accurately, we have found that they are emitted by two
kinds of event. One is a recoil streamer returning from the channel tip, another is a shorter streamer which
moves toward the starting point of the flash from the adjoining space and not by way of the existing
channel. The sign of the K change depends on the direction and the position of the streamer in relation
to the field meter and indicates that the streamer is a positive one. Speeds ranging from 3 x 10 6 to
3 X 10 7 mis have been measured.
Pulsed emission during the initial and VA stages of one class of cloud flash has a relatively low pulse
repetition frequency (prt) near 2 x 10 3 per second. Another type radiates pulses at a rate higher than
3 x 104 per second. During the initial stage the sources of the pulse leading edges appear to scan a
volume typically 1 x 0.5 x 0.5 km, thereafter a channel emerges and progresses at an overall speed
of 10 5 mis (0.89 to 1.2 x 105 mis), accompanied by the change in field. The manner in which the sources
form is erratic. With the high-prf types, sources as far as 1 km ahead of the tip may become active pre-
maturely. With the low-prf types this distance is about 300 m. The distance between sources of the
leading edges of successive pulses has a distribution which vaguely resembles a Rayleigh distribution,
because the stepping is not isotropic in three dimensions. The mean measured for one low-prf flash
was 303 m. The mean length was enlarged by errors of measurement from an estimated real mean length
of 276 m. Pulsed activity has accompanied the formation of negatively charged channels in every flash
studied to date.
The leading edges of the pulses are invariably sharp in the low-prf type. About 25 % of the trailing
edges are also sufficiently sharp to enable the extent of the sources which generate the whole pulse to
be measured. The pulse duration is 1 microsecond on average. The mean extent was 347 m for nine low-
prf cloud flashes, Proctor (1974). The sources active during the pulse appear to fill-up the gaps between
694
I I I
IIOZ
""
II r- -
10 l-
" ,
It
htoi
'\j,;Z ."",
"'I. .
ZM L Ll
I MM
e
l
, e
~
'. ,
llll(
'ii\,
'
, -
,,, ' ', ,,
" ,
, .'
I"
H H , _'H f
H~
9 r- z~
H
H
j t,1; -
, 'c 'e
r}
ff/f
EE IP~£ E f
E
-'"
1--
-
11 o .0
::c 8 'EY" , -
(,!']
W
::c
~RMS w
••
B"'A
~~o
!~ A
i?yo I) S
ERROR WW T .yT-' Jf
7 r-
:.,: ):!'1;rTfI"f
'1"if.~
v •
'0'
~~O,
~
-
V TTH rs :.p
~l.4o
.,
0 00
So 0
, H
'"
000 P,
Q. ~pp
-
o '"
6
, - 0
, o~
8
,
00
0o t": 0
0
5- 00 -
I J I
4
X, km
Fig. 1. Elevation plots of the fixes obtained from the leading edges of pulses emitted by flash 1102. This is a
projection onto the XZ plane. Symbols refer to the time of pulse emission. The location of the first source has
been enclosed by a square. Heights are above ground level which is 1430 m AMSL. All but 3 of 230 sources in
the main channel (A to M) and most of the others, except sources of Q noise, are shown.
leading edge sources. The pulsed radiation emanated only from regions in the vicinity of the advancing
tip in contradistinction to the behaviour of ground flash stepped leaders which appear to radiate from
both extremities as well as from the intervening space near the channel, see Proctor (1971).
Fig. 1 shows one projection of one low-prf cloud flash. This began near A. The main channel extended
from A to M. The symbols relate to time, and change irregularly at intervals that are approximately
10 ms. 227 out of 230 sources that occurred in the main channel as well as over 90 %of the remainder has
been located.
High-prf cloud flashes often radiate pulses from more than one branch at the same time so that
corresponding pulses on the various receiver channels are more difficult to identify. The pulsed
emission is more varied in amplitude, frequency and shape than it is with the low-prf flashes.
695
Relation to Weather Echoes
Fig. 2 shows a plan view of one flash superimposed on an X-band weather radar constant altitude
plan position indication (CAPPI), which has been scaled from range-height recordings which were made
as the nodding radar scanned slowly in azimuth. As many as four widely separated regions were
X,km
-15 0 5 10
10
~w
N
Z=6·5km
-10
-15~ ______4 -_ _ _ _ _ _~~~_ _~_ _~_ _~_ _ _ _~
-15 X,km 0 5 10
10r-------r-------r-------r-------T-------;
lightning at 1539
N
-10
-15~ ____ ~~ ____ ~ __ ~ __ ~ __ ~~~ ____ ~
Fig. 2. Below: Plan view of one cloud flash. Numerals indicate median heights in km, arrows show direction
of propagation. Above: Superposed plot on X-band radar CAPPI at 7 km height. Regions E reflected strongly,
T weakly and N not at all. The echoes moved along the arrow N
696
active simultaneously. The smaller gaps are most probably due to our being unable to locate the source
of every pulse. 1211 sources out of an estimated total of 7100 were located. The two branches near
X = -10 km, Y = 0 might have been two branches of the same flash. The separate event recorder was
not operated at the time this record was taken so that there was no way of telling whether the record
began at the start of the flash. This flash was predominantly horizontal as shown by Fig. 3. Fig. 3 does
not show the two branches mentioned previously. Sources extended above and below their mean
positions by real distances of 230 to 550 m rms, and successive sources formed lines leaning in the
direction in which the main channel tip was moving. Fig. 3 has features in common with several we have
seen. In these, the lightning began near the edge of the echoing region and extended from there into
surrounding cloud. Fig. 1 is an example of the low-prftype which began just outside the reflecting region.
One branch of the flash shown by Figs. 2 and 3 terminated on an isolated reflecting region not shown
in Fig. 3, but which may be seen in Fig. 2. Similar behaviour by small-scale positive corona streamers
has been reported by Phelps (1972).
We have also recorded flashes which were contained almost entirely in the regions of heavy pre-
cipitation. The two smaller discharges (or branches) shown in Fig. 2 are also located almost entirely in
the wet regions. In common with some other flashes we have studied, the longer of the two branches
near Y = -10 km terminated at the edge of the precipitation echo after having followed this contour
for some distance. Nearly all the pictures obtained so far show that lightning paths were influenced by
the presence of reflectivity gradients.
-11~5____~r-
151""
____-T______f-____-T______l~0
10
E
~
N
5
o·c
C. B.
OL-____ ~ ____ ~ ____ ~~ ____ ~ ____ ~
SECTION AT V= -5
Fig. 3. Parts of the same cloud discharge which is shown in plan in Fig. 2 is shown here in elevation, superimposed
on a plot of the weather echoes recorded in a thin vertical slice at Y = - 5. The inner contour encloses the more
strongly reflecting regions. N marks enclosed regions which did not record detectable echoes. C.B. indicates the
cloud base. Lines representing the lightning have been drawn through the median heights of sferic sources
One ground flash we have studied struck ground after having moved horizontally about 5 km to track
the rainshaft edge almost exactly over the lowest 3.2 km of its path. The higher parts of the flash termi-
nated near the edge of the precipitation echo. It is interesting to note that Winn et al. (1974) show two
examples in which high fields were measured near boundaries of weather echoes.
It is clear that instead of recording only two or three levels of echo intensity, the radar should be made
to indicate many levels of radar reflectivity accurately. To this end, a new C-band radar has been
constructed and some digital circuitry has been added to save the tedium of manual plotting. The change
of wavelength was made because some earlier X-Band (3 cm) records were spoilt by the effects of
attenuation by intervening precipitation.
697
Acknowledgments
I am indebted to the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research for providing the necessary
facilities and for permission to publish this paper. This work has been performed in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the Ph. D. degree at the University of the Witwatersrand.
References
1. Phelps, C. T., J. Geophys. Res. 77, 3,407 (1972). - 2. Proctor, D. E., J. Geophys. Res. 76, 6, 1478 (1971). -
3. Proctor, D. E., Sources of sferics in cloud flashes, CSIR Special Report No. TEL 118 (1974). - 4. Winn, W. P.,
G. W. Schwede, and C. B. Moore, J. Geophys. Res. 79, 12, 1761 (1974).
Discussion
R. B. Andersor., Pretoria, South Africa:
Just in rough terms, what is the band width of your receivers and the approximate baselines of your grid?
The band width was 10 megahertz at one central station, and the others were limited by the telemetry system
to 5 megahertz. Fig. 1 shows the baselines. The baselines had typical distances of 13, 11, 26, 22 km.
KALKHEUWEL
...E
'"~
20.2 /r.. 83.5·
II.I/r ..
PROTEA RIDGE /
NIETGEDA~ KNOPJESLAAGTE
...E
.'"'"
OBSERVATORY
BASELINES 1968
Fig. 1. Baselines of measuring grid

Can you give me any quantitative estimates of the radar intensity contours labelled E and T in terms of pre-
cipitation rate?
Proctor:
The contour labelled E represented 26 mm per hour of rainfall rate at 10 km range. But that is not an accurate
calibration. I think what is significant is the fact that the lightning occurred where the reflectivity gradient was
very steep, so there would not be much spatial variation in the contours as shown.
698
How can you calculate the charge on a channel from your data?
Proctor:
The starting point of the flash is what I call the origin, and this breaks down first in a scanning fashion. After a
time a channel developed. By grouping those points to reduce their number to say H of them, I abstract charge
from here and dump it according to some law on the points along that channel at time T. I then scale the amount
of charge redistributed in order to equal the measured value of field change. It may be that the charge at the
origin is constant, but that flash later discharged again from another place which acted as another source of
charge and it is reasonable to assume that the charge at the first origin decreased. You will see a discussion of
this by Khastgir and Saha in the literature. At the next instant, the distribution includes another point, so one
has to make a recalculation redistributing this charge and then to scale that up so that it equals the field change
which one measures. There are two ways of doing it. One can scale it all at the end, in which case the difference
between the calculated and measured curves gives a measure of how good the assumptions were. On the other hand
the ones I showed have been scaled at every millisecond, or in some cases every time that this stepping sequence
occurred.
References
1. Khastgir, S. R. and S. K. Saha, J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 34,115 (1972).
Author's address:
D. E. Proctor
N.I.T.R., Box 3718
Johannesburg 20()()
699
Measurements of the Electric and Magnetic Fields Produced by Close Lightning
E. P. Krider
With 5 figures
Abstract
The experimental techniques used to measure the broadband (1 kHz-10 MHz) electric and magnetic fields
produced by lightning are described. Data obtained on lightning return strokes and stepped leaders within
200 km are presented and discussed.
Introduction
For the past several years, we have been studying the electric and magnetic fields produced by light-
ning discharges within 200 km, using broadband antennas with submicrosecond time resolution (1, 2,
4, 7, 10) and attempting to interpret the results in terms of theory (5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12). In this report, the
electric and magnetic field measurements will be described, and several sample waveforms will be
presented and discussed.
Electric and Magnetic Field Antennas

The electric field antenna circuit used for most measurements is that shown in Fig. 1 a and is
essentially the same as that used by other researchers for many years. When the antenna sensing element,
in this case a flat plate of area A, is exposed to a changing external electric field, E, the voltage produced
across the capacitor, C, will be proportional to the field and inversely proportional to the total capaci-
tance between the plate and the ground, C + CG • The sensing plate is usually mounted about 1 m
off the ground, and the response is calibrated by measuring the antenna output in a known electric
field (1). If the antenna plate in Fig. 1 a is buried parallel to the ground, so that it does not distort the
external field, then the charge induced on the plate will be Q = BoAE, and the voltage across C will be
v= BoAE [1]
C+ CG
,,
Qo
..,....
..1...CG
I
) I>
'*'
I
R
VOLTAGE
(a ) FOLLOWER
(b) INTEGRATOR
Fig. 1. Schematic diagrams of broadband electric field antenna circuits, the conventional circuit shown in (a),
an improved version in (b)
700
The antenna is usually located 50 to 100m from the recording station, and the voltage produced
across the capacitor, C, is transmitted through a shielded coaxial cable of characteristic impedance,
R o, using a voltage follower located in the antenna assembly. The antenna gain can be varied by
changing the value of the integrating capacitor, C, at the remote antenna. The shunt resistor, R, is chosen
to discharge the capacitor, C, in a time much longer than the time-variation of interest in the external
field.
Recently, we have developed a simpler electric field antenna circuit which does not require active
electronics at the remote assembly and which allows the gain to be changed at the recording station.
This circuit is shown in Fig. 1 b. The antenna plate is connected directly to a terminated coaxial cable,
and the current required to charge the sensing electrode is integrated to provide an output voltage
v= BoAE [2]
C
if the plate does not distort the external field.
The broadband magnetic field antenna system has been described in detail by Krider and Noggle (2).
A single tum, shielded coaxial cable acts as the basic detector element. The voltage induced in the cable
loop is proportional to the time-derivative of the external magnetic flux density, dBjdt, and when this
is integrated the output is given by
v= Acos<P B [3]
RICI
where A is the antenna area, <P is the angle between the plane of the loop and the lightning discharge,
and RI and CI are the integrating resistance and capacitance.
Lightning Data
Fig. 2 shows examples of typical electric and magnetic field waveforms produced by lightning return
strokes at a distance of 50 to 100 km. The initial field risetimes are typically 1 to 5 Ilsec; and the shapes
of the fields are, for the most part, identical, which is expected for distant (radiation) fields. Uman and co-
workes have recently shown that if the rapidly rising return stroke current propagates up the channel
in the form of a wave traveling at a constant speed without distortion, the "transmission-line" model,
B( xlO s Wb/m 2 ) E(V/m)

3 10
1
I
2
B 5
E
o o
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
MICROSECONDS
Fig. 2. Correlated magnetic (B) and electric (E) field waveforms from lightning return strokes at a distance of
50 to 100 km. The same vertical and horizontal scales apply to all records
701
r1
50msec
r1 ~
TIME r
EI
_~2
r-+TIME -I I--
\. 20p.sec
Fig. 3. Tracings of return stroke electric and magnetic field waveforms from a three-stroke flash at 8 km. The
oscilloscope traces for the electric (E) waveforms are indented relative to the magnetic (B). Corresponding E
and B fields are numbered in sequence
I~v/m
r-I
50msec
TIME
,I
I-- TIME --t I--
\20p.sec
Fig. 4. Tracings of return stroke electric and magnetic field waveforms from a two-stroke flash at 4 km. E field
waveforms are indented relative to the B field, and the traces are numbered in sequence
then the shape of the distant radiation field is the same as the shape of the current pulse. A review of
the transmission-line model has been given in the previous paper by Uman (6).
Figs. 3 and 4 show examples of simultaneous electric and magnetic field waveforms at distances of
8 and 4 km. Initially, during the first few microseconds, the close electric and magnetic waveforms have
identical shapes which are similar to the initial portions of fields measured at larger distances. This
initial waveform is almost entirely due to the radiation field term in the general field expressions for any
model of return stroke current (8). After the first few microseconds, the induction field is apparent in
the close magnetic waveforms and the induction plus electrostatic terms in the electric. After about
40llsec, the electric field is completely dominated by the electrostatic term, which is proportional to
702
the total charge transferred and which remains finite after the magnetic field goes to zero. Uman (6)
in his previous paper has pointed out that if the transmission-line model is valid, fields such as those
in Figs. 3 and 4 can be used to determine both the return stroke current and propagation speed.
The rapid pulsations in the waveforms of E1 and B1 in Figs. 3 and 4 just before the abrupt return
stroke are due to stepped leader processes. Fig. 5 shows leader pulses (L) which precede return strokes
(R) in 4 different discharges within 200 km. As can be seen in Fig. 5, the stepped leader waveforms just
before return strokes are the same polarity as the return strokes with risetimes of about 1 Jlsec and
durations of 2 to 4 Jlsec. A more detailed discussion of stepped leader waveforms and their inter-
pretation is given by Krider and Radda (3).
E(V/m)
15 R
10
L a
l-N
5
b
.. -
0
L
...L L
..,
L L L C
-. L
L
"
J{, d
I I I I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
I I I I 1 1 1 1 1
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
MICROSECONDS
Fig. 5. Electric field waveforms for leader steps (L) and associated return strokes (R) for four lightning discharges
at 100 to 200 km. The time scale per division is shown in parentheses at the right of each trace. The same vertical
scale applies to all traces
Acknowledgments
The author is pleased to acknowledge significant contributions to this work by Dr. M. A. Uman, R. C. Noggle,
and G. J. Radda. This research has been supported in part by the Office of Naval Research (Contract N 00014-
67-A-0209-0015) and the NASA Kennedy Space Center.
References
1. Fisher, R. J. and M. A. Uman, J. Geophys. Res. 77, 399 (1972). - 2. T<rider, E. P. and R. C. Noggle, 1. Appl.
Meteor. 14, 252 (1975). - 3. Krider, E. P. and G. J. Radda, J. Geophys. Res. 80, 2653 (1975). - 4. Lin, Y. T.
and M. A. Uman,1. Geophys. Res. 78, 7911 (1973). - 5. McLain, D. K. and M. A. Uman, 1. Geophys. Res. 76,
2101 (1971). - 6. Uman, M. A., Calculation of the electric and magnetic fields produced by close lightning (these
Proceedings). - 7. Uman, M. A., R. D. Brantley, Y. T. Lin, J. A. Tiller, E. P. Krider, and D. K. McLain, J. Geophys.
Res. 80, 373 (1975). - 8. Uman, M. A. and D. K. McLain, 1. Geophys. Res. 74, 6899 (1969). - 9. Uman, M. A. and
D. K. McLain, 1. Geophys. Res. 75, 5143 (1970). - 10. Uman. M. A., D. K. McLain, R. J. Fisher, and E. P. Krider,
1. Geophys. Res. 78, 3523 (1973a). - 11. Uman, M. A., D. K. McLain, R. J. Fisher, and E. P. Krider, J. Geophys.
Res. 78, 3530(1973 b). - 12. Uman, M. A., D. K. McLain, and E. P. Krider, Am. 1. Phys. 43, 33 (1975).
703
Discussion
Are you using these effects to give a direct measure of the range, as well as of the direction, or of the exact
location where lightning hits the ground, using crossed loops?
We do not try to locate lightning from a single station using these fields. What we do try to do is to locate
discharges by obtaining accurate and simultaneous azimuth angles at two stations using a gated magnetic direc-
tion finder. We gate our direction finder to examine only the initial radiation field peak, which is produced when
the return-stroke current is close to the ground. This technique minimizes errors due to channel tortuosity and
branches and also provides signals which are proportional to 1/ R for an independent range determination.
Using this technique, we obtain accurate directions even for discharges closer than 10 km.
There is one point I was interested to see. You do not observe any difference in current-steepness of the first
stroke and the consecutive strokes. On Mount San Salvatore we observed a very clear difference in risetime
between the first and consecutive strokes. The first stroke, normally, has a mean risetime between 10 and 20
microseconds, the consecutive ones very often between half a microsecond and two.
Krider:
Yes. Uman and his coworkers, Fisher and Lin, have done an analysis of risetimes in the radiation field. They
present their data in terms of first strokes and subsequent strokes, and they usually see a 50 % slower risetime
in first strokes than they do in subsequent strokes. The variation is from 1 to 5 I1sec, typically, but never as slow
as 20. On the first return stroke, one must be careful about the definition ofrisetime. Frequently we see radiation
fields with an abrupt transition, which is usually associated with the return stroke, preceded by a rather slowly
rising ramp. If one includes the ~low ramp in the risetime measurement, one could, in principle, get very long
initial risetime values.
This question is relevant to the previous questions on the optimum frequency for lightning flash counters.
Has Krider attempted to obtain the frequency spectra of the atmospherics by Fourier transformation; if not,
what frequency range would be covered if this were done?
Krider:
The answer to the first part is "No". Thus far we have not Fourier-analyzed our electric and magnetic field data
which are in the time-domain. The low frequency response of our antennas is typically about 1 kilohertz, and
the upper frequency is typically 5 to 10 megahertz. Sometimes we go up to about 40 MHz, which is the limit of
our systems.
I would like to ask what was the resolution of your instruments? Could you see steep field changes due to
about 0.1 microsecond? You said that most of the steep changes of the field were according to risetimes of one
to five microseconds.
Krider:
We have looked at the return strokes carefully with much faster time resolution than I showed on some of
the figures in this paper. The fastest return strokes we see are about half a microsecond, but of course intracloud
and leader processes can be considerably faster. Normally we have a delay line in our system, so we can trigger
the oscilloscope 1 or 2 I1sec before the signal actually appears on the vertical amplifier. With the delay lines, our
time resolution is limited to one or two tenths of a microsecond.
Author's address:
E. P. Krider
Institut for Atmospheric Physics
University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona 85721
USA
704
Global Monitoring of Atmospherics*)
A. G. Jean, R. N. Grubb, and H. M. Dumas
Summary
The suitability and limitations of radio (atmospherics) and optical techniques are considered in ground-based
and satellite configurations, for monitoring global thunderstorms. Future improvements in optical sensors in
satellites may reduce false alarms and provide useful terrestrial locations of lightning. Limitations in satellite
atmospheric sensors are discussed. It is proposed that the most suitable system for locating and monitoring the
thunderstorm activity and the provision of these data in near real time, consists of a network of ground-based
stations providing the times of arrival of VLF atmospherics and the relay of these data to a central station via
satellite. The ground-based recording system can be controlled by signals received via satellite from the central
station.
Authors' addresses:
A. G. Jean and R. N. Grubb H. M. Dumas
NOAA, ERL Space Environm. Lab. Sandia Laboratories
Boulder, Colorado 80302 Sandia Corporation
USA Albuquerque. New Mexico 87115
USA
705
Development of Observations of Atmospherics·)
B. K. Inkov and L. G. Makhotkin
Summary
Investigations of atmospherics have been carried out with regard to the determination of various problems.
In terms of their topics, they can be divided into three main groups: investigations of radio noise, thunder
activity, and conditions of radio waves propagation. Recently, many researches related to the second group and
were devoted to radiotechnical methods of thunder activity study. Quite certainly appeared the necessity of using
single-station methods, whose different variations fit to covering both the areas of a small and of a large scale.
Authors' address:
B. K. Inkov and L. G. Makhotkin
Karbysheva 7
Leningrad 194018
USSR
*) Paper was accepted by the Executive Pane~ but it was not presented. Full text of paper not available.
706
General Discussion
With 2 figures

I believe Miihleisen said that the CCIR counter was designed to meet a WMO requirement. This is not so. It
was designed to meet a requirement by radio communicators to have an index oflightning discharges as a source
of radio noise. There was no particular interest in whether they were ground discharges or cloud discharges,
only in the extent to which they generated radio noise. The only WMO involvement was an offer to encourage
the installation of the counters by their members.
Turning to the question of what is the optimum frequency response of a counter to distinguish between cloud
and ground discharges, the question raised by Prentice, I believe that the low frequency of the Cigre counter
was adopted more to give a well-defined range by using the electrostatic component of field than to distinguish
between cloud and ground discharges. Considering that ground strokes have a maximum spectral density some-
what below 10 kilohertz and cloud strokes somewhat below 20 kilohertz, a 500 hertz counter may not necessarily
be good for distinguishing between the two. For this purpose it might be better to use a response with a peak
near the maximum of the frequency spectrum of ground strokes, say about 8 kilohertz. I do not know if this is
so, but it is at least a possibility.
I should like to make a general comment to anyone who puts out an electric field antenna designed to work
from, say, DC up to a megahertz. Krider and I had a rude awakening at the beginning of the summer when we
put out our electric field antenna and our magnetic field antenna at the same time and looked at our first distant
wave forms, because the electric field antenna did not work as it should have. That is, for distant wave forms
the electric field didn't look like the magnetic field. It was differentiated. We still don't understand why it was
differentiated, but the same antenna put under screens and then calibrated worked fine during this type of cali-
bration. The effect of stringing a cable and, perhaps, the effect of currents induced in the ground by the electric
and the magnetic fields do something to the signal. Thus, we recommend that anybody who wants to believe
their electric field measurements should also put out a loop antenna and measure magnetic field simultaneously,
and make sure that the distant wave forms both are the same. In that light, Miihleisen's Fig. 4 in his paper, which
is at a distance of 7 km, looks very much like our differentiated wave forms at that distance.

One remark to the comment of Horner. It is quite right, the CCIR-counter was recommended by WMO. As
to the response: I believe that our device, sensitive between 10 megahertz and about 1 hertz in the input, does
not differentiate when we recorded the fast rise times of about 1 microsecond and below 1 microsecond. It seems
that we recorded correctly. We have some other support of these results, because if one uses current measurements,
perhaps from the San Salvatore Station, and integrates the current records in order to get the charge, then one
comes to rise times in the order of fractions of a microsecond. We shall check in the future with care and then
we shall see further.
Uman:
I think I better amplify my.previous statement and say why I think Miihleisen's wave form is differentiated.
First of all, all our close wave forms that we believe are valid, are like those Krider showed today. They rise to
a sharp peak in about a microsecond, or so, and then stay relatively flat at a distance of 7 km. They never go
through zero at this distance. Miihleisen's wave form rises to a thousand volts per meter, which is much too big
for that distance, and then goes very rapidly through zero. And, in fact, it is negative for a long time, which we
never observe. I must make another comment on Miihleisen's calculation using Berger's curves. He has used
the moment equation for a lightning at ten km and has also used the Bruce-Golde model. We do not approve
of either the moment equation used for lightning closer than 50 km or of the Bruce-Golde model. We think that
the beginning part of the electric field and magnetic field wave form should look just like the lightning current
itself, rather than like the derivative of the lightning current.
Miihleisen:
First, no comment to your criticism of our calculations. They have been somewhat primitive and only for a first
approach. - To my last figure, I have a question for the audience. What do some experts say to the negative
707
field change due to ground flashes in a distance of about one or two km? This was recorded by the slow system
(not by the fast system). That means that we recorded only the field just before a lightning and just after a
lightning and nothing more. The negative polarity of these field changes due to nearby flashes could not be
explained. I would be grateful if somebody could provide an explanation.
I am afraid I am only going to add to the confusion by presenting, very briefly, the results of some measure-
ments made in England. I find tl).e voltages induced on overhead distribution electricity lines caused by flashes
nearby the ground, have a largest component which is negative. Perhaps I could show a couple of figures
to illustrate this The wave form is at the top left of Fig. 1. The time scale is a hundred microseconds full scale.
One can see the baseline of the oscilloscope. It is very faint, but on Fig. lone can see two pulses A and B which,
I think, are due to the stepped leader, after which the voltage rises in about 15 microsecond reaching a peak of
somthing in region of 300 kilovolts at C. We are fairly sure that this lightning did not contact the line, and this
suggests that there was a very large negative field with a very rapid rise time. On the Fig. 2 a similar wave form
is at the top left with a very rapid rise time of about 15 microseconds, giving a negative pulse about 40 micro-
seconds long. The positive part of the wave form is probably a reflection. In addition, I recently had the oppor-
tunity of measuring electric fields close to triggered lightning discharges - when I say close I mean 50 and 200
meters. Together with these measurements we had also current oscillograms for the discharges which carried
a negative charge to ground. I also found the largest electric field changes were negative showing pulses very like
those I have measured on overhead lines. I would like someone to explain this, please.
150
100
~ A 8
50
~
.g 0
~
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III
15'-100
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-300
150
100
~ 50
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.... -Z50

I don't think I could fully explain the comment made or the question presented by the last contributor to the
discussion; but, in a similar case, and this was an attempt to analyze transmission-line flashovers above African
ground, the explanation was found in the variability of ground conductivity. Now, Mr. Chairman, I do not like
to throw a hot potato into this discussion here by perhaps trying to remind people that the conductivity of the
ground or rather the electrical parameter of the ground are not always such that they could be fully ignored.
708
I'd like to ask Krider or Uman if they have any independent measurements of channel tortuosity. As I under-
stand it, the theory which is not completely satisfactory applies to a straight discharge.

This summer we tried to obtain all of our data in correlation with television video tape records of channel
geometry.
Scuka, Uppsala, Sweden:

I would like to ask Krider a very short question. In our thunderstorm project of 1967, I found that the optical
radiation from the spectral region of the H. line precedes the abrupt electric field change of the return stroke
for some 10l1s. Is this observation consistent with what you would expect, considering the time difference of
some 10 l1S between the magnetic and the electric field change of the return stroke that you reported in your
paper?
Krider:
It is possible that one could see H-alpha emissions from the stepped-leader process or perhaps a dart-leader
process preceding the large return-stroke current. The stepped leader spectrum presented earlier by Orville
clearly showed a strong H-alpha emission. Normally one would not expect a return stroke to produce H-alpha
until the large current and the large radiation fields have started.
Illingworth:
Further to my tortuosity question: Was the degree of tortuosity on the TV camera pictures high, and do
you think that the theory needs modification?
Krider:
The tortuosity from flash to flash is highly variable, as Uman, I believe, indicated earlier this morning. The
calculations depend very strongly on channel geometry. The analysis of the data we obtained this summer has not
yet begun, but the general features are what we expect. For example, when there is a sudden break in the channel
with a large horizontal section, we do observe a dip or a pseudo-mirror-image in the radiation field wave form
and in the close wave form.
Horner:
There is now considerable evidence to suggest that, although the radio energies emitted by lightning discharges
in tropical and temperate regions are similar at VLF, the energy at HF is considerably less in tropical storms.
Could Proctor say ifhe has looked at his VHF atmospherics from this point of view? It would be very interesting
to know if the trend is continued in the VHF range.

The brief answer is no. That system is highly importable and I live in subtropical regions and so I have no
means of comparing my data with the data from any other part of the world. At one stage, we did some spectrum
measurements for which the amplitude response of the system was calibrated. There was no discrepancy between
the amplitudes which I got and those which have been previously published either by yourself or by Pierce.

I have a question for Proctor concerning the selection process during the thunderstorm. How do you go about
selecting which lightning event you record and study?
Proctor:
The selection process is done as follows: These are triggered recordings, and one of the criticisms is that the
record duration is too short. I select records to analyse first on the basis that they started at the beginning of
the flash or because they are otherwise sufficiently interesting to warrant an examination. The second is that at
distances greater than about 15 km the height accuracy is so poor that I tend to reject lightning flashes which
have occurred at this range. I rather wait and choose another record when the storm has drifted to a closer range.
We are quite fortunate, in this respect, that many of the storms occur in squall lines so that the chance of having
a storm approach and then appear overhead is quite great.
709
Muhleisen:
I would like to ask if you see any possibility to develop and construct a lightning counter using frequencies
above 1 megahertz? The question arises because one development in Germany, near Frankfurt, is going on at
such frequencies. I do not yet know any results, however.
Proctor:
Yes and no, it depends very much on whether one wants to discriminate between cloud flashes and ground flashes.
The wave-forms displayed to a slow time base, emitted by lightning and in the HF and VHF region are very
definite signatures. They are completely different from any other spurious wave form. I have made some attempt
to devise a gadget which will discriminate between ground flashes and cloud flashes without a completely satis-
factory answer being obtained. I find two classes of cloud flash; one which proceeds slowly and which seems
to begin just outside of the precipitation and the other which begins inside of the precipitation. The type which
begins inside the precipitation has a wave form which is so similar to the noise emitted by a ground flash that
I have not been able to find out, yet, whether there is a difference, or whether any electrical parameter can be
measured which will enable us to distinguish between the two. If you look in the paper by Kitagawa and Brook,
you will see the one kind, the slow pulsing kind, can very easily be recognized. They could tell in 10 milliseconds
between that and a ground flash. Durations or noise might select between the two. So, the answer is yes, you
can count all flashes very easily up to the radio horizon which you can extend by using satellites or high towers.
And no, you cannot discriminate between the two kinds of flash. At least I have not found a way.
Kimpara, Aichi-ken, Japan:
In order to investigate the propagation of VLF atmospherics, it will be very useful and important, to observe
variations of phase and intensity of VLF Standard Stations. At sunrise and sunset anomalies, as well as solar flare
effects, detailed investigation would be possible, and their results will be very useful and instructive to the study
of the propagation of atmospherics as references.
In fact, we found the sunrise and sunset anomalies on station NWC (22.3 kHz), waves coming from Australia
over the equator, and they were explained clearly by the mode theory. We also found that the phase variation
of NWC at solar flares correlates linearly with the intensity of solar X rays at 0.1-1 nm and the variation of
phase of station GBR (16 kHz) coming from England through the Polar Cap correlates intimately with the
solar proton flares. We are going to observe the propagation along the latitude by observing the Hawaii or
Panama Stations.
I have been accused during this conference of knowing more about past than about present literature. Let me
take advantage of this knowledge. In 1924 Appleton, using Schindelhauer's observations of atmospherics in
Berlin, determined that the global maximum of atmospheric activity occurred at 18.00 Universal Time, and he
pointed out that that coincided approximately with the maximum of the universal diurnal variation of fair-weather
potential gradient. Let me say, I do not think we have advanced very much in 50 years. Now, turning to the
Berlin or the Atmospherics Analyser equipment, I was extremely enthusiastic when it was first developed about
1961 or 1962. I thought it unified very many of the methods by which we could estimate the distance of a light-
ning flash or a sferic from a single location. I gave a review paper at URSI in 1966 in Miinchen where I stressed
the great possibilities of this equipment for thunderstorm location. I was then taken to task by Volland for being
overenthusiastic. He told me, then, this is a research tool for VLF propagation, not a method for routinely
locating thunderstorms. Now, I must confess that I have been rather disillusioned since then. I think, in particular,
I have been rather depressed by the concentration on the GDD factor and the relative neglect of the SA and the
SAR modes. I do not think that the operators of the equipment and their published papers have helped their
cause, because they frequently have published maps in which thunderstorms appear in the most unusual places,
as in the central Sahara - I refer you to Fig. 10 of Harth's paper - and, at the same time, Heydt showed a
slide in which no storms appeared in central Africal (Heydt's Fig. 7). I find these are unlikely facts, meteorologic-
ally. Now, on the GDD I would like to emphasize that in this VLF range it is not very sensitive to distance; 30
microseconds correspond to about 1000 km. The difference in the GDD between the VLF and the ELF is that
the velocity difference is much greater, and in that GDD the correspondence is something like 400 microseconds
to 1000 km. For this reason I tend to prefer using the GDD between the VLF and the ELF which is the approach
that is being used, especially in Japan and also by Taylor in the U.S. and in the U.S. Navy at San Diego. Finally,
and this is, I must admit, more of a statement than a comment. Harth in his review paper has been very good
at pointing out some of the sources of error. He has made a very long list, but even so, I do not think it is
comprehensive. For instance, at the source I do not think he has considered the complications caused by the
existence of K-pulses (and for you who do not know, our chairman Kitagawa was the originator of the K-pulses).
710
Another thing is that the orientation of the discharge and the presence of horizontal channels have considerable
influence upon what modes are excited. There are all kinds of problems in the propagation and there are even
some technical problems about direction-finding at sites, where when one builds an extra sewer one gets all kinds
of errors. Horner knows all about this. So my conclusion is that I was wrong in 1966 in thinking that this was a
nice way of locating thunderstorms. Volland was right and I agree with him now; it is a nice tool for investigating
VLF propagation.

It is well-known that source and propagation functions cannot be determined separately from studies of atmos-
pheric pulse forms. In the frequency domain of a Fourier analysis, they appear as a product. However, while
the propagation function only slowly varies with time, the source functions of individual atmospherics are widely
scattered. Pierce was right to mention the existence of K-pulses or the horizontal orientation of some discharges
which adds to the complications already involved in the source functions. It follows, therefore, that for single
station techniques, the investigation of a single atmospheric is senseless. Only statistical investigations provide
enough data to find mean values which represent sufficiently well a mean lightning averaging out of those complica-
tions mentioned above. Any single station technique, therefore, must include Fouri~r analysis and statistics.
I would like to stress that this is true for every frequency range used.
This brings me to the second point in Pierce's comment, namely, what frequency range is most appropriate.
Pierce prefers the difference in GDD between VLF and ELF, claiming that the absolute value ofGDD is greater
than in our method. However, this is not the point. From a technical point of view, it is no problem today to
measure 30 ~s with sufficient accuracy, a typical value in our method. The problem is rather how large the relative
errors are due to the scattering source functions. We claim that the relative error in our method is smaller than
in the case of the difference between VLF and ELF, because in the ELF-range it is not possible to measure the
spectral amplitude with sufficient accuracy. This leads then to such ill-defined values as the leading edge or the
trailing edge of the ELF-V pulse. Our method, on the other hand, is optimally adopted to the theory and gives
well-defined and reproducible values.
Uman:
It seems like since everything that is done on distance ranging is statistical. It would be a relatively simple
matter to do the statistics of the source function. There is certainly enough known about what whole flashes look
like I should like to hear about one thing that Harth showed in one of his slides and that was a new technique
for locating lightning at close range. May I hear some more about that?
Harth, Bonn, West-Germany:

I would like to start with some remarks to Pierce's comments.
1. I have never published locations of thunderstorm activities in the Sahara desert. Fig. 10 results from a
transformation of measurements into distances based on nighttime propagation models. As it was made clear
by Heydt at the Waldorf Conference and in another publication (1971), mixed propagation path conditions
were not taken into consideration.
2. If a measurement technique is suitable for propagation studies, it should also be applicable to the location
of atmospherics activity from a single station.
3. I would also say that this statement (2) is applicable to dispersion methods, both in the VLF range and in
the VLF-ELF range. Both methods are in principle equivalent, but we must not lose sight of the fact that only
statistical information can be obtained (making location of an individual pulse impossible) and, further, that
in all cases changing propagation conditions have to be considered. The reason does not lie in the measurement
technique but in the source characteristic and in the properties of the propagation medium.
Pierce:
I must apologize to Harth, if I falsely accused him of placing sources in the Sahara, but I looked at Fig. 10
in his paper; maybe the reproduction is bad in the copy I have, but it certainly looks to me as if there is a source
about 25° north and about 5° degrees east which is pretty close to the Sahara, but that, I think is a relatively
trivial point. The point I was trying to make about the Berlin equipment - I should like to call it that - is that I
regret the emphasis on the GDD and the comparative neglect of the SA and the SAR. Regarding the VLF-ELF
dispersion which Volland referred to as my method, is not my method. It is a possible method in a field in
which I have worked. It has been developed by the Japanese and because they were not here, I think I should,
at least, bring the attention of the conference to the method. I believe that the Japanese are doing a fairly good
job. They are not, as Volland said, using the start of the VLF signal and the start of the ELF. I understand they
711
are using a fairly narrow band of frequencies at VLF and another fairly narrow band of frequencies for ELF.
But I am sure Kimpara knows a lot more about this than I do.
Uman:
I asked Harth a question and he got tied up with Pierce and forgot to answer it. And that was, in one of your
slides, you had a category close location of lightning. Could you say a few words on what you mean by location
of close lightning?
Harth:
In the region below 1000 km, the influence of higher order modes must be considered in the interpretation
of GDD and SAR parameters. These modes lead to a growing oscillation as the distances decrease and small
displacements of the mean center of activity produce large variations of the parameters. Ambiguities can be
largely avoided by using simultaneous measurements of GDD and SAR. The locations shown in Fig. 13 have
been determined in this way. These results show that higher order modes can be of value in analysing center of
activity uf small distance.
Muhleisen:
Because of the need of application of atmospheric electric methods in the field of meteorology, I would like
to add something to the comments of Pierce and Harth. We did indeed find thunderstorm areas in the Sahara
during an expedition with the "Meteor" research vessel over the Atlantic Ocean. We carried out simultaneously
direction findings from a good position near the Azores and in Weissenau. The crossings were exactly in the
Sahara. In the first moment we did not believe that there can be a thunderstorm. We studied the cloud pictures
from the satellite ESSA and we studied the weather maps and we could get an agreement with both. The satellite
showed clouds and the weather maps showed us a Low over the Sahara, and therefore, we are no longer surprised
about this. Another point are thunderstorms in Central Africa. There are sometimes intervals without any thun-
derstorms and other time intervals with very frequent thunderstorms. And, therefore, I can imagine that in this
case no thunderstorm could be detected.
Chairman's address:
N. Kitagawa
Faculty of Science
Saitama University
422-160kubo-Ryoke
Urawa-shi 338
Japan
712
Session 9
LATE ADDITIONS
Chairman: A. A. Few
Krypton 85, a Global Contaminant
W. L. Boeck
Abstract
Krypton 85 is a radioactive isotope of the inert gas Krypton. At present it is being generated in megacurie
quantities and routinely released to the atmosphere as a by-product of nuclear reactor operation and refueling.
Because of the long half-life (10.76 yr), chemical inertness, and large release rate, Krypton 85 has accumulated
in the atmosphere and can be expected to eventually be distributed over the globe. As worldwide nuclear reactor
capacity increases, we can expect that the atmospheric concentration of Krypton 85 will continue to increase.
Unless control measures are begun, the Krypton 85 accumulation in the atmosphere will cause a measurable
increase in the ionization rate in the atmosphere. An accumulation of 2 x 104 megacuries, if diluted globally will
cause an increase which is equal to the present level of cosmic ray ionization at sea level. In areas where natural
radioactivity is negligible, sich as midocean, this would represent a 100% perturbation.
It is believed that this large perturbation will cause substantial atmospheric electrical effects and possibly
cloud physical effects the nature and extent of which cannot be adequately predicted at present.
To present some ideas in five minutes, I should like to use a question and answer format. I will ask
the questions, then give brief answer.
Question 1. What is Krypton 85?

It is a radioactive isotope of the inert gas Krypton. It is produced by nuclear fission of uranium in
reactor fuel elements and in fission bomb explosions. Most of the Krypton 85 remains in the fuel ele-
ments, until the sealed cans are opened for fuel reprocessing. The concentration of Krypton 85 in the
atmosphere was zero in 1945, in 1972 we had a total of about 60 megacuries in the atmosphere (Kirk,
1972).
Question 2. How Does this Situation Differ from Fallout Radioactivity?
It differs in several significant ways. First, fallout falls out. The radioactivity and the ionization are
largely confined to a layer near the surface. Krypton 85 does not fall out, wash out, or absorb. There
are no significant removal mechanisms other than radioactive decay. Second, fallout was deposited
in a band around the globe. The radioactivity of the band decayed with a half-life of a few weeks.
The half-life of fallout was short compared to a climatic time scale. On the other hand Krypton 85
has a 10.76 year half-life. It can disperse over the globe and remain in the atmosphere for many years.
Question 3. Will Not Krypton 85 be Diluted Globally to an Insignificant Concentration?

The reasons why Krypton 85 will accumulate are: (a) long half-life, (b) no significant removal me-
chanisms other than radioactive decay, and (c) release rates measured in megacuries/year.
Question 4. How Much Krypton 85 Will Accumulate?

Each nuclear power reactor of 1000 MW electrical capacity generates about 0.5 megacuries/year
of Krypton 85 (U.S. Council on Environmental Quality, 1973). Therefore, all estimates of Krypton 85
accumulation rise and fall with projections of worldwide nuclear reactor capacity. One 1970 AEC
713
(Atomic Energy Commission, Fed. Government, USA) source (ORNL, 1970) predicts an accumulation
of 3000 megacuries by the year 2000 with a doubling rate of less than 10 years. Another prediction
(Coleman, 1969) was 2 x 104 megacuries by the year 2020. Rather than argue the merits of these esti-
mates, I would like to propose a baseline set of figures which may be scaled up or down as needed.
2 x 104 megacuries of Krypton 85 diluted in the entire mass of the atmosphere will produce an addi-
tional 1.5 million ion pairs per m 3 and second at sea level. This level is equal to present cosmic ray
ionization rates over the ocean and represents a 100% perturbation. Over land areas the percentage
perturbation will be much less.
Question 5. WiD that Quantity be Released?

Krypton 85 is a weak beta emitter. It will barely penetrate the body, and as an inert gas it does not
concentrate in body organs. It appears to me (this is a personal opinion) that, Krypton 85 emission
could continue for some time without violation of present standards on radiation hazard.
Question 6. If Krypton 85 Accumulates in the Atmosphere, What Are the Effects in the VariODS Fields of
Atmospheric Phenomena You Are Interested in?
I shall concentrate on Krypton 85 to the exclusion of other isotopes particularly Tritium, which
may also become global scale contaminants. Krypton 85 is produced by the fissioning of uranium
and plutonium in nuclear explosions and in routine nuclear reactor operations. If the nuclear fuel
element cladding remains intact, 99 to 99.5% of the Krypton 85 (Kirk, 1972) is retained in the fuel
element. Essentially all the Krypton 85 in the fuel elements is released to the atmosphere, during nuclear
fuel reprocessing. Present USA - AEC regulations permit the release of Krypton 85 in such a manner
that the concentration in unrestricted areas (beyond plant bounds) does not exceed 3 x 10- 7 Ci/m2.
As shown above, it seems reasonable to estimate global concentrations by diluting the quantity of
radioactivity expressed in megacuries in the entire mass of the atmosphere (5.14 x 10 18 kg). The con-
centration at sea level will be then proportional to the density of air at sea level and each megacurie
will produce a sea level concentration of 0.251 pCi/m3.
Krypton 85 has two modes of decay. 99.5% of the decays produce a beta minus particle with an
average energy of 0.259 MeV. The remaining decays produce a 0.514 MeV gamma ray associated with
a beta particle with maximum energy of 0.16 MeV. If we assume that it requires an average of 32.5 eV
for a beta particle to produce each ion pair, a concentration of 1 pCi/m3 of Krypton 85 will produce
284 ion pairs/(m3sec). An alternative expression states that a concentration of 5.28 nCi/m 3 will produce
1.5 million ion pairs/(m 3 sec).
W. Kirk (1972) mentions several estimates of the accumulation of Krypton 85 in the atmosphere.
The weakest link in these derivations is the estimate of the growth rate of the nuclear power reactor
use around the globe. Coleman and Liberace's estimate (1969) indicates the global concentration of
Krypton 85 will reach the level of 5 nCi/m 3 about the year 2020, 45 years hence. Therefore, it is likely
that within the lifetime of at least some persons alive today, there will be a reservoir of Krypton 85 large
enough to alter the background ionization of the globe, if it is released to the atmosphere.
Various sources indicate that present technology is capable of containing, at a relatively small cost,
most of the Krypton 85 presently being released by nuclear fuel reprocessing plants. Since these repro-
cessing plants will be few in number and tightly regulated by national governments, global containment
and control of Krypton 85 seems possible.
We End on a Political Question

At what level and for what reason will the nations of the world decide to limit or stop the release
of Krypton 85 to the atmosphere?
For the case of Krypton 85, it is possible that the concentration at which the increased ionization
disturbs physical processes in the atmosphere lies below the concentration at which Krypton 85 presents
a significant biological hazard.
714
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to express his thanks to Professor B. Vonnegut, State University of New York at Albany and
Dr. D. T. Shaw, State University of New York at Buffalo for making this presentation a joint endeavor.
References
1. Coleman, J. R. and R. Liberace, Radiological Health Data and Reports 7, 615 (1966). - 2. Kirk, W P., Krypton 85,
A Review of the Literature and an Analysis of Radiation Hazards. (EPA Office of Research and Monitoring,
Washington, D.C., 1972). - 3. Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ONRL) Staff, Siting of Fuel Reprocessing Plants
and Waste Management Facilities, Rep. ORNL-4451 (July, 1970). - 4. U.S. Council on Environmental Quality,
Energy and the Environment, Electric Power (1973).
Discussion *)
According to all theories of cloud electrification presently entertained, changing ion pair production in the
lower atmosphere would be expected to have effects not only on the flux of charge to the cloud but also upon the
initiation of electrification. Furthermore, we have heard in several papers presented at this conference that there
are good reasons to expect that electricity is more than an incidental accompaniment to cloud processes. It can
affect cloud physics, micro meteorology, and the formation of precipitation.
So far as I am aware, those making a decision to release the Krypton radioactivity into the atmosphere have
not consulted with atmospheric electricians nor have they requested their advice. Probably they may be quite
unaware of the possible interactions. All of us here have an obligation to consider this problem carefully and to
make our views known to the scientific community and to the public. This is necessary so that the proper
decisions can be made. It is worth adding that this radioactive gas need not be introduced into the atmosphere:
there are several means available for capturing and retaining it. A definite risk is involved in its continued
release.
Author's address:
W L. Boeck
365 N 7th St.
Lewistown, N.Y. 14092
USA
*) Actually, this discussion took place and constituted the "General Discussion" scheduled at the end of the
session, but was shifted to this place because it fully belonged to the paper by Boeck.
715
Water Clathrates Formed in Supercooled Fog by Seeding
with Pulverized Liquid Propane
R. Siksna*)
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to introduce the water-clathrate structures into the aerosol physics of the atmos-
phere by considering as an example the production of solid (water) particles in supercooled fog when seeding it
with pulverized liquid propane, a phenomenon observed by Serpolay (1955) and undeservedly neglected in the
literature up to now.
It is suggested that the observed solid (water) particles are not ice crystals but water clathrates with encaged
propane molecules. All the effects observed in supercooled fog when seeding with pulverized propane may be
explained by using the concept of water clathrates for the particles formed.
Serpolay (1954) has shown that ice crystals in great numbers may be produced in supercooled fog
by pulverizing frigorific liquids, such as freon F 12 (CCI 2F 2, b.p. -29.8°C) and methyl chloride
(CH 3Cl, b.p. -24.1 0c), in such a fog. Similar properties have been discovered by Serpolay (1955)
for industrial liquids with low boiling temperatures, as, e.g. propane (C3HS' b.p. -44.5°C), but also
for liquids with higher boiling points, as butane (n-C4H lO , b.p.·0.6°C, iso-C 4H lO , b.p. -10.2°C).
When propane, freon F 12 and butane were pulverized into natural supercooled fog, it was observed
that numerous ice crystals of some micrometer in size were formed in the immediate vicinity of the
pulverization. In some cases it was observed the growth of the crystals into elements of precipitation
of several millimeters at some distance from the place of pulverization. The results described above
have been observed at temperatures only slightly below O°C, at which points other substances known
as ice-formers are not active.
In the laboratory, Serpolay (1955) has shown that ice crystals were formed in supercooled fog by
pulverization of butane, ethyl chloride, ether, and a mixture of butane and ether, at temperatures below
the normal boiling points of these liquids. In the case of ether and butane, the temperatures measured
were 20 and 40 °C below the temperature of the air (fog) in which they were pulverized.
0
Serpolay (1955) attempted to explain the formation of ice crystals observed in supercooled fog as
an activation of already-present non-active ice germs by local cooling-down produced by the pulveri-
zation of those liquids used. He did not sketch the mechanism of such activation.
Nevertheless, even if a role cannot be denied the local cooling-down, it is possible to give a more
plausible explanation for the formation of solid crystals by seeding fog with pulverized propane and
the other above-mentioned organic liquids.
Propane is a substance which, together with water, can form water clathrates (Fig. 1). The water
clathrates have not previously been considered in aerosol physics. A modern survey of the matter
concerning water clathrates in general has recently been given by Davidson (1973). The other substances
which Serpolay mentioned as active ice-formers in the supercooled fog have the same properties to
form water clathrates, with the following reservation: water clathrates can be formed with dimethyl
ether (CH 30CH 3) and iso-butane (C4HlO)' but not with diethyl ether (C2HsOC2HS) and normal
butane because the latter molecules are too large for embedding into the water clathrate cage.
The water clathrates are solid crystals ({3-modification of the cage-former water), and in comparison
with ordinary ice crystals (IX-modification) may be formed and are stable even at temperatures above 0 dc.
As an example may be mentioned the water-clathrate structure including propane, which may be formed
and is stable at temperatures up to + 5.7 DC, that, indeed, at a pressure of 5.45 atm.
An important by-phenomenon was observed during the pulverization of propane into natural
supercooled fog (Cot & Serpolay, 1960): the density of the fog decreased and the visibility increased.
*) R. Siksna dec. 4 December 1975.
716
I I I II I I I II I I I I I I
o 0,5 1,0 1,5nm
Fig. 1. C3HS molecule embedded in a water-clathrate hexakaidecahedron with 4 hexagons, 12 pentagons, 28
vertices and 42 edges formed by 28 water molecules. Atomic calotte models are used for the molecules. To improve
visibility into the clathrate cavity, 3 upper water molecules have been removed. The structure (P II) of the water-
clathrate crystal with encaged propane contains 136 molecules of water in the unit cell of 1.7 nm. There are 8
hexakaidecahedra with enclosed propane molecules and 16 empty pentagonal dodecahedra
This phenomenon has successfully been used to attenuate the density of fog and ameliorate visibility
at Orly airport (Cot & Serpolay, 1961). The explanation of this phenomenon was seen in the sublimation
of the very small initial droplets in the fog to the ice crystals formed by pulverization of propane, in a
manner similar to that proposed by Bergeron (1933) for the production of rain drops in clouds via ice
crystals. The water vapour pressure over ice is lower than that over liquid water; this difference causes
sublimation of water from the small water droplets in the fog to the ice crystals. The difference is not
great, especially at temperatures near O°C (see Table 1). If the water clathrates replace the ice crystals,
the situation becomes more favourable.
Table 1. Saturation water vapour pressure (in torr) over liquid water (wPH,O), over ice (.PH,O), and over water-
clathrate crystal with encaged propane (pp~ ;~8) - pPc (calculated), pPm (measured) - as function of temperature
(1 torr = 133.3 N/m2 (pascal»
T OC wp .P pPc pPm wP -.p wp - pPc wP - pPm
-10 2.15 1.95 1.08 0.77 0.20 1.07 1.38

5 3.16 3.01 1.73 1.17 0.15 1.43 1.99
- 2 3.97 3.89 2.28 1.52 0.08 1.69 2.45
1 4.28 4.23 2.47 1.70 0.05 1.81 2.58
0 4.6 4.6 2.72 1.83 0 1.88 2.77
+ 5 6.5 4.6 2.85 1.9 3.65
Modern theoretical studies of water clathrates given by Barrer & Stuart (1958), van der Waals &
Platteew (1959), and Barrer & Ruzicka (1962) claim that the pressure (or more exactly, the fugacity),
of the water vapour above the crystalline lattice of the water clathrates is lower than that over the
surface of ordinary ice or liquid water. Little data is available concerning this matter. Fortunately,
such data are known for propane water clathrates. Koshelev, Fomina & Byk (1971), have experimentally
measured and theoretically calculated the fugacity of water vapour above the crystalline lattice of
propane water-clathrates, should the discrepancy between the measured and calculated values need
discussion (Fig. 2).
As may be seen, the differences between the water vapour pressure over liquid water and that over
water clathrates are not only greater than those between water and ice, but they increase as the tempera-
717
15
10
8
7
6
5
"3
2
1.5
.8
.6
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 °c

Fig. 2. Saturation water vapour pressure over water (wp), ice (.p), and water clathrate of propane (pnpC 3 H s),
calculated and measured (1 torr = 133,3 N/m2 (pascal))
ture rises to oDe (Table 1). Even at temperatures above oDe, the differences are very great. It may be
expected that if the water-clathrate structure is formed at temperatures below oDe, it may continue
to grow at temperatures above oDe, although such a problem has never been examined.
It may thus be considered demonstrated that water clathrates form a very appropriate mechanism
for producing larger solid particles in supercooled fog at temperatures about oDe, consequently ex-
plaining the effects observed in supercooled fog when seeding it with pulverized propane and other
organic substances which can form water-clathrate structures.
In an earlier paper (Siksna, 1973), I have attempted to introduce water clathrates into the aerosol
physics of the atmosphere in general terms, without considering particular cases in more detail. The
material presented here would seem to be a good example of the latter.
References
1. Barrer, R. M. and W I. Stuart, Proc. Roy. Soc. A 243, 172 (1958). - 2. Barrer, R. M. and D. J. Ruzicka, Trans.
Faraday Soc. 58, 2239, 2253, 2262 (1962). - 3. Bergeron, T., Memoires 2, 156 (1933). - 4. Cot, P.-D. and R. Serpolay,
Comptes Rendus (Paris) 250, 3277 (1960). - 5. Cot, P.-D. and R. Serpolay, Comptes Rendus (Paris) 253 171
(1961). - 6. Davidson, D. W, Clathrate hydrates, in Water a Comprehensive Treatise, ed. by F. Franks, 2, 115
(New York-London, 1973). - 7. Koshelev, V. S., V. I. Fomina, and S. Sh. Byk, Zhurnal fizicheskoj chimiji 45, 2968
(1971). - 8. Serpolay, R., Bull. Obs. Puy de Dome, 99 (1954). - 9. Serpolay, R., Comptes Rendus (Paris) 241,
1811 (1955). - 10. Siksna, R., Water clathrates as aerosol particles in the atmosphere. Proc. 8th Internat. Con-
ference on Nucleation (Leningrad, 1973) (in press). - 11. van der Waals, J. H. and J. C. Platteew, Advances Chern.
Physics 2,1 (1959).
Author's address:
R. Siksna
Institutet fOr Hiigspiinningsforskning
Uppsala Universitet
S-75590 Uppsala
Sweden
718
Lightning Incidence in Britain and the Solar Cycle
M. F. Stringfellow
With 4 figures
Abstract
Many thunderstorm observers have been used in Great Britain for obtaining data on the occurrence of storms.
Some experimental data are given and theoretical considerations made to show that the relationships between
the recorded number of thunderstorm days, the actual number of thunderstorm days and lightning incidence are
likely to be complex.
Measurements of lightning-caused faults on overhead electricity lines in Britain show that a power law
relation exists between the annual fault rate and the annual recorded number ofthunderstorm days. The exponent
of the relation was found to be close to 1.9, in agreement with lightning-counter results from an area of Europe
with similar thunderstorm activity to Britain. The mean value of ground-flash density in Britain has been deduced
to be about 0.3 flashes per km 2 per year.
The average results of 40 thunderstorm observation stations in Britain have been plotted for the years 1930
to 1973. The annual variation of lightning incidence appears to display a periodicity of 10 or 11 years which is
in phase with the solar cycle and which has an amplitude of at least ± 30 % of the mean.
Y..'
,
Fig. 1. Average number of reported thunderstorm days per year in Great Britain 1930 -1960 (Met. Office Data)
719
Thunderstorm Observers
Firstly, as most of the results given in this paper are derived from the data of thunderstorm observers,
their experimental and theoretical response to storms will be discussed with particular reference to
the thunderstorm day.
In Gt. Britain up to 2000 mainly voluntary observers, but including about 200 Meteorological Office
observers, have been used for many years, and much data on their performance have been obtained.
Norman and Bevan (1969) and Ward (1974) have analysed the data from these observers by cross-checking
their reports in areas where they are closely spaced. There are many such areas in Britain with several
observers separated by only a few kilometres. Their general conclusion is that although observers
have been asked to report the duration of storms, to count ground flashes, to estimate storm severity
and other parameters, the only reliable report from them is the occurrence of thunder. That is, if an
observer reports thunder on a given day it is fairly certain that there was a storm somewhere near
him on that day. However, if he fails to report, the converse cannot be assumed to be true. All other
observer data is unreliable.
Norman and Bevan (1969) report that the mean probability of a British observer recording a storm
which occurs up to 15 km from him is about 0.4. This means that if only one storm per day is experienced
in his area, then the actual number of days with storms will be 21 times the number reported. If observers
are spaced closely and their results are combined, then the probability of observation of a storm increases,
reaching 0.64 for two observers, 0.78 for three, 0.87 for four, and so on. Consequently, if maps of thunder-
storm days are plotted it is necessary to treat all such close observers as independent otherwise the
maps will also reflect observer density. Ward (1974) has shown that with a large number of observers
it is possible to use statistical techniques to plot maps (Fig. 1). His studies show that much of the fine
structure shown on the previous hand-drawn maps is. spurious and also reflects observer density.
The Thunderstorm Day and Lightning Incidence

The main problem with observer data is to determine whether or not the recorded number ofthunder-
storm days reflects the incidence of lightning, and so a few theoretical ideas will be considered in this
respect.
If observers use "thunder heard" as the definition of a thunderstorm day, then if the variation of
audibility of thunder with distance is known it may,be possible to calculate observer response to storms.
If the probability of an observer hearing thunder is plotted against distance to the lightning, it is probable
pf(., 1'0 -y--_
PROBABILITY
OF
OBSERVING 0"
THUNDER
0·6
0'4
0·2
o
o 5 10 15 20
LIGHTNING RANGE in Km
Fig. 2. Assumed variation of observer response to thunder with range
720
that the variation will be similar to that shown in Fig. 2. The probability of hearing thunder from a
flash at range r is pf(r). If the simple assumption is made that this probability is the same for all flashes
at that range, then the probability ps(r) of recording a storm with n flashes at range r is given by:
ps(r) = 1 - (1 - pf(r))" . [1]
If the effective range Re of an observer is defined as the range at which the probability of recording
a storm with n flashes is 0.5, then using the curve shown in Fig. 2, the variation of Re with n is very
nearly logarithmic (Fig. 3).
Even with these simple ideas it can be seen that the number of thunderstorm days recorded by
observers is likely to be a function of lightning incidence as well as the actual number of days with
storms. Unfortunately the relation will be complex and it does not seem feasible to theoretically relate
lightning incidence to the observers' reports.
35
R.
EfFECTIVE
RANGE
OF
OBSERVER
in
Km
20
15
10
4 6 10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000
n NUMBER OF FLASHES PER STORM
Fig. 3. Variation of observer effective range with storm intensity
Lightning Incidence in Gt. Britain

With very little other data on lightning or thunderstorm incidence in Britain available, it has been
necessary to use observer data. Forrest (1950) made comparisons between the lightning-caused fault
rate on the British Electricity overhead transmission grid and both the monthly and yearly number
of observed thunderstorm days. Stringfellow (1973) carried out a similar study on the British Electricity
distribution system and found results similar to Forrest's.
In both cases the annual fault rate F was found to be related to the annual number of thunderstorm
days T according to the power law given by:
F = kT1.9 [2]
where k is a constant.
In an area of low lightning incidence such as Britain it is likely that these fault rates are directly
proportional to the ground flash density Ny. This is therefore related to the annual thunderstorm
days in a similar way, given by
721
[3]
where b is a constant.
This result is identical to that found by Popolansky (1972) for the annual registrations of lightning
flash counters in an area of Europe experiencing similar thunderstorm incidence to Britain. It seems
possible, therefore, that eq. [3] may be valid for Britain and Northern Europe.
The constant b is difficult to determine since accurate measurements of N g are rare. Stringfellow
(1973) showed that there is a general difference between values of ground flash density derived from
transmission line fault studies and those derived from electric field change measurements, flash counters,
damage to buildings and photographic observations. The former are generally significantly higher
than the latter. The data from overhead line studies was largely ignored because of the unknown factors
such as "striking distance" assumed in the analyses by the~arious authors. Using other data the value
of b was deduced to be 2.6 x 10- 3 when N g is expressed in flashes per square kilometre per year.
Substituting this value in eq. [3], the average ground flash density in Britain is calculated to be about
0.3 per km 2 per year, a value which is significantly lower than the accepted value of about 2.0.
Annual Variation of Lightning Incidence in Britain and the Solar Cycle

In Britain, reliable observer data exists back to the 1880's and is now being analysed. Up to the present
time a simple analysis has been made of the data from 40 observation stations chosen to be representative
ANNUAL
LIGHTNING
INCIDENCE
INDEX
120
100
80
60
40
ANNUAL
MEAN
SUNSPOT
NUM.EI
ISO
100
50
1940 1950 1.60 1.70

nAR
Fig. 4. Annual variation of 5-year running means of lightning incidence in Great Britain and of mean annual
sunspot number
722
of Britain for the period 1930 to 1973. The average annual number of thunderstorm days has been
calculated, and the square of this value has been used as an annual lightning incidence index. Although
there is much scatter in the year-to-year values there seems to be an underlying cyclic variation which
can be seen more clearly when the data are smoothed. The five-year running means have been used
as a simple method of smoothing, and the annual variation of this mean is shown in Fig. 4.
The cyclic variation has a period of 10 or 11 years with an amplitude of about ± 30% of the mean
smoothed value and appears to be in phase with the solar cycle, indicated by the annual mean sunspot
number.
It is hoped to extend the calculations back to cover at least ninety years, to use all the observations
available and to use more vigorous statistical techniques in order to verify this cyclic variation.
References
1. Forrest, J. S., Quarterly 1. Roy. Met. Soc. 329 (1950). - 2. King, J. W, Nature 245, 443 (1973). - 3. Norman,
D. and G. G. Bevan, Thunderstorm Observation Data. Electricity Council Report No. ECRjM 235 (Great
Britain, 1969). - 4. Popolansky, F., Cigre Report (Cigre = The International Conference on Large High
Voltage Electric Systems) (1971). - 5. Stringfellow, M. F., The Interaction between Lightning and Overhead
Distribution Lines. Electricity Council Report, No. ECRCjR 602 (1973). - 6. Ward, R. N., Fitting a Polynomial
Function in Geographical Co-ordinates to Observed Thunderstorm Days from Observers. Electricity Council
Report (1974).
Discussion
Prentice. Brisbane, Queensland, Australia:
Regarding the relationship between ground flash density (N g ) and the average annual number of thunder-
days (T) given by Stringfellow, is he aware that the accepted relationship between N g and T in North America
(and this has also been assumed in Australia) is a linear one passing through zero? Would he care to comment
on this?
Stringfellow:
I don't believe that any really reliable measurements of ground flash density have been made in America. I
think that electricity supply engineers there tend to choose whatever value makes them happy. I know a linear
law has been proposed and it may hold in areas of high lightning activity. My comments apply to areas of low
incidence such as Britain and Europe where the power-law relationship has been identified for many years.
Although my relation is only statistical, it is quite a clear one. However, I must emphasize the necessity for hard
data on ground flash incidence. We just do not know what this is in most countries.
Author's address:
M. F. Stringfellow
Lightning Protection Company Ltd.
Llanferres, Mold,
Clwyd. CH 7 5 LU,
United Kingdom
723
The Measurement of Lightning and Thunderstorm Parameters Including the Application of
Lightning Flash Counters
R. B. Anderson and A. J. Eriksson
With 2 tables
Abstract
The authors conclude that a more realistic and practical measure of lightning severity and its regional
variations, particularly with regard to protection and engineering practice,is the annual lightning ground flash
density, rather than the widely used thunderstorm day or isokeraunic level.
The use of lightning flash counters for the determination of ground flash density is discussed and it is concluded
that effective and practical flash counters are available.
In view of the non-uniformity of lightning characteristics in various climatological regions, the authors
recommend the measurement of representative lightning parameters in different countries in order to fully
define regional variations, and preliminary results of an experimental program in South Africa are presented.
Introduction
The authors welcome the opportunity to present to the Conference certain of the views of the en-
gineering community - particularly those arising out of the recent meetings of the Working Group
33.01., on Lightning, of C.I.G.R.E. (The International Conference on large high voltage electric sys-
tems) held in Le Puy, France, during August, 1974.
With regard to lightning, C.I.G.R.E. is of course mainly concerned with the effects upon power
generation and distribution systems. For the purposes of power system protection and transmission
line design considerations, a full knowledge of various lightning parameters is required. These include
the distribution of lightning current magnitudes and the characteristics of the discharge current wave-
form, as well as an understanding of the effects of tall structures upon the striking distance and upon
the distribution of current magnitudes.
In addition, the knowledge of the annual lightning ground flash density in the relevant areas of
interest is of fundamental importance to power system engineers.
At present, however, the only commonly accepted measure of thunderstorm or lightning activity
is the meteorological thunderstorm day (WMO, 1953) and the so-called isokeraunic levels (the number
of thunderstorm days per annum), have been used for comparing lightning severities in various clima-
tological regions of the world. As an alternative, in an attempt to arrive at a more objective and reliable
assessment oflightning severities, the use oflightning flash counters to measure the ground flash density
has been proposed, and the C.I.G.R.E. flash counter (Prentice, 1972) is perhaps the most widely known
counter presently available.
The Measurement of Ground Flash Density Using Lightning Flash Counters
The above measurement, and the various considerations involved in the application of several dif-
ferent lightning flash counters have been recently discussed by Anderson (1974), and it will be sufficient
here only to mention some pertinent points and conclusions.
a) Reliable flash counters have now been developed and techniques are available for the absolute
determination of their response characteristics in the field - as has been done, for example, in the
South African program (Anderson et aI, 1974).
Table I below shows some of the characteristics of three types of flash counter which have been
calibrated in South Africa and which are currently being used to determine the ground flash density
in this region. It is evident that the counter denoted RSA 10 (Anderson et ai, 1973) has achieved an
improved response to ground flashes, since over 90 % of its registrations will correspond to the
occurrence of ground flashes within the counter effective range.
724
Table 1. Summary of lightning flash counter characteristics
Type of counter CIGRE RSA 10 VTC
Sensitivity (V1m) 5 20 35
Frequency response (kHz) 0.125 -2 2.5-40 0.125 - 2
Effective range Rg (km) ground flashes) 37 20 16
Effective range Rc (km) (cloud flashes) 17 4 8
Correction factor y" *) 0.77 0.94 0.63
*) y" = Proportion of total number of registrations of a counter which are due to ground flashes.
b) There is, however, an increasing accumulation of evidence which indicates that the etlective range
of a flash counter (such as, for example, the C.I.G.R.E. counter) may vary markedly in various regions
of the world and even from storm to storm, thereby necessitating individual calibration in various
areas of interest.
c) Coupled to this, there is considerable evidence available, (Anderson 1971, 1974) which indicates
that the basic characteristics of lightning appear to differ widely in the global sense.
d) Accordingly, the proposal is made that serious consideration be given to the measurement of
a variety of thunderstorm and lightning parameters in various countries with a view to defining the
regional differences in lightning and storm characteristics more clearly, and determining their relevance
and significance as far as protection and engineering practice are concerned.
The Measurement of Lightning and Thunderstorm Parameters

As a consequence of the above proposal, an experimental program has recently been embarked
upon in South Africa with a view to characterising lightning and thunderstorm activity in this region.
The hope is expressed that similar measurements may be made elsewhere in the world in order that
the basic engineering criteria may be more effectively applied and prorated from one region to another.
The elements of this program have been described elsewhere (Eriksson 1974) and will only be sum-
marised here.
a) A prime objective of the program has been to utilise simple techniques requiring comparatively
unsophisticated instrumentation, which would provide representative parameters suitable for com-
parison with the results of similar measurements elsewhere.
The choice of parameters has been based largely upon those which may be readily determined, and
which are thought to be sufficiently representative indices of regional thunderstorm and lightning
severi ties.
b) It has been found that the relatively simple combination of a lightning flash counter, a timed
event recorder, and an electrostatic field intensity measuring device such as a field mill, can provide
a wealth of data from which several representative storm and lightning parameters may be derived.
The following parameters are currently being measured: -
1. Lightning flash activity per thunderstorm, using a C.I.G.R.E. flash counter.
2. Thunderstorm starting and finishing times, as well as storm duration, using a C.J.G.R.E. flash
counter and timed event recorder.
3. Distribution of the magnitudes of thunderstorm electrostatic field intensities, and the duration
of intense field periods, using an electrostatic field mill.
4. The distribution of the magnitudes of lightning electrostatic field changes, using an electrostatic
field mill and chart recorder.
5. The rates of flash occurrence and the distribution of electrostatic field recovery intervals during
thunderstorms, using both a C.I.G.R.E. flash counter and an electrostatic field mill.
6. The distribution of lightning current magnitudes and the characteristics of the discharge current
waveform, using an instrumented mast and automatic oscillographic techniques. (Note that in contrast
to similar measurements elsewhere e.g. Berger 1972, these currents are being recorded during flashes
to a 60 m mast mounted in comparatively flat country.)
725
c) The above program of measurements has been in operation since early 1973, and preliminary
results illustrating typical parametric values are included in Table 2. These data are based upon only
on thunderstorm season and cannot yet be regarded as being representative until supported or modified
by the results of further measurements.
Table 2. Summary oflightning and thunderstorm parameters measured in Southern Africa during the 1973/1974
lightning season
Median value
Standard
Parameter Mean value (when
deviation
available)
1. CIGRE flash counter registrations per thunderstorm 420 360 240

2. Thunderstorm duration (in terms of flash counter 4.7 2.7 2.4
registrations) - hours
3. Maximum positive electrostatic fields - kV/m 3.4 1.9 2.9
4. Maximum negative electrostatic fields - kV/m 5.4 2.8 5.2
5. Thunderstorm duration in terms of electrostatic field 2.9 1.5 2.3
measurements - hours
6. Positive electrostatic field changes due to lightning - 5.9 4.7 3.5
kV/m
7. Negative electrostatic field changes due to lightning - 3.5 3.5 1.4
kV/m
8. Overall flash counter rate during thunderstorms - 1.63 1.34 0.9
per minute
9. Electrostatic field recovery intervals during active 7.7
phases of thunderstorms - mean of 8 median values -
seconds
10. Peak lightning current amplitudes - all negative 45
strokes (preliminary result only) - kA
Note that the above parameters were all measured in an area experiencing 84 thunderstorm days during the past
lightning season, and a derived ground flash density of 7.3jkm 2 •
Summary and Recommendations

Lightning and thunderstorm characteristics are not uniform throughout the world as previously
assumed, and whilst the thunderstorm day has proved to be a useful interim measure of activity, more
detailed and objective information is required which will provide design criteria for lightning protection
in an era of increasing industrial growth - particularly in the developing countries.
Lightning flash counters have been developed to a stage whereby they are not only reliable and
provide valuable data, but all their characteristics can be readily determined by field calibration pro-
cedures. In order to clarify and fully derme the evident differences that exist in lightning and thunder-
storm severities in various regions of the world, it is strongly recommended that consideration be
given to an agreement in principle to measure storm and lightning parameters in different countries
over the next decade.
The implementation of such a plan will require agreement with regard to the choice of parameters
and the nature of instrumentation. Certain parameters and techniques have been suggested in this
contribution, and the utilisation of lightning flash counters having standardised characteristics is
highly recommended.
Acknowledgments
The authors are indebted to the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research of South Africa and to the
Director of the National Electrical Engineering Research Institute for the opportunity and permission to prepare
this contribution.
726
References
1. Anderson, R. B., A comparison between some lightning parameters measured in Switzerland with those in
Southern Africa. C.S.I.R. Special Report ELEK 6 (May 1971) (C.S.I.R. = Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research - South Africa). - 2. Anderson, R. B., H. R. von Niekerk, and J. J. Gertenbach, Electronic Letters
9, 17 (1973). - 3. Anderson, R. B., H. R. von Niekerk, and D. V. Meal, Sixth Progress report on the development
and testing of lightning flash counters in the Republic of South Africa during 1973/1974. C.S.I.R. Special Report
ELEK 52 (1974). - 4. Anderson, R. B., The application of lightning flash counters to the determination of
thunderstorm parameters. C.S.I.R. Special Report ELEK 54 (1974). - 5. Berger, K., Methods and Results of
research on lightning on Mount San Salvatore. Bull. A.S.E. 63, 24 (1972) (A.S.E. = Association Suisse d'Electro-
technique). - 6. Eriksson, A. J., The measurement of lightning and thunderstorm parameters. C.S.I.R. Special
Report ELEK 51 (1974). - 7. Prentice, S. A., Specification of the C.I.G.R.E. lightning flash counter. C.I.G.R.E.
Electra 22, 150 (1972) (C.I.G.R.E. = Conference Internationale des Grandes Reseaux Electriques). - 8. World
Meteorological Organisation. World distribution of thunderstorm days. WMO Report WMO/OMM 21
(Geneve, 1953).
Discussion
Anderson has mentioned some of the difficulties which are outstanding with lightning flash counters. I think
the most fundamental is whether lightning has the same characteristics in different parts ofthe world at the relevant
frequencies to which counters respond and if not, how this affects the range of a counter and so the derived
densities of occurrence of flashes. It would be useful if people could make measurements in different parts of the
world, to ascertain whether significant and systematic variations in radiation spectra exist.
Prentice, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia:

With reference to the C.I.G.R.E. lightning flash counter, there are records available from hundreds of installa-
tions in several countries. I think I am right in saying that no records have been entirely satisfactorily converted
into the parameter that is sought, that is ground flash density, for reasons that Anderson has indicated. Also,
one of the missing parameters in these studies, which may be of greater interest to this meeting than is ground flash
density, is the ratio of the frequencies of the occurrence of cloud and cloud-ground flashes. I have found twenty
odd values after a search through the world literature and considerable correspondence. This is an area which
might be well worth exploring by the International Commission on Atmospheric Electricity.
As a further comment, I think possibly neither Muhleisen nor Anderson have taken full account of a simple
test that one can make with any lightning flash counter; this is to apply a step-function voltage to the terminals.
In the case of the C.I.G.R.E. counter, which has a central frequency of 500 Hz, a step-function voltage slightly
greater than the peak value of the threshold voltage (at 500 Hz) will cause the counter to operate. Thus, it is
difficult to decide from a study of electric field change records what is the best central frequency for a lightning
flash counter intended, for example, to respond to ground flashes only.
If I could just mention in reply to Prentice that any counter, really, can be used, but it must be calibrated. If
one obtains all its particulars, its cloud and ground flash range, then one can use it.
Let me add further confusion. I got a document the other day which describes the operations of some USSR
station: this is published by the usual Israel translators. The USSR are using, I think, 9 lightning flash counters
simultaneously, all with different frequency ranges.
Authors' address:
R. B. Anderson and A. J. Eriksson
NEERI-CSIR
P.O. Box 395
Pretoria 0001
727
Some Geomagnetic and Atmospheric-Electric Field Variations Observed at
Swider and Belsk Observatories
N. Nikiforova and S. Michnowski*)
With 5 figures
Abstract
Atmospheric electric and geomagnetic field variations in the range of periods shorter than 24 hours were
compared. The experimental data were taken from many-year recordings at Swider and from the new measure-
ments at the Belsk Observatory.
In the data from Swider, the mean daily variation of atmospheric-electric and the time derivative of the
horizontal magnetic components showed a coincidence for the selected fair-weather days and weak magnetic
disturbances.
It is not discussed here to what degree the obtained values are directly interrelated.
The recorded magnetic disturbances of the bay-type were very rarely associated with similar atmospheric-
electric field variations at the ground level. One case of such correspondence at Swider was found in the materials
of the only examined year 1972 but it is not certain to what degree it was influenced by meteorological factors.
In the range of periods 10 - 200 sec there appears to be a correlation between the geomagnetic and magneto-
telluric field and simultaneously measured atmospheric-electric field.
Some examples are pictured. Although there were few 10-day observations, the preliminary results obtained
at Belsk contain about 40 cases in which the atmospheric electric field variations coincided well with similar
variations in the components of the magnetic and magnetotelluric field.
Further measurements and studies involving statistical analyses are needed.
Experimental data concerning the electric and magnetic components of the waves occurring in the
atmosphere are very scarce. That is why there were some controversies of opinions on the theories of
magnetotelluric soundings (2,4,5). The model of plane wave (3,24,25) used hitherto has become in-
sufficient and a new inhomogeneous plane wave model has been introduced (6,4). The long-lasting
discussion on the role of the vertical component of the atmospheric-electric field in magnetotelluric
theories continues. In this connection,' it is necessary to prove experimentally what relationships may
exist between the geomagnetic and atmospheric-electric field variations at the ground in a broad range
of periods. These variations may be of various morphological types and may be produced by many
processes acting under the earth's surface, at the ground layer of air (11), in the lower free atmosphere
(11), in the ionosphere (22), magnetosphere (10,12) or outer space.
We know that the atmospheric-electric field is influenced by many factors. However, for a long
time the studies of electric field variations have concerned meteorological processes in the troposphere
almost exclusively (11). Thus direct experimental data on the electric field variations produced by other
factors were rather scanty.
Some preassumptions on the possible influence of cosmic factors have been given by Bauer (1) who
found out statistically an l1-year cycle of atmospheric electric and solar activity with which the geo-
magnetic activity is strongly associated. Further on, a number of authors, e.g. (7, 18, 19,21,23), have
presented some experimental results indicating a possible relation between the electric field even at
the ground layer of the atmosphere and the solar activity for shorter periods. A more direct association
with the geomagnetic field is presented by an interesting example of a relation between the electric
and geomagnetic fields given by Olson (20) for the time of aurora. Moreover, a large positive correlation
of the electric field and magnetic field variations in the range of magnetic pulsation (Pc2 - Pc3) was
obtained by Krasnogorskaya (16). In the present paper we will try to compare some results of geomagne-
tic and atmospheric-electric measurements obtained in the geophysical observations at Swider and
Belsk. The range of periods of the considered variations is from 10 sec to 24 hrs.
*) Paper was presented by S. Michnowski.
728
a) Daily variations
In the Geophysical Observatory at Swider [¢ = 52°07', A = 21 c l5', h = 100m], simultaneous
observations of geomagnetic field components [H - horizontal, Z - vertical, D - declination] and
of atmospheric electricity have been performed since 1957. Measurements of potential gradient of the
electric field are made at a height of 2 m by means of a radioactive collector (27). The three components
of magnetic field are measured by means of standard magnetometers *). Mean data on atmospheric
electric, meteorological and geomagnetic measurements have been published in yearbooks (15,27).
It is very difficult to examine a suspected dependence between variations of the atmospheric-electric
field at the ground, E., and geomagnetic field components, as the course of Ez is mainly influenced by
meteorological factors which can entirely conceal such a dependence (9). In order to diminish the
influence of meteorological factors on the electric field, only fair-weather days were taken for comparison.
More rigorous criteria of fair-weather were used according to the new instructions (14). According
to these criteria, excluded were periods with precipitation of any kind, rime, drizzling rain, mist or fog
(visibility better than 4km), low clouds covering more than 3/10 of the sky, wind velocity exceeding
6 m/sec, and the potential gradient negative**) or exceeding 500 Vjm.
A compilation of data for daily variations is given below. For these periods the mean hourly values
of the atmospheric-electric field were used for fair-weather days of 1965 -1971. The magnetic mean
hourly values concerned the days when the disturbances were weak [l'Kp ~ 20]. For individual
fair-weather days, averages for five or more days were used, similarly as in geomagnetism when a monthly
average for quiet days is calculated. It was found that in 1965 -1971 the number of months comprising
five or more fair-weather days was not more than four for each year. For these days mean hourly values
of potential gradient of the electric field were averaged and mean monthly curves of Ez and components
of the geomagnetic field for the same days were calculated. For all the selected months, a daily variation
of Ez is shaped similarly as the variation of time derivative of the horizontal component of the magnetic
field aH [the derivative was calculated for the I-hour changes of the H component]. Examples for
at
some months from the period under study can be seen in Fig. 1. A correspondence ofthe daily variation
of the vertical atmospheric electric field, E., and of the derivative of the horizontal component, aa~ ,
was considered by Lipskaya (17) and by Chataev (5) by means of the model of a plane wave. We are not
going to discuss now to what extent the observed coincidence may correspond to a direct relation.
We only mention that on the basis of other approaches and calculations suggested by Volland (26),
the values of Ez cannot be expected to be comparable with those really observed. The calculated values
are at least an order of magnitude smaller than the observed ones (26).
b) Geomagnetic disturbances of the bay type

In the recordings of the Observatory at Swider, the examples of coincidence of the magnetic field
disturbances of the bay type [T = 0.5 - 5 h] and similar type variations of the electric field occur very
rarely. Such cases were observed at higher latitudes by Olson (20) who treated the observed correlation
of these values as an effect of aurora on the electric field in the lower atmosphere. The recorded magnetic
bay disturbances (DP 1) are associated with current systems that flow in the ionosphere around auroral
ovals surrounding magnetic poles (22). Many factors are responsible for the fact that in Swider these
disturbances are very rarely associated with atmospheric field variations at the ground level. Of im-
portance in this respect may also be the relatively small number of fair-weather days used in our com-
parison with magnetic variations as well as the geographical situation of Swider with a large distance
to sources of the bay-type disturbances.
*) In the further vicinity of the Observatory there is an electrified railway producing a level of disturbances
which effect especially the vertical component of geomagnetic field and therefore this component cannot be
used for comparisons. Much better conditions of magnetic recordings are now in the new Observatory at Belsk
situated in a distance of about 45 km from Swider.
**) i.e. vector of electric field pointing upwards.
729
JULY, 1965
50 10
JUNE,1966
150r---~--'----'---r---'---.----r---'---.----r---.---'
MAY, 1967
100
".--------......" /,
50r'!!oo.---
o
/
//
'-;
JUNE,1970
150
150r---r---r---~--'---'---'---.----r---r---r---.---'
JULY, 1971
100
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 h
Fig. 1. Mean daily variation of atmospheric-electric field, Ez> and of the time derivative of the horizontal component
of magnetic field, oH/ot, calculated for fair-weather days for some months at Swider, time in GMT,
1 yjh = 1 nT/hour
730
As shown by Olson, the amplitude of the horizontal magnetic component H of the bay-type disturb-
ances strongly decreases with decreasing latitude. E.g., at Fort Churchill (58.8 ON) it was about 360 nT*)
being at the same time about an order of magnitude less at Great Whale River (58 3' N) where it even
0
changed its sign.

In order to find a statistical relation between recordings of the bay-type variations of Hand Ez ,
it would be necessary to analyse all the available archival records covering about 17 years. At present
one example of a possible correlation was found in the materials of the only examined year 1972 (Fig. 2).
The amplitudes of the corresponding variations are 100- 300 V 1m and 50 -150 nT, respectively.
However, even in this case we cannot be sure if the obtained similarity of the course of Ez to the course
of H and magnetic declination D was not caused by the meteorological effect on Ez (small Cu clouds).
It will be necessary to improve the methods of continuous observations of the meteorological conditions
at the station.
II
15 16 17 18 19 20
~
e]
Fig. 2. An example of a coincidence between the bay-type variation of horizontal component (H), declination (D)
of the geomagnetic field and variation of atmospheric-electric field (Ez ), recorded on 17 June 1972 at Swider
c) Short-period variations
The variations of the atmospheric-electric field and components of the magnetic field in the range
of periods T = 10 - 200 sec were recorded by means of a dynamic electric-field-meter (field mill) **)
and a field magnetotelluric station AMT-1 (13) installed at the Belsk Observatory. The output of the
field mill was connected in place of the output of horizontal telluric current component Ex so that
five components were simultaneously recorded on the same chart with a speed of 50 mm/min. The
sensitivity ranges of the measured components for 1-mm declination on the charts were as follows:
E z = 2 Vim; H = 0.11 nT; D = 0.09 nT; vertical magnetic component Z = 0.047 nT; horizontal
magnetotelluric component Ey = 0.08 11V1m ***).
The measurements were made during 10 days in February and July 1974. Since the weather conditions
were very inconvenient during these measurements, the data obtained should be treated as preliminary
results. We intend to repeat the measurements and a simultaneous monitoring of meteorological
conditions at the Belsk Observatory. However, even at the limited scope of data obtained and short
time of observations, it was possible to ascertain a number of interesting cases in which the variation
*) 1 nT = 1 y.
**) Produced by Berg, Feingeratebau, Wuppertal, West-Germany, type FM 300.
***) 1l1Vjm = 1 mVjkm.
731
of Ez coincided well with a similar variation in the components of the magnetic and magnetotelluric
fields. About forty cases of such coincidence were observed. Their periods ranged from 10 to 200 sec.
Figs. 3 A - D show examples of correlation between E. [without reduction] and the horizontal
component, H, vertical component, Z, and the declination, D, of the geomagnetic field, as well as the
magnetotelluric component, E y• The concurrence of similar courses in Ez and H variations with the
same periods of these elements implies interrelations between them. Fig. 4 presents the distribution
of the number, n, of similar cases as a function of the periods of the corresponding variations. Fig. 5
shows the distribution of amplitudes of the variations of Ez against amplitudes of simultaneous varia-
10130 GMT 31 T-l73s 32 33

FEBRUARY 19, 1974
J1
~ ~l ~l !I 1I
E
H D Z Ey!;z
Fig. 3 A see text
153 854 GMT 55 56 57

FI:;BRUARY 19, 1Q74
Fig. 3 B see text
732
11109 GMT 10 11 12
i=EBRUARY 19, 1974
Fig. 3 C see text

/26 927 GMT 28 29
i=EBRUARY 16, 1974
T= 60s
:1
H
~I :1 !j ~T
D 2 Ey Ez
Fig. 3. Examples of the variation of horizontal component (H), vertical component (Z), declination (D) of geo-
magnetic field, magnetotelluric component Ey and simultaneous variation of atmospheric-electric field (E z )
for various periods (T); 1 Y = 1 nT; 1 mVjkm = 1I!V/m. A for T = 173 sec; B for T = 52 sec; C for T =
30 sec; D for T = 60 sec
tions of the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field. The values of electric field Ez were here
multiplied by the reduction factor (reduction to the free plane).
The preliminary results obtained in Belsk point to a correlation between variations of the atmos-
pheric electric vertical component and geomagnetic component of the corresponding fields. Further
733
investigations are needed, with statistical treatment of the obtained results, comprising spectral analyses,
calculations of correlation coefficients, and analyses of properties of polarization of the geomagnetic
field and its influence on Ez • If these investigations yield more corroborated data on the behaviour
of geomagnetic disturbances in the atmosphere below the ionosphere, we may expect to get additional
information exceeding the magnetotelluric problems. The expected information would concern the
effective ionospheric boundary conditions for the magnetospheric disturbances (25) and may also be
useful for a better understanding of physical nature of geomagnetic pulsations (8).
Fig. 4. Distribution of number (n) of the observed coincidence between variation of horizontal component of
geomagnetic field (H) and that of atmospheric-electric field (E z ) for periods (T) from 10 - 200 s
T=10-200 5
30
o o
20 o
o
o
o
10 o
o
Fig. 5. Distribution of amplitudes of the variations of atmospheric-electric field (Ez ) against amplitudes of the
simultaneous variations of horizontal component (H) of geomagnetic field, 1 )' = 1 nT
734
References
1. Bauer, L. S., Terr. Magn. and Atm. Electr. 29, 1,4 (1924). - 2. Berdichevsky, M. H., Elektricheskava razvedka
metodom magneto-teluricheskogo profilirovania, Izdatelstvo Nedra (Moskva, 1968). - 3. Cagniard, L., Offic.
J. Exploration Geoph. 18,3 (1953). - 4. Cagniard, L, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sc. 270, 22 (1970). - 5. Chataev,
D. N. and B. A. Yonowich, Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Fizika iemli, 9 (1970). - 6. Chataev, D. N., Izvestiya
Akademii Nauk SSSR, Fizika Zeml~ 9, 2 (1970). - 7. Cobb, W. E, Monthly Weather Rev. 95, 905 (1967). -
8. GuCelmi, A. v., Space Science Rev. 16, 3 (1974). - 9. Dolezalek, H., Pure and Appl. Geoph. 100, 8 (1972). -
10. Dungley, J. W. and D. J. Southwood, Space Science Rev. 10, 5 (1970). - 11. Israel, H., Atmospharische Elektrizi-
tat, Teil II (Leipzig, 1961) [Engl. translation: H. Israel, Atmospheric Electricity, volume II (Jerusalem, 1973)]. -
12. Jacobs, J. A., Geomagnetic Micropulsation, in Physics and Chemistry in Space (Heidelberg-New York-
Berlin, 1970). - 13. Jankowski, J. A., J. Pawliszyn, and K. Grzelak, Acta Geoph. Polonica, Warszawa, 18,2
(1970). - 14. Instrukciya po podgotovke materialov i publikacii rezultatov nabludenii atmosfernogo elektri-
chestva, Glavnaya Geofizicheskaya Observatoriya Voeikova (Leningrad, 1965~ - 15. Kalinowska, Z., Annuaire
magnetique, Publications of the Inst. Geoph., Polish Academy of Sciences, Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe
(Lodz-Warszawa, 1926-1972). - 16. Krasnogorskaya, N. V. and B. R. Remizov, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 212,
2 (1973). - 17. Lipskaya, N. v., Nekotorye zakonomernosti rasprostraneniya neodnorodnogo pola i gorizontalno
odnorodnoi sredio, 56 "Estvestvennoe elektromagnitnoe pole i issledovaniya vnutrennogo stroeniya Zemli",
Izdatelstvo Nauka (Moskva, 1971). - 18. Lobodin, T. V. and N. A. Paramonov, Pure and Appl. Geoph. 100,8
(1972). - 19. Muhleisen, R., The Global Circuit and its Parameters, submitted to the Fifth Conference on
Atmospheric Electricity, 1974 (Darmstadt, 1977). - 20. Olson, D. E., Pure and Appl. Geoph. 84 (1971). -
21. Paramonov, N. A., Issledovanie svyazi mezhdu aktivnost'yu Solnca i gradentom potenciaIa elektricheskogo
pola w atmosfere ... , Trudy, Glavnaya Geofizicheskaya Observatoriya Voeikova, No. 242, Gidrometeoizdat
(Leningrad, 1969). - 22. Rattcliffe, J. A., An introduction to the ionosphere and magnetosphere (Cambridge,
1972). - 23. Reiter, R., Pure and Appl. Geoph. 94, 2 (1972). - 24. Tichonov, A. V. and N. V. Lipskaya, Dokl.
Akad. Nauk, SSSR, 87, 4 (1952). - 25. Southwood, D. I., Space Science Rev. 16, 3 (1974). - 26. Volland, H.,
J. Geoph. Res. 77, 10 (1972). - 27. Warzecha, S., Annuaire meteorologique et de I'electricite atmospberique;
Publications of the Institute of Geophysics of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Nau-
kowe (Lodz-Warszawa, 1957 -1974).
Authors' addresses:
N. Nikiforova S. Michnowski,
Institute of Physics of the Earth, Institute of Geophysics
Academy of Sciences USSR, ul. Gruzinskaya 10, Polish Academy of Sciences,
D-242, Moskow ul. Pasteura 3,
USSR 02-093 Warsaw
Poland
735
Long-term Changes in Magnetic and Atmospheric-Electric Fields on the Basis
of the Recordings of the "St. Kalinowski Geophysical Obsenatory" at Swider. Poland
E. Kalinowska-Wulomska *)
With 4 figures
Abstract
The report presents preliminary results of a comparison of annual and long-term variations of magnetic
activity and atmospheric-electric field, based on 1S-year parallel recordings at the Geophysical Observatory at
Swider.
It can be seen from the comparison of data that the secular variations of both elements were to some extent
in agreement, while the trend of the annual variations was opposite.
The results cannot de interpreted yet; however, they can be used in further analyses.
For more than 50 years the Geophysical Observatory at Swider has carried out recordings of the
geomagnetic field, and since 1957 it has also made regular recordings of some elements of the atmos-
pheric electricity.
On the basis ofthe experimental data recorded for 15 years, we have attempted to examine a possible
dependence that might occur between changes observed in the magnetic and electric field of the earth.
Most attention on the subject, as far as we know, concerns the short-term changes (pulsations, bays).
Our objective was to examine long-term changes (diurnal, annual, secular) in order to get a wider
range of the comparison.
We adopted 3-hr indices K as representatives of the magnetic field activity, and mean values of
potential gradient for periods of fair weather as representatives of the electric field activity. Following
international recommendations, the fair-weather periods were initially selected in accordance with
(3), and since 1965 in accordance with (2).
The enclosed diagrams present some preliminary results which can be used in further analyses.
K N
3.00 200
2.80 180
2.60 160
2.40 140 E
VIm
2.20 120 180
2.00 100 160
80 140
60 120
40 100
20 80
o I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 60
1957 58 5"9 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Fig. 1. Variation of mean annual values of magnetic activity expressed in K indices (curve K), variation of
potential gradient for fair-weather periods (curve E) and the variation of solar activity (curve N)
*) Paper presented by S. Michnowski.
736
Fig. 1 shows the variation of magnetic activity in 1957 -1971, expressed in indices K (curve K).
Curve N represents the solar activity (sunspot numbers) in 1957 -1971 taken from the Solar Geo-
physical Data, prompt reports (4). Curve E shows the mean annual values of potential gradient for
fair-weather days selected according to criterions from before 1965. Most generally, it may be concluded
that the smoothed course of curves E and N seems to confirm the parallelism of secular trends of the
potential gradient and sunspots, as observed by L. S. Bauer (1). Moreover, a displacement in time of
maximum and minimum values of curves K and N can be seen.
K 1957-1971
2.70
2.30
Vim
170
160
150
130
120
I I J ! J I I ! ! ! ! !
1 lIillIVVVIVlIVIlllXXxrXll
Fig. 2. Mean annual variation of magnetic activity expressed in indices K and mean annual variation of potential
gradient E offair weather for 1957 -1971
Fig. 2 presents the mean annual variation of magnetic activity expressed in indices K in 1957 -1971
(curve K) and mean annual variation of potential gradient (curve E) for days selected according to the
same criterions as in Fig. 1. As can be seen, the trend of these variations is opposite. The minimum
of the averaged potential gradient curve appears in June, and is accompanied by a maximum of magnetic
activity, while the next maximum of the magnetic activity, noted in September, was not reflected in
the potential gradient curve at all.
A similar but much more rough behaviour of the two elements was obtained for each separate year
from the period of 1957 -1971. By way of example, in Fig. 3 we show annual variations for 1959, which
was a year of maximum solar activity, and for 1965, which was one of the years of minimum solar activity.
Another presentation of magnetic and electric data is given in Fig. 4. Curve I1E K gives values ob-
tained by subtracting E K for individual months from the mean values of 11K for the whole year. Curve
I1E gives results of subtraction of the mean monthly values of potential gradient from its yearly mean
values. The values of indices 11K for 1968 were calculated only for the periods for which mean values
of potential gradient were computed, i.e. for the periods of fair weather. Since some magnetic data were
737
K
3.30
3.20
3.10 :Jl
'>
~
.....
K 3.00 g
L
Vim <U
160 2.90 g
'0
140 2.80 E
::J
130 E
120 2.70 .~
~
110
100 2.60
90
80 2.50
70
60
Fig.3a. Annual vanatIon of mean values of
50
I I I I I I indices K, and potential gradient E, for 1959 i.e.
I II ill N V VI VJJ VIII IX X XI XII a year of maximum solar activity
1959
K
2.30
Vim
220 2.20
210
200 2.10
190 :Jl
+-
180 2.00 .:;
:;:
()
170 qJ
1.90 ~
0Ul
1.80 b
130 E
::J
120 1.70 E
C
110
::E
100 1.60
90
1.50 Fig. 3 b. Annual variation of mean values of
I
1 II ill N V VI VJJ vm IX X XI xn indices K an potential gradient E, for 1965, i.e.
1967 a year of mimimum solar activity
738
disregarded, the annual variation alternated its characteristic shape, but a reverse correlation of both
curves remains very distinct.
The presented observations are not to be interpreted now, as this would be premature; we only
wish to show a preliminary compilation of the results of many-year parallel recordings carried out in
the Swider Observatory.
t.Ek
1968 200
180
160
E
90 140
80 120
70 100
60 80
50 60
40 40
30 20
20 0
10 -20
0 -40
-10 -60
-20 -80
-30 -100
-40 -120
-50 -140
-160
-180
-200
Fig. 4. Annual variation of 11:r K (differences between :r K for each month and the monthly mean :r K for the
whole year) and I1E (differences between the monthly and annual means of potential gradient) for 1968
References
1. Bauer, L. S., Terr. Magn. and Atm. Electr. 29, I, 4 (1924). - 2. Instrukciya po podgotovke materialov i publikacii
atmosfernogo elektrichestva; Glavnaya GeofIzicheskaya Observatoriya Voeikova (Leningrad, 1965). -
3. Israel, H. and G. Lahmeyer, Terr. Magn. Atmos. Electr. 53, 83, 373 (1948). - 4. Solar Geophysical Data,
Prompt Reports, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration USA, Environmental Data Service 360
(1974).
Author's address:
E. Kalinowska-Widomska
Geophysical Observatory of the Polish Academy of Sciences
ul. Brzozowa 2,
05-402 Swider/near Warsaw
Poland
739
Secular Decrease in Ionospheric Potential *)
R. Markson
With 1 figure
In analyzing the 120 ionospheric potential estimates obtained in my program the numbers seemed
quite small compared to other estimates given in the literature. I was particularly aware of the work
at NRL (Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C.) by Clark (1958) since his potential gradient
soundings were obtained in the same region as mine, ofT the eastern seaboard of the United States.
My data indicated about 240 kV, and Clark estimated about 300 kV, which he corrected using the
Carnegie curve to 280 k V (see Fig. 1). The vertical arrow pointing down shows these corrections for
the unitary diurnal variation. Clark's data were obtained in 1956. The bracket in the upper left corner
of the figure represents the estimates of Chalmers (1954) based on the data published up to that time.
400-r----}
CHALMERS (1954) o
1estimate)
o o
o
300 ~
~Iut) 0 o
o ~Iut) 0
o
o 0 lJ.
o 0
X(ut)
200
o=Buls (1968)
x=CLARI«19S8)
0= FISCHER& MiJHLEISEN (1972)
A=/VIARKSON (1974)
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
1950 1960 1970 Year
Fig. 1. Secular trend of the earth-ionosphere potential difference 1950-1974
Chalmers' estimate of the ionospheric potential was 300 to 400 kV. One should caution here since
he was probably mostly going on the Explorer II balloon measurement of the variation of conductivity
with height from which columnar resistance was computed. Gish and Sherman (1936) made an estimate
of conduction current density, which may have been ofT, and multiplied this by the Explorer II columnar
resistance to obtain an estimate of ionospheric potential. Thus their estimate may be inaccurate. My
data are shown on the right. They were corrected by using the Carnegie curve to allow for the time of
day when the soundings were made. This drops the average to about 220 kY The other corrected data
are the southpole.series of estimates made by the Belgians as reported by Buis (1968). The dots are the
estimates of Muhleisen and his co-workers, over many years. They are not corrected because the times
when they were made were not known. In any case, they would probably correct in the same direction
and by about the same amount as the others. What we see in all this is a trend downward. If the iono-
spheric potential is maintained by worldwide thunderstorm activity, these data suggest thunderstorms
are becoming less frequent and/or less intense (or, the total resistance between ionosphere and ground
is decreasing - addition by editor).
References
1. Buis, P., Atmospheric Electricity at Base "Koning Boudoin", Expedition 1964, Exenter, Bruxelles, 1 rue de
Louvain (1968). - 2. Chalmers, J. A., Progress in Physics 17, 118 (1954). - 3. Clark, J. F., The fair-weather atmos-
*) This paper was in essence given as a discussion remark to the papers presented by Michnowski.
740
pheric electric potential and its gradient; in: (L. G. Smith, ed.) Recent Advances in Atmospheric Electricity
(New York, 1958). - 4. Fischer, H.-J. and R. P. Muhleisen, Variation des Ionospharenpotentials und der
Gewittertatigkeit im elfjahrigen Sonnenzyklus. Meteorol. Rundsch. 25, 6 (1972). - 5. Gish, O. H. and K. L.
Sherman, Nat!. Geographic Society Stratosphere Series 2, 94 (1936). - 6. Markson, R., Airborne Atmospheric
Electrical Measurements of the Variation of Ionospheric Potential and Electrical Structure in the Exchange
Layer over the Ocean, these proceedings (Darmstadt, 1977).
Author's address:
R. Markson
Measurement Systems Lab. W-91-201
Massachusetts Inst of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
USA
741
Electric Charge Transmission by Lightning Flashes to Earth
K. Berger
With 2 tables
My short contribution refers to the measuring of lightning currents during the period 1963 to 1973
on Monte San Salvatore, Switzerland. There are two methods of measurement of electric charge trans-
mitted by lightning flashes from thunderclouds to earth. The first method is by direct oscillographic
measurement of lightning stroke currents to earth and by integrating the current/time curve. The
second method is based on simultaneous measurements of electric field jumps caused by lightning
flashes at at least 4 locations within about 10 km from a flash.
An evaluation of the electric charge was made on the base of the first method. The result is of interest
to the Global Electric Circuit. Table 1 shows the results, i.e. the annual amount of positive and negative
charges from clouds to earth. For each figure of annual charge the number of evaluated flashes is indi-
cated in parentheses.
Table 1 shows a net excess of negative charge which is in agreement with the ideas on the global
circuit. But if we would now consider positive and negative charges of downward flashes exclusively
we would detect a net excess of positive charge to earth, which is in contradiction to what we want
for compensation of the fme-weather current. It is only the upward flashes that are responsible for the
accordance with the global circuit.
Table 2 shows the annual mean values of charges per flash according to the four cases of polarity
and progressing direction. Weighted mean values of charge per flash are given for the whole period
1963 to 1973. It is interesting to see typical differences in charge. The highest charges appear with posi-
tive downward flashes. If we would compare the values Sj2 dt instead of the charges Sj dt this class of
flashes would even be more pronounced.
Table 2. Electric charges (in coulombs) per flash within lightning flashes to Monte San Salvatore 1963 ... 1973.
In parentheses: number of flashes
Downward flashes Upward flashes

Year
+Q/flash -Q/flash +Q/flash -Q/flash
1963 90 (5) 11,2 (21) 74.5 (8) 22.1 (84)

1964 106 (1) 10.5 (7) 79 (12) 43.1 (38)
1965 123 (1) 16.3 (3) 50 (25) 30 (91)
1966 93 (7) 9.3 (7) 27.5 (26) 26.5 (120)
1967 72 (7) 10.5 (11) 63.4 (42) 40 (90)
1968 105 (4) 9 (2) 70 (9) 25.8 (84)
1969 28.7 (3) 11 (3) 27.5 (28) 68.7 (19)
1970 - 11,2 (33) 54.3 (7) 36.5 (68)
1971 46 (3) 11 (16) 33 (25) 36.7 (122)
1972 117 (1) 18 (3) 40.5 (11) 43 (32)
1973 97 (8) 12. (23) 39 (17) 35.5 (75)
Weighted mean values Weighted mean values

Years
+Q/flash -Q/flash +Q/flash -Q/flash
1963/1973 84 (40) 11,4 (129) 47.0 (210) 33.4 (823)
742
Table 1. Electric charges (in coulombs) within lightning flashes to Monte San Salvatore 1963 ... 1973. In parentheses: number of flashes

Total
Year Tower 1 Tower 2 Tower 1 Tower 2
+Q -Q +Q -Q +Q -Q +Q -Q +Q -Q
1963 306 (2) 134 (10) 144 (3) 101 (11) 441 (3) 1229 (55) 155 (5) 624 (29) 1046 (13) 2088 (105)
1964 - 47 (4) 106 (1) 27 (3) 386 (6) 872 (20) 559 (6) 767 (18) 1051 (13) 1713 (45)
1965 - 49 (3) 123 (1) - 881 (15) 1640 (47) 375 (10) 1085 (44) 1379 (26) 2774 (94)
1966 337 (5) 54 (6) 315 (2) 11 (1 ) 529 (17) 2302 (77) 187 (9) 872 (43) 1368 (33) 3239 (127)
1967 354 (5) 76 (4) 149 (2) 39 (7) 1832 (31) 2672 (58) 830 (11) 950 (32) 3165 (49) 3737 (101)
1968 143 (2) 8 (1 ) 275 (2) 10 (1 ) 536 (7) 1297 (53) 87 (2) 867 (31) 1041 (13) 2182 (86)
1969 44 (2) 16 (1 ) 42 (1) 17 (2) 771 (27) 1163 (10) ~O (1 ) 142 (9) 857 (31) 1338 (22)
1970 - 151 (13) - 218 (20) 334 (5) 1972 (53) 46 (2) 512 (15) 380 (7) 2853 (101)
1971 138 (3) 126 (11) - 51 (5) 769 (22) 3730 (88) 52 (3) 746 (34) 959 (28) 4653 (138)
1972 - 54 (3) 117 (1) - 393 (10) 1180 (24) 52 (1 ) 198 (8) 562 (12) 1432 (35)
1973 - (6) 215 (16) 31 (2) 57 (7) 473 (14) 2467 (66) 185 (3) 198 (9) 1436 (25) 2937 (98)
1963/1973 2069 (25) 930 (72) 1302 (15) 531 (57) 7345 (157) 20524 (551) 2528 (53) 6961 (272) 13244 (250) 28946 (952)
Tower 1 and 2 Tower 1 and 2 Tower 1 and 2 Tower 1 and 2

Years
+Q -Q +Q -Q
1963/1973 3371 (40) 1461 (129) 9873 (210) 27485 (823) 13244 (250) 28946 (952)
mean value
306 133 898 2499 1204 2631
per year
----
-..J
.j>.
Vol
The observations on Monte San Salvatore suggest the importance of further measurements of charge
transfer by lightning flashes especially in flat country. The very bad chance to get there a sufficient
amount of results by direct current measurements suggests to proceed there with the second method.
Author's address:
K.Berger
Gstadstr. 31
CH-8702 Zollikon
Switzerland
744
Neutrons from Lightning?
R. L. Fleischer
With 4 figures
Abstract
Laboratory and field experiments have been performed with artificial and natural lightning, respectively, to
establish whether lightning generates neutrons in sufficient numbers to affect geochronological methods and
therefore to allow the mapping of local lightning history. The observed low abundance of neutrons is
consistent with neutron production being solely from cosmic ray interactions in the atmosphere. The inferred
95 % confidence limits on neutron production are too low by several orders of magnitude to permit geo-
physical or geochemical detection of past lightning activity.
Introduction
If 10 15 neutrons were produced by individual lightning flashes, it could be of immense importance
in allowing the mapping of the geographical distribution and abundance of lightning occurrences
in past epochs and up to the present. The central idea is that the neutrons, after being injected in the
lower troposphere, would interact with either atmospheric or lithospheric atoms and produce localized
nuclear alterations that could be readily detected by established geochemical means.
The number 10 15 neutrons per flash was in fact proposed by Libby and Lukens (1973) as an appro-
priate number to explain observed historical variations in neutron-produced atmospheric 14C con-
centrations that have forced corrections in carbon dating results for samples more than 7000 years
old. In another dating procedure, the fission track method (for a review see Fleischer, Price, and
Walker (1975), chapter 4), the nuclear changes that could be recorded are fission damage tracks from
uranium or thorium in rocks. The concentration of fission events in rocks from the crests of frequently
struck mountains would show excesses that are direct measures of the integrated lightning activity.
Although laboratory arc discharges have produced neutrons (Stephanakis et aI., 1972), extrapolation
of the conditions used to the lower average temperatures along a lightning channel do not encourage
one to expect neutrons from thermal processes. Nevertheless, firstly because of the potential importance
to carbon dating, fission track dating, and atmospheric electricity and, secondly, because on a fine
scale the temperatures, pressures, and electric field that might accelerate charged particles along light-
ning are not known, experimental tests have been made for the presence of neutrons at lightning.
Laboratory Experiments
Laboratory simulations of lightning using a 10 cm air discharge (Fleischer, Plumer, and Crouch,
1975) have the convenience and quantitative advantage that the experimental geometry, temperature,
and pressure can be well controlled and the number of discharges specified. Therefore, a precise calcula-
tion of neutron fluxes can be made if a positive result obtains.
The result of one hundred laboratory lightning strokes of 60 kA peak amplitude and 0.5 coulombs
charge was that no neutrons were detected. The limits at all neutron energies were well below those
that would be geophysically important.
Observations of Natural Lightning

Tests of thunderstorm-produced lightning were done because simulations do not fully reproduce
the full spectrum of behaviors of natural lightning. The major experimental problems here are to place
neutron detectors close to where lightning will occur and to obtain a count of the lightning events.
Hilfs (1963) system was utilized of placing copper caps on the 300 m high television antenna of channel 3,
Station WCIA, Champaign, Illinois, USA. This transmitter antenna is located on the plains about
16 km west of Champaign.
745
o 2 4 6 8 10
em
Fig. 1. Closed-ended, copper cylinders such as were mounted on lightning rods at the four corners of a 300 m
television transmitter to record lightning strikes. Center: a lightning recorder prior to use; Left: two neutron
detector packages; Right: a recorder with two detector packages that were exposed to 72 lightning strokes over
an 81-day period, 21 April to 11 July 1974
The strikes directly to the caps are recorded by local melting of the copper, as illustrated in Figs. 1
and 2. Individual strokes are revealed either as holes, two of which are apparent in Fig. 1, or protrusions
from rapid melting and resolidification, as shown with magnification in Fig. 2. This detector from the
west corner of the antenna recorded 72 strokes over an 81 day exposure. The neutron detector packages,
whose design is given in Fig. 3, were taped onto the copper. Because they are composed of insulators
and covered with insulating tape, the packages were not struck directly and were not further than
a few cm from the recorded strikes, i.e., they were close to potential neutrons but not significantly
heated by the lightning.
In the detectors that would record thermal neutrons 47 counts were observed; and 3 counts in the
detectors of fast neutrons. The thermal neutron detector, however, has a high enough background
count from atmospheric radon and its daughters, that no significant signal above background exists. The
fast neutron detection system does not have this background, but it will record any other fast neutrons
that may exist. Geisler's (1972) measurements of the fast neutron background at ground level (most
of which he infers is from cosmic ray secondaries) would imply that the present system would record
on the average three counts for its total 118 day exposure from time of assembly in Boulder, Colo.
to the time of its disassembly there after exposure.
746
Fig. 2. The melted and re-solidified surface features caused by a lightning stroke have distinctive contours.
The height of this feature is approximately 1 mm
NEUTRON DETECTION MODULE
FISSION OR In,a) PLATES

A.
\
( PYREX Th02 ON LEAD
( 7 % B) FOIL
AI203
,;
t
P~IRRAD"TED ~
CONTROL
DETECTORS
}
~
t t t ~ tP tP
,CN,CTA,P CTA CN P
y
DE TEC TOR SH EETS
Fig. 3. The detector package is composed of particle track detectors and adjacent boron, thorium, or lead,
which emit charged particles when exposed to neutrons at different energies. Pre-irradiated control samples
would allow excessive heating to be recognized. [Additional details of the operation of the detectors is given
by Fleischer, Plumer, and Crouch (1975)]
747
Discussion and Conclusions
In short, the measurements give only upper limits for neutron flux. If we assume there were six strokes
per lightning flash, the 95% confidence upper limits are 4 x 1012 neutrons of energy> 1.5 MeV and
5 x 10 lD thermal neutrons for each flash. Both these upper limits are well below the geophysically
interesting level of 1015 neutrons as shown in Fig. 4. Knowledge of the abundance and spacial distribu-
tion of unrecorded nearby lightning that struck the tower but not the copper recorder would only
lower the stated upper limits. These results are unusual at this conference in both (a) being what was
predicted and (b) being decisive. Carbon daters must look elsewhere for an explanation of their anomaly;
fission track daters need not worry about their results being perturbed; and atmospheric electricians
will unfortunately not be able to trace out lightning history from neutron effects.
1010
109
10 8
107
.
'>'
106
......... 105
>-
...z 104
C!)
A:
... 103
10 2
10
11;1
11)2
10 8
NEUTRONS PER FLASH
(UPPER LIMITS)
Fig. 4. Comparison of upper limits on neutron flux with those that would be of interest in determining lightning
history. The dotted line gives the results of a laboratory test; the solid line is for results on naturally occurring
lightning
Acknowledgments
The authour is pleased to give thanks to D. Fleming and the other members of the staff of WCIA who made
possible the use of their transmitter tower, to R. D. Hill for helpful conversations, and to the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration for its hospitality when the author was a visiting scientist.
References
1. Fleischer, R. L., J. A. Plumer, and K. Crouch, J. Geophys. Res. 80 (1975). - 2. Fleischer, R. L., P. B. Price,
and R. M. Walker, Nuclear Tracks in Solids, Univ. of Calif. Press (Berkeley, 1975). - 3. Geisler, F. H., Search for
Superheavy Elements in Terrestrial Minerals and Cosmic-ray-induced Fission of Heavy Elements, Ph. D.
Thesis (Washington University, St. Louis, 1972). - 4. Hill, R. D., J. Geophys. Res. 68, 1365 (1963). -
5. Libby, L. M. and H. R. Lukens, J. Geophys. Res. 78, 5902 (1973). - 6. Stephanakis, S. J., L. S. Levine,
D. Mosher, I. M. Vitkovsky, and F. Young, Phys. Rev. Letters 29, 568 (1972).
748
Discussion
I should like to comment on your conclusion concerning the possibility of accelerating charge particles in
the atmosphere so that they produce neutrons. This will never happen in the troposphere because of ionization
and elastic collisions. It can only happen in very low density gases and I do not know whether there will be high
fields when the atmospheric density is low enough and the conductivity high.
Fleischer, Schenectady, New York, USA:
That, of course, is what one expects there from the observed average properties of lightning. People have looked
for things such as runaway electrons in the past and have failed to find them. This, however, is a far more
sensitive way of looking for neutrons. In retrospect, clearly what you say is correct, but one does not know what
sort of perturbations exist along a lightning stroke, as to whether there are unusual fields beyond the sort of
gross ones which are measured. And that is one of the reasons why this study was carried out.
I agree completely with Fleischer. A few years ago, Noggle, Wayland and I [J. Appl. Physics 39,4746 (1968)]
made an unsuccessful search for x-rays which might be produced by point-to-plane discharges in air at atmos-
pheric pressure. The lowest energy x-rays that we could detect were about 10 keY. My recollection is that the
upper limit to the number of 10 keY electrons which could exist in the air discharges we studied was about 108
per discharge with an E/p of7kVm- 1 torr- 1 = 52.6Vm- 1 Pa- 1. We did detect 10keV x-rays under identical
conditions in helium discharges however.
Barreto:
Again in reference to that comment, I think it is dangerous to extrapolate what happens in the laboratory to
what happens in lightning. I think, the change from a corona to a spark, in the laboratory, is determined by the
properties of the metal electrodes. It would be quite doubtful if the same situation could be extrapolated to the
free atmosphere where there are no metals *).
Author's address:
R. L. Fleischer
General Elec. Res. Lab.
Schenectady, New York 12301
USA
*) Fleischer wanted to respond to this remark but had no time to do it. Interested colleagues may contact
him and Barreto directly.
749
Lightning Detection from Satellites
R. E. Orville and B. Vonnegut
With 2 figures
Abstract
The detection of lightning by the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) of the United States is
reported and two cases are analyzed for lightning flash density. The first is a squall line to the west of Florida
on 14 November 1972 (06 :27UT), which has a flash density of 2,4 x 10- 5 flashesj(seckm2). The second is the
severe storm system of 3 -4 April 1974 recorded on 4 April 1974 (05 : 54 UT), which has a flash density of
1.5 x 10- 4 flashesj(sec km2), or six times higher than the first case. We suggest that lightning flash density
determined from satellites may be one of several indicators of the presence of a severe storm system.
Fig. 1. A DMSP satellite photograph of the midwest and eastern U.S. recorded on 14 November 1972 with super-
imposed synoptic features (courtesy Sizoa and Whalen, 1974)
750
The detection of lightning by satellites was first reported by Sparrow and Ney (1968) using the solar
observatory satellite (OSO-B) equipped with four photomultipliers. More recently, Sizoo and Hlhalen
(1974) have analyzed high-resolution nighttime photographs obtained with the Defense Meteorological
Satellite Program (DMSP) and identified lightning associated with squall lines. The purpose of this
note is to bring these recent data to the attention of the conference and report on the satellite detection
of high lightning flash frequency associated with the 3-4 April, 1974, tornado outbreak in the United
States.
A summary of the DMSP satellite characteristics is available in the Sizoo and Hlhalen (1974) paper.
These satellites are at an altitude of 815 to 850 km and are kept in noon-midnight and in dawn-dusk
Fig. 2. A DMSP satellite photograph recorded on 4 April 1974, 05:54 UT. Note the high density of horizontal
streaks in the central portion, which are believed to be the result of lightning flashes in the storm system
751
planes. Photographic data are obtained by a scanning radiometer that sweeps repeatedly across the
earth in a line perpendicular to the path of the satellite and through the subsatellite point. The rotating
mirror has a period of 562 msec and views the earth for 180 msec. Adjacent lines in the image have a
separation of 3.7km at the earth's surface and an approximate horizontal extent of 3000km. The
spectral range of the detector is 0.45 to 1.1 micrometer.
Fig. 1 shows a DMSP image obtained on 14 November 1972, between 06: 26 UT and 06: 29 UT
(Sizoo and Whalen, 1974). The eastern half of the United States is recorded, and the lights of the cities
and suburbs are clearly visible (the Miami area shows clearly in the lower right quadrant). Sizoo and
Whalen have identified the horizontal streaks as caused by lightning and indicated the existing synoptic
weather features at the approximate time the image was obtained.
If one assumes that the lightning frequency remained constant during the time taken for the satellite
to scan the squall line system in Fig. 1, it is possible to calculate the frequency of flashes in the system.
We estimate that the satellite took 145 seconds to scan the latitudinal section containing the squall
line. Only a small fraction of this time, however, was used to record the area associated with the squall
line. This area is 2 x lOS km 2, and the time taken to scan it is 3.3 sec. There are approximately 22 streaks,
and consequently we estimate a flash frequency of 7 lightning flashes per second. Dividing by the area
producing these flashes, we obtain a flash frequency of 2.4 x 10- 5 flashes/(sec km 2). There is no way
to determine the fraction of these flashes that are intracloud or cloud-to-ground.
The analysis of Fig. 1 provides a reference for the interpretation of Fig. 2, a DMSP satellite image
obtained on 4 April 1974 at approximately 05: 54 UT. The significance of this image is that it was
obtained during the fmal hours of one of the most devastating tornado outbreaks in the history of the
United States (Purdom, 1974). In the 18-hour period beginning at 19: 00 UT on 3 April the total path
length of tornadoes exceeded 2000 miles, or more than half of the U.S. yearly average (Fujita, 1974).
More than one half of the average yearly U.S. deaths and damages due to tornadoes occurred during
this same period.
In Fig. 2 a high density of lightning streaks is immediately apparent. The area in which the lightning
flashes occur is approximately 1.3 x 10s km 2, and the time to scan this area is estimated to be 2.1 sec.
There are approximately 45 streaks in this area, so that we estimate a flash frequency in the system of
approximately 21 per sec. Dividing by the area we obtain a flash density of 1.5 x 10- 4 flashes/(sec km2)
or a rate that is 6 times higher than the value obtained for the squall line in Fig. 1.
Insufficient data exist to determine if high lightning flash densities are characteristic of storm systems
producing severe tornadoes. In the absence of these data, we suggest that the detection of a high flash
density by satellites may be one of several indicators of the severity of a storm system.
Acknowledgments
We thank Edmond Dewan and James Whalen for generously making available Figs. 1 and 2. The preprint by
Sizoo and Whalen (1974) has stimulated our interest in this problem, and we are extremely grateful to these
authors for making us aware of their research in advance of publication.
This research was supported by the Atmospheric Sciences Section of the National Science Foundation under
grant A 0-35395 X and the Office of Naval Research under contract number N 00014-71-C-0156.
References
1. Fujita, T. T., Weatherwise 27,116 (1974). - 2. Purdom, J. F. w., Weatherwise 27, 120 (1974). - 3. Sizoo, A. H.
and J. A. Whalen, J. Appl. Meteor. (1974). - 4. Sparrow, J. G. and E. P. Ney, Science 161, 459 (1968).
Discussion
Did you supplement these observations by simultaneous directional measurements of electromagnetic noise
on, perhaps, VHF or UHF?
No.
752
In reference to the last question, William Taylor at NOAA in Boulder may have such information from one
of his tornado direction finding stations.
We have been looking at the same tornadoes to see whether the VLF analyser that we operate showed any
indication, and qualitatively yes, there was a very strong indication. I have also been talking with the NASA people
about their satellites, and yes, they have data; but it's going to take them months to get it processed. The question
I would wish to raise is: is it possible to obtain any warning from satellites, or is the time lag in data processing so
great that no good would be done? Some sort of ground-based spheric system, if it works, could conceivably give
a warning. I question whether satellites could.
Orville:
Of course, we cannot answer that. I have wondered about this myself. One may have a severe tornado out-
break which would be over an area which is not heavily populated and a high flash density is detected. If it moved
in a known direction one could obtain some predictive value.
I should just like to ask whether tornadoes are particularly productive of lightning during the nighttime
only. Our observations in southern Africa show that the majority of the thunderstorms perhaps start about
2 o'clock or 3 o'clock in the afternoon and end round about 8 o'clock in the evening. So is this not, perhaps,
a difficulty regarding satellite pictures of tornadoes?
I think that there is little question that optical detectors could be arranged to work in the daytime as well as
at night. As we have heard during this meeting, the New Mexico group has been using optical detectors success-
fully during the day. I see no reason why similar equipment could not be used with satellites. It is worth
emphasizing that this satellite was built to study aurora and that the lightning observation was serendipitous.
In one of the figures there appeared to be a cloud system illuminated by the internal flashes. Is this so or not?
Orville:
This is correct. It was an extensive cloud system in the south-eastern part of the U.S.
Authors' address:
R. E. Orville and B. Vonnegut
Dept. of Atmospheric Sciences
at Albany
USA
753
Lightning Elimination
R. B. Bent
With 1 figure
Abstract
Lightning conductors have been in use for over two thousand years, but as Chalmers (1965) indicates, there
is still much confusion as to their mode of operation. It is still widely believed that the lightning conductor slowly
discharges the electrostatic charges contained in a thundercloud, thus preventing the build-up of a potential
gradient sufficient to result in a strike.
Scientists with experience in the area of atmospheric electricity have always denounced this belief and a number
of short articles have been written describing the way a lightning rod does function. It has also been pointed
out that this erroneous belief is probably caused by the difference between laboratory and atmospheric
phenomena.
Recently, a California-based firm has been manufacturing lightning dissipation arrays and they claim
considerable success in the prevention of lightning strikes. The author has been asked by a number of u.S.
Government departments to investigate these claims and discover what effect the arrays have, if any, on a
thundercloud. The purpose of this paper is to bring to the attention of this conference the related facts found
to date and ask for your comments on the startling claims of the lightning arrays manufacturer.
Point Discharge
The initial process of ionization involves the removal of an electron from a molecule, which in tum
leaves a positively charged ion. Normally, this electron will attach itself to a neutral molecule forming
a negative ion. If the electric field is sufficiently large, an electron will acquire a considerable amount
of energy from the time it was produced to its first collision with a molecule. This energy can be great
enough to ionize the molecule thereby producing a new electron ion. The process may continue such
that from one electron an avalanche process occurs which produces a considerable number of ions.
Because the electron is smaller than the positive ion it has just left, it will travel further than the
positive ion before collision and gather greater energy. This means that electrons will produce ionization
by collision at lower fields than positive ions. When this process of ionization by collision is confined
to the small volume near a point because of the enhanced field, we have the phenomena of point dis-
charge.
In air at atmospheric pressure, a field strength of about 3 MVjm is required for ionization to occur.
When a charge builds up in a thundercloud, the fields nearby will increase and the highest fields will
be close to sharp points. These points can therefore provide a point-discharge current when the field
is sufficiently intense. Ifthis current or the sum of the adjacent currents can become equal to the charging
current in the thundercloud, then the potential of the thundercloud may be kept at a constant value.
Where the potential cannot be kept constant and it continues to rise, then the conditions may reach
those necessary for spark discharge or lightning to occur. This principle of keeping the potential constant
is that by which the dissipation arrays are meant to work.
The Dissipation Arrays

The lightning arrays under review are made of many configurations, but are mainly constructed
of a grounded conductor on which are many closely mounted sharp points. An array may be one unit
of about a meter to tens of meters in length or it may have the conductor and points stretched out over
some larger distance.
It is claimed that the dissipation arrays bleed otT the storm generated energy and are 100% etTective
in eliminating strikes and their associated secondary etTects in high incident areas around the world.
The claims indicate that sustained dissipation currents of 20 rnA are common and values higher than
600 mA are not unusual. Energy dissipation often up to 18 coulombs is quoted.
The arrays are claimed to have been considerably successful in protecting structures. One site has a
400 meter tower that was struck over 100 times a year prior to array installation. In the 18 months
754
after the array had been installed, it was reported that no strikes to the tower were recorded. During
temporary array removal, however, the mast was struck a number of times.
The manufacturers claim that no strikes have been recorded to a protected facility in 150 system-
years of operation. Typical protected facilities are in Florida,Borneo, California and Canada.
Discussion
The charging current in a thunderstorm has been measured in various ways and the results all show
currents of the order of one ampere. For lightning eliminators to successfully dissipate this charging
current, they would therefore need to provide currents amounting to one ampere. The currents quoted
by this manufacturer for a small number of arrays are certainly of this sort of order, hence at first glance,
it appears to be a satisfactory system. Without questioning the current flow at this time, one must
consider the wind speed and the mobility of the ions moving towards the cloud.
For a potential gradient of 1 Vim at NTP the mobility of small ions lies between 1 x 10- 4 and
2 x 10- 4 m/sec. Free electrons have a much greater mobility than those of small ions, but electrons
cannot remain unattached for an appreciable time in the conditions existing in the part of the atmos-
phere of concern to us. If we assume an average potential gradient of -10,000 V/m under the thunder-
cloud, the mobility of the ions towards the cloud will be between 1 and 2 m/sec. The wind speed during
a thunderstorm may, on average, be 10 m/sec gusting to 15 and the base of a thundercloud could be
around 500 m. These figures indicate roughly that even without aerosol attachment it would take
the ions between 4 and 9 minutes to reach the base of the cloud by which time the wind would have
blown this space charge some 3 to 6 km down-stream. However, considering aerosol attachment the
life time of fast ions is a limited one, being 50 seconds or less in air full of aerosol, and being up to 200
seconds in country air. This should be valid throughout the exchange layer. Thus after about six minutes
or less, the ions do not move anymore vertically under the influence of the field, they just follow the
wind, vertically or horizontally. The situation likens itself to a factory chimney putting out large quanti-
ties of positive ions being blown in the gusts of a thunderstorm. Obviously the situation is much more
complicated and one must consider vertical air currents to the cell, but it appears that the normal
ion mobility and wind speed cast some doubt on the cloud dissipation principle of the lightning elim-
ination arrays put forward by the manufacturer.
The major question, however~ in determining the effectiveness of the arrays is the dissipated current.
Many experiments have been carried out in the laboratory and in the field comparing the current
flow from single and multiple points. In the laboratory there is much evidence that multiple points
give more current than single points, but in the field experiments the evidence shows that multiple
points give less current than single points. The answer to this dilemma probably lies in the fact that the
relative distances between electrodes and points are considerably different in the two cases.
In laboratory experiments Jhawar and Chalmers (1965) showed that as the distance between the
points was increased, the current increased. For an applied potential of 45 kV over a 12 cm gap they
showed currents as high as 100 IlA for points spaced 10 cm apart.
Actual measurements from a large umbrella array manufactured by this Californian firm were taken
by NASA scientists after its installation atop a 130 m tower at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida.
The maximum sustained current from this array, and from one with sharper points that replaced it
during stormy conditions was 280 !lA, but a more typical high sustained current under local storms
was 200 1lA. Displacement currents of larger values were recorded, but must obviously be disregarded.
These measured currents are considerably less than those required to dissipate a thunderstorm unless
about 5000 units were installed under the thunder cell. During many thunderstorms, another similar
array atop a 33 meter tower gave currents of the order of 10-38 !lA maximum.
The original array was installed on the 130 meter tower at KSC in June 1974, but before the installation
was fully completed, lightning struck the tower. It must be pointed out that due to a quality control
problem at the manufacturer's facility, the galvanizing process was reported to have blunted the tips
of the array barbs. The manufacturer, therefore, could not stand behind the performance of the array
as they said it would not dissipate ions properly and would actually attract lightning. On 18 July 1974,
755
Fig. 1. Lightning striking a tower at Kennedy Space Center, Florida on which a lightning dissipation array of
reportedly inferior quality was installed
NASA personnel recorded a strike to the array with three TV cameras. One of the photographs is
shown in Fig. 1.
The lightning strike moves horizontal along the direction of the wind, but it appears unlikely that
the space charge cloud caused by point discharge from the array played any part in the strike pattern.
The cloud of ions would not have reached the height of the horizontal strike as the wind would have
moved the ion cloud well downstream before the mobility of the ions carried them to that height. I have
shown the photograph to many experts here at this conference and their general opinion is that the
photograph shows a short upward leader meeting a downward leader and that the path is not influenced
by any corona cloud from the tower.
The results and suggestions we have just discussed cast considerable doubt on the physical claims
of these dissipation arrays. It is puzzling, however, to look at the claimed effectiveness of the arrays
and analyze what is really going on. In particular, we discussed the situation where an array had seeming-
ly protected a 400 meter tower from strikes for a considerable period. This tower had often been struck
before, and during temporary removal it was struck again a number of times. Maybe this was coincidence;
maybe a ground line had been accidently removed, but whatever happened it is claimed that there
has been a considerable decrease in the number of strikes believed to have hit the tower. During one
month of investigations on this 400 meter tower over five direct lightning strikes to the tower have
been recorded which cast some doubt on the claims of the manufacturer of the lightning array.
Corona current tests on this array have also indicated that large ground current loops may have
hindered the manufacturer's corona measurements giving rise to the belief that large corona currents
exist.
A full analysis of these systems is now underway where every possible investigation will take place.
Towers will be instrumented for current measurements from the arrays ; single point versus multiple
point tests will be carried out ; point discharge from nearby natural sources will be investigated and
photographs of lightning strokes will be taken. Thorough investigations of the claims put forward
will be undertaken and sites will be visited to look at such things as changes in ground lines and pre-
array damage accounts.
In conclusion I would like to ask the audience two questions. The first one I direct to anyone who
has had experience in investigating point discharge in the field. I would like to know of any recent
756
results comparing single point current with multiple point current. Secondly, I would like to hear
from anyone who has any idea what the lightning dissipation array atop the 400 meter tower discussed
here can be doing, if anything, to influence the lightning from striking or causing damage?
Acknowledgments
Thanks are due to Mr. Don Arabian, NASA, Johnson Space Flight Center, Houston, Texas, for providing the
photograph shown in Fig. 1 and the related information.
References
1. Chalmers, J. A., Weather XX, 6 (1965). 2. Jhawar, D. S. and J. A. Chalmers, J. Atmosph. Terr. Phys. 27,
367 (1965).
Discussion
With regard to the theoretical discussion on corona current, I would just like to point out that Chapman
(J. Geophys. Res. 75,2165 (1970» made an extensive series of measurements in a wind tunnel of corona current
and came up with some empirical equations but could not produce a theory. (In fact, he saw my radioactive probe
theory and asked me to do the same thing for corona; I have not done it yet.)
Ette, Ibadan, Nigeria:
I would like to answer the first question posed by Bent about whether anybody has done any experiments in
the atmosphere on multiple points and single points. Measurements we have made with single metal point and
trees - effectively multiple point systems - indicate that although the two types of discharges have comparable
starting potential gradients, a metal point discharges more than a mUltiple point system below a "cross-over"
potential gradient, whereas above this threshold the multiple point system discharges more.
It is dangerous to compare corona discharges from a metal point and corona discharges from anything else
that is not metal. The reason is that ions produced in the air are going to charge the pointed dielectric object.
No new discharges can take place until this charge is dissipated by conduction through the dielectric. This takes
a long time compared to the time for corona pulses using metal points. So, a tree might give a succession of pulses
that may be very hard to detect, but liberate a big amount of charge. A small single corona pulse liberates about
108 net elementary charges.

I should like to give my opinion on this question. We had some analogous problems. I feel the only
comparison which really has some value and may convince you is the comparison in the nature, not in the
laboratory or both. When one has time for observations, say, 2, 3, 4 years in the nature at a place where one knows
what has happened before, one has a method for comparison. For example, on a tower on a mountain which was
struck very often before. We cannot prove anything conclusively by laboratory tests. This is our experience.
If we can help something with the corona current registrations we have over many years, we shall be happy to
do so.
I should like to know how they know after they put that array up whether lightning strikes the tower or not.
Bent, Indialantic, Florida, USA:
The instruments are contained in a hut at the bottom of the tower at Eglin AFB, Florida. In the past,
instruments were often damaged by lightning striking the tower. I believe the grounding circuits have been
improved and have been connected to a well. After the dissipation array was installed, there has been no damage
to their instruments and as far as I know, no protective circuitry has been included. It is interesting to note,
however, that when the array was temporarily removed a few weeks ago, lightning struck a number of times
causing a lot of damage. I suppose it could have been coincidence or maybe a ground wire had accidentally been
disconnected.
Uman:
At KSC (Kennedy Space Center) I saw the site where the California company put their array up, they put
it in their own grounding system. They did not rely on the ground of the tower.
757
Bent:
He did that at Eglin AFB, Florida, as well. He buried another piece of copper wire around the tower and maybe
at this time connected it to the well.
Uman:
You might imagine, if they have a big wire running down the tower and something on the top, insulated from
the tower that they are going to shock some of the current away from the instruments.
Bent:
I don't really know at this time what is insulated at Eglin, but I believe the array is insulated from the tower.
Lane-Smith:
It's much more difficult, I think, to dismiss this array as being pure charlatanism, than it is to dismiss the
radioactive lightning protectors that have been produced by various companies, including, I might add, the
British Lightning Preventor Company Ltd. And there the theory was that the radiation or the ionization diffused
by the cloud of radiation would afford a sort of an umbrella. The trouble is, of course, that when they erect these
things they pull down what was otherwise, perhaps, adequate lightning protection. And when government agencies
start buying them it suggests that the lightning protection regulations are likely to be changed to accommodate
them. Then, it is dangerous if they do not work.
Aina,Ibadan, Nigeria:
I would just like to report some occurrences of lightning strikes that happened only a few weeks ago. In one
house where lightning struck, the roof was not damaged even though some things placed on shelves inside the build-
ing were destroyed. And this causes me to question the effectiveness of metal protectors because the roof of the
building was metallic. I want to ask why the things inside the house should be destroyed without the building
being affected by the lightning. (Remark by editor: the damage depends, among other things, on the voltage drop
caused by the lightning current in conductors of different resistivities, even if metallic).
Author's address:
R. B. Bent
Atlantic Science Corporation
P.O. Box 3201
Indialantic, Florida 32903
USA
Chairman's address:
A.A.Few
Dept. of Space Physics and Astronomy
Rice University
Houston, Texas 77001
USA
758
Session 10
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY ACTIVITIES

OF THE INSTITUTE FOR
ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH
Chairman: L. Koenigsfeld
Atmospheric Electricity Activities of the Institute for

Atmospheric Environmental Research *)
R.Reiter
With 41 figures
Review of the History, Activities and Basic Facilities of the Institute for
Atmospheric Environmental Research
Historical Development
Our studies began some 25 years ago, mainly in the field of atmospheric electricity. As shown in
Fig. L a number of special activities in different fields organically developed out of that basis (line 1).
Our atmospheric electrical work was started in the Miinchen area in 1948. 1952 we began setting up
a system of 9 simple atmospheric electrical stations in the mountains around the Zugspitze in order to
study the effect of altitude. About 10 years ago we reduced them to the three main stations where we
have been recording all important atmospheric electrical parameters up to this day. Five years ago we
additionally began using cable cars as probe carriers in the field of atmospheric electricity, in order to
obtain vertical profiles easily and at frequent intervals (see following section, below).
Our next branch of study (line 2) was that of atmospheric radioactivity. It has a bearing on atmospheric
electricity as it contributes strongly to the ionization of the tropospheric air. Thus we began to
sample all important radionuclides at our stations, both natural and artificial. Since about five years
we have also been measuring on Zugspitze peak radionuclides which are predominantly generated by
cosmic rays in the stratosphere and transported downwards (Be 7, P 32, P 33, S 35).
Neither the atmospheric electrician nor the scientist studying atmospheric radioactivity will make
much progress unless they include the parameters of atmospheric aerosols. Thus, we soon began to
determine on a continuous basis the physical characteristics of atmospheric aerosols at our three stations
(line 3). In addition, our telemetry system using cable cars was extended 5 years ago, to pick up
profiles of aerpsol concentrations and other free air data. Recently, we added an optical radar,
namely a highpower double frequency lidar, for remote aerosol sensing.
Using atmospheric radioactivity and aerosol parameters it was possible before long to run continuous
studies of vertical exchange, transport and mixing processes of aerosols in the lower troposphere (line 4),
employing our stations, the cable cars, and the lidar which enables us to extend our studies into the
stratosphere.
Again, it is impossible to study atmospheric exchange processes which are an essential factor to
atmospheric electricity, without covering all important meteorological parameters that control the
*) Paper invited by the Sponsor. In connection with this paper guided tours were conducted for the conferees
through the headquarter's building of the institute in Garmisch-Partenkirchen and to the field stations on the
mountains Wank and Zugspitze.
759
INSTITUTE FOR ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
GARMISCH-PARTENKIRCHEN
HIGH MOUNTAIN STATIONS:
Z - Zugspitze 2964 m 8 Solar- Z

using
W-WankPeak 1780m ___-:;:~~7., terr. (W) 1+2
G- Garmisch 740 m relat.
valley
all main parameters
climatic changes
light absorpt. + scatt.
W particles. trace gases

------- 'chemistry condensation processes
Meteoro!. Z] I t ATMOSPHERIC
transport W + ~~~ons + RAWINSONDE PHYSICS
processes G AND
CHEMISTRY,
cable
~]
using
+ [ car + LlDAR
ENVIRON-
2+3 MENTAL
telemetry
RESEARCH
ZJ Aitken nuclei. ] + L I DA R
size
W m,croscop'c + [Cable car
distrib.
G particles telemetry
Atmosph. fallout
+Z, same measurements
radio- WGJ RaB. RaC
+ Be7. P32. P 33. S 35
activity ThB
Atmosph. some sites : Zugsp. area : three WZG ] E.i.A+. A_. n+.n_. p
elec!ri- E.!i) : E.Ii) : main Ipr. Ip. VLF
city near Munich:7stations : stations + cable car telemetry
1948/1950 1952/1960 1960 1968 1970 1974

time scale -
Fig. 1. History of research at the Institute for Atmospheric Environmental Research, starting with atmospheric
electrical studies at the end of 1948. The arrows indicate the development out of each other of the individual
types of research. Z, W, G = our stations on Zugspitze peak, Wcmk peak and Garmisch valley, E = electric field,
i = air-earth current density, A. = conductivity, n = number density of fast ions, p = space charge density,
Ip, = precipitation current, Ip = current from point discharge, VLF = electromagnetic radiation 3-30kHz;
Be 7, P 32, P 33, S 35 = radioactive substances in the atmosphere
transporting processes involved (line 5). Thus, for several years now, we have been conducting studies
of air currents, using pilot balloons, and employing rawinsondes to measure free air data such as wind,
humidity and temperature, up to 30 km.
All classical meteorological parameters have been recorded at our three stations from the beginning.
To better understand some important problems and processes such as condensation, photo-
chemical reactions and others, it is essential to study the chemical composition of the atmospheric
aerosol (line 6). This was taken up several years ago under the pure-air conditions on Wank peak. This
enables us to include some parameters which control light absorption, light scattering, and visibility,
and these ultimately lead us to the problem of possible changes in climate (line 7).
760
Finally, we are conducting investigations into solar-terrestrial relationships, with regard to the field
of atmospheric electricity and to the atmospheric exchange occurring between stratosphere and
troposphere (line 8). .
Basic Facilities of the Institute

Fig. 2 presents a schematic view of the present main basic facilities of our Institute. They are
characterized by the concerted action of stationary measurements and recordings made at three
observatories (Zugspitze peak, Wank peak, and Institute on valley floor), with radiosondes of various
sizes, instrumented cable cars with telemetry systems for meteorological, atmospheric electrical and
aerosol data, double frequency high-power lidar and radar. The diagram of Fig. 2 speaks for itself.
Maybe it should be mentioned that horizontal distances are rather short: 15 km from Zugspitze peak
to Wank peak, with the central research institute approximately on the connecting line, halfway between.
INSTITUTE FOR ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH

atmospheric electricity,
stratospheric and
tropospheric radioactivity,
aerosol physics,
-"&'' '
100 Megawatts,
meteorology 2964 m
t
double frequency RAWINSONDE
km
+
I
30 km alt.
LlDAR
atmospheric electriCity,
3 troposph. radioactivity,
instrumented aerosol phYSICS
cable car and chem Istry,
/
aerological and
~Oj
2
Observa tory'
2964 m a.s.1.
in the va lIey, 740 m receiver

atmospheric physics and chemistry,
meteorology.
climatology
Fig. 2. Basic facilities of the Institute; harmonic interaction of measurements and recordings at three neigh-
bouring stations at different levels; an instrumented cable car with telemetry system; rawinsonde, and other
balloon ascents, high-power double frequency lidar, and radar
Special Subjects from the Field of Atmospheric Electricity

Fig. 3 is a schematic representation of the atmospheric electrical subjects studied. Here, we must
differentiate between fair-weather electricity studies and disturbed-weather studies. The arrows at the
761
,---
V solar-terrestrial relations
: ~ global circuit
~V
~ ~ vertical columnar resistance
~ .. exchange processes
c
fine weather
physics, chemistry
electricity
t-----
z: - N
I--- I--- of aerosol s ,
studies Ul
~
air pollution
'"
condensation processes
'E"
atmospheric and precipitation
c
~ ~ radioactivity, I--
c (artificial and natural)
0-
-C
<..J thunderstorms,
.-
en V charge generationl
precipitation chemistry ~
0
/ -
disturbed I-- 0
~
H precipitation electricity
(0-
weather ....-
0 cloud electricity
-''""
studies r---- -
f--- under turbulent
and non-
. conditions
He
~
E
other charge separationJ
mechanisms
- '------.-~---------------.
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY
INSTITUTE FOR ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH
Fig, 3. Schematic representation of sub-topics investigated by the Institute within the field of atmospheric
electricity. Arrows indicate interrelations
right margin of the figure indicate interrelations of the partial subjects. It is important to note that in
all atmospheric electricity studies we take into consideration those meteorological parameters that
may be related to the variations of atmospheric electrical magnitudes.
Solar-terrestrial Relationships
For the past 15 years (1, 2, 3) we have been able to show on a statistically established basis that after
solar flares there will be a significant increase in both, the electric field E and air-earth current density i
(Fig. 4). This relationship was confirmed by W. E. Cobb (4). As shown in Fig. 4, the maximum of both
elements is observed on the 2nd or 3nd day after a solar flare, the latter defining the key day in this super-
posed epoch analysis. According to our experience, such observations are possible only at times when
the observatory is above the exchange layer and far away from any charge generators. In other words,
it must be a "globally representative" station, e.g., on high mountain tops. We have developed the
762
necessary criteria to indicate whether or not during an apparently undisturbed period the station had
in fact been above the exchange layer [see (3)], and sufficiently far away from charge generators.
For comparison, Fig. 5 shows the result obtained if fine-weather random-key days are used instead
of solar-flare key days. Random fluctuations of E and i are obtained which are much smaller than those
observed after solar flares (Fig. 4).
Zugspilze peak 29M m.a.s.l
Feb. 61-f1ay69
20'W20'[
~
760
';' Po/enlial gradient
740
E
720
10O ~ ~
16
N- M
80
I I I I I j[
60
side level Sldelevel
16O days
%
NO A" earlh current
120
100 ~
N- 9
M 12 IS I; 6 ~
11
80
I
I,~"~j'l I ...L..
60 .z -I -0"1 '2 '3 '4 '5
SIde level -J -~ -J sldeleve!
doys I
key day
Hrxf/are
Fig. 4. Superposed epoch analysis of electric field E and air-earth current density i; key days: H. flares occurring
near the central meridian of the sun (between 20° West and 20° East). Results of several years of recordings on
Zugspitze peak. Standard deviation indicated in broken lines for each column. The band width marked "side level"
indicates range of variation of E and i aside of solar flare events [after (3)]
Zugspille peak 296'1m.as.l

April 64 -Sept 65
rtne weather random key days
perlodswilhout flares
760
% Po/en/lui gradllmt
1'10
f
720
700
80
60
760
%
1'10 AIr earlh current
120
100
80
60
Fig. 5. Random superposed epoch analysis for a period of solar quiet. The random fluctuations are considerably
smaller than the deviations of E and i after solar flares in Fig. 4 [after (3)]
763
It is not possible, however, from such observations based on statistical data to infer a causal connec-
tion between solar event and subsequent variation of electric field and air-earth current density.
To elucidate the chain of causation involved, we conducted some case studies concerning the histo-
grams of various solar-geophysical data. Fig. 6 presents one example [for details see (5, 6)], with the
product of E x i as the atmospheric electrical variable. By using this product we eliminate local
interferences which may result from variations of conductivity, in particular for measurements at moun-
tain stations. The following variables are compared versus the product of E x i: geomagnetic index
Cp , solar X-rays, solar wind velocity, proton density, solar flux (15400 MHz, 9100 MHz), solar flares.
The following is apparent from Fig. 6: a steep increase of E x i from 12 October 1970 on, lasting for
5 days; a flare of intensity 2 occurring near the center of the sun 4 days before the E x i increase, and
another on 13 October during the E x i rise phase; each time after Ii flare there is a flat maximum of
the solar flux intensity.
Jotar flares: 12
in/ens..·11 IIIJU II JL JIll IIIIIII III I II!
pas/lion: fl5 ]3W ]lS09E ]3S]JW
t iOO
[ Solar Wind velo[
: Km/s ..·..
LJOO
3D Exi
CP-+-
20
10
:1
'I
0
tJe 7 12
XIO'2J>1m'~
I 7 I 8 I 9 I ]0 111 T12TifTTfTi,jTi6TiTT18Tl9TOct 10
Fig. 6. Histogram of solar and geophysical parameters for comparison with the behavior of the product of
field E times air-earth current density i, and with the Beryllium 7 concentration in air. - Solar-geophysical para-
meters: solar flux 15400 MHz and 9100 MHz; proton density (particles per second); solar wind velocity (km/s);
solar X-rays 100-800 picometer; geomagnetic index Cp [after (5, 6)]
The most remarkable observations are a steep increase of E x i while solar wind velocity increases
and high E x i values while simultaneously the following parameters are clearly increased: proton
density, X -ray intensity, solar wind velocity, geomagnetic index Cp , Be 7 concentration in air.
There is no doubt that the period of 10 through 17 October is one during which solar events
triggered a series of remarkable geophysical phenomena which were also connected with an increase
of the electric potential of the ionosphere, as is apparent from the E x i behavior.
Within the scope of atmospheric-electrical and solar-terrestrial considerations, in all our earlier
investigations we had used only the daily mean values of E and i. Now we considered it important also
to compare the diurnal variation of E and i during periods of solar disturbance versus that during
periods of solar quiet. In this regard see Fig. 7. The heavy lines represent data obtained during periods
764
low solaroeliv. hl9,h solar aeliv
10/11/1Z Oel10 ----- 15116 OeI10--
f'Yo 1/8/9 Oct 10 ---- 16/11/18 Del 10···········
1~
lz0 meQn1
100
80
VQ/~!.s.
.... ....••.' ..•., ' /........... '::::
60 -', _,~"",c~~.~ '''_''

i!O #'.:..~~~~.""'c:..-:;.:~-~:.~-.:..=.;.~. /. "',_.-
20
o
Fig. 7. Diurnal variation of electric field E and air-earth current density i after solar flares (heavy solid line, heavy
broken line) and during periods of solar quiet (light lines). Total air conductivity A shows no diurnal variation,
nor does the criterion of satisfaction of Ohm's law (.0). A and .0 as well as all other meteorological parameters
confirm that genuine fair weather was prevailing during periods of measuring E and i, and that the station
was above the exchange layer. Electric charge generators are to be ruled out [after (6)]
of solar disturbance, viz. 15 through 16 Oct. (solid line1 and 16 through 18 Oct. (dotted line). The light
curves represent data obtained during periods without solar disturbance of the same month (details
as in Fig. 7). The mean value throughout the sequences is shown as a plateau at the right margin. It is
noted that the diurnal variations of A = (A+ + A_) and Q (criterion for satisfaction of Ohm's law)
reflect no disturbance during periods of increased solar activity. They do not even show a diurnal
variation (consequently no local vertical exchange existed which could have interfered). If we compare
the diurnal variations of E and i during sequences of increased solar activity, against those of solar
quiet we do not only fmd an elevated level of E and i but also an intensified amplitude of the diurnal
cycle during the sequence of solar activity. From the heavy curves of E and i it is apparent that both
values, at the time of day with a minimum electric ionospheric potential (04-08 UT), are not much
higher during the sequences of solar activity than during those ofsolar quiet. Consequently, the maximum
value during solar activity is considerably above that during solar quiet. At this point it is emphasized
that this observation is valuable where short-term atmospheric-electrical measurements (by airplane
or balloon) are to be compared with long-term values (of a whole day or more). It is also to be expected
that at the time of day with the minimum electric potential of the ionosphere, solar effects will be smaller
than during the time of maximum ionospheric potential, for details see (6). Assuming that the electric
conductivity of the atmosphere above the exchange layer does not change, variations of the current
density i measured at a mountain which is higher than the upper boundary of the exchange layer will be
nearly parallel to variations of the ionospheric potential (not considering the possibility of horizontal
currents varied by effects in lower layers near that mountain). One of the conditions for this is fair
weather at that mountain, of course. If the mountain top is slightly within the exchange layer, the
product E x i will indicate variations of the ionospheric potential provided that the extension of the
765
remaining exchange layer above the mountain is only small, small enough for the assumption to be
valid that the columnar resistance varies in parallel with the local conductivity (24). Again, the possible
but generally small influences from areas around the mountain are neglected. Experimental proof was
provided by a comparison of our measurements of i and E at the Zugspitze peak with direct determina-
tion of the earth-ionospheric potential difference by high radiosonde flights conducted about 100 km
away near Weissenau by Muhleisen and co-workers; see (7). This is demonstrated by Fig. 8, where, in
addition, an increase of ionospheric potential is shown each time after an intense H -alpha flare.
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 g 10
I , I I I I t I I
n 12I I
Aug. 1972
kV 400
Exi (ZugspitzeJ
,..
~
AI
40 "" ,... 4 ascen t s _ 300
EMi ',/ ....
30 EMi _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 29.8.-27.9.72
50
1
20 MEAN VALUE 200
DURING SOLAR
10 QUIET
o 100
• POTENTIAL
M.-D.-Effect t t OF IONOSPHERE
BY RADIOSONDE
X - Burst t
H", flares t t
Importance 3-4 3-4
{N14 N14
Position E08 W35
Solar noise
bursts
10-40 GHz
t
Geomagnetic index
20
1
Ap
10
o
I I I I I I I I I I I
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Aug. 1972
Fig. 8. Comparison of E and i recordings (E x i solid line, average of unchanged days broken line) at Zugspitze
peak station with balloon measurements (e) of potential difference between ionosphere and earth conducted in
Weissenau on the same days, but not necessarily at the same time of the day (R. Muhleisen). These measurements
were made during and after intense solar flares [see ar~ows, after (7)]
How do we account for the increase of electric tension between ionosphere and earth's surface? We
assume that the voltage between ionosphere and earth's surface is maintained according to Wilson,
primarily by the total sum of the electric activity of all thunderstorms on earth. Consequently, a fluctua-
tion in frequency and intensity of thunderstorms affects the voltage between ionosphere and earth's
surface.
By now, solar action upon large-scale weather is considered a fact [J. W. King (8)]. Hence the pos-
sibility cannot be denied that intensity and frequency of thunderstorms on earth may also be influenced
by solar action via some large-scale weather processes. We have been able, some time ago, to prove that
a few days after a solar flare the frequency of sferics pulses is increased (1, 3). More recently, Bossolasco
has found an increase in thunderstorm frequency in the Mediterranean [M. Bossolasco (9)]. If the
diurnal variation of E and i as recorded at Zugspitze peak above the exchange layer during fair weather
days is studied, comparing flare-free periods against such after solar flares, rather interesting observa-
tions are possible (10). Fig. 9 represents an example. Considering the respective geographical zone
above which the sun reaches its highest point, it is found that after solar flares E and i are increased
766
100
E m
80 ~
60
40
20 1ii
w
0 .
;;
'0 =E
0
:i z
0
100
~u
80 ~
I
~
60
40
1972
20 .... 10-13 Oct (n= 4)
no flares
___ 5-9 Oct (n=5)
no flares
o 1973
L2030] ................\ ................................~..................... .. _

1-3Jan
5- 9Jan (n=10)
11-15.Jan
10 ---,,--- -....... "'- ........... _... ,----",- .... - flares: 31 Dec 1972
............. 5.6.11.12Jan
o 1973
UT 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 UT
Fig. 9. Pattern of diurnal variations of E and i, and of conductivity (L) in relative units after solar flares (solid
lines), compared with flare-free periods (broken or dotted lines). Added with each time entry is information
whether the sun at that time had reached its highest point above a continent or an ocean [after (10)].
m = average values
particularly at times when the sun reaches its highest point above tropical land zones. No increase or
only an indistinct one is found, however, as long as the sun reaches its highest point above the ocean
(in Fig. 9: minimum E, i: sun is standing above the Atlantic and the Pacific).
Numerous analyses of the type in Figs. 6, 7, and 9 have substantiated our suspicion that solar action
(most probably by the solar wind and possibly also by the solar X-rays) will indeed cause large-scale
weather changes which in tum may in certain geographical zones (mainly the tropics) lead to an increase
in thunderstorm frequency. Further studies are underway. Besides, some more recent studies have shown
that appreciable horizontal differences in the electric potential of the ionosphere must be taken into
account [R. J. Fischer and R. Muhleisen (11, 12) and R. Volland (13)].
Finally, one further observation is pointed out. The lowermost curve in Fig. 6 indicates the diurnal
mean of Be 7 concentration in air at Zugspitze peak. Be 7 is predominantly generated by cosmic rays
out of nitrogen in the stratosphere. It is carried down as far as the earth's surface by stratospheric-tropo-
spheric exchange processes. A sudden increase in Be 7 concentration at Zugspitze peak is indicative
of a local increase in intensity of said air mass exchange, occurring a few days prior. Fig. 6 shows that an
increase of air exchange between stratosphere and troposphere and consequently the Be 7 con-
767
centration had occurred after the occurrence of solar flares or, respectively, approximately at the time
of an increase in solar wind velocity. The result of a statistical study [using superposed epoch analysis,
cf. (14)] is shown in Fig. 10. The concentration of Be 7 in air is increased by some 50 %to 60 %between
the key day and the 4th day thereafter. Exchange between stratosphere and troposphere is corres-
pondingly increased. This result is in logical agreement with variations of some other solar-geophysical
variables, such as daily calcium plage index, relative sunspot number, solar flux intensity, neutron
density, solar wind velocity, geomagnetic index, radio propagation index, and solar X-rays. From a
viewpoint of this observation, too, it does not seem unreasonable to postulate that increased solar
activity will trigger an increase in thunderstorm frequency above large areas of the earth's surface.
HI< SOLAR FLARES

JAN 73
I
APR 74
CONC.
CONC. Se7
Se7 IN AIR
_'I'J"'t.rtIM'
IN AIR
.,()"Jpc;/II'I'
SOLAR
WIND
DAILY VE LOC.
CALCIUM km/sec
PLAGE
INDEX
GEO -
00 MAGN.
REL Q' INDEX
SUNSPOT Cp
NO
GEO-
SOLAR 20 MAGN.
FLUX INDEX
8800 MHz Ap
V llWln -11oq-l
RADIO
SOLAR PROP.
FLUX INDEX
2695MHz
'O·D WftI-I Hr -'l
SOLAR
X RAYS
NEUTRON 1-8.!.
DENSITY ". ,~
cts/hr
-KJ -5 0 .5 .KJ OIYS -KJ -5

1
KEY DAY N :22 KEY DAY
Fig. 10. Superposed epoch analysis of the behavior of the Beryllium 7 (Be 7) concentration around solar flare
key days. Comparison with variations of several solar geophysical data [after (14)]
Indicators to Determine Suitability of Atmospheric-Electrical Data for

Consideration Within the Scope of the Global Circuit
Homogeneous series of measurements, run for many years, of all atmospheric electrical parameters,
of aerosol concentration and Aitken nuclei concentration, of natural radioactivity, and of the meteoro-
logical data recorded at our high mountain stations, have been used to derive some criteria which will
permit in each individual case determination whether atmospheric electrical data obtained from time
to time are suitable for application within the scope of an intented investigation into the electric global
circuit.
768
It is obvious that for such an investigation two basic requirements must be fulfilled. There must be
no charge generators acting nearby (no "local generators"), and the magnitude of the columnar
resistance must either be constant or its variations must be measurable. Only then, measurements at
ground can be used to monitor the earth-ionosphere potential difference which is the central element
in the global circuit. These two requirements constitute (a) the "fair-weather hour" (no local generators)
and, (b), the condition for a "globally representative station" (variations of columnar resistance either
measurable or zero), (24).
For the practical application of these requirements we developed certain criteria at our high-mountain
station. According to these, the diurnal variations of the total conductivity, of the ratio of positive-ion
to negative-ion conductivities, of the space charge densities, and of the deviation from Ohm's law must
not exceed ten percent. That also means that all these parameters must be recorded.
Meteorologically, a practically cloudless sky in the zenith is to be ascertained by a recording of the
general local brightness. Monitoring Aitken nuclei and measuring the radon content allow con-
clusions on the absence of nearby disturbing sources and on the fact that the exchange layer does not
influence the conditions at the station. Recordings of wind speed and direction, of water vapor
pressure and of temperature round off the list of desired parameters. Here, not the traditionallimita-
tions are essential (wind speed under 3 Beaufort, cloudiness under 3/10, etc.) but the evaluation of these
parameters for a judgement on the absence of local generators and of variations due to the exchange
layer.
All these requirements have been met when the observations were made which we have reported
above in the previous chapter.
It is held advisable that these considerations be applied in any future atmospheric electrical
comparisons of global scope.
Fig. 11. Zugspitze cable car (with installed probes and telemetry system) high above the ground
769
Wank Peak
Observatory
+
Fig. 12. Haze layers in the valley, observed from the moving Zugspitze cable car. Meteorological variables and
atmospheric electric parameters measured aboard the cable car permit - along with recordings of Aitken nuclei
concentration - the studying of atmospheric physical conditions that lead to the formation of such aerosol
structures
7 feb. 7910
eET 09.JO /6.JO
4+
J 2 1
2600 -+-----4-1-1---- - - - - f - --H--f-- - - -
NOO -+--J++--+--+---!l- - -+- ----

2200 +----t+--+------t----H--+-----~
20004-- -++-- 1--------+--+1--- +-------1
--- - \-,-+- -\ ---,

I~OO +--++-\'-c----1-+I-----\----~
1600
l ~_ ~
1400 +-----+- ----~--_II_------____1_ r:l::
T T' ,if ~
1200+----jj--- - - I--+- ..- - --\___ ::i
UJ
~
J:
o -5 -10 'C 0 -5 -/0 'e

T. T' T. T'
Fig. 13. Profiles of wet (T) and dry (T) bulb temperature and positive ion conductivity }. + during cable car
runs under conditions of inversions and haze layers [after (15)]'
770
Application of Atmospheric Electrical Recordings - EspeciaUy of Atmospheric Conductivity -
for Studying Vertical Aerosol Exchange
As mentioned before, a cable car (Fig. 11) of the Zugspitze cableway is used for this purpose, carrying
measuring devices for the recording of temperature, humidity, pressure, wind velocity, positive ion and
negative ion conductivities, potential gradient, and condensation nuclei (15). For most of its run this cable
car moves high above the ground (Fig. 11). Thus the obtaining of representative data is ensured. Now,
if the cable car traverses, say, haze layers such as during the existence of inversions (Fig. 12) an insight
is gained into the fme structure of the meteorological, aerosol-physical, and atmospheric-electrical
profiles. The synoptic parametrization of these permits the deduction of their correlations and causal
relationships.
Fig. 13 is an example of many hundreds of similar profile recordings. It demonstrates how the
vertical structure of temperatures is reflected in the vertical profile of atmospheric electric conductivity.
This relationship is due to the vertical aerosol distribution being controlled by the fine structure of
temperature. The vertical profile of aerosol concentration, in turn, controls the vertical structure of
conductivity. This becomes particularly clear in Fig. 14 wherein we have plotted: the vertical aerosol
23 April 1974 0830 CET
Altitude Lidar Cable Car Data

km a.s.l.
/Reflectivity Aitken Nuclei Conductivity Air Temperature
3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
O-R o 1 2 3 k4 0 1 2 -15 -10 -5 0.3
Fig. 14. Results of profile recordings obtained by instrumented cable car: concentration of Aitken nuclei N,
conductivity A.+, wet (T') and dry (T) bulb temperature. Comparison with measurement of ruby !idar reflectivity R
771
concentration profile indicated by lidar reflectivity as a function of altitude; the vertical profile of
Aitken nuclei concentration N, simultaneously measured by cable car; positive ion conductivity; wet
T and dry T bulb temperatures.
From the empirically obtained relation between condensation nuclei concentration, on one hand,
and conductivity, on the other (with consideration given to natural atmospheric radioactivity as a
variable source of ion generation, as measured at three levels), we are able to convert the profiles of con-
ductivity into the profiles of aerosol concentration (15). From these in turn it is possible, under certain
defined conditions, to compute the profile of the incremental exchange coefficient [or eddy diffusion
coefficient (16)]. From many thousands of individual data it was possible to deduce and parametrize
the relationship existing between the controlling meteorological parameters, on one hand, and the
vertical incremental exchange intensity (Ai), on the other.
The following are three examples of results thus obtained:
Fig. 15 represents the relation between incremental exchange intensity Ai and temperature gradient
G- T. It applies in all cases of inversion, i.e. within that layer where the inverse temperature gradient
G-T is measured. In this manner a measure is established of the barring effect of an inversion whose
temperature structure has been measured by radiosonde.
28 JulJL 7970 -75 oct 1972 Ai 1000 Cases
7000 - 3000 m.a.s.l. Ai* #90 Cases
700 Jnversions only-
*-7
)'
1--
70 JJ[
-
JJi
f
,
Ai*
i i
I
I
!~ I U I
I I
0.1 ~ Ai I
I
i
i
I
I i
~fri ~
I
I !
Ii I
I I
I
/ I
/1 ~
I
0.01
-70 -1 -0.7
(j-T Temperatllre 6rodient O[/lOOm
Fig.1S. Parametrization of the relation between vertical incremental exchange coefficient Ai and temperature
gradient G-T within the range of inversions. Values derived from conductivity measurements by cable car
soundings [after (16)]. Thin lines: standard deviation. AI and At: somewhat different calculating procedures
772
Fig. 16 shows a different relationship, valid for inversions and other structures of minimum exchange
intensity. Ai is plotted against the gradient of water vapor pressure G-E. This relation also applies to
eddy diffusion through the upper boundary of an exchange layer. No matter which atmospheric forma-
tion is encountered, the function found will invariably show the same pattern.
28 July 7910 - 75 oct 7972 7000 - 2000 m.asI

JnverSlOns and other structures with mifllmum eX[!Joflgr;..
I j
I !
-----+--r-4-~~-r++---+----~---+_+--_+_rrH
_~ ~ L.lo!----++-!-+-+--r----+I--t-~---,-_+i-_+__t_+__H
I
I
70 I
b
i I 1
=-=-t_~ ! I 1
-~ ---- ~- --W-
.
--"-----+--":!'U'1"l -t-H--+------t--
' -----,----- ---1--
IL~:ji
1 --+ --+---Ht'nlj!:'~1 --+---+ --- -,--~-"--j-~-,-----j !
+---+--1-+-------+---+--11-+1 +-t~ _+__-~- 1I

,
-r-T-r--- +-:rr-+-+--t-II,-"H'·,L--+---+--
I Q~
T
-- I 1
--I-----L,--+ II Lh~
I i -- -
~~ II ~
I,
0.1 :. r _
l --
:\---+----c--+--t I
r +---H!
r----i--- -~- - -1..+--LLL-I--+- c~~l---1-i--+-rH

1 I Ii! I I ~1 !
I i I I e1'-tIT-+---c-+--'-H
I
~I ILffi
i-:I
: i r : 1 !I
+---+--, : I I II
00 1--1---+--t-~-+--+---1--+-1r-++-+----+---+--t-+--t--1---t-H
-0.1 -02 -03 -O,~ -06 -08 -70 -2 -J -~ -6 -8 -/0
(j-E (jradlBflt of Watel' Vapor Pressure mb/700m
Fig. 16. Same as Fig. 15; parametrization of relationship between vertical incremental exchange coefficient Ai
and gradient of vapor water pressure G-E within the range of inversions and the upper boundaries of exchange
layers (e) [after (16)]. 1 mb/l00 m = 1 Palm
As demonstrated by Fig. 17, the gradient of potential temperature G-PT, too, shows a clear rela-
tionship to the vertical incremental exchange intensity Ai'
These examples are shown to demonstrate to what advantage atmospheric electrical recordings
- in this case of a,tmospheric electrical conductivity - may be used to derive universal and practically
applicable relationships concerning the control of aerosol eddy diffusion b) aero logical conditions.
773
28 July 7g70 - 75 Oct 7972 7000 -2000 m.a.s.!.
Jnversions and olher strudures with mifllmum exd7ang~
Ai* 583 Cases
WO~=+~==+=~~~~~~==+=4=~++~
kg niAi*
lse{Ir--------L-
I r--- - -t---t--t-t---H--H----L
I -- t--f--+-t--I--HH
t-r+-H~--+--r--~~-+-+H-rH
I I
I
I I
r---+-t----
I
---+--f--+-t-t-H
I
Ii
I
10 -+--+-+-+--+ :5",
r-i--t--r-,_---r-_fl_"-tt--t~ l:-+-t-~----_-'" 1
"1-+-+++1
I ! II ,
~,----- II~~ _~_
I-~r-, i DtrL.---+_-f--+-+-++1-H,
1 i I I Llli !
j I i, I : \-+-+-t-++t-II
-+--f--+--+--t--t-t-1 ~
-m
I
~--+---+--+
I
·I-t---
-+---+-+----t--t--i-t-i-1t-t I t-W
+--+---+----+--+-t--+-Til- - T b
-t---t--+---- - - t - --++-+-+f+-- -+- ~ uri
+02 +aJ +aII +M +a8+fO

I i ~-l-'n
+2 +3 +# +6 +8 +70
(j-PT uradient of Potential Temperature °C/100m

Fig. 17. Same as Fig. 15; relationship between Ai and gradient of potential temperature in inversions and other
structures with minimum exchange [after (16)]
Electric Charges at Cloud Bases
Our cable-ear telemetry system is also well suited for the studying of electric charges at tops or bases
of clouds. Here are some examples:
It is a known fact that negative charges exist at the bases, and positive charges at the tops of stable,
stationary, stratiform clouds, as a consequence of the accumulation of ions moved in the electric field.
Two examples are presented by Fig. 18, which were obtained in quick succession, using our cable
car: A negative electric field (E)*) existed in the lowermost region of an altostratus. Fig. 19 by
comparison shows an increased positive electric field at the top of a stratocumulus, which was
ascertainable over a period of 24 hours (6 soundings).
*) Electric field and current density called "positive" when vector points downwards.
774
As a result of the cloud droplets in the lower region of the stratus capturing small ions, the fair-weather
electric field between cloud base and earth's surface is gradually eliminated, with an asymptotic approx-
imation (17) to zero value. This process is observed only in the case of a purely stable stratification with
no more than a weak wind in the lower region of the cloud.
JII /5 /0 • IS 11 I IS ALTOSTRATUS 7 J U I / 1973

itt Ikri1 n..sll I.
H .. lj. m
6
:++11.· CE"
. I
501 +-l igl31 1,0 1311 15Pl 1111
t- I
- ....... :>..l:.
t ",-, 1'1[\'
'tr.l-.-'-' I - 1 .. I
i'... ~
I
,- I
"'"if-;. - . - , r--
' ---1
~
... '1 .i
+H 1..J-. . !j: 1 .., ( lou I [;,.t - I
!
ttt ... .... l ..... 1

-
ri·1 11 ~ I J I L. , 1U :::I 1 t( (17-' --
-
..
t
..
"
~
ftH ' :1 IH .•. -t-I

-
1 I
f :.tl , -I -
H il t t I V I
.1
if III I' IJt Ii 1 I
-' -
'tt LIlI IIII It I It "·1 I , I
.J 1/ I)
:--
Ie WI I 1 I
? (
1
I
. - r - 1-' 1 I- I ~- ,
t t' I
I i ~ 1
- I-
-H Ii"1, I . ., ~
1\ 1 1-- '
I
I-
, t e--
:bl !t , It/ t
.Lrt
j ~l
ir ,11
Jt J
' j
·Ii
l.!
1-- ' _ I
-
' V, .. ~~il
1<
t-
\
.1-[ t -.
J. I II \
- 1·-
.
"
III1I I
~
+
~ - - l - .- - - {-
.11
.
I H, i
0=;;;
~"i"l. \
III, I. r
I f I
II l ·1 I ~ .
I
II, . Ih lit .. I IH I ••
rllltH Iftt ItHl 1ft Ir·1 + ~II '
- .' II- -
11 11111 1'+ II 11· :1· . ,:.,

,
Fig. 18. Profiles of dry (T) and wet (T') air temperature, electric field E and conductivities (A. +, .L) in the case
of an altostratus cloud slightly below peak station
Furthermore, our cable-car system permits investigating into the generation of electric charge at the
bases of cumulus clouds, as shown by our Fig. 20 example. A positive field exists inside the cloud;
the field E rapidly decreases in the lower region of the cloud, and turns negative immediately at the
cloud base (En = fine weather electric field without cloud). The field is negative also throughout the
region below the cumulus, provided the cloud is of a sufficient horizontal extension. Moreover, in
Fig. 25, below, we shall find the very startling process of a negative electric field Es being superimposed
on the normal fair-weather field En. In this particular case (Fig. 25), the horizontal extension of the
cloud was relatively small, hence the superimposed field was able to take effect only in close proximity
of the center of the cloud. Basically, we are here dealing with a dynamic process which is combined with
a swelling cumulus (Cu med), wherein - as well shall see - the electric charge found at the cloud base
is a function of vertical exchange intensity. Thus, the electric field existing between cloud base and
earth is not compensated but is overcompensated by the dynamic, superimposed electric field, so
that eventually even negative electric fields are found between cloud base and earth's surface.
775
-.)
-.)
0\
.1J 1$ ~ .IS II ,- -S -II .t- -J -It ., . oj oil'
HiHIl-,· j kn,n ' I I'Ullfll~t, ,[IT'l 1 ao ~_Z IH' J n ~ n, 73 I j"' O"dn, ,.9J3 ~~ 3 ~ ep 9 31- r- lit jluili~l cJ~~
Hllf-.' ' ,..."
M~ _. - l) , II ti;I~~" J 1_ (H- II ..y 1< - :
W- 'I
, t)~'~ , " I- ~ :- ~ j) , II 710
H....--- . I I- - I - I- f5 lID
f+.;-l ' I .E .E I I_I- 1-. :( y ~q-r- !II
~ _. I I -I- I- I-~/t ~ r- - 1$1
Ii [I
IiH+-- " Ti- - i'~ T TI- f--- 1i-
U , 1- I-I- ~ . .<V I \ -r-r ~ !II
1-1--1
H I-Ij-' r- I- ( 11f
,.,
fHf f' 'H :1 I. ,
fl-HI HI 'i,l ,.,I---HJI·..-+--t-'!I...-1~
r- r- r-
K !~ 2:6 " ., I ' L
'<1/ '-...-J-t ~- 1-\-
1 ~r -to' II~ .:- -1+ r-- I:.
J~lf' ~~r- ~ I- 1-1-1-
fl... ' __ + I ~ -+ I- III
H ,8 II I-I-
,.
~'rI t., t-6
- r'\tl
1/ ef u
. t- - !--
u~ "" ~ .e! ut i i . .r ~ .i...:: !...... cloud ~ 1\ 1\ -r--:
Hrl H·' , 51 rfa e .fU- -I'- ~:::_,:::::'~.R... ""7c~'r~a e~ I' I surfoce\ H'- - I-'-- Ilil
7.db=-"""-L ..... L:1fi I I ir- 1 'HI I- III
--IHHt-" J
'fill' 11 1-1-/
·~It I" •
ft':1ii Ij .. 1':' I, " d -Z~ ~ .<rv~ - I~ H- :
HI;,,· [+;
,. ," co I f!"
I j ~ ~G- +o-t~ i~+ ~;- + t~+
· J~~ 0 0 t. 0 t+ I-~ :
t1t-hfl If It· clFT ' 1550 I I, 111? ho i" ImhL. 1 fir l- J1550ii2810945 o90~171O: 1550 IT 11128 i Q945 9dJJ Uno '-- :
11 15 ~ Il II ., - ...... . ft. -~ .. . .11 _ _f - It -
·c ·c ·c ·c ·c
ig. 19. Severa) profile soundings of T, T , E, A ~ , A_ by Zugspitze cable car throughout the upper bo undary
of a stratus cloud ; recorded parameters sa me as in Fig. 18
II
rtJ km b. s.
10 U II
<
S U II S CUMULUS 10 Sept. 1973
II. I i 2 no pr CI lIe IO~
i:3t;~~~t
llO~ l c
~:r--= :,
;:,., 3.0 ,;. 3 -4· 2 ., ... 1 I I .1. I I 6~
ttur. 't.-1-+--t--r/i-i-+-f,+-+-+rT--1~H-?+-,<;l-H-+
J
A = 21.8
I i ' " 1\\ V. _
lfl)
1--'--+--1+--+-1 - -I-
-
,1, 1. 2
~
f+- -+--
~ 1.-+- I
0 ---J--,fJ+--+--+-It-+--+--4-1 )
.
Fig. 20. Soundings of dry and wet temperature, as well as of electric field E, and polar conductivity A+, through
the base of a cumulus; A = exchange intensity; En = fair weather electric field. 218 g cm - 1 S - 1 = 21.8 kg m - 1 S-1
Our Wank peak observatory, too, is well suited for observations of this kind. In this respect, Figs. 21
through 23 present some examples.
Fig. 21: A cumulus just being formed but developing rather slowly (Cu hum), was situated above the
station. At time <D, i.e. while the cloud was fully developed, the atmospheric electrical parameters showed
no deviation from the fair-weather levels. From our Institute Building on the valley floor, a radar test
was made to determine whether an echo would come from the cloud. Such, as picture a shows, was not
the case. The cloud was in the center of the white cross. In pictures band c, Wank peak itself and its
adjacent peaks are recognized. Thus in that case the swelling process in the cloud was not sufficient to
generate charge at its base.
Fig. 22a, b: Midsummerly swelling cloud of rather rapidly increasing vertical extension (see
Fig. 22b). As apparent from our recordings of global radiation G from 15:00 up (shading of station in-
creasing due to the cloud expanding upward) growth of the cumulus during that period was accelerated,
and both E and i dropped practically to zero. The same is true of point discharge current ip • The
variations of small ion density (n+,n_) and of conductivity (A.+,L) were in agreement with E and j
variations. The same is true ofthe space charge p. Dissipation of the cloud occurred between 16: 00 CET
and 17: 00 CET. By 15: 50 CET (point <D) the fair-weather field was compensated by the superimposed
cloud field existing between cloud base and station. The radar pictures reveal that at point 15: 50 CET
no precipitation was existing inside the cloud, for picture a shows that no echo was coming from the
cloud close above the station (direction of radar beam + 3° across Wank peak station), whereas
picture b in Fig. 22 a shows the echo from the peak itself, and picture c with correspondingly increased
777
30 May 1973
CD 15.05 CET l'
o~o
1~~ on+
~
0
n~
wp o 0
-3·
1
~
o~o
1M OA+ 0
r
10
~ +
b o~===:o
wp
o~+0
-I·
1
:--- ~-r.,
WP=Wank Peak
.....~... .
o I
17
I
13 eeT
0
Fig. 21. Recordings of space charge density p, small ion densities n+ and n_, positive ion and negative ion
conductivities ,(+, L, electric field E, air-earth current density i, point discharge current ip and global radiation
G at Wank peak observatory. At time <D, a summeriy cumulus without any considerable vertical development
was standing above the station. Pictures a, b, c, are radar displays of horizontal planes of ten nautical miles (NM)
depth and situated +3°, -1 ° and _4° above or below the peak of Wank mountain; these angles seen from the
radar antenna
inclination of radar beam shows the responses from Wank and neighbouring mountains. Some time
after 17: 30 CET the atmospheric electrical situation had completely reverted back to normal, with the
cumulus almost completely dissipated.
rIg. 23: This case is characterized by a further increase in strength of the superimposed field.
Between 11:00 CET and 12:00 CET a strong swelling cumulus was developing above the station.
From 11: 50 CET on, both E and i turned progressively negative. The superimposed cloud field thus
overcompensated the fair-weather field. The negative maxima of E and i were reached at about 12:00
CET (point CD). At that time a negative point discharge current ip occurred *). Conductivities, small
ions and space charge showed values commensurate with the existing negative field strength. The radar
picture of 12:00 CET (point CD, picture e) does not yet show any echo out of the cloud immediately
above the station, hence no precipitation was existing at that time, and negative E cannot have been
caused by precipitation. Within the next hour, the swelling cumulus (Cu med) developed into a cumulus
congestus out of which precipitation was falling from 12: 50 CET on. Radar pictures a and b clearly
show a strong echo out of the region right above Wank peak, and radar picture c shows precipitation
falling right in front ofWank peak (Peak in white cross). In the rain shower (after point ®), E, i, and ip
assumed high negative values. The remaining atmospheric electrical parameters behaved correspond-
ingly. This development again demonstrates that at time of commencement of the swelling develop-
*) Current vector of ip pointing upwards; positive point discharge ions moving upwards.
778
9.June 1973 (j)
CD 15.50 CET 9
0-
•
a
n~
a
1~~ o
n ...
0
°A... °
~
WP
.3'
1 O~O
;.-
~
o 0
1INM
10
b
WP
c
O--r- -r"- I 0
17 16 IL eET
WP=Wank Peak
Fig. 22 a. Same as Fig. 21 for another day; here, at time <D development of a swelling cumulus above the station
Fig. 22b. Cumulus at time <D in Fig. 22a above the peak
779
ment of a cumulus the initial superimposed cloud field is negative and is already established before
precipitation is formed in the cloud.
Here one remark must be added concerning the question whether or not temperatures below O°Celsius
occurred inside the investigated clouds in Figs. 21 through 23 :
In aH three cases the temperature in the ceiling of the cloud was at least + 2°, as a rule it was + 3°
and + 11 0 . So the observed atmospheric electric phenomena cannot have been caused by icing
processes.
2 12.45 CET
• <V CD
11~ I
a ~ WP 20 June 1973
.5'
""------:~, 1 n... ~
~n-~~
1'~ WP"Wank Peak
O).+~O
b
~
-. =-
WP
·2'
1 CD 12.00 CET
A-~
+ 0
---- -- --=0
TIO 1'0
NM
c t
WP
WP e E+
O~~~~--------~
1
1
I~
I
loNM G
d WP WP f'
-3' -3'
1 1
Fig. 23. Same as Fig. 21 for another day; rapid development, at time <D, of a vertically growing cumulus; at
time <Y development of a shower with rain. No radar echos out of the cloud are recognized on radar pictures
(e,f) at time <D. By contrast, radar pictures at time <Y show an intense echo out of the cloud above Wank peak
(particularly see pictures a and b)
Numerous carefuHy conducted investigations of the above described type permit statistical evalua-
tion. Fig. 24 shows the strength of the superimposed electric field Es as a function of the exchange
intensity between vaHey floor and station level, relative to the fair-weather field Ef' If the vertical ex-
change coefficient is very smaH, Es is almost nonexistent. If exchange intensity assumes a value of about
6 kg m -I sec-I, the superimposed electric field will compensate the fair-weather field, i.e. field
strength below the cloud will be zero. As exchange intensity is further increased the strength of the
negative superimposed field will systematicaHy grow even if the temperature in top of the cloud wiH
not be below 0°. At very high exchange intensities, however, the strength of the superimposed field will
increase rapidly so a clear functional relation is no longer given. Also, as a rule, in such cases the process
of charge generation by precipitation particles wiH set in. Summarizing the results of several hundred
systematic observations we can make the foHowing statements:
780
~ ..:. 6
Exchange coefficient A
between volley and mountain top
IEf: tine weather field)

without douds
Es Es=-KEf
30
20
10
o~----~----~-----+-----+----~
o 2 3 K I.
Fig. 24. Relation between exchange coefficient A in region between mountain station and valley floor, and
superimposed electric field E, . E f designates the fair-weather field outside of the cloud area
CUMULUS 26 June 1973

"Kh-i Ilis
a-p
I I
. ,. nS4p!CFf 1
A>2Q,Q kg m-' sec-' _
-L1- I 1_
,
~ j
T
-Q~ / I--~
r-!
+ - ~y
.
cc no. W. IL
h-j'
RH 96%
- -..-J ;t~ @t_ 1
tE - -
"216
-.-j r- - I--
f -
21L 7 1-
• 7
~J
1
, IT - f-- f-
212
H-I II
f-- ,. --
\ -ro-
-
l1JOLII. •
-- ,-
r'1,8 I ] I - I
J
H
1 I
I
t- •
I -
116
., I T .I -
I . I -
·· t
~I L I
+ t
.·1·
H - ,
r
,
112 I
~ I-r+- -
II I A- _
~i
~ ~ 1 -~ A+
I~O i
~'l:
tIli' Iii-
" 1<1 I·· " 1 -
- ~h-t ,I-
- flO
JD 15
Fig. 25. Behavior of superimposed electric field E, and conductivity in the range of the condensation level at
high relative humidity (96 %). E. = fair-weather field strength
781
1. Negative electric charge is generated immediately at the bases of swelling cumuli, provided the ex-
change coefficient is > 8 kg m - 1 sec - 1, and this even when no icing occurs at that time.
2. The electric charge, and thus the field strength of the superimposed electric field underneath the
cloud, are negative without exception.
3. The strength of the superimposed electric field underneath the cloud, and hence the quantity of
negative charge at the cloud base, is proportionate within broad limits, to the intensity of the vertical
exchange. Thus the generation of the electric charge is based on a markedly dynamic process.
4. The primary process leading to the primary build-up of electric charge at the base of a cumulus
has nothing to do with the forming or falling of precipitation inside the cumulus. However, in the matur-
ing stage of a cumulus an additional electric field may result from the charged precipitation particles,
which in the beginning will always be negative, also.
5. The accumulation of negative charge at the base of a swelling and precipitation-free cumulus
cannot be explained by the transport to the cloud base of electric charge deriving from point discharges
at the earth's surface, for the following reasons:
a) initially, starting from fair-weather condition, electric charge from point discharges would have to
be positive and convey positive charge to the cloud base, which would be contrary to observation;
b) in the course of systematic generation of negative charge at the cloud base, the point discharge
current at the earth's surface is gradually reduced and eventually stopped as the superimposed electric
field compensates the fair-weather field. However, since in the case of a sufficient exchange intensity
we observe that the negative charge at the cloud base continues to grow, point discharge cannot be the
source of that charge.
Fig. 26. Influencing of conductivities by the precondensation process without actual cloud formation, at a relative
humidity (RH) of 92 %
782
6. From 5 it follows that point discharges at the earth's surface cannot explain the initial process of
electrification of cumuli or the initial phase of thunderstorm formation.
These relationships have already been pointed out more than ten years ago [e.g., see (17)].
Behavior of Atmospheric Electrical Parameters During Condensation Processes

Strictly speaking, the phenomenon of negative space charge being generated at the base of swelling
cumuli as described under 5. above, already belongs to the group of electric phenomena occurring
during condensation. Doubtless, the generation of electric charge described above is directly con-
nected with the process of condensation at the cloud base. No conclusive statements can be made at
this time concerning the mechanism by which this electrification is caused.
In this section, we want to point out some phenomena occurring during the so-called precondensa-
tion stage. The picture presented in Fig. 25 is already familiar from above, viz. the formation of a swell-
ing cumulus with development at condensation level of the superimposed field Es. The latter, in the well-
known manner, is reducing the strength of the normal fair-weather field E. in the region below. Within
the cloud region but even below the cloud base proper, positive ion and negative ion conductivities are
already severely reduced. From the recorded profiles of wet and dry temperature it can be deduced that
reduction of atmospheric conductivity will occur already in regions where relative humidity is 85 to
90 %. At humidities of more than 70 to 80 % the aerosol particles will commence to grow by the ac-
cumulation of H 2 0, which is a function of the chemical composition ofthe aerosol particles [see the well-
known studies of (18)]. As aerosol particle radius grows the probability of small ion capture is increased
and as a result conductivity drops. Figs. 26 and 27 are some further examples of the drastic reduction
of positive ion and negative ion conductivities within the precondensation region where relative
humidity ranges from 80 % to 95 %. In both instances visible cloud formation did not occur but local
Fig. 27. Same as Fig. 26 fo r another day
783
~ -It .t-J . 11 IIU II'J
·... II ' 1.1 + -+1 o )..
km o
, :' " r
N
20 Aug 1974
2.8
.; .. irh I
2.6
,
It-tn- ; .. If-+ 1415 GET
11
rt
-+ I+...-i ·t J ,I ',
2.t. ;"' ·4 It" H I p
1'"
I/-'-:..... II I- !! ..
--l ) RO LlDAR
2.2 -l-.j It"
• 1
REFLECTIVITY
W- 1· It V
~~. .. 1M /'
2n
r:" wRr ffil'
[
I .r . '"TI
1.8 1+ III I ~I 92
~tl II I 89 I
II. 111. 11 Il 1~7 . I .11 cumulus
1. 6 , Ij-I r: . iI ... . ·t HII
froctus
.!.... '11 Ii
t
1. t. fr,
~ ~
1--"
~I I ·~
- ·1. I' !I 'I
Fc
-~=:.-:
-
1. 2 H i-' h
., . j II i"
ftl H . , ' .1 1" 1
1.O ~' . ·t t
o I 2 3 0 6 10 K 0 _R
lO- a n-l m-l N em-3
L, I
Fig. 28. Reduction of conductivity in the range of the precondensation process (see relative humidity RH) as
compared to ruby lidar reflectivity (R), and profile of Aitken nuclei concentration N [after (19)]. K = 10 3
turbidities by fumuli at condensation level did. In these same regions, ruby lidar back scattering is consid-
erably increased, too, as shown by the behavior ofRO in Fig. 28. It is interesting to note that according
to Fig. 28 the number of Aitken nuclei N in the precondensation region is not changed. It is not reduced
there as the mobility of the Aitken nuclei is so low that only an insignificant number of Aitken nuclei
will be captured by more rapidly growing aerosol particles, as opposed to the capture of small ions
whose number will drastically drop in the precondensation region.
By the combined plotting of aerosol number density profiles, temperature and humidity lapse rates,
and lidar back-scattering profiles, we intend to conduct special investigations into the problem of the
condensation process. These will be supported by recordings of cloud nuclei concentration and by
chemical aerosol analyses.
The observation that in certain cases the electrical conductivity of the atmosphere is reduced
already prior to the actual formation of fog, has led to the idea that the possibility might thus exist
to forecast fog formation. Our studies have revealed, however, that a reduction of conductivity at high
relative humidities will only occur under certain dermed aerosol conditions prior to the formation of
fog. In this regard, Fig. 29 shows the behavior of conductivities prior to and during the existence of
fog at our valley station, on one hand, and at our Wank peak station, on the other. Formation and
dissipation of the fog is recognized by the recording of visibility. The recorded relative humidities at
both locations indicate that comparable conditions existed with regard to relative humidities.
Conductivity is dropping already a few hours prior to the set-in of fog at our valley station. Ingress
of the fog as such is not characterized by any marked, further reduction of conductivity. Comparing
this against the behavior of conductivity prior to and during fog at our mountain station, we find that
conductivity is suddenly and drastically reduced each time at the set-in of the fog. Notwithstanding
the existence of high relative humidities prior to the set-in offog, no reduction of conductivity is observed
at the mountain station prior to the fog setting in. What is the reason for the behavior ofthe conductivity
784
Wonk PeakJ 1780 m 0.5.1.
40~~~~r-~~~~~--~r-17~--~~~-r100
~ 00%
60
10
-FOG-
0.4-'----="-------"----"""'----"=-"'-='------'==-----'
1O-14 Q-1 m-1
l~l_-,I-_.,--rI-c'~rN-o-uc,'T-I-v-ITT:-~1-"r--.--.,-~-:~I
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 0 hr __ TIME
ValleYJ 740m a.s.!.

401'~~~~~~~~~~~~------------~100
km 80 %
10
60
REL.
HUMID.
0.4-'-----"-'-'--"--"----------------'
CONDUCTIVITY
I I I I I I I
7 6 5 4 3 2 o hr -TIME
Fig. 29. Behavior of conductivity (in comparison with visibility and relative humidity) at Wank peak mountain
station, on one hand, and at valley floor with sudden formation of fog, on the other.
on the mountain differing from that in the valley? The difference is in the aerosol conditions. The
number of aerosol particles per volume at the mountain station was smaller by one order of magnitude
than that in the valley. Furthermore, in the near-ground air layer in the valley there was a relatively high
proportion of hygroscopic particles from combustion processes whose tendency to grow at humidities
exceeding 85 % is a known fact (18). This explains the conductivity behavior. If very pure air prevails
in the near-ground layer in the valley (e.g. after front passages or precipitation), a conductivity behavior
relative to fog is then observed in the valley the same as at the mountain station. This indicates that
unless aerosol conditions are known, the behavior of conductivity may be ambiguous, and it should
also be taken into consideration where a degree of air pollution is inferred from recordings of con-
785
5r-------------,------------,---------,~__t
altitude 4
"2
"1 ~
·~C::"'0~ ~
- , l -<!' ~
3 <f~ ~
-.t . . t$:
!i' C)
<0
2
0
\'0'0
\
0 + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
- - G -RH. Gradient reI. humidity %J 100m
in the pre - condensation range
with reI. humidity >80%
Fig. 30. Influence of precondensation process on conductivity as a function of the following: gradient of relative
humidity (G-RH), degree of air pollution (particle mass concentration in flg' m - 3, number of Aitken nuclei N),
and exchange coefficient in kg . m - 1 sec - 1
ductivity alone. Varying aerosol distributions, condensation of droplets and fluctuations of natural
atmospheric radioactivity all influence conductivity.
Fig. 30 shows the universal relation between the effect of the precondensation process on con-
ductivity (expressed by the ratio of A2/Al according to the auxiliary figure on the left margin of Fig. 30)
and on relative humidity, with due consideration to be given to the gradient of relative humidity per
hundred meter height intervaL The following are used as parameters:
a) vertical exchange coefficient;
b) degree of air pollution, expressed by the total aerosol content in micrograms per cubic meter, on
one hand, and by the number of Aitken nuclei, on the other.
The precondensation effect on A2/Al will grow as the pollution level increases. The higher the pollution,
the lower a gradient of relative humidity is necessary at a given time to trigger an equally intense pre-
condensation effect on A2/A!. In addition, the effect seems to b~ the more marked, the lower the vertical
exchange coefficient within the precondensation region, such as at an inversion or in the upper
boundary of the exchange layer.
Fig. 30 de~onstrates the complex manner in which the atmospheric electrical conductivity is con-
trolled by meteorological and aerosol parameters.
Precipitation Electricity
We now shall discuss our earlier studies of the relationship existing between atmospheric turbulence
intensity in and around precipitating clouds, and the concentration of nitrate ions in precipitation. At
that time we had found (20) that nitrate ion concentration will significantly grow as turbulence increases.
Concentration of nitrate ions is the highest in shower precipitation, and particularly in thunderstorm
precipitation. Lately we have also used our radar system for observations. Fig. 31 demonstrates some
of the results. The concentrations of nitrate ions (N0 3) and ammonium ions (NHt) measured in
precipitation at 3 levels are shown below the respective radar pictures. In addition, the measured ex-
change coefficients are given for two layers. The radar beam had been continually swiveled around
786
NM moderate shower heavy shower
2 steady slight shower
precipitation passing NM
6 8 2
, 0 • 3 .~.,,~,
f"" IIJlliiiji'ti
4 5 2
._. -<III
..... o
l' Nov 1973 CET NM NM NM
1.8 3
'm .. 3 ·0
1600 2 1819 2 14 May 1971 bevore noon
~ 2
0' I IB I ! 0
c'l
r,
t 1
II ~; 1 'n'
t<O
'" 0 "'.i
0 I
..I.e! o
2 NM
NM NM A 16/111l(m 76 NM
3 3 A ~'lI8"_m SO~> gem"n
..............
-2
1800 2 1827
III ,,_.
3
2
-- 2 Aug 1973
. .. 1 ~ 1
0 t '- 1 shower k'" L 07 I 1.8 I 3 0
---~
- .. ~. 0 Ml'
'
'23 I 3 38
t ~
2 85
t
0 NM ~
090 I
• Dec. 1969 II 7 4
NM NM
'm 3 3 3 He
~
~."
2
" -2 ~. :~. '~ •.I~ : 2
1900
:.. 18/30km 16:', " " 4
1835
, , 8 km 4 J.6 D "," g m' sel
o '1
f,~
L
. J~ 4.
o 9 N'-1
11 0
3 NM
3
0
--
26 May 1970
3
2
9 June 1973 31 July 1970 18
\. , II'
~ 2 Ie
II:""! l ']
~.21 2. ,..
+
2.2
'!!i
l,tw ,.. I
~·.eo mg ~
""f...
130 I o
"'I! NH. 198 J68 00, 1
I
o 078 "'" 0.53 19 July 1972
A I B / 30 'm ~~~ ,,~'Cm-I U,("' km C7 18
A 181l0'm A I e / 3 O'm 61 0 .' • 1.8km
A 0.7 I '8(1(m 'll-'_"'n ",ec N~ i ~ [)
l' May 1971 afternoon
1
NIl 17
!"2.
gCn"l°. ~.c
·1~"::' ,:~:O"'l
~10kgm" sec" I
.eo
Fig. 31. Individual examples of relationship between turbulence intensity in precipitating cloud, and concen·
-.J tration of nitrate ions and ammonium ions in precipitation. Comparison with radar pictures which permit a
00
-.J better judging of type and structure of precipitation.
10gcm - 1 sec - 1 = 1 kgm- 1 S - l; 1 mg/l = 1 g/m 3 ; 1 NM = 1.852km
the vertical line within an angular range of ±60°. In the case of a widely extended, horizontal melting
layer, the radar picture shows an arc that indicates the intense echo from this layer (bright band). In the
case of a shower, however, no homogeneous, continuous arc is received but rather irregularly
distributed zones with a very intense echo. The examples 1 to 4 in Fig. 31 show conditions under
steady precipitation with the melting· zone between 900 and about 1800 m above the ground.
Example 5 shows the passage of a light shower, with the zone of particularly intense echo (high pre-
cipitation density) moving over the arc from left to right. In the case of such light showers, concentra-
tions of nitrate ions in precipitation, however, are not considerably stronger than those under steady
precipitation. Examples 6 and 7 represent moderate showers. Here we fmd nitrate ion concentrations
which are distinctly higher than those in examples 1 through 5. As shown in examples 8 and 9 of
Fig. 31, the by far highest nitrate ion concentrations in precipitation are found in heavy showers. In
comparing pictures 1 through 4 with radar pictures 7, 8, and 9, the typical shower structure of precipi-
tation is recognizable. While nitrate ion concentration in precipitation will increase with the degree
of turbulence (also see stated exchange coefficients A), this does not hold for the concentration of
ammonium ions. Since ammonia is predominantly generated at the earth's surface,'this result shows
that high concentrations of nitrate ions in precipitation at altitudes of 2 to 3 km a.s.l. cannot be ex-
plained by a transport of polluted air from the earth's surface up to these altitudes. Otherwise,
ammonium ion concentration in precipitation would also have to increase with growing exchange
intensity at our mountain stations.
In earlier publications [(20) which includes early literature, and also (21, 22)], we have already postu-
lated that within zones of turbulence nitrous gases are generated at precipitation particles (particularly
at ice crystals) by point discharges in high electric fields. As the ice crystal grows they will at least to
some extent, be built into the crystal structure.
7~------------------~---'----TI
6
ItimexE I
5
relative
units
4
N0:i conc. in precipitation
0+L~l-~~----~----~----~~----~
o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

10-3 kg m-3
Fig. 32. Relation between product of field strength E times duration and concentration of nitrate ions in precipi-
tation; consideration of the various types of precipitation
788
·10- 8
- 10
- 8
C/gr - 6
on~
- 4
- 2
0
+ 2
+ 4
+ 6
+ 8
. 10
0.1 0.6 10 a 6 10
Fig. 33. Quantity of electric charge on breaking of ice crystals (hatched particle being separated) as a function of
the concentration gradient of nitrate ions along the C-axis of the crystal. 10 - 8 C/gr = lOS C kg - 1
22.June 1973 13.24 C

km
30-
0.51
*
above grou nd
NM 28-
MZ
•
26-
2'-
22-
20-
8 ll l(ude of mell lngJ2y~
by RadQr 260 km 0 5 1. 1.8-
by Pot ,grod.: 2.6Skm 0 s.l.
Temp, -lye
1.6-
A o 67 kg m- 1 sec- 1
I' -
1.2-
10- I
+0-
Fig. 34. Influence of the melting process (MZ = melting zone) in steady, not showerlike, precipitation upon
strength of electric field E ; sounding by instrumented cable car. * = snow, • = rain. NM = nautical miles
(altitude)
789
This theory is supported by the relationship in Fig. 32. It shows the nitrate ion concentration in pre-
cipitation as a function of the product of field strength by time during precipitation at Zugspitze peak
station: The nitrate concentration in precipitation is the higher, the higher electric field strengths occur,
or the longer increased field strengths persist. If in addition the respective type of precipitation (steady
snow or rain, showers, thunderstorm precipitation) is taken into consideration, it is again found that
these facts will fit logically into the overall picture. '
By laboratory tests we were able to demonstrate that the gradient of nitrate ion concentration along
the C-axis of an ice crystal has an effect on the separation of electric charges, if such crystals are broken.
Fig. 33 shows the result of numerous measurements. If quotient Q as defined in Fig. 33 equals 1 (meaning
that there was no concentration gradient in the ice crystal before its breaking) then no charge separation
will occur if this ice crystal is broken. If the nitrate-ion concentration in the particle flying off (hatched
in Fig. 33) is ten times as high as in the remaining body of the crystal, then the particle flying off will
carry a charge of about 8 x 10- 5 C kg - 1. If the concentration gradient is reverse, the ice particle flying
off carries positive charge.
It is our opinion that this process at least contributes to the electrification ofthunder clouds. For this
process is prerequisite to a feedback process of charge generation. The more electric charge is generated
in the breaking the ice crystals, the higher will be the field strength and the point discharge, and thus
the concentration of nitrous gases in the turbulence cell. This will lead to increased, highly unhomo-
geneous nitrate concentrations in ice crystals thus causing further excitation of the charge generation
process. Detailed literature is found in (20).
Another type of systematic observations during precipitation contributes to the problem of the
significance of the melting process in solid precipitation, in relation to atmospheric electrical processes.
I- ~
- MIl
1--- -111
Fig. 35. Profile of electric field in rain (steady precipitation) extending along entire measuring distance
790
Systematic studies on this subject can be conducted both by using our recordings at the mountain
stations, and by employing the cable-car telemetry system. The following figures are examples for
employment of the latter. Fig. 34 comprises temperature lapse rate T , field strength E measured during
precipitation, and the simultaneously measured positive ion and negative ion conductivity. For com-
parison, the mean fair-weather field strength En has been entered. The radar picture shows the
melting zone expressed as an arc at an altitude of 2.6 km a.s.\. The homogeneousness of the arc of the
bright band points to steady, not shower-like precipitation. Exchange coefficient A, too, indicates stable
stratification. Within the snowfall region (higher than 2.7 km a.s.I.), field strength E is positive. Its
strength decreases from 2.7.km down, and turns negative at 2.65 km. This is in the range of the melting
zone. Field strength E in falling rain, below, is negative. Melting of snow particles sets in vigorously
at a temperature of + 1.3 dc. The melting process is directly connected with the change of direction
of the field. Change of direction of the electric field occurs inside the cloud, independent of level of
cloud base.
Fig. 35 shows a case of precipitation falling as rain across the range of measurement. Here again,
steady precipitation is encountered, not showers. This is corroborated by the low value of A. E is
negative throughout the range of measurement, regardless of the level of the nimbostratus cloud base.
(Here again En stands for the mean fair-weather field).
Fig. 36 represents the counterpart to Fig. 35. Here, we have steady snow throughout the range of
measurement (no shower, stable stratification, as reflected by A, and a positive field throughout).
Strength of the positive electric field in snow is higher than the fair-weather field strength En. As in
Fig. 35, the nimbostratus cloud base in Fig. 36 does not affect the behavior of E.
'--.1-,--- ,660
mb
4--+-t-f-----f691
lilI
IW
I!U
/6IJ
1111
/6IJ
I1J
~NtJ
-=i IW
~:
,
I
Ns \c
II/IX I
A =1. 48 \
I~+
I
,kg m-' se~ - '
I
J
1
all
j
00=1:
-,--1,--,-,~.-L-j 1910
Fig. 36. Profile of electric field E during snowfall (steady precipitation) along entire measuring distance
791
In Fig. 37 we show the process of a systematic subsiding of the melting zone during a cold front
passage. Initially (09: 12 CET), the melting (MZ 1) zone was at 2.6 km a.s.!. At this altitude the positive
field began to subside. At 2.5 km the positive field changes to negative. In rain, E remains negative.
By 12: 00 CET the melting (MZ 2) zone had subsided to 1.95 km. The process of the gradual change
from positive to negative field had shifted to a correspondingly lower level, viz. between 1.95 km
and 1.85 km. In the sequel, the melting zone continued to subside (MZ 2 --+ MZ 3 --+ MZ 4) with the
pattern of E and its connection to the level of the melting layer being retained. The cloud base, by the
way, likewise changed during the period of observation. At time 1 the nimbostratus base (at 1.4 km)
was considerably below the melting layer. At time 2 the cloud base was subsiding a little further, while
the melting layer subsides drastically. At times 3 and 4, however, the cloud base was considerably above
the level of the melting process. Thus, this example shows that systematic change-over from a positive
to a negative field did occur irrespectively of the level of the cloud base.
JII 15 III l! II I -g- .J .(1

2 R Or: t 1CU-61,:.,09 1 2 CET
+fi Il-. ;:'.l .. 1
. I II 'III
k !f1~ ·11"'.1· I r .'~ "~8
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1 11231t.
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I
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t- .!'" j ',-- -- I
I I , .......
~i P i"' l::..
2. . -
f+ ! ,. I
I' - T 'I!.
Er---_ - ........ I
I ·I·j I -..,
2. I- -- -
m' I· T
I- - - -)5-I -
. a'l/ IlllI I P
2. - - -
r
f!\ II/II MZI2 t:
3 " -
3~ f-r--- - Vr---- , -
1 t--t -VI~
I"
l"- I -,
-l- ,'"
-~
r- ·1·
I I I
liLt; 4~ ~ ,. ff
r-. / II I II
J~.'-~
-I
1
i"- f- i7r r[1n I- t \- 1 ·r.. - ,
I F<
Jt
fliL l 4~.
I' I
·1' 1" I' I

1 , Iii
If
'III , 1 r---[2 'I3]f
h'\ . H
0 ,. l C
t
.J j ?
Fig. 37. Gradually subsiding level of melting zone (MZ) during cold air influx at four different times of the same
day. The changes of polarity of the electric field always occur in the melting zone irrespectively of the latter's
altitude level and of the cloud base altitude
We are now going to discuss shower precipitation. Fig. 38 gives the example of a shower occurring
during a cable-car telemetry recording. Snow was falling above an altitude of 1.55 km, below, it was
rain. The electric field often and irregularly changed its direction along the entire measuring distance.
(The mean value of the fair-weather field is again given by En). Atmospheric electric conductivity
fluctuated strongly inside as well as outside the cloud. In this case, we can recognize no effect whatever
of the melting layer upon the behavior of E. Fig. 39 shows a similar case. Here, the sensitivity of the E
recording has been reduced to 5 %. Again, rapid and drastic variations of E are observed along the
measuring distances showing no relation to the melting layer. Within the range of the partly violent
792
~ ~ ~crl :E1
1
JQ IS 10 IS 11 S -0- -J
H+t II- ktn I .:3

..Jfk _J...
3.0 '. i[ E- - 6
± a.s.l. \ If - 1-
J-
.. I ~
::-In. 2.8 I, , i I
f-- I - ~ /11}
t- I
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..Lt. 1 !=::::::= ~>
,~,.. If
- ,
+b 1 2.6 'i
r--- I
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i· . 2.4 .. T I::;; !:=

- m
i --+-1
2
r" I 1M
I)
1--(I"
fL-'· 2.2
f-- r---.- ( I/O
[J:-L .. 1M
I --= '--..
-
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-)
If)
2.0 II · , ,
c ~ 1-+ , fiJJ
tL~1 t 1" I
'-------'--,t ,
~+ ~
*_11. 7/1; 1/1 • - ,)
~
- IW
!jlt '1 18
tt -
, 1
"'---I, I ' ~ ba se ! \ 1 f 411
~ll
iii II'
16
MJ I
1__ r--
I - l1li
II!)
l
I: )
~--t
I I
IJ
11; I \.4
I~ 1_I - -0- IlO
-& A = 26.5 •
I -t -- -
. ~it
t-
IlO
I
kg m- 1 sec- t~-
HI, 12
--+- ) I ~ 810
-c- ~ . ~I_ 1 M(}
.o
p-
11 I .!.
---.J - --
t Ii f+01F
IIfJ
11'1 1.0
I
r·,t Ill)
•
- L
rtJ
+ -I·
o __ I I j
)q 15 10
Fig. 38. Profile of electric field E (as compared against fine-weather field E.) during shower precipitation. In this
case, the melting zone has no bearing on the polarity of -E. * = snow, \l = hail,. = rain
snow shower (above 2 km a.s.l.) strikingly high values of positive ion conductivity occur, too (probably
caused by point discharges).
Our large material of atmospheric electric recordings made during all kinds of precipitation was
statistically evaluated. Results are shown in Figs. 40 and 41.
Fig. 40 shows the effect of precipitation rate and physical state of precipitation on strength and
polarity of the electric field. This diagram, of course, only applies in the case of steady precipitation
from stably stratified clouds. Electric field strength measured in precipitation will grow with in-
creasing precipitation rate. At temperatures of less than + 1 positive polarity of E exists; at higher 0
temperatures polarity is always negative.

Fig. 41 demonstrates the relationship between frequency of polarity changes of the electric field in
precipitation (indicated by F PE), and the intensity of the vertical exchange (A). If the electric field does
not change polarity more than 1.3 times per hour, stable stratification exists in the region between
formation of the precipitation and the earth's surface. If, however, the frequency of polarity changes
exceeds this value, instability in the region between formation of precipitation and the earth's surface
is increasing. This relationship derived from thousands of observations permits, by the way, a simple
practical application of recordings of the electric field at weather stations. With its aid, the degree of
instability in the troposphere - during precipitation, of course - can be continuously studied at the
ground by simple means. Abrupt variation of the degree of stability, e.g. at the approach of a high-level
cold front, can be directly observed from the field recordings.
In concluding this, some remarks about our studies into the mirror image effect may be made.
Thorough investigations of the electric field and air-earth current density as well as precipitation
current have led to an insight into the structure of the mirror image effect. We were able to demonstrate
793
Fig. 39. Same as Fig. 38, on another day; with recording sensitivity for E reduced to 5 % to permit recording of
extremely high field strengths. ~ = hail
Air Temp.
-1
precip. rate mm/h - 0 0.5 0.8 1.5 2.0
*
°C , /
o
* 5 old
.1
E precip.
K= - - -
Efinew.
• 1 iquid.
II !
steady precip. only
.3
I
2.0 1.5 08 0.5 0 -mm/h precip. rate
-1.0. -0..5 o .0.5 .1.0 .1.5 K

Fig. 40. General representation of polarity and strength of electric field as a function of physical state of precipi-
tation (liquid or solid) and of precipitation rate. This relation applies only to steady, not showerlike precipitation
[after (23)]
794
5,-----------------------------------~
2 OOOOO~\':J
-
unstable
-0 - ~~
~f:J~
7 ) ...._ - - - - - inddfere;;_t ;_t._r;_-i,-;,~~t:o~- ~~
o~~~~~~~----~--~------~~
0.7 70 A 100
Fig. 41. Frequency of polarity changes of the electric field per hour (F PE) as a function of intensity of vertical
exchange A. This relation is suitable for practical application since it permits the inferring of the degree of
instability in the precipitating layer from simple recordings of the electric field on the ground, during precipitation
[after (17, 23)]
that the field measured in precipitations outside thunderstorms is mainly due to charges generated by
falling precipitation. At the same time it is hardly affected by electrical charges in clouds or cloud sec-
tions, except for thunderstorms. The electric field in precipitation is mostly determined by electric charges
in the immediate vicinity of the measuring point. As demonstrated many years ago and recently con-
firmed, the carriers of the charges determining the polarity of the field are very small fragments
separated from the rapidly falling main precipitation particles. The speed of fall of such small fragments
is low compared with that of the main particles. Therefore, their residence time in space is relatively
long. This rmding also explains the completely different behavior of the electric field in shower preci-
pitations (no melting influence exists). The rapid change of polarity and strength of the electric field
in showers has nothing to do with any changes of charge at clouds or cloud parts. It is caused only by
local turbulence, meaning by vertical components of wind velocity rapidly changing in time and space.
They change the speed of fall and residence time of the different precipitation particles which carry
charges and which are of different size [for details, see (17, 23)].
References
1. Reiter, R., Relationships between atmospheric electric phenomena and simultaneous meteorological conditions,
Contract AF 61(052)-55 Final Report Juli (1960). - 2. Reiter, R., PAGEOPH 72, 259 (1969). - 3. Reiter, R.,
PAGEOPH 86,142 (1971). - 4. Cobb, W. E., Evidence ofa solar influence on the atmospheric electric elements at
Mauna Loa Observatory. XIVth Assem blyof the IUGG (Luzerne, 1967); and: Monthly Weather Review 95, 12
(1967). - 5. Reiter, R., PAGEOPH 94, 218 (1972). - 6. Reiter, R., Solar-terrestrial relationships ofan atmospheric-
electrical and meteorological nature: new findings. Rivista Italiana di Geofisica XXII, 247 (1973). - 7. Mjjhleisen,
R. and R. Reiter, Atmospheric Electric Data during August 4th -12th, 1972, Report UAG-28, Part III. Collected
795
Data Reports on August 1972, Solar-Terrestrial Events World Data Center A (1973). - 8. King, J. w., Sun-
Weather Relationships, Astronautics and Aeronautics (1975). - 9. Bossolasco, M., et aI., Solar Flare Control of
Thunderstorm Activity. Studi in onore di Guiseppina Aliverti 214 (1972). - 10. Reiter, R., Study to verify
patterns of atmospheric potential gradient and air-earth current after solar flares based upon the geographic
distribution of storm-centers, Rivista Italiana di Geofisica XXIIL 193 (1974). - 11. Fischer, H. J. and R. Miihl-
eisen, Meteorol. Rundsch. 25, 6(1972). - 12. Miihleisen, R., Possible Hypothesis for an Explanation of the
Influence of Solar Activity to the Atmospheric Electric Global Circuit Intern. Union of Geodesy and Geo-
physics, XV General Assembly, 136 (Moscow, USSR, 1971). - 13. Volland, H., J. Geophys. Res.78, 171 (1973). -
14. Reiter, R., J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 38, 503 (1976). - 15. Reiter, R., R. Slddkovic, and W. Carnuth, Arch. Met. Geoph.
Biokl. A, 20,115 (1971). - 16. Reiter, R., R. Slddkovic, and W. Carnuth, Arch. Met. Geoph. Biokl. A, 23, 297 (1974). -
17. Reiter, R., Felder, Strome und Aerosole in der unteren Troposphiire (Darmstadt, 1964). - 18. Hiinel, G.,
Beitr. Phys. Atmosph. 43,119 (1970). - 19. Reiter, R. and W. Carnuth, Arch. Met. Geoph. Biokl. A, 24, 69 (1975). -
20. Reiter, R., Tellus XXII, 122 (1970). - 21. Reiter, R. and M. Reiter, Relations between the contents of nitrate
and nitrite ions in precipitations and simultaneous atmospheric electric processes. Recent Advances in Atmos-
pheric Electricity, 175 (London, 1958). - 22. Reiter, R. and W. Carnuth, J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 27, 673 (1965). -
23. Reiter, R., Arch. Met. Geoph. Biokl. A, 21, 247 (1972). - 24. Dolezalek, H., Remarks on atmospheric electricity
measuring techniques (in preparation). Detailed discussion of the general literature is especially found in: 17.
Author's address:
R. Reiter
Institut fUr Atmosphiirische
Umweltforschung
8100 Garmisch-Partenkirchen
W-Germany
796
CONCLUDING REMARKS
J. L. Koenigsfeld
(President, ICAE)

At this time, the most essential thing to do is to express our deeply felt gratitude and unanimous
thankfulness to the conference chairman, Dr. Reiter, who for several years has accepted the additional
burden to prepare this conference and to conduct it in an excellent way. Thank you very much, indeed
Dr. Reiter.
Next we wish to express our thanks to the wonderful work of Dr. Reiter's staff. If you have observed
them in their work you will agree in our admiration for their skill and dedication; and you, Dr. Reiter,
should be congratulated for having these fellow workers.
When speaking about gratitude we might sit back and try to realize the enormous amount of effort
which went into the material which we have heard presented here in these five days. In most cases,
the additional effort spent to prepare the material for the presentation at this conference and to do
it in the way which was prescribed by the Executive Panel, had to be done on top of a busy program
of measurement and teaching through the months before now. We are thankful for all that; but the
real thanks will come when the colleagues will use this material for their future work.
When speaking about future conferences, we draw on the experience gained while this conference
was prepared and while it was conducted.
It seems to be desirable that for the next conference the determination ofthe session chairmen should
be shifted higher up in the time scale so that the Chairmen and Executive Panel together could do
much of the preparation: selecting the central topics for each session on the base of a referendum with
the scientific community at large, and then even more than now concentrating on a small number of
topics for a truly in-depth discussion - prepared by an invited paper and supported by contributed
papers selected with very strict limitation with regards to the topics.
Before the next conference comes around, there will be in August 1975 in Grenoble in France the
16th General Assembly of U.G.G.I. At that occasion, the new members of the International Commission
on Atmospheric Electricity and its officers are to be elected, and there will be a full-day symposium -
designed as "High Atmosphere and Space problems in atmospheric electricity" sponsored by IAMAP
and IAGA in common. Convenor will be Hans Dolezalek, the IAGA representative is Forrest Mozer,
and a program committee is being set up. Deadline for papers will probably be in February 1975. A
call for papers will be sent out, and all participants of this conference will receive it in a few weeks.
We hope to see you at Grenoble and again at the Sixth International Conference on Atmospheric
Electricity.
Goodbye.
Chairman's address:
J. L. Koenigsfeld
Rue de I'Etat Tiers, 17
B-4000 Liege
Belgium
797
BANQUET-ADDRESS
The Role of Atmospheric Electricity in the Atmospheric Sciences
H. E. Landsberg
Abstract
The field of atmospheric electricity has developed in recent decades somewhat aside from the mainstream of
atmospheric sciences. It is argued that current knowledge and future research in this field can contribute notably
to predictions of sub-grid size weather systems as well as to precipitation physics. It is urged that research to prevent
lightning damage be vigorously pursued and that exploratory work be done to establish if useful energy can be
extracted from atmospheric electricity. Full exploitation of atmospheric electric measurements for pollution
monitoring is suggested and further critical evaluation of possible atmospheric electric effects on biological
phenomena is still needed. Above all, close cooperation between physicists working on electrical manifestations
in the atmosphere and meteorologists is in the best interest of future vigorous development in the atmospheric
sciences.
When your chairman first invited me to address this gathering it seemed a bit inappropriate for one
not intimately associated with research in atmospheric electricity to do so. Yet upon some reflection
there may be fair justification to have a meteorologist with general interests assess the role of atmos-
pheric electricity in the broad scheme of atmospheric science.
For a quarter century now atmospheric electricity has been a relatively quiet niche among the
specialities that explore the vagaries of the air around us. It has been the domain of a few devotees
but it has been largely outside the mainstream of meteorological research and practice. This is not a
unique phenomenon in science. As in other phases of life there are "bandwagon" effects. Themes
become fashionable and the young talent streams there to get a bit of the action. The same usually
happens to the financial support. It cannot be my task here to explore the reasons for such fashions
in science in general or in meteorology specifically. Suffice it to say that those phases of dynamic
meteorology that seemed to promise better and longer-range weather forecasts and the will-o-the-wisp
of weather modification were in ascendency. They commanded the attention of both the atmospheric
scientists and of the lay public. With that went the allocation of funds. In dynamic meteorology un-
deniable progress has been made. The rationale for forecasting has been objectivized and the broad-
scale weather patterns and outlooks over periods up to three days have been markedly improved. Yet
all is not ideal in this realm. The precision of forecasts of localized events, the so-called sub-grid part
of the spectrum, still leaves much to be desired. Let me come back to this later;,
When we look at weather modification things look worse. Large sums of money have been invested
with relatively little to show for it. To be sure, subcooled fog and low stratus clouds can be dispersed
with reasonable assurance but that gets us very little beyond Langmuir's, Schaefer'S, and Vonnegut's
experiments of 1946/48. Let me quote here from a pronouncement of the World Meteorological Or-
ganization (1974), on weather modification promulgated earlier this year: "The various and contro-
versial results of seeding experiments appear to be due to the complexities of the dynamics and micro-
physics of the precipitation process". That is little enough to reflect 25 years of effort and over 100
million dollars expended. It may also be appropriate to cite a review of a 1973 report of The National
Academy of Science on weather and climate modification by B. J. Mason (1974), certainly one of the
world's outstanding cloud physicists. He calls for a new generation of scientists to "establish the true
potentialities of weather and climate modification and put the subject on a firm scientific basis", un-
deterred by "the failures, confusion, and sophistry of the last twenty years". Whichever way one wants
to view these past efforts, critically or sympathetically, an objective assessment must come to the con-
clusion that very little has been accomplished, leading to reliable practical applications.
You may perhaps ask why these two areas have been singled out as items of interest to this group.
You may already have surmised that my purpose has not been to criticize the extremely worthy aims
799
of these endeavors but rather to suggest that both of them can benefit from considerably closer asso-
ciation with atmospheric electricity work. In the realm of sub-grid scale forecasting severe thunder-
storms and tornadoes are of paramount interest. We may, perhaps, include here also hurricanes whose
mysteries of motion have not yet yielded to the dynamic modelers. All of these small storm systems
are associated with atmospheric electric manifestations. Their contribution to deaths, injuries, and
damage ranks among the largest for weather catastrophes. A few figures readily illustrate this. In the
United States alone there are annually, on an average, around 200 deaths caused by lightning and
upward of 1500 injured. This exceeds in most years all other casualties directly caused by weather.
Lightning is also responsible for igniting around 70 percent of all North American forest fires.
Up to now some, as yet rather empirical, schemes have been used to indicate existence and position
of tornadoes and lightning discharges. This is, undoubtedly, useful but one may well raise the question
whether or not better observations of the atmospheric electric field and separate prediction of its
development may not give prior indications of severe storm formation. The whole sophistication of
modem electronic devices has not been brought to bear on this question. And one can contemplate
only with some amazement the events that surrounded the firing of Apollo 12, and be quietly grateful
that catastrophe was avoided and later firings became adequately protected by the hurried recognition
of the usefulness of atmospheric electric measurements interpreted by experts. One can at least speculate
that the prediction of electric field intensities somehow must go hand-in-hand with synoptic develop-
ments and can be incorporated into the kinematic considerations. This will, of course, not come about
automatically but will of necessity require extensive collaborative efforts between synopticians and
experts in atmospheric electricity.
There are certainly some quite promising developments in this area. These are extensions of the
World War II schemes to locate storm zones by "sferics". These required several stations with con-
siderable distance between them. Now, making use of separate frequencies of the "noise" spectrum
produced by distant lightning discharges, single station observations can yield fairly reliable distance
estimates up to several hundred kilometers. This goes considerably beyond the radar range and may
have particularly useful applications for aircraft in flight (Gorodenskiy, 1973). Kinzer's (1974) pulse
train technique may also have application because, in conjunction with radar information it seems
capable of distinguishing between the intense and dangerous storms developing on a squall line and
ordinary air mass thunderstorms.
Probably the essential task here is to open firm lines of communications between the atmospheric
electric experts, most of whom are basically physicists, and the forecaster whose background lies in
dynamic and synoptic meteorology.
Probably more obvious to you are the contributions your discipline can make to cloud physics, and
perhaps ultimately to cloud modification. Many of you have made already substantial contributions
to this field even if often your results have been cheerfully overlooked or disregarded by the rainmakers.
It is obvious that some of the microphysical processes alluded to in the statement of the World Mete-
orological Organization are of an electric nature. They may be simple Coulomb forces either stabilizing
or destabilizing masses of cloud droplets or far more complicated interactions as manifested by subtle
observed microwave emission of some precipitating clouds. It is really nothing but common sense that
one should understand the various, and I emphasize this word, natural processes of precipitation
formation prior to attempts at imitating them or modifying them. It is, in general, not easy to improve
upon nature, and often a rather futile undertaking if one doesn't understand the natural processes
reasonably well.
Let me allude here more specifically to the still apparently contradictory results on rain drop spectra.
It has been part of the folklore, seemingly well-backed by observations that rain in thunderstorms,
certainly part of the time, fell in large drops. Yet recently spectra with small drops have been reported
in electrical storms (Waldvogel, 1974). It appears that we need spectral analysis of drops with high
time resolution of the observations. It will not be an easy task to sort out the turbulent and the electrical
forces acting on the droplets. Their interdependence seems to be getting now better established by
newer models that attempt to explain the so-called rain-gush after lightning bolts. These show the rapid
build-up of very intense electrical fields which, together with updrafts can keep drops in suspension,
800
with little rainfall at the ground. The lightning discharge eliminates this local field with the rain gush
ensuing (Levin and Ziv, 1974). We may also further add to this category the analysis of the acoustical
frequency spectrum of thunder. This seems to indicate some of the characteristics of the lightning
channel with such challenging results as horizontal development of channels near the freezing level
of the clouds. This type of analysis may again throw further light on the electrification process and on
the microphysical processes in the cloud (Few, 1974).
In the specific area of weather modification there is every reason to encourage efforts that already
have a rational physical basis and open promising vistas. I allude here to the interesting experiments
of dispersing small dipoles in thunderclouds to reduce the hazards of cloud-to-ground lightning. If a
few pounds of aluminium-coated nylon chaff threads dispersed from aircraft can reduce lightning
frequency to the ground, it would have very large economic value. Most disruptions to electrical
distribution systems are caused by lightning and the large role of lightning in forest fire ignition is well
known (U.S. Dep't. of Commerce, 1974). Certainly the loss of valuable timber resources by lightning-
induced forest fires in an era of shortages of lumber alone should serve as an adequate economic in-
centive for further exploration of this technique. There are, of course, other possible techniques for
possible reduction of lightning hazard by induced discharges, such as the erection of tall towers or the
firing of small rockets with trailing wire, procedures that remind us of Franklin's kite experiment.
Such methods may be warranted for special protection of a highly valuable installation.
Others have speculated before me about the possibility of harnessing atmospheric electric phenomena
for energy production. Is this just a wild idea? All of us are only too well aware of the energy problem
confronting a world that is already too crowded. The still inescapable increase of population before
one can hope for a levelling-off and the universal desire for higher standards of living will place un-
precedented demands on energy. With fossil fuels limited and atomic energy only slowly developing
more and more attention is being devoted to the possible exploitation of inexhaustible, "free", natural
sources of energy. Much has been said and done about solar energy. And wind energy, once already
a reputable source is finding some revival. But the extraordinary sources of energy in the regular or
disturbed atmospheric electric field have not moved into the focus of attention. The arguments have
all been marshalled against the possibility. The current density is weak and storms seem to be highly
random in space and time. Yet one should not entirely dismiss as utopian, if not crazy, to think of
intercepting, storing, and utilizing transients as sources of power. Obviously, there is little point in
considering this in high latitudes and other areas where thunderstorms are infrequent. But directed
discharges in areas with high thunderstorm frequency may well offer some opportunities (Orville,
1972). And we should not forget that the atmospheric electric field has many properties that an advanced
technology might be able to exploit for production of power. Any such technology needs a long lead
time but the 21 th century with perhaps six billion energyhungry people on earth is not far away. It
would be unwise not to explore all the "free" sources of energy, remote as their use may seem at the
moment.
Coming back from the far distant problems, there is a lot of unfinished business in the area of atmos-
pheric pollution that requires efforts by investigators of atmospheric electricity. We monitor many
factors in the effort to survey and abate atmospheric pollution but we know very little about the role
of atmospheric electric processes in this field. Clearly nearly all effiuents from stacks, chimneys, and ex-
hausts are ionized but there is very little information available on what influence this may have on the
coalescence of particles or on the chemical interactions that may take place in plumes. It seems to me
that this should not be an area to be blandly ignored. In this connection, such effects may playa par-
ticular role in the higher atmospheric layers. With the concerns we should have about the possible
long-term effects of particulate accumulations in the lower stratosphere from high-flying aircraft the
influence of ionization of these particles must have a bearing on the processes of elimination. Presently
the literature is blank on this point.
In the domain of pollution monitoring it is also somewhat disheartening to see that only sampling
of gas and particulate concentration, mostly with use of chemical analysis, it to be pursued. Yet there
is little or no effort included to measure ions, ion spectra, and space charges in the face of the fact that
information on space charges and atmospheric resistivity has given us already considerable insight
801
into historical variations of low level contamination since the days of "Carnegie" cruises. These measure-
ments have shown that since the second decade of the century there has been over the North Atlantic
a gradual decline of small ions from about 550/cm3 to about half of this value by the beginning of the
present decade (Cobb, 1973; Milhleisen, 1974). The inference has been drawn that anthropogenic nuclei
in the area must have increased from about 150 to 500/cm3 • But these casual surveys are not sufficient
for elements that vary quickly in space and time. Why are sustained atmospheric electric measurements
not included in the elaborate monitoring programs? Can we ascribe this to ignorance?
Similarly there is very little exploration of the solar component in the atmospheric electric events
in the troposphere. Every meteorologist has seen some studies that seem to indicate evidence of rhythms
approximately of the same length as the sun spot cycle in terrestrial weather elements. Most of this has
been dismissed as unproven speculation at best or mad dreams of cranks at worst. Yet it is an insistent
hypothesis and here and there some analyses show up that seem to reflect approximately a near eleven
year fluctuation in precipitation. In view of much suffering from drought in the world can we continue
to ignore these small elements of circumstantial evidence? (Stringfellow, 1974). Perhaps the link is to
be sought somewhere in a solar influence on thunderstorm frequency. It has been suggested that solar-
induced conductivity variations in the stratosphere cause tropospheric effects by influencing currents
flowing between tops of thunderstorms and the ionosphere (Markson, 1974). Or the relation may still
be more subtle (Macdonald and Reiter, 1974).
As a fmal puzzle let me mention one that requires intensive cooperative research with biologists.
This concerns the effects of atmospheric electric phenomena on biological processes. Such interactions
doubtlessly exist but myths abound in this area and much fiction will have to be sorted from fact.
This applies particularly to the higher organisms and especially man. These organisms are not calibrated
instruments but show individually widely different reactions to various environmental stimuli including
atmospheric electric ones. Here we do not lack in literature but in critical experiments. Much has been
written on health and therapeutic effects of ions of various mobility. However, we have only vague
notions on the mechanism that may produce these effects. It is certainly not a simple chain of action.
Similarly, there is evidence of biological reactions to the influences of changes in the electric field and
to certain frequencies of electromagnetic waves. Obviously if there are meteorotropic events the link
via such atmospheric electric phenomena is more plausible because they are the only ones, except for
barometric pressure fluctuations, that can penetrate into houses. Also the experiments with electro-
narcosis are highly suggestive in this connection. What is needed, however, are imaginative experiments,
conducted in a critical vein and with adequate physical and statistical design and control.
We are here also being confronted by a possible new source of man-made environmental disturbance
that has been dubbed "electromagnetic pollution". Experiments with animals have shown effects of
various types of electric fields on vision, induction of lethargy, emotional disorders and even blood
composition (Arehart- Treichel, 1974). This is certainly an unexplored comer with a very high intellectual
challenge.
It cannot be my task here to present a comprehensive catalogue of all the work that remains to be
done in atmospheric electricity. Most of you are better qualified to do so than I. Nor can we exhaust
the list of linkages that exist to other phases of atmospheric sciences. Suffice it to assert that you and
all those who engage in research in this field contribute to an important sector of knowledge in the
overall scheme of atmospheric science. It is an area that should not remain isolated nor should it be
considered by meteorologists as a quaint preserve of a small group of odd characters. Rather, it is
essential that it become reintegrated into the phalanx of research into the many unknown facets of our
atmosphere not only for the benefit of atmospheric electric investigations but also for all the other
fields of atmospheric science as well.
References
1. Arehart-Treichel, J., Science News 105, 418 (1974). - 2. Cobb, W. E., J. Atmos. Sci. 30,101 (1973). - 3. Cobb,
W. E., J. Atmos. Sci. 30, 1460 (1973). - 4. Few, A. A., Am. Geophys. Un. 55, 508 (1974). - 5. Gorodenskiy,
S. N., Geomagnetism and Aeronomy (AGU Translat.) 13, 720 (1973). - 6. Kinzer, G. D., J. Atmos. Sci. 31,
802
787 (1974). - 7. Levin, Z. and A. Ziv, J. Geophys. Res. 79,2699 (1974). - 8. Macdonald, B. C. and E. R. Reiter,
On possible interactions between upper and lower atmosphere; in: Bandeen, W. R. and S. P. Maran (ed.), NASA-
Goddard, Solar-Meteorological Relations, Proceedings (Preprint) (1974). - 9. Markson, R., Solar modulation
of atmospheric electrification thro.ugh variation of the conductivity over thunderstorms; in: Bandeen, W. R. and
S. E. Maran (ed.), NASA-Goddard Solar-Meteorological Relations, Proceedings (Preprint) (1974). - 10. Mason,
B. J., WMO Bulletin 23,136 (1974). - 11. Muhleisen, R., Die Kleinionen Konzentration iiber dem Atlantik als
Indikator fiir die g10baJe Luftverschmutzung; Bonner Meteoroi. Abhdlg. 17, 569 (1974). - 12. Orville, R. E.,
Weatherwise 25, 108 (1972). - 13. Stringfellow, M. F.. Nature 249, 332 (1974). - 14. U.S. Department of Com-
merce, NOAA Summary Report Weather Modification, Fiscal Year 1972 (Rockville, 1972). - 15. U.S. Depart-
ment of Commerce, NOAA 74-77 (News Release 1974). - 16. Waldvogel, A., J. Atmos. Sci. 31,1067 (1974). -
17. World Meteorological Organization, Present State of Knowledge in the Field of Weather Modification;
Abridged Report, 26th Session of Executive Committee (Geneve, 1974).
Author's address:
H. E. Landsberg
IPST, room 2215
Space Sciences Building
University of Maryland
College Park MD 20742
USA
803
REPORT ON THE FIFTH CONFERENCE
H. Dolezalek
Purpose and Goal of the Fifth International Conference on Atmospheric Electricity

The first conference of this series was held at Wentworth-by-the-Sea near Portsmouth, New Hampshire, USA
on 19-21 May 1954 with about 57 participants from ten countries (1), followed by the second one at the same
place from 20-23 May 1958, attended by 91 scientists from again ten countries (2). The Third Conference took
place from 5 -10 May 1963 in Montreux in Switzerland and from 26 countries came 178 scientists (3). Tokyo,
Japan, was the place for the Fourth Conference from 13 -18 May 1968, and approximately 100 participants
came from 16 countries (4). The Fifth Conference, on which these proceedings report, took place in Garmisch-
Partenkirchen in the Federal Republic of Germany from 2 -7 September 1974 with some more activities con-
ducted shortly before and thereafter. This time, the list of participants gives 195 names. The national distribution
was as follows: USA 63, West-Germany 38, France 16, Japan 15, Great Britain 13, Switzerland 8, Canada 6,
Ireland, South Africa and Sweden 4 each, and between 1 and 3 from Australia, Austria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia,
Denmark, Finland, German Dem. Rep., Hungary, Israel, Italy, Nigeria and Poland, i.e., 22 Countries. Scientists
from still other countries contributed in papers, e.g., India, Thailand, USSR.
With the Third Conference (1963) and from then on, the principle was followed to present the whole field of
atmospheric electricity by a number of selected topics covered by invited papers and enlarged by contributions,
and to allow much discussion time. The idea is to get an in-depth coverage by illuminating the problems which
are considered to be the most pressing ones. Papers which did not fit into this rigid scheme were rejected (it is
supposed that the atmospheric electricity symposia at the occasions of the General Assemblies of the large inter-
national organizations, such as UGGI and IAMAP, will give occasion for the presentation of larger numbers
of more diversified papers).
The series of, so far, five specialized conferences may also be seen as material for updating textbooks of atmos-
pheric electricity which appeared shortly before the various conferences: (5) and (6) before Wentworth 1958,
(7) before Montreux, (8) before Tokyo, and (9), (10) and (11) before Garmisch - see also the remark on lines
2 - 6 of page XX of (11). Finally, these conferences serve as occasions to re-assess the state of the art of atmos-
pheric electricity as a basic science and as a tool for applications in the discussions with the larger scientific
community. It is the combination of these tasks which govern the preparations and conducts of these conferences
and of the proceedings following them.
Organization of the Conference

History
Invitations to conduct the Fifth Conference in their countries were received by the International Commission
on Atmospheric Electricity from officials of the USSR expressed by the President of the Hydrometeorological
Service Under the Council of Ministers, and ofthe Federal Republic of Germany based on an initiative of R. Reiter
and routed via the Fraunhofer Society to the Government. Since it had been customary to invite a number of
internationally acknowledged experts from various countries to participate at the conference, travel money in
international currency was a necessity for conducting the conference. This seemed to be a problem for one of the
parties and thus the other invitation was accepted. Organizational and financial support was personally discussed
by the Secretary' of the Commission with authorities of the Federal Government of Germany in Bonn, with local
authorities in Garmisch-Partenkirchen and with the President and other officers of the Fraunhofer Society. Then,
it was decided to hold the conference in Garmisch-Partenkirchen in the fall of 1974 - a deviation from the habit
to have these conferences in May because ofthe weather situation in the seasons in Garmisch - with the Institute
of Atmospheric Environmental Research under the directorship of R. Reiter as the local host. An Executive
Panel and an Advisory Board were established as listed at another place in these proceedings. The Advisory
Board was composed, under the presidency of the President of the Fraunhofer Society, by the scientists who had
org~nized the former conferences, the members of the Executive Panel, the chairmen of the (then) nine Sub-
Commissions of ICAE, and the chairmen of the national committees on atmospheric electricity.
Preparation
Preparations were begun with a questionnaire on the preferred topics and the desired general character of the
conference, sent to about 500 scientists (all we knew or assumed to be interested) on 15 April 1971. The answers
received were again distributed to all im July 1971 and in December 1971, together with a schedule of deadlines
805
for submission of papers etc. On the basis of the received recommendations and of many discussions sparked by
them, a general plan for the conference was set up and distributed on 15 April 1973. About at the same time,
the Executive Panel decided on the session chairmen and on the scientists to be invited to present review papers.
A call was sent out to submit "Concepts" for contributed papers until 15 September 1973; these concepts
remaining strictly within the limits of the selected topics. All concepts received were first screened by the members
of the Executive Panel and then turned over - with the comments - to the chairmen of the respective sessions
for decision on acceptance or rejection. It was intended to distribute abstracts of the accepted papers well before
the conference. This plan was cancelled when the Executive Panel received a request from the colleagues in the
Soviet Union to postpone the submission date for the concepts. In April 1974, a preliminary program was distri-
buted including a questionnaire on the probability of participation, room reservation card, a survey on costs,
and indications on planned social events and post-conference excursions.
Thereafter, the correspondence was restricted to those colleagues who expressed a minimum likelihood of
participation. On the other hand, announcements of the Conference were now printed by all scientific journals
we could reach which usually publish such information. Also, the World Meteorological Organization, which
inbetween had agreed to accept our invitation to co-sponsor the Conference and to delegate a colleague to be a
member of the Executive Panel, distributed officially conference information to the national weather services
of the world. In the spring of 1974, the full text of the invited papers wa& distributed to all scientists expressing
a probability that they would come to the conference. Abstracts of the contributed papers were given to the
attendants at the opening of the conference.
During these years of preparations, countless letters and circular letters were written and read, and the host
institute in Garmisch-Partenkirchen had hired a special secretary for that purpose. Sometimes letters between
the two editors of these proceedings were as frequent as daily in both directions, supplemented by telegrams and
oversea telephone calls, by a special trip of H. Dolezalek to Garmisch in the fall of 1973, and by oral negotiations
at the occasions of other transocean trips of both of us. The costs of the special trip were largely borne by the
Federal Government of Germany.
Support
This brings us to the financial problem. It was known that the earlier conferences, e.g. Montreux and Tokyo,
had used sponsor money in the neighborhood of one hundred thousand dollars each. It would have been unreal-
istic to expect that amount for the Fifth Conference. However, after negotiations between the various members
of the Executive Panel on one hand - later on supported and supplemented by the headquarters of the Fraun-
hofer Society - and the Federal Ministry of Research, the German Research Association (Deutsche Forschungs-
gemeinschaft), and the State of Bavaria on the other, funding was secured which then, together with a registra-
tion fee of 150 German Marks per participant, covered the expected costs. The Town of Garmisch-Partenkirchen
provided all local facilities free of charge and permitted the free use of the Kurpark and of the Kurhaus for
additional meetings and recreation. It may be added here, that the Fraunhofer Society granted an additional
very significant sum for the printing of the Proceedings, which could not fully be covered by the registration fees.
It also absorbed the great majority of administrative costs in the preparation of the conference and, thereafter,
the preparation and editing of the proceedings. No salaries, however, were paid other than for a special secretary
hired by the host institute in Garmisch.
Technical Organization
The technical organization was generally considered to be satisfactory. All participants were seated at tables,
equipped with one microphone each for three participants. All papers and discussions were distributed over a
number of loudspeakers. The discussions were taped and immediately typed; copies were distributed to all
discussion speakers so that they had a chance to correct their remarks while still being at the conference.
Display of session number and paper number throughout the duration of the paper decreased the risk to
miss a paper of interest.
Elapsed time indication and indication of the approaching and of the allotted period helped to meet the time
schedule rigorously.
A special conference office, manned by employees of the host institute; a branch of a local bank, able to handle
currency conversions; facilities for telephone, telegraph, postal service; "pigeon holes" for each participant; a
special service for accepting, checking, presenting and returning slides; travel information; and the facilities for
transcription of the tapes, all were located in the conference building itself. For small discussions sitting facilities
were provided in the building and the park outside, and special rooms were available for small conferences in
another building in the park. The town hoisted flags of all participating nations outside of the conference building,
806
the local and nationwide press and the television noted the conference, and the population of Garmisch-Parten-
kirchen was well aware of it.
The Scientific Sessions

The titles and content of these sessions were as it is presented in these proceedings. They took place in the
"Konzertsaal" of the town of Garmisch-Partenkirchen. Only the English language was used (except for a sur-
prising and nice opening of the first session by its chairman made in German). After each paper, a short discussion
period was allowed, and at the end of each session an extended general discussion was conducted.
Two Special Sessions, numbered in the proceedings as 2a and 10, were held on special invitation from the
Executive Panel. In session 2a, a special objective of interest to the co-sponsor, the World Meteorological
Organization, was pursued, dealing with the problem of practical application of atmospheric electricity; and a
film on the variation of electric fields at ground under a thunderstorm was shown. The invitation to session 10
was spelled out upon recommendation of four members of the Advisory Board who had visited the host institute
and suggested that the community of atmospheric electricity, assembled at Garmisch-Partenkirchen, would like
to know more on the work done in the Institute for Atmospheric Environmental Research of the Fraunhofer
Society. This was followed by visits to the various sites of that institute.
The Banquet Address, given by an outstanding expert on meteorology (in its broadest definition) Helmut
Landsberg, was equal to a scientific session and is therefore to be mentioned here. For the first time in this series
of conferences, a speaker was invited who was not from the immediate field of atmospheric electricity but who
has done much research on related matters and now was to speak on the situation of atmospheric electricity in
its wider aspects. It is recommended reading for every meteorologist.
Parallel Events
Business Meetings
Nearly all subcommissions of the INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRIC-
ITY held business meetings in the evening of 2 September, the ICAE itself conducted two business meetings on
the evenings of 3 and of 4 September, the last one open for all participants of the conference. Reports on these
business meetings including the recommendations taken are to be found on pages 24 through 29 of "Chronique
V.G.G.I., publiee par Ie Secretaire General P. Melchior" number 100 of January 1975 (IUGG Publications
Office; 39ter, Rue Gay-Lussac; F-75005 Paris, France).
An informal session of the Working Group on Atmospheric Electricity of the Commission of Atmospheric
Science of the WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION was conducted at the end of the conference,
lasting a full day. A report on it has been distributed by WMO to its Members (the national weather services of
the world).
Special sessions were dealing with the plan to conduct a research program analog to a second "Thunderstorm
Project", the world-wide monitoring of sferics in the Atmospherics-Analyzer Network, the atmospheric electric
fog effect and other items.
Social and Cultural Events

The importance of events of a social and cultural character for the "atmosphere" and success of a scientific
conference should be emphasized. It was clearly felt during the Garmisch Conference.
The most outstanding event was the Baroque Concert in the famous Wieskirche. The Church, built in the
1760's by Dominicus Zimmermann, was reserved for the Garmisch Conference on the afternoon of 3 September.
After an introduction into the history and style of the church by Prelate Satzger, the Miinchener Kammer Orche-
ster under Hans Stadlmair performed pieces by Johann Christian Bach, Antonio Vivaldi, Georg Friedrich Handel,
and Johann Sebastian Bach. - The bus tour to the Wieskirche passed through Oberammergau and Kloster Etta\.
The Banquet on the evening of 5 September assembled the participants and their families, the fellow-workers
of the host institute and dignitaries from local and regional offices and the Fraunhofer Society. They were
addressed by Prof. Landsberg, see above.
The Bavarian Folklore Evening on 7 September turned out to be a surprise for many because in contrast to
the usual worldwide presentations for tourists and other commercially related items, the performers were the
local people who are maintaining their playing, singing, and dancing for their own pleasure and - often - after
doing elaborate research into the historical origins.
The Fraunhofer Society invited the colleagues who had done most of the work to a special dinner on 6 Septem-
ber into the historic Post Hotel in Partenkirchen.
807
Excursions, Cultural Programmes
In addition to the trips to the facilities of the Institute for Atmospheric Environmental Research in the
Garmisch valley, on the Wank Mountain and on Zugspitze Mountain which formed part of the official scientific
program but were shared by family members of the participants, several full day and half day tours to places
of historic and cultural or scenic interest led as far as Innsbruck or Neuschwanstein, and included mountain
walks, and the local or near local museums etc. Excursions for the days following the conference were olTered
to scientific institutes in Southern Germany and Switzerland.
Critique on the"Preparations and Performance of the Conference

The main point to be made in this section is the mentioning of the impression, that because of the growing
complexity of atmospheric electricity the participation of session chairmen in the preparation of the conference
might begin, for future conferences, earlier in the process. As an alternative, the participation of subcommission
Chairmen as Members of the Advisory Board could be strengthened. As soon as the topics for the individual
sessions are defined by the Executive Panel, the session chairmen should be appointed, and from then on they
should immediately be involved in preparing their sessions while a firm control by the Executive Panel is main-
tained. In particular, selecting the invited speakers for the review papers and defining the contents of these papers,
formulating topics for contributed papers and decisions on paper acceptance and rejection should be done
in cooperation between the Executive Panel and the Session Chairmen. Then, they should prepare questions
for the general discussion period.
Second, it is felt that a closer return to the scheme of the Montreux Conference might be advisable, i.e., ad-
mitting contributed papers mainly as comments to the invited papers, and extending the time for the general
discussions at the end of each session.
Third, a more rigid procedure should be set to minimize the consequences of "no-shows", scientists who
submit papers but then do not come. This behavior is not intentionally, but practically very unfair to the colleagues
who have been turned back in their submission of papers and thus often been prevented from attending at all.
More binding declarations about the possibility to attend should be required, maybe even from the supervisors
or institutions of the scientists involved, and especially so in cases where past experience has been disappointing
in this regard.
A word on the quality of the presentations may be expected at this place. As always there were "good and
bad" papers, but that is not a very helpful statement. The most regrettable shortcoming with some papers was,
in my view, a lack of sufficient familiarity with work done by others, sometimes long ago, and in some cases
in an even more thorough manner than the recent repetition. With textbooks available which have gone to great
lengths to quote the literature (5, 9, 10, 11), there is now little excuse for not knowing about the older work. - A
matter of vivid discussion to be heard at many scientific conferences is the bad quality of so many slides presented,
often clearly surpassing the border to being an insult to the audience. I believe, that at the Garmisch Conference,
the quality of the slides was exceptionally good, and that this was helpful. The Executive Panel had gone to great
length to challenge the authors in this regard, ICAE had distributed a special brochure on good lecture slides
published by KODAK to all authors long before the conference; and during the conference scientists (members
of the staff of the organizing institute) were screening the slides before admitting them for presentation.
Preparation of the Proceedings

The usual delays in submitting the finished papers for the inclusion into the proceedings were experienced in
this case again - in addition some of the texts were not intelligible for a larger audience and had to be improved
upon request of the editors. The session chairmen participated in the editing of the discussions, but the last
decisions were made in all cases by the editors, in unison. The request for exclusive use of the units of the Inter-
national System (S.I.) - already spelled out to all authors well before the conference - was enforced for the
proceedings, sometimes against the desires of the authors themselves.
The discussions - as well those in the five-minute periods after each paper and printed in the proceedings
after these papers, as the ones in the general discussion periods at the end of the sessions (and reproduced here
in the same fashion) - were edited to reduce some administrative actions of the session chairman and to take
out repetitions; also the unification of units was carried through here. However, it was attempted to conserve
the intent as well as the flavor of the individual contributions.
A particular problem arose in context with the difficulty of the transition of the scientific discussion from
that conducted during the conference to that to be continued in journals and future conferences. Sometimes, a
speaker in a discussion had to be cut short by the chairman because time was running out; in other cases, a
808
colleague realized only later that he should have contributed to the discussion; and in still other cases a colleague
who could not attend but learned about the content of the one or other paper wrote to the editors requesting
that they should include a rebuttal into the Proceedings. It should be remembered that there are such cases in
which such a rebuttal would be in answer to a remark directed personally to the absent colleague; it should also
be remembered that in practically all these cases an inclusion of additional material would have benefited the
reader of the Proceedings. In spite of this, the editors decided to decline all these requests. There was no way
to present such additional material to the audience assembled at Garmisch in order to give them the chance to
respond. Thus, this additional material is really typically material for the continuation of the discussion in
scientific journals. However, we added a footnote at the appropriate places in the proceedings whenever we had
such requests. These footnotes also instruct the interested reader where to get the additional information.
These proceedings are distributed free of charge to all participants who paid the registration fee. In addition,
they can be purchased from the publishing house. The Fraunhofer Society. as already mentioned. provided
additional funds for the printing of these Proceedings.
Concluding Remarks
Again, and helped by cultural events, this conference turned out to be a demonstration of the fact that the
scientists working in atmospheric electricity are indeed forming a community irrespective of national boundaries,
ideological diversities, and age. The fact that this is helped along by the action of ICAE and by the other organi-
zations was more visible at Garmisch than at the other conferences.
More than before, the aspects of an eventual practical application of atmospheric electricity formed a part of
the conference, as demonstrated by the Banquet Address, by session 2a, and by the formation of a special sub-
commission of ICAE during the conference. This aspect formed also the main objective of the business meeting
of the WMO Working Group mentioned above.
On the Development of the Second Thunderstorm Project

Twelve years after the first Thunderstorm Project (12), a survey paper on thunderstorm research (13) led to
the conclusion that a second one was desirable. On 8 December 1971, the Committee on Atmospheric and
Space Electricity of AGU discussed the feasibility of a second project, and agreed that "this project would be
only desirable if by good preparation it can be secured that research tasks within the project are assigned from
one central point and will be fulfilled exactly" (14). In January 1974, the Committee on Atmospheric Electricit)l
of AMS discussed a second project (15). During the Garmisch Business Meetings, G. A. Dawson recommended it
(16). This was unanimously accepted by ICAE. A special Working Group was founded, and a "Secretariat" with
E. T. Pierce and L. H. Ruhnke was established. About 70 scientists in 19 groups participated in a pilot program
(TRIP = Thunderstorm Research International Program) in Florida 1976. A continuation is planned for 1977.
References
l. Holzer, R. E. and W. E. Smith (ed.), Proceedings on the Conference on Atmospheric Electricity. Geophysical
Research Papers No. 42, AFCRC-TR-55-222, November 1955; VII + 247 pp., with 26 scientific papers, discus-
sions, picture and list of participants. - 2. Smith, L. G. (ed.), Recent Advances in Atmospheric Electricity.
Library of Congress Card 58-59743; XV + 631 pp., with 58 scientific papers and discussions, author index,
picture and list of participants (London, 1958). - 3. Coroniti, S. C. (ed.), Problems of Atmospheric and Space
Electricity, Library of Congress Card 64-18510; XIV + 616 pp., with 66 scientific papers and discussions, picture
of participants, author index, and subject index (Amsterdam, 1965). - 4. Coroniti, S. C. and J. Hughes (ed.),
Planetary Electrodynamics. Library of Congress Card 64-18510; XL + 1090 pp., with 92 scientific papers (in
two volumes) and discussions. subject index, picture and list of participants (New York, 1969). - 5. Chalmers,
J. A., Atmospheric Electricity VIII, 327 (London, 1957). - 6. Israel, H., Atmospharische Elektrizitat, Teil I,
IX, 370 (Leipzig, 1957). - 7. israel, H., Atmospharische Elektrizitat, Teil II, X, 503 (1961). - 8. Chalmers, J. A.,
Atmospheric Electricity, second edition. Library Congress Card 66-29669, X, 515 (Oxford, 1967). - 9. Uman,
M. A., Lightning. 264 (New York, 1969). - 10. Israel, H., Atmospheric Electricity, volume I. Israel Program
for Scientific Translations, X, 317 (Jerusalem, 1971). - 1l. Israel, H., Atmospheric Electricity, volume II. Israel
Program for Scientific Translations, XV, 478 (Jerusalem, 1973). - 10. and 1l. available from National Technical
Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22151; USA, under number TT 67-51394. -
12. Byers, H. R. and R. R. Braham, The Thunderstorm (Washington 1949). - 13. Dolezalek, H., Gewitterforschung
I, II, and III. Umschau in Wissenschaft und Technik 61,14,51,82 (1961). - 14. Dolezalek, H., Minutes of Business
Meeting of CASE/AGU, Report to AGU 20 March 1972, paragraph 2.3.3. - 15. Pierce, E. T., Atmospheric
Electricity, Some Themes, Bull. Amer. Met. Soc. 55, 1186 (1974). - 16. Dolezalek, H., Report, Chronique UGGI
100,24 (1975).
809
Author Index
Acker, F. E., 642, 645 Bauer, L. S., 728, 735, 737, 739
Aggson, T. L., 525, 526, 536, 542 Baust, E., 57, 58
Aina, J. I., 58, 328, 389, 391, 392, 393, 420, 612, 631, Becker, R., 76, 80
758 Beesley, G., 279, 285
Aitken, A. C., 3, 15, 16, 110 Behannon, K. W., 558, 559, 566
Akasofu, S. I., 522, 525, 526, 536, 542 Benard, V., 389, 392
Albrecht, H. J., 660, 708, 752 Benbrook, J. R., 545, 549, 550
Allee, P. A., 114, 118 Benndorf, H., 532, 534
Alpert, A. L., 669, 681 Bent, R. B., 193, 201, 226, 229, 687, 692, 754, 757,
Amayanc, P., 517, 526 758
Amelin, A. G., 34, 38, 39 Berdichewsky, M. H., 728, 735
Anderegg, M., 563, 566 Berger, K., 369, 377, 600, 604, 633, 634, 637, 638,
Andree, S. A., 576, 579 641, 657, 704, 707, 725, 727, 742, 744, 757
Anderson, H. R., 565, 566 Bergeron, T., 717, 718
Anderson, R. B., 344, 350, 682, 686, 698, 724, 725, Bering, E. A., 202
727,753 Berry, L. A., 667, 681
Anderson, F. J., 530, 534 Best, A. C., 379, 380, 383
Anderson, R. V., 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 97, 98, Bevan, G. G., 720, 723
99,105,108,152,153,154,165,175,177,193, Bhartendu, 88, 97, 100, 102, 107, 108, 193,201,217,
201, 202, 217, 223, 229, 258, 449, 450, 457, 463, 221,223,224
476, 479, 480, 504, 687, 692, 693, 753 Billard, F., 41, 43
Appleton, E. V., 369, 582, 583, 586, 710 Binder, K., 81
Arehart-Treichel, J., 800 Bjornsson, S., 344, 350
Arendt, P., 385, 387 Blanc, D., 8, 10,82
Arnold, F., 6, 16 Blackman, R. B., 100, 107, 108
Asinovsk, E. I., 202 Blanchard, D. C., 344, 350
Aspinall, W. P., 92, 95, 97, 193, 201, 228, 229 Blau, H. H., 468, 476
Assaf, G., 250, 254 Blumie, L. J., 6, 7, 16
Atkinson, W., 530, 534, 555, 556 Bochkovs, B. B., 202
Aufdermaur, A. N., 216, 277, 294, 297, 299, 300, Boeck, W. L., 191, 713, 715
301, 327, 330, 331, 333, 334, 335, 338, 339, 350, Bogott, F., 473, 474, 475
394,401,418,419,420,421 Bohme, D. K., 50
aufm. Kampe, H. J., 373, 378 Bojkov, R. D., 181
Axford, W. I., 521, 526, 536, 542 Borchers, R., 10, 12, 16
Ayer, H. E., 250, 255 Bossolasco, M., 766, 796
Bostrom, R., 435, 438, 473, 475, 509, 513, 519, 525,
Bailey, V. A., 527 526, 529, 530, 531, 532, 534, 535, 539, 542, 549,
Bakulin, V. N., 250, 254 550, 581, 588, 592, 593
Baldit, A., 376, 377 Botka, A. T., 351, 368, 375, 377
Ball, L., 500, 502 Bourdeau, R. E., 316, 512, 526
Banerji, S. K., 376, 377 Bradley, W. E., 344, 351, 454, 458
Banks, P. M., 524, 526, 536, 542, 559, 586 Bragin, Y. A., 202
Barge, B. L., 191,202 Braginskaya, L. L., 249
Barham, R. A., 202 Braham, R. R., 486, 487, 809
Baron, M. J., 576, 579 Brantley, R. D., 603, 604, 700, 703
Barr, R., 673, 681 Braun, W., 202
Barre, M., 211, 215 Brazier-Smith, P. R., 265, 266, 270, 351
Barrer, R. M., 717, 718 Briant, C. L., 79, 80
Barreto, E., 28, 58, 80, 645, 646, 659, 661, 749, 757 Bricard,]., 7, 15, 16,21,22,23,30,39,40,41,43,54,
Bartels, J., 515, 525, 526 58, 60, 68, 82, 120, 131, 134,202, 584, 586
Bartlett, J. T., 72, 75 Brice, N. M., 523, 526
Batchelor, G. K., 95, 97 Brier, G. W., 100, 108
Bates, D., 649, 650, 651 Briggs, B. R., 531, 534
Battan, L. J., 349, 350 Briggs, G. A., 568, 572
810
Brock, J. R., 131, 134 Chiu, Y. T., 530, 531, 534, 539, 542
Brook, M., 189, 191, 202, 236, 265, 270, 279, 284, Chrisman, M. A., 667, 681
300, 328, 329, 330, 331, 335, 344, 349, 350, 351, Christian, H. J., 231, 236, 237
360, 361, 373, 378, 527, 595, 596, 597, 604, 605, Chubarina, E. V., 160,267,268,269, 271, 370, 375,
607, 608, 609, 612, 613, 625, 628, 631, 637, 645, 377,382,383
660,661,683,686,710 Ciahos, N., 202
Brooks, C. E. P., 468, 475 Cialdea, R., 201
Brown, J. G., 217, 223 Cipriano, J. P., 583, 585, 586
Brown, K. A., 344, 350, 351 Clarence, N. D., 389, 392, 644, 645
Brownscombe, J. L., 298, 299 Clark,J. F., 234,236,362, 366,453,454,458, 740
Bruce, C. E. R., 600, 601, 604, 657, 707 Clayton, M. D., 201, 440, 442, 443, 444, 448, 449,
Brukner, K. A., 63, 68 504,663
Bruston, P., 536, 542 Clegg, R. J., 202, 340, 351
Budak, I. V., 402 Cloutier, P. A., 558, 560, 566
Budden, K. G., 668, 681 Cobb, W. E., 88, 97, 100, 108, 109, 114, 118, 119,
Buis, P. M., 91, 92, 97, 161, 162, 165, 453, 454, 458, 124, 126, 129, 130, 161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167,
468,475,740 202, 420, 439, 465, 466, 479, 480, 486, 487, 728,
Bullock, J. W., 344, 351, 454, 458 735, 762, 795. 802
Burgers, J. M., 95, 97 Cobine, J. D., 569, 572
Burke, T. P., 90, 91, 97 Cohen, M. J., 21, 22, 46, 51, 191
Burrows, D. A., 294, 299 Colburn, D. S., 558, 566
Burton, J. J., 79, 80 Cole, J. D., 95, 97
Buser, 0., 294, 297, 299, 301 Cole, R. K., 534, 583, 586
Byers, H. R., 339, 351, 368, 373, 377, 809 Coleman, Jr., P. J., 521,526,558,566,714,715
Byk, S. Sh., 717, 718 Colgate, S. A., 334, 338, 342, 345, 347, 351, 359, 360,
398, 399,400,401,404,418,419
Collard, H. R., 558, 566
Cabane, M., 7, 15, 16,21,22,30,38,39
Collens, H., 597, 600, 604
Cagniard, L., 728, 735
Collin, H. L., 201
Cain, J. C., 525, 526
Conley, T., 82
Campbell, M., 52, 81
Connor, R., 647, 650, 651, 661
Cardell, G. R., 264, 271
Cooper, W., 440, 448
Carlqvist, P., 513, 526
Coroniti, S. C., 182, 201, 805, 809
Carnuth, W., 770, 771, 772, 773, 774, 784, 788, 796
Cot, P.-D., 716, 717, 718
Carpenter, D. L., 521, 524, 526, 536, 542
Cox, R. A., 76, 80
Carroll, D. I., 21, 22, 46, 48, 50, 51
Crabb, J. A., 265, 270, 618, 619, 621, 622
Castle, G. S., 202
Craib, J., 369, 378, 389, 392
Castleman, Jr., A. W., 6, 7,15,16,24,25,26,28,29,
Craig, T., 267, 271, 387,419
77, 78, 79, 80, 81
Croghan, R. D., 500, 502
Cauffman, D. P., 521, 526
Croom, D. L., 669, 681
Cermak, V., 4
Crouch, K., 745, 747, 748
Challinor, R. A., 679, 681
Crowther, A. G., 313
Chalmers, J. A., 94, 98, 114, 152, 153, 190,201,225,
Crozier, W. D., 94, 97, 98, 258
229, 238, 246, 247, 261, 275, 277, 302, 307, 335,
Crystal, T. L., 536, 542
343, 350, 371, 375, 376, 377, 385, 387,453, 454,
Cudney, R. A., 201
458, 489, 494, 532, 534, 583, 586, 664, 681, 740,
Cunningham, A. J., 16
754,755,757,805,808,809
Curran, R. J., 568, 572
Chand, D., 404, 408
Chandras, H. S., 202
Changnon, Jr., S. A., 482,487,506,663 Dahle, 0., 597, 604
Chapman, F. W., 600, 604 Dalgarno, A., 4
Chapman, Seville, 84, 189, 191, 192,202 Dalu, G. A., 90, 91, 97
Chapman, Sydney, 18,21,22,515,525,526,536,542 Dalu, G., 90, 91, 97
Chappell, C. R., 521, 525, 526 Davidson, D. W., 716, 718
Charlson, R. J., 115, 118 Davis, M. H., 72, 74, 75, 82, 290, 292
Chataev, D. N., 728, 729, 735 Davis, Jr., L.,. 558, 566
Chatlock, A. P., 10 Dawson, G. A .. 1, 52, 53, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 202, 264,
Chin, E. H. c., 399,400 265, 270, 271, 292, 300, 329, 330, 339, 351, 361,
811
416, 421, 569, 572, 618, 619, 620, 621, 642, 643, Evans, W. H., 202
644,645,809 Evteev, B. F., 368, 377, 388
Dayaratna, L. H., 225, 230, 260 Eyerer, P., 158, 159
de Bruijn, P., 217, 223
Decker, M. T., 202
Fahleson, U. V., 202, 438, 473, 475, 529, 530, 534,
DeFelici, P., 168, 173
535, 539, 542, 549, 550, 555, 556, 562, 566
Dejnakarintra, M., 425, 438, 514, 526, 531, 534,
Falconner, W. E., 11, 16,46,51
536,543,544,551,546,548,550,583,586
Falcoz, H., 669, 677, 678, 681
Demon, L., 168, 173
Faraday, M., 157, 159
Dennis, A. S., 597, 600, 604
Farley, D. T., 531, 534
Dessler, A. J., 628, 631
Faucher, G. A., 114, 118
Devin, C., 376, 377
Federov, E. K., 376, 377
Dinger, J. E., 302, 307,375, 377
Fehsenfeld, F. C., 7, 8, 16, 50, 51
Dmitrieva, G. V., 250, 255
Fellman, E., 665, 681
Doring, W., 76, 80
Fenner, M. A., 563, 564, 566
Dolezalek, H., 87, 90, 91, 94, 96, 97, 98, 153, 168,
Ferguson, E. E., 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 16, 17, 50, 51
173,175,177,181,185,187,188,189,198,201,
Ferrara, R., 90, 94, 98
202,211,215,216,217,221,223,225,229,236,
Feuerbacher,B., 563, 566
246, 247, 257, 258, 259, 261, 322, 326, 450, 452,
Few, A. A., 189, 190, 191,202, 231, 237, 260, 328,
458, 507, 513, 514, 526, 527, 558, 566, 568, 572,
329, 334, 351, 628, 629, 630, 631, 632, 637, 659,
574, 588, 589, 591, 592, 593, 663, 676, 681, 687,
709, 713, 753, 801, 802
692, 729, 735, 766, 769, 796, 803, 805, 806, 809
Findeisen, E., 372, 375, 377
Dohley, L. J., 3, 16
Findeisen, W., 372, 375, 377
Doupnik, J. R., 536, 542
Fischer, H. J., 202, 437, 438, 453, 454, 457, 458,
Doyle, A., 265, 271
460, 474, 476, 669, 675, 681, 683, 686, 740, 741,
Doyle, G. J., 76, 80
767, 796
Drake, J. C., 302, 304, 305. 306, 307, 375.
Fisher, R. J., 597, 601, 602, 603, 604, 683, 684, 686,
377
700, 703, 704
Drenick. R. F., 656
Fishman, B. E., 402
Drost-Hansen, W., 158, 159
Fitton, B., 563, 566
Dubrovich, N. A., 157, 159
Fitzgerald, D. R., 339, 351, 362, 366, 367, 368, 373,
Duff, D. G., 618, 620, 621, 642, 644, 645
377,545,550
Dugar, A. C., 203
Flanagan, V. P., 40, 43, 67, 68
Dumas, H. M., 705
Flechter, N. H., 297, 299, 330
Dungey, J. W., 521, 526, 536, 537, 542
Fleischer, R. L., 573, 745, 747, 748, 749
Dungley, J. W., 728, 735
Fligel, D. S., 669, 681
Dunkin, D. B., 50
Flood, H., 76, 80
Durden, 6, 7,16
Fomina, V. I., 717,718
Dutton, E. J., 202
Fontan, J., 8, 45, 49, 51
Dyal, P., 558, 566
Forrest, J. S., 721, 723
Dye, J. E., 569, 572
Foster, H., 339, 351
Dzidic, I., 46, 48, 51
Franck, J., 10
Frank, L. A., 536, 538, 542
Edelson, D., 11, 16 Franklin, J. F., 4
Eden, H. F., 557, 566, 567, 569, 573 Frazer, R. K., 489, 495, 507
Eichmeier, J., 17,202 Freeman, J. W., 563,564, 566
Einaudi, F., 549, 550 Freier, G. D., 530, 534, 542, 576, 579
Elster, J., 333, 338, 340, 351, 354, 360, 376, 377 French, M., 7, 16
Endo, T., 88, 90, 98, 370, 371, 372, 374, 377 Friedman, L., 4
Eraker, H., 558, 566 Fries, G., 152, 153,217,223
Eriksson, A. J., 657, 659, 724, 725, 727 Friis-Christensen, E., 526
Erikson, H. A., 131, 134 Frimescu, M., 91, 98
Espinola, R. P., 468, 476 Frisius, J., 441, 442, 448, 667, 669, 677, 678,
Ette, A. 1.1., 88, 92, 98, 168, 173, 201, 259, 389, 392, 681
393,464,469,475,757 Fuchs, N. A., 34, 39, 40, 43, 60, 68
Etzold, H., 440, 441, 442, 443, 448 Fujita, T. T., 752
Evans, J. V., 517, 526 Fukunishi, H., 211, 215
812
Fukushima, N., 517, 525, 526 Hahn, G. J., 653, 656
Fullerton, C. M., 267, 271, 387, 419 Hake, Jr., R. D., 166, 437, 438, 558, 566, 582. 583,
584, 586
Gadomski, W., 201 Hale, 1. C., 82, 583, 585, 586, 592
Gagin, A., 115, 118 Hallendal, G., 438, 530, 534, 539, 542, 549, 550
Galejs, J., 442, 444, 448, 504, 665, 667, 671, 678, 681 Halliday, E. C., 369, 377, 389, 392
Garbagna, E., 202 Hamilton, D., 558, 566
Garriott, O. K., 512, 526 Hamilton, R. A., 92, 98
Gat, J. R., 250, 254 Hamon, B. V., 100, 108
Gathman, S. G., 87, 94, 95, 98, 201, 202, 246, 247, Hannan, E. J., 100, 108
344, 350, 440, 449, 454, 458 Hansen, J. E., 570, 572
Gay, M. J., 379, 383 Harland, W. B., 571, 572
Geisler, F. H., 746. 748 Harris, D. J., 168, 173, 469, 475, 644, 645
Geitel, H., 333, 338, 340, 351, 354, 360. 376, 377 Harth, W., 514, 526, 657, 663, 664, 674, 675, 676,
Georges, T. M., 628, 631 678,680,681,682,710,711,712
Gerdien, H., 355, 360, 376, 377 Hatakeyama, H., 217, 223
Gertenbach, J. J., 724, 727 Heimerl, J. M., 6, 7, 16
Gherzi, E. E., 88, 90, 98, 100, 108 Heist, R. H., 79, 80
Gibson, H. c., 46, 51 Helliwell, R. A., 548, 550
Gierasch, P. J., 569, 572 Heppner, J. P., 521, 525, 526, 536, 538, 542
Gish, O. H., 452, 458, 459, 468, 470, 475, 479, 480, Herath, F., 376, 377
740, 741 Herd, J., 369, 670, 682
Gohkale, T. A., 372, 378 Herman, J. R., 211, 215
Goldberg, R. A., 6, 7, 16, 82 Hermans, I. I., 157, 159
Golde, R. H., 600,604,657,707 Hess, V. F., 204, 210
Gondet, H., 168, 173 Hess, W. N., 513, 526
Gonzales, W. D., 473, 474, 475 Heydt, G., 202, 441, 442, 448, 669, 671, 674, 675, 676,
Good, 6, 7, 16 677,678,681,682,687,689,692,693,710
Goody, R. M., 568, 569, 572 Hill, M. L., 200, 202, 238, 247, 248, 257, 258, 259,
Gorodenskij, S. N., 798, 800 260,489,494,495
Gourley, M. F., 279, 284, 300, 331, 373, 378 Hill, R. D., 504, 507, 597, 604, 605, 647, 648, 650,
Gratzl, K., 216 651,658, 745, 748
Gray, E. W., 52, 53 Hines, C. 0., 536, 542
Grebowsky, J. M., 524, 526 Hobbs, P. V., 215, 294, 299, 331, 394,401, 569, 572
Greenfield, S. M., 124, 125 Hocking, L. M., 72, 74, 75
Grenet, G., 342, 344, 351 Hochstim, A. R., 4
Griffin, G. W., 21, 22, 46, 48, 51 Hodges, D. B., 597, 604
Griffiths, R. F., 265, 271, 292, 313, 330, 379, 416, Hofmann, C., 669, 677, 678, 681
420, 618, 619, 620, 621, 622, 642, 645, 659 Hofmann, D. J., 203
Griggs, M., 115, 118 Hofmann, H., 474, 476
Gringel, W., 166,464,465,466, 470, 505, 556 Hogan, A., 88, 98
Groom, K. N., 201 Holaday, D. A., 250, 255
Grubb, R. N., 705 Holleman, D. F., 250, 255
Grzelak, K., 735 Holmes, C. R., 349, 612, 623, 627, 628, 631, 659, 660
Gschwend, P.O., 376, 377 Holzer, R. E., 389, 392,425, 438, 546, 550, 608, 612,
Guedelia, D., 2 805,809
Gul'elmi, A. V., 734, 735 Hoppel, W. A., 10,11,16,57,58,60,63,64,69,94,
Gunn, R., 60, 68, 134, 162, 165, 201, 202, 273, 275, 95,98,200,202,238,246,248,257,259,454,458,
277, 302, 307, 344, 346, 351, 375, 376, 377, 387, 489,494,555,556
389,392,420,486,487 Horner, F., 202,605, 664,681, 704, 707, 709, 711, 727
Gurnett, D. A., 521, 526, 536, 538, 542 Horning, E. C., 21, 22, 46, 48, 51
Gutman, L. N., 10, 11 Horvath, M., 114, 118 .
Hovenier, J. W., 570, 572
Hacker, J. L. F., 571, 572 Hoxie, D. T., 570, 572
Hacking, C. A., 389, 392 Huddar, B., 88, 89, 98, 109, 118,202
Hanel, G., 783, 785, 796 Huertas, M. L., 8, 12, 15, 16,45,49, 51, 82, 202
Haerendel, G., 450, 458, 514, 517, 521, 526, 536, 542 Hughes, H. G., 673, 678, 681
813
Hughes, J., 201, 344, 350 Jordan, J. B., 98
Hunsucker, R. D., 576, 577, 579, 581 Joseph, J. H., 110, 118
Hutchinson, W. C. A., 95, 98, 193, 201, 225, 229, Junge, C. E., 28, 40, 44, 115, 126, 130
230, 259, 260, 302, 308, 375, 376, 377, 411, 416, Junod, A., 676, 681
465 Jurenka, H., 646
Huzita, A., 552, 555, 556
Kadlecek, J., 7, 8, 13, 14, 16
Iida, T., 204, 210 Kiihler, K., 183
Ikebe, Y., 57, 58, 67, 68, 88, 98, 114, 118, 128, 129, Kalinowska, Z., 729, 735
130,202,204,210 Kalinowska-Widomska, E., 736, 739
Ikegami, M., 88, 98, 119, 124, 125, 129, 130 Kallmann, H., 385, 387
Illingworth, A. J., 279, 284, 285, 327, 530, 534, 709 Kamaldina, I. I., 368, 377, 388
Imyanitov, I. M., 160, 201, 202, 217, 223, 263, 267, Kamra, A. K., 96, 98, 100, 108, 144, 153, 168, 172,
268, 269, 271, 299, 368, 370, 375, 377, 382, 383, 173, 174,211,215,279,283, 334, 351, 382, 383,
388,409,468,475 398,400,401,406,407,408
Inkov, B. K., 706 Kamiensky, B., 157, 159
Intriligator, D. S., 558, 566 Kanada, M., 88, 98, 114, 118, 126, 127, 128, 130,
Iribarne, J. V., 18, 23, 81, 300, 302, 306, 307, 308, 217,224,477,480,545,550
327,352,378 Kanazawa, I., 88,98, 119, 124, 125, 129, 130
Ishikawa, H., 82, 88, 98, 114, 118, 126, 127, 130, Kangas, T., 468, 476
545,550,616 Karasek, F. W., 21, 22
Isono, K., 370, 371, 373, 374, 377 Karmov, M., 353
Ishida, T., 669, 681 Kasai, T., 315, 320
Israel, H., 9, 87, 98, 106, 108, 152, 153, 183, 211,
Kasemir, H. W., 87, 88,92,98,143,162,165,166,167,
215, 217, 222, 223, 225, 229, 238, 246, 247, 440,
190, 201, 203, 215, 216, 225, 229, 271, 272, 361,
445, 448, 489, 494, 512, 526, 532, 534, 576, 579,
390, 392, 423, 425, 428, 429, 438, 439, 461, 463,
583, 586, 647, 651, 664, 675, 676, 681, 628, 735,
465, 479, 480, 503, 533, 534, 535, 543, 582, 583,
736, 739, 805, 808, 809 584, 585, 586, 589, 605, 606, 617, 645
Itagaki, K., 211, 216, 236, 301, 330, 331, 421
Kassner, J. L., 15, 16,203
Iwabuchi, T., 88, 90, 98, 312, 313, 370, 372, 377, 411,
Kast, Y., 168, 173
416 Katchurin, L. G., 353, 410
Iwadate, S., 250, 255 Kato, S., 515, 526
Iwata, A .• 597, 604 Kato, T., 204, 210
Katz, J. L., 39, 76
Jaccard, C., 294, 299 Kawano, M., 54, 57, 58, 67, 68, 88, 98, 114, 118,
Jackson, J. D., 232, 236 128,129,130,204,210,217,223,252,254
Jacobs, J. A., 549, 550, 728, 735 Kebarie, P., 6, 7, 16, 17, 51
Jaenicke, R., 126, 130 Keefe, D., 40, 44, 60, 61, 62, 63, 68, 128, 129, 130
Janeselli, R., 100, 108 Keefe, T. J., 441, 442, 443, 448
Jankowski, J. A., 735 Kelly, F., 687, 692
Jaskowska, A., 90, 98 Kelly, M. C., 202, 473, 474, 475
Jayendran, A., 669, 681 Kellogg, P. J., 530, 534, 539, 542
Jean, A. G., 664, 705 Keller, G. E., 6, 7, 16
Jelinek, H., 157, 159 Kemp, D. T., 670, 671, 681
Jennings, S. G., 270, 271, 272, 277, 284, 292, 320, Kennan, E. L., 44, 68, 69
351, 383, 400, 621 Kern, J. W., 545, 549, 550
Jhawar, D. S., 755, 757 Kersten, W. F., 202
Jindoh, H., 670, 674, 678, 681, 682 Kertz, W., 509, 526
Jindrich, J., 201 Khastgir, S. R., 699
Johns, M. D., 201 Kiang, C. S., 15,39,76,78,80,570,572,584,586
Johnson, D. A., 299, 334, 335, 338, 339, 350 Kidder, R. E., 202
Johnson, K. R., 107, 108 Kikuchi, K., 166, 308, 315, 320, 321, 331, 370, 371,
Jonassen, N., 55, 58 373, 374, 375, 377, 411, 416, 419
Jonas, P. R., 72, 74, 75 Kilpatrick, W. D., 21, 22, 46, 51
Jonasson, S., 344, 350 Kimpara, A., 692, 710, 712
Jones, D. E., 558, 566 Kimura, T., 315, 320
Jones, D. L., 445, 448, 664, 668, 670, 671, 672, 681 King, J. W., 723, 766, 796
814
Kingston, A., 649, 650, 651 Latham, D., 94, 98, 263, 265, 266, 270
Kinzer, G. D., 334, 345, 347, 351,419,798,800 Latham, J., 22, 23, 81,216,263,265, 266, 267, 270,
Kirchner, H., 247 271, 272, 277, 279, 281, 283, 285, 294, 299, 300,
Kirichenko, L. V., 250, 255 308, 313, 320, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 342, 351,
Kirk, W. P., 713, 714, 715 367, 370, 374, 377, 379, 383, 387, 400, 404, 406,
Kissel, J., 6, 16 408,411,413,416,418,420,618,619,620,621,
Kitagawa, N., 350, 351, 369, 377, 595, 596, 597, 604, 622,642,645,658,659
660,683,686,707,710,712 Laude, L. D., 563, 566
Klett, J. D., 344, 345, 346, 351 Lawford, R. G., 107, 108
Knott, K., 95, 98, 202 Leadabrand, R. L., 576, 579
Koenigsfeld, L., 144, 153, 161, 165, 217, 224, 759, Lecolazet, R., 201
797 Lee, C. W., 370, 377
Kojima, H., 40, 44, 98, 215 Lele, S. R., 376, 377
Kokubun,S.521,526 Lentz, G., 558, 566
Kolokolov, V. P., 488, 663 Leovy, C. B., 568, 572
Komabayasi, M., 370, 371, 373, 374, 377 Lepping, R. P., 558, 559, 566
Kondo, G., 161, 165 Levin, Z., 272, 279, 282, 283, 284, 298, 299, 300,
Konrad, T. G., 494, 498 329, 331, 338, 351, 394, 395, 396, 399, 400, 401,
Korn, G. A., 325, 326 418,419,622,801,803
Korn, T. M., 325, 326
Levine, J. S., 570, 572, 745, 748
Kosche, H., 683, 686
Lewis, J. S., 570, 572
Koshelev, V. S., 717, 718
Lewis, W., 306, 307
Kotlowski, J., 497, 502
Liberace, R., 714, 715
Kovarick, A. F., 10
Libby, L. M., 745, 748
Kraakevik, J. H., 10, 11, 64, 68, 87, 98, 229, 459,
Lin, Y. T., 597, 603, 604, 700, 703, 704
470,475,494,505
Lindblad, N. R., 70, 74
Krankowski, 6, 7, 16,82
Lindeken, C. L., 250, 254
Krasnogorskaya, N. V., 70, 71, 74, 75, 94, 98, 728,
Lindzen, R. S., 514, 515, 526
735
Lipskaya, N. V., 728, 729, 735
Kramer, 373
List, R., 394, 400
Kraus, J. D., 570, 572
Little, E. W. R., 371, 377
Krehbiel, P. R., 344, 345, 346, 350, 351, 607, 608,
Lobodin, T. V., 161, 164, 165, 437, 438, 542, 728,
612,613,628,631,659
735
Kreielsheimer, K. S., 201, 202
Krider, E. P., 202, 569, 572, 597, 599, 601, 602, 603, Loeb, L. B., 9, 64, 68, 134, 618, 621, 642, 695
604, 605, 635, 637, 650, 651, 693, 700, 701, 703, Lord Rayleigh, 350, 351
704, 707, 709, 749 Luan, J., 98
Krien, P., 30, 38, 39 , Lueder, H., 373, 377
Kroninger,657 Lust, R., 450, 458, 536, 542
Kuettner, J., 334, 335, 351, 368, 369, 370, 375, 377, Lugeon, J., 676, 681
389,390,391,392 Lukens, H. R., 745, 748
Kuliev, D. A., 202 Lukoms, H., 201
Kunkel, W. B., 173, 174 Lundquist, St., 530, 555, 556, 652, 656
Kuo, H., 202 Lutkin, F. E., 670, 682
Lyall, I. T., 568, 572
Lahmeyer, G., 736, 739

Lamport, J. E., 558, 566 MacClem, W. D., 202
Landsberg, H. E., 486, 487,799 MacCready, Jr., P. B., 374, 375, 377
Lane, C., 54, 58 Macdonald, B. C., 800, 801
Lane-Smith, D. R., 84, 105, 108, 143, 154, 155, 156, MacGorman, D. R., 628, 632
175, 177, 189, 198, 201, 202, 203, 229, 236, 256, Machado, J. A., 271, 383
257, 258, 259, 329, 339, 351, 494, 534, 704, 757, Machta, L., 109, 118
758 Macker, D., 202
Langel, R. A., 525, 526 Mackerras, D., 202, 497, 498, 499, 502, 663
Langenthal,1. M., 441, 448 Madden, T., 665, 681
Langevin,P., 10, 12,83 Madelaine, G. J., 7, 15, 16, 21, 22, 30, 39, 43, 131,
Larson, R. E., 92, 97 134
815
Maeda, H., 425, 438, 473, 475, 479, 480, 516, 517, Meal, D. V., 724, 727
518, 519, 520, 521, 526, 545, 550 Medalyiev, Ch., 353
Magaziner, E., 188, 612, 631 Megaw, W. J., 203, 250, 255
Magnus, W., 441, 448 Meinel, A. B., 570, 572
Magono, C., 88, 90, 98, 99, 134, 284, 294, 296, 300, Meinhold, H., 373, 377
308, 312, 313, 315, 320, 352, 367, 368, 370, 371, Melcher, J. R., 403
372, 373, 374, 375, 377, 378, 411, 416, 419, 575 Mendillo, M., 522, 526
Makhotkin, L. G., 706 Meszaros, A., 76, 80
Malakhov, S. G., 250, 255 Metnieks, A. L., 40, 44
Malan, D. J., 368, 389, 390, 392, 497, 595, 597,600, Michailova, G. A., 669, 681
604,609,612,644,645 Michel, F. C., 558, 560, 561, 566, 573
Malkus, J. S., 343, 351 Michnowski, S., 339, 351, 728, 735
Mallahan, F. J., 144, 154,344,351 Mihalov, J. D., 558, 566
Manes, A., 69, 109, 110, 116, 117, 156 Miller, A. H., 294, 299, 300, 374
Mani, A., 88,89,98, 109, 118 Miller, S. L., 571, 572
Manka, R. H., 521, 525, 526, 536, 539, 542, 549, 550, Mirabel, P., 39
557, 558, 560, 561, 562, 565, 566, 567, 568, 573, Miranda, Jr., H. A., 204, 210
574, 575, 592, 593 Misaki, M., 10, 11, 88, 90, 98, 119, 124, 125, 126,
129, 130, 176, 179,203
Mann, Jr., J. E., 530, 534
Marcek, G. S., 202 Mitchell, J. D., 583, 585, 586
Mitra, A. P., 4, 16
Markson, R., 143, 144, 152, 153, 156, 193, 198, 202,
Miwa, H., 250, 255
247, 259, 260, 418, 450, 454, 457, 458,459, 465,
Mochizuki, S., 204, 210
489, 494, 503, 504, 505, 507, 574, 588, 589, 592,
Moffet, D. R., 265, 271
740, 741, 800, 801
Mogro-Campero, A., 558, 566
Marshall, J. S., 380, 383 Mohan Rao, A. M., 41, 44
Martin, P. F., 302, 308, 375, 377 Mohnen, V. A., 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 16, 17,21,22,
Marty, A. M., 45, 51
26, 28, 29, 50, 51, 68, 69, 82, 83, 84, 85, 98, 114,
Martz, D. E., 250, 255
118, 176, 178, 179, 351, 503, 506, 571, 572, 573,
Mason, E. A., 46, 50, 72, 74, 75
584,586
Mason, B. J., 279, 281, 282, 283, 284, 294, 298, 299,
302, 304, 307, 308, 318, 320, 334, 337, 339, 340, Moore, C. B., 144, 154, 189, 190,201,202,234,236,
351, 352, 374, 376, 377, 394, 400, 401, 404, 406, 265, 266, 271, 287, 292, 333, 334, 335, 339, 340,
408, 411, 414, 416,799,803 344, 349, 350, 351, 352, 354, 355, 360, 361, 368,
375, 377, 383, 399, 400, 401, 418, 419, 420, 454,
Masuda, S., 204, 210
458, 468, 476, 494, 546, 550, 618, 621, 623, 627,
Mathias, E., 344, 351
644,645,661,697,698
Matsushita, S., 516, 517, 518, 519, 526
Matter, G., 202 Morachevsky, V. G., 157, 159
Matthews, J. B., 306, 307 Morfill, G., 522, 526
Mauchly, S. J., 217, 224 Morgan, P. A., 98
Maxwell, E. L., 500, 502, 669, 682 Morita, Y., 59, 82, 88, 98, 114, 118, 119, 124, 126,
May, K. R., 287, 292 127, 128, 130, 545, 550
Maybank, J., 100, 108 Moroz, V. I., 570, 572
Mayr, H. G., 515, 527 Morrison, R. B., 597, 604
McCaig, D. A., 265, 271, 351, 623, 627 Mosher, D., 745, 748
McCrory, R., 607, 608, 612, 613, 631 Mozer, F. S., 202, 450, 458, 473, 474, 475, 514, 519,
McCurdy, D. E., 250, 255 521, 523, 525, 526, 536, 539, 542, 545, 549, 550,
McDaniel, E. W., 4, 203 555,556,574,575,
McDiarmid, I. B., 522, 527 Muchado, J. H., 623, 627
McDonald, J. E., 379, 383 Muchnik, V. M., 402
McElroy, M. B., 558, 560, 566 Miihleisen, R., 16, 81, 82, 83,91,94,95,98,107,108,
McKibbon, R. B., 558, 566 124, 125, 130, 155, 166, 176, 178, 179, 193, 201,
McKnight, L. G., 52, 53, 82, 85 202, 247, 256, 257, 258, 261, 327, 392, 437, 438,
McLain, D. K., 597, 599, 600, 601, 602, 603, 604, 449, 450, 454, 457, 458, 460, 463, 464, 466, 467,
605, 700, 702, 703 470, 474, 475, 476, 479, 480, 495, 503, 504, 505,
McPherron, R. L., 522, 526 506, 526, 527, 543, 550, 574, 575, 582, 586, 588,
McWhirter, R., 649, 650, 651 589, 592, 617, 669, 675, 676, 681, 683, 686, 704,
816
707, 710, 712, 727, 728, 735, 740, 741, 766, 767, Orikasa, K., 315, 320, 370, 371, 373, 374, 375, 377,
795, 796,802, 803 378
Miiller-Hillebrand, D., 202, 376, 377, 652, 654 Orville, H. D., 351
Miiller-Krumbhaar, H., 81 Orville, R. E., 154,202,506,595,633,634,635,637,
Mullen, G., 571, 572 641, 647, 649, 650, 651, 657, 658, 659, 661, 682,
Munkelwitz, H. R., 24, 28 709, 750, 752, 753,801,803
Munson, M. S. B., 46, 51 Oster, A. 1., 202
Murakami, Y., 583, 586 Ottevanger, W. P. A., 90, 98
Murata, H., 517, 521, 526 Owe Berg, T. G., 372, 378
Murty, R. C., 202, 652 Owen, T., 570, 572
Myers, Y., 620, 621 Owalabi, 1. E., 201
Oya, H., 202
Ozidic, 1., 21, 22
Nagasaka, J., 114, 118, 126, 127, 128, 130
Nagata, T., 521, 524, 526
Nagatani, M., 614, 616 Pagano, M., 677, 678, 681
Nakada, H., 614, 616 Pakiam, J., 100, 108
Nakai, T., 678, 681 Palmer, W. McK., 380, 383
Nakano, M., 202, 614, 616, 617 Paltridge, G. W., 82, 545, 550
Nakata, S., 203 Paluch, 1. R., 71, 73, 75, 279, 284, 334, 335, 337,
Nakatani, S., 43, 44,204,210,250,252,254,255 339, 340, 351, 394, 401, 418
Nakaya, U., 370, 371, 373, 378 Panofsky, H. A., 100, 108
Nakayama, T., 67, 68, 98, 128,129, 130 Papagiannis, M. D., 522, 526
Namiki, Y., 204, 210 Paramonov, N. A., 161, 164, 165,217,224,437,438,
Narcisi, R. S., 6, 7, 16, 82 479,480,542,728,735
Natanson, G. 1.,60,63,68 Parfit, G. G., 201
Neill, H. W., 348, 351, 389, 392, 608, 612 Park, C. G., 425, 438, 514, 526, 531, 534, 536, 542,
Neizvestniy, A. 1., 70, 74, 75 543, 544, 545, 546, 548, 549, 550, 551, 574, 583,
Ness, N. F., 558, 559, 566 586,587,588,589,593
Neubauer, R. 1., 287, 292 Parkinson, W. D., 128, 130
Ney, E. P., 568, 572, 751, 752 Pas quill, F., 376, 377, 387
Niekerk, von, H. R., 724, 727 Pavlyuchenkov, G. F., 160
Nikiforova, N., 728, 735 Pawliszyn, A. J., 735
Niles, F. E., 6, 7, 16, 51 Payzant, J. D., 7, 16
Nishida, A., 521, 522, 523, 526, 558, 566 Pearson, 652
Noggle, c., 597, 604, 700, 701, 703, 749 Pelsor, G. T., 389, 392,608, 612
Nolan, D. J., 40, 43, 44, 57, 58,60,61,62,63,64,68, Pe1z, J., 674, 676, 681, 690, 691, 692
69,128,129,130 Penney, G. W., 642, 645
Nordin, 100, 108 Perkins, M., 558, 566
Norinder, H., 597, 604, 644, 645,664, 681 Perret, R. F. D., 286, 403, 496
Norman, D., 720, 723 Pershina, T. A., 417
Petriceks, J., 576, 579
Petschek, A. G., 343, 352
Obayashi, T., 425, 438, 473, 476, 522, 526, 558, 566 Pfleiderer, H., 246
Oberhettinger, F., 441, 448 Phan-Cong, J. 1., 98
O'Connor, T. C., 40, 43 Phelps, C. T., 201, 293, 382, 383, 387, 618, 621, 622,
O'Donnell, G. A., 204, 210 642, 645, 658, 659, 661, 697, 698
O'Gallagher, J. J., 558, 566 Phillips, B. B., 114, 118, 162, 334, 342, 344, 345,
Ogawa, T., 200, 201, 202, 438, 449, 505, 552, 555, 347,351,385,387,419
556, 574, 583, 585, 586, 589, 597, 604, 609, 612, Picknet, R. G., 72, 74, 75
645 Pierce, E. T., 82, 166, 202, 329, 331, 437, 438, 499,
Ogden, T. 1., 95, 98 502, 503, 505, 558, 566, 570, 572, 582, 587, 592,
Ohta, J., 88, 98, 674, 682 593, 597, 600, 604, 609, 612, 618, 621, 657, 658,
Ohtagaki, M., 119, 124 664,669,678,681,709,710,711,712,727,809
Olansson, 1., 438, 530, 534, 539, 542, 549, 550 Pietrowski, E. 1., 339, 351
Olhoeft, G. R., 569, 572 Platteew, J. C., 717, 718
Olson, D. E., 164, 165,474,476,542,576,579,581, Plooster, M., 648, 651
588,728,729,731,735 Plumer, J. A., 745, 747
817
Plumlee, H. B., 70, 74 774, 775, 783, 784, 786, 788, 790, 794, 795, 796,
Pluvinage, P., 344, 351 797, 805
Pohl, R. W., 10 Remizov, B. R., 728, 735
Polavarapu, R. J., 106, 108 Revellio, K., 664, 681
Poles, J. C., 114, 118 Reynolds, S. E., 158, 159, 279, 284, 294, 299, 300,
Polk, c., 258, 504, 663 331, 344, 348, 351, 373, 378, 379, 389, 392, 608,
Pollak, L. W., 40, 41, 44 612
Pontier, L., 168, 173 Reynolds, S. 1., 646
Pontikis, 201 Rhyne, R. H., 338, 343, 351, 352
Poor, H., 94, 98 Rich, T. A., 40, 44
Popolansky, F., 722, 723 Richards, C. N., 265, 271, 618, 619, 621, 635, 637,
Pourprix, M., 131 642,645
Pradel, J., 54, 58 Richmond, A. D., 517, 526
Prentice, S., 202, 498, 499, 502, 686, 707, 723, 724, Richter, J., 650, 651
727 Rieker, J., 676, 681
Price, A. T., 511, 526 Riekert, H., 82, 98, 202, 466, 470, 476
Price, P. B., 745, 748 Ries, G., 664, 667,671, 675, 676, 681
Prinn, R. G., 570, 572 Rindsberger, M., 111, 118
Pringle, J. E., 279, 284, 350, 351 Rishbeth, H., 512, 516, 526
Proctor, D. E., 202, 328, 400, 612, 627, 658, 694, Robinson, G. D., 109, 118, 378, 389, 390, 392
695,698,699,709,710 Rodriquez-Iturbe, 1., 100, 108
Roffman, A., 54, 57, 58
Prueitt, M. L., 637
Rogers, R., 623, 627
Proudfit, A., 374, 375, 377
Romero, J. M., 345, 347, 351, 419
Pruppacher, H. R., 264, 271
Rose, G., 10, 12, 16, 82
Psalomstchikov, V. F., 158, 159
Rosen, J. M., 203
Puckett, L. J., 6, 7, 16
Rosenkilde, C. E., 69
Pudovkina, P. B., 270, 271
Rothgiesser, 10
Purdom, J. F. W., 752
Rowe, J. N., 4,16
Pursall, B. R., 203
Rudge, W. A., 168, 174
Pyle, K. R., 558, 566
Ruhnke, L. H., 88, 90, 91, 92, 98, 140, 142, 166, 193,
201, 225, 229, 263, 278, 327, 331, 458, 465, 466,
476, 506, 527, 542, 550, 587,671, 681, 809
Raabe, O. G., 255
Russell, G. T., 522, 526
Radda, G. J., 703 Rust, W. D., 335, 342, 344, 349, 351, 354, 355, 360,
Raemer, H. R., 444, 448
361,420
Raina, B. N., 201
Ruzicka, D. J., 717, 718
Ramanathan, Y., 88, 98
Rycroft, M. J., 444, 448, 664, 681
Rankin, M. 0.,250, 255
Ryder, P., 83, 165, 248, 271, 495, 504,631,659,660,
Rankin, W. H., 338, 351
682,698
Rao, K. R., 202
Ryzko, H., 656
Rasool, S. J., 109, 118
Rattcliffe, J. A., 728, 729, 735
Raupach, R., 678,681,687 Sagalyn, R. C., 114, 118, 119, 124, 545, 550
Rees,593 Sagan, C., 571, 572
Reid, G. C., 519, 526 Saha, S. K., 699
Rein, C. G., 202, 468, 476 Salanave, L. E., 202, 635, 637, 647, 651
Reinhardt, M., 260, 495 Salka, 0., 644, 645
Reiss, H., 79, 80 Salman, Y. E., 644, 645
Reitan, C., 486, 487 Sao, K., 202, 669, 670, 672, 673, 674, 678, 681, 682
Reiter, E. R., 802, 803 Sargent, G. N., 344, 350
Reiter, M., 788, 796 Sartor, J. D., 70, 72, 74, 75, 266, 270, 271, 279, 282,
Reiter, R., 58, 87, 95, 98, 99, 100, 108, 155, 156, 164, 284, 287, 292, 320, 321, 334, 335, 337, 339, 340,
165,167,175,176,177, 178, 179, 185,215,263, 351, 352, 394, 401, 418, 570, 572
267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 278, 370, 371, 375, 378, Satsutani, T., 135, 136, 142
382, 383, 423, 432, 438, 474, 475, 476, 503, 526, Saunders, C. P. R., 263, 265, 267, 270, 271, 309, 311,
558, 566, 580, 589, 590, 595, 728, 735, 759, 762, 313, 379, 383
763, 764, 765, 766, 767, 768, 770, 771, 772, 773, Saxer, L., 110, 118, 189, 201, 257, 258, 261
818
Saxon, D. S., 425, 438, 546, 550 Sizoo, A. H., 750, 751, 752
Schaefer, V. J., 98, 330, 373, 378, 797 Skilev, A. V., 644, 645
Schatten, K. H., 558, 559, 566 Shidcovic, R., 770, 771, 772, 773, 774, 795, 796
Schiager, K. J., 250, 255 Smiddy, M., 94, 98, 201
Schieldge, S. V., 517, 521, 526 Smith-Johansen, R. J., 370, 378
Schindelhauer, F., 710 Smith, E. M., 201
Schneider, S. H., 109, 118 Smith, E. J., 558, 566
Schneider, T., 81 Smith, L. G., 201, 805, 809
Scholer, M., 522, 526 Smith, M. H., 264, 270, 271, 287, 292, 293, 383
Schonland, B. F. J., 368, 369, 378, 389, 392, 497, Smith, W. E., 805, 809
502, 582, 586, 595, 597, 600, 609, 612, 639 Snyder, A. L., 525, 526
Schumann, G., 95, 98 Sommerfeld, A., 511, 526, 668, 682
Schumann, W.O., 441, 448 Sonett, C. P., 558, 566
Schutz, S., 473, 474, 475 Soni, L., 441, 448
Schwede, G. W., 335, 351, 383, 618, 621, 644, 645, Southwood, D. I., 728, 734, 735
697,698 Spaa, J. H., 251, 255
Scorer, R. S., 343, 347, 351, 352 Sparrow, J. G., 568, 572, 751, 752
Scott, J. A., 60, 61, 62, 63, 68 Spies, K. P., 667, 673, 674, 682
Spreiter, J. R., 531, 534
Scott, W. D., 215, 294, 298, 299, 300, 338, 351, 394
396,400,401 ' Sreedharan, C. R., 88, 98
Ssissigina, T. I., 250, 255
Scrase, F. J., 202, 234, 236, 368, 370, 373, 378, 389,
Staggs, D. W., 344, 351
390, 392, 445, 446, 449, 467, 514, 527, 676, 678,
Starikov, B. G., 250, 255
686
Stauffer, D., 15, 39,76,78,80,81,570,572,584, 586
Scuka, V., 652, 654, 656, 709
Stechmann, T. D., 351
Sedimov, Yu. S., 270, 271
Stein, B. A., 339, 351
Sekikawa, T., 40, 44, 98, 204, 210
Steiner, R., 338, 343, 351, 352
Selvam, M. M., 90, 98, 201
Stekolnikov, I. S., 644, 645
Semonin, R. G., 70, 74, 344, 351, 454, 458
Stening, R. J., 515,516,527
Serbu, G., 88, 90, 98
Stephanakis, S. J., 745, 748
Serlin, R., 202, 539, 542
Stergis, C. G., 203, 468, 476
Serpolay, R., 716, 717, 718
Stetter, G., 201
Shamahov, B. F., 202
Stillwell, R. N., 21, 22, 46, 48, 51
Shapiro, S. S., 653, 656
Stoffregen, W., 593
Shaw, G. E., 576, 580, 581, 588
Stolarik, J. D., 536, 542
Sheldon, W. R., 545, 549, 550
Stoll, E., 81
Sherman, K. L., 11, 16,740,741
Stone, D. L., 500, 502
Shifrin, K. S., 217, 223
Stone, K., 536, 542
Shigeno, T., 90, 98, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 377
Stott, D., 411, 416
Shimakura, S., 675, 682
Stow, C. D., 294, 300, 342, 351, 370, 377
Shimizu, K., 98
Strait on, A. W., 570, 572
Shimo, M., 57, 58, 67, 68, 98, 128, 129, 130 203
Strangway, D. W., 569, 572
Shio, H., 294, 296, 300 '
Stratton, J. A., 598, 604
Shishkin, N. S., 417
Stringfellow, M. F., 259, 260, 506, 616, 657, 708,
Shvarts, Va. M., 160, 201, 202, 249, 267, 271, 314,
719,721,722, 723, 800, 801
382,383,391, 392
Stromberg,!. M., 201, 469, 476
Sigrist, W., 110, 118,201
Stuart, W. 1., 717, 718
Sigueirsson, T., 350
Subbaramu, M. c., 15, 16,41,44
Siksna, R., 46, 51, 66, 68, 203, 716, 718
Sumin, Yu. P., 314
Simpson, G. c., 202, 234, 236, 351, 354, 360, 368,
Survilas, H. J., 271, 344, 350, 351, 383, 623, 627
370, 371, 373, 376, 378, 389, 390, 392, 582, 586,
Svalgaard, L., 526, 527
686
Swann, W. F. G., 164, 165
Simpson, J. A., 558, 566
Szpor, S., 497, 502
Sinclair, P. C., 338, 343, 351, 352
Szymanski, E., 623, 627
Sinnott, G. A., 4
Siren, J. C., 536, 542 Tabor, P., 295, 299, 300
Sivaramakrishnan, M., 90, 98, 201 Takagi, M., 87, 88, 98, 217, 224, 477 480 481 504
Siwek, B., 157, 159 506, 617, 660 ' , , ,
819
Takahashi, T., 17, 80, 125, 202, 267, 271, 273, 274, Vancour, R. A., 210
275, 277, 278, 292, 294, 296, 298, 300, 308, 327, van der Schueren, A., 161, 165
328, 329, 330, 331, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, van der Waals, J. H., 717, 718
377, 378, 383, 385, 387, 419, 487, 534, 551, 627, van Sabben, B., 517, 527
660, 661 Varga, L., 251, 255
Takeuti, T., 88, 119, 126, 130,614, 616, 617, 659, Varshneya, N. c., 168, 172, 174,284,330,404,408
660,669,681,687,693 Vasudevam, K. N., 15, 16
Talman, C. F., 334, 351 Vasyliunas, V. A., 525, 527
Tammet, H. F., 203 Yedda, D., 652, 656
Tamura, Y., 369, 378, 389, 391, 392, 660 Viezee, W., 166, 437, 438, 558, 566, 582, 583, 584,
Tanahashi, S., 674, 682 586
Tanaka, Y., 250, 255, 552, 555, 556 Vigla, D., 7, 15, 16, 21, 22, 30, 39, 584, 586
Tang, I. N., 7, 16, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 77, 78, 79, 80, Vinnichenko, 405, 408
81 Vitkovsky, I. M., 745, 748
Tarpley, J. D., 515, 516, 518, 527 Voeikov, A. I., 460, 463
Taylor, G. I., 265, 271 Vogelsanger, E., 369, 377, 600, 604
Taylor, H. A., 521, 524, 525, 527 Vohra, K. G., 15, 16,41,43
Taylor, W. L., 185,664,669,672, 673, 678, 682, 753 Volland, H., 202, 271, 435, 438, 473, 476, 509, 515,
Tazawa, S., 315, 320 517,521, 523, 525, 527, 528, 530, 534, 535, 536,
Teer, T. L., 189, 191, 202, 628, 629, 630, 631, 632 542, 558, 565, 566, 580, 582, 586, 667, 668, 669,
Telford, J. W., 322, 326 676, 678, 681, 682, 710, 711, 729, 735, 767, 796
Terada, T., 370, 371, 373, 378 Vonnegut, B., 22, 144, 154, 165, 189, 190, 191, 193,
Terliuc, B., 115, 118 202, 265, 266, 271, 287, 292, 330, 331, 334, 335,
Theisen, S. F., 673, 681 339, 340, 342, 344, 346, 348, 349, 350, 359, 360,
Theiss, J. B., 349, 350 368, 375, 377, 383, 398, 400, 423, 454, 458, 468,
Thomas, L., 50, 51, 667, 682 471, 476, 494, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 546, 550,
Thompson, W., 665, 681 569, 572, 623, 627, 715, 750, 753, 799
Thomson, B. A., 18,23 Vrablik, E. A., 271, 351, 623, 627
Tichonov, A. N., 728, 735
Tiller, J. A., 603, 604, 700, 703
Wagner, C. U., 517, 527
Tixier, M., 202
Wagner, P. B., 322, 326
Tolbert, C. W., 570, 572
Wagner, R., 199, 201, 246, 247
Tonna, G., 90, 94, 98
Wahab, N. M. A., 311, 313
Toomey, J. P., 441, 442, 443, 449
Wahlin, L., 384, 385, 387, 418, 420
Tran, A., 441, 443, 444, 449
Wait, G. R., 468, 475
Trent, E. M., 87, 89, 90, 91, 440, 449
Wait, J. R., 441, 449, 667, 673, 674, 678, 682
Trager, U., 682
Waldvogel, A., 798, 801
Tsivoglou, E. C., 250, 255
Walker, J. C. G., 568, 572
Tsunoda, Y., 135, 136, 142
Walker, R. M., 745, 748
Tsvang, see Zwang
Wallio, H. A., 569, 572
Tukey, J. W., 100, 107, 108
Walpole, P. H., 558, 566
Tunaley, J. K., 202
Walters, L. C., 667, 682
Tuzzolino, A. J., 558, 566
Ward, R. N., 720, 723
Twomey, S., 334, 345, 347, 351, 385, 387, 419, 486,
Warner, J., 486, 487
487
Warrender, R. A., 265, 271
Warzecha, St., 201, 729, 735
Uchida, R., 267, 271 Wasserfallen, P., 676, 681
Uchikawa, K., 89, 98, 168, 174, 460, 461, 462, 463, Watson-Watt, R. A., 348, 351, 369, 582, 583, 586,
505 670, 682
Uman, M. A., 440, 445, 447, 449, 514, 527, 569, 572, Watt, A. D., 500, 502, 669, 682
595, 597, 599, 600, 601, 602, 603, 604, 605, 606, Watt, T., 538
635, 637, 644, 645, 657, 658, 664, 682, 683, 684, Wayland, 749
686, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704, 707, 709, 711, 712, Webb, W. L., 450, 458, 514, 527, 558, 566
757, 758, 805, 808, 809 Weed, M., 530, 534, 539, 542
Untiedt, J., 517, 527 Weickmann, H. K., 373, 378
Urey, H. c., 571, 572 Weiss, R. 0., 489, 494, 495, 507
Utah, E. U., 201, 389, 390, 392, 393 Weller, R. I., 128, 130
820
Wellish,10 Winn, W. P., 189, 190, 202, 234, 236, 335, 351, 382,
Wells, A. C., 203 383, 618, 621, 622, 643, 644, 645, 697, 698, 699,
Wells, H. J., 88, 97, 109, 114, 118, 126, 129, 130, 753
479,480,486,487 Witkowski, A., 238, 247
Werlund, R. F., 46, 51 Witt, G., 15
Wescott, E. M., 536, 542 Woessner, R. H., 114, 118
Weyl, W., 157, 159 Wolf, R. A., 525, 527
Whalen, B. A., 522, 527 Wolfe, J. H., 558, 566
Whalen, J. A., 750, 751, 752 Wong, B. S., 265, 271
Whang, Y. C., 558, 559, 566 Woods, J. D., 72, 74, 75
Whelpdale, 394, 400 Workman, E. J., 158, 159, 344, 350, 351, 373, 378,
Whipple, F. J. W., 275. 277, 390, 392, 445, 446, 449, 389, 392, 597, 604, 608, 612
467, 468, 476, 514, 527, 582, 583, 586, 676, 678, Workman, G. J., 546, 550
682 Wormell, T. W., 358, 360, 368, 389, 392, 582, 586,
Whitman, W., '306,307 597,605
Wichmann, H., 683, 686 Wrenn, M. E., 255
Widdel, H. U., 10, 12, 16, 82 Yamashita, M., 674, 682
Wieder, H., 6, 16 Yasuhara, M., 552, 555, 556
Wiendl, E., 76, 77, 81 Yerge, D. G., 107, 108
Wienert, K., 211, 215 Y onowich, B. A., 728, 729
Wiffen, D. D., 250, 255 Yordanov, D., 94, 98
Wigand, A., 200, 201, 247, 256, 348, 582, 583, 586 Young, A. T., 570, 573
Wijkander, A., 576, 579 Young, F., 745, 748
Wilcox, J. M., 526, 527 Young, C. E., 11, 12, 16,46,51
Wilk, K. W., 350, 351 Yue, P. C., 203
Wilkening, M. H., 29, 54, 55, 58, 59
Williams, J. C., 307, 308,444,449,504 Zahringer, J. 6, 16
Williamson, R. P., 556, 590, 591 Zeleny, J. 10
Willis, D. M., 521, 527 Zheleznyakov, V. V., 570, 573
Willis, R. F., 563, 566 Zikmunda, J., 571, 572
Wilson, C. T. R., 342, 344, 351, 354, 358, 360, 361, Ziv, A., 279, 283, 394, 395, 399, 400, 401, 799,803
368, 376, 378, 389, 392, 450, 458, 464, 467, 468, Zmuda, A. J., 522, 527
474, 476, 582, 583, 586, 597, 599, 605, 676, 682 Zwang, L. A., 10, 11
821
Index of Chemicals in Symbols
Al 294 CCI4 46,47

Ar 50 CCI 2F 2 716
Au 294 Cd 294
CI 46
Ba 294 Cl- 7
Be-7 759 CI 2 7
Bi214 54,250 C.H2.H+ 46
Bi+ 25,26 CsI 250
Bi+ -H 20 26 Cu. 294
Bi+(H 20). 25
Bi+ -NH3 26 F 46
Bi+(NH 3)", 25
H alpha line in spectrum 633
C 46,294 H beta line in spectrum 635
C II line at Venus 570 H-line in spectrum 647
C14 745 H 3,7,30,649
CH 3COCHi" 50 H+ 27,158,649
CH 3COCH 3 40,50 H+(H 20). 6
CH3COH+CH3(CH3COCH3).(H20).. 46 HC0 3 7
CH 3COHi(CH 3COCH 3).(H 20).. 46 HF 298
(CH 3COH' H+ . CH2)(H 20)(CH 3COCH 3h 15 HN0 2 50
CH 3N0 2 and additional ions 47 HN0 3 7,17
CH 3CI 716 H2 13,28
CH 30CH 3 16 H 20 4,6,13,24,25,26,27,28,46,50,76,657
CH 4 7 H 20 4 and additional ions 48,49
C 2 H sO- 50 H 2S 7
C2HsOC2HS 716 H 2S0 4 7, 19, 29, 39, 77, 584
C2H sOH 46, 50 H 2 S0 4 - H 2 0 76
(C 2H sOH . H+)(H 20 3)(C2H sOH) 15 H 2S0 4 - H 20 cluster 77, 78, 79
C2HsOHi(C2HsOH).(H20).. 46 H30+ 4,25,27,28,46,52,80, 158
C3HS 716 H 30+(H 20). 3, 11, 13,46, 50, 52, 82
C4 H lO 716 H30+(OH) 4
C6H 2CI 46 H30+ ·OH·H0 2 4
C6H2NH2 and additional ions 47 H 3 0 4 (H 2 0). 8, 21
C6H sCI and additional ions 47 H 30 4 0HH 20 4
C6HSN02 and additional ions 47 HsOi 4
C6H sOH and additional ions 47 H 7 0j" 4
C6H6 46 HCI 7
C6H6 and additional ions 47 He 50
C 6 Htl 46
C 6H12 46
Cyclo C6H12 and additional ions 47
C6 HI4 46 K+ 25
CO 7 Kr85, 713
CO 2 4,5,6,13,302,306
CO 2 ice (Mars) 568 Li 294
CO 2, influence 19
CO]" 7 Mg 294
CO]" (H 2 0) 9
CO'; 5,7,50 N I, NIl - lines in spectrum 633, 647
CO'; (H 2 0) 5,6,7,21 N 50
CO';(H 20h 5,7 N+ 50,649
CO'; (H 2 0)j 5 N+ and additional ions 48,49
CO';(H 20). 13 NH3 7,25,26,46,82,298
822
NH3 concentration 76 OW(H 2 0) 7
(NH 3hS02 8,15 O 2 5,6,13,28,50
NHt 25,786 O 2 and additional ions 48, 49
NHt . (H 20) 13 ot 4
NHt(NH 3)1.2.3.4 8 0; 'H 2 0 4
NHt(NH 3)(H 20)m 7,8 02" 5,7,50
NHt(NH 3 ),(H 2 0)m 46 02"H 2 0 5,7,13,50
NHt (NH3lx(H20)y[(NH3hS02]n 84 02"(H 2 0h 5,7,8,50
NHt(NH 3 )p 14 02"(H 2 0h . CO 2 6
NH4 + [(NH 3h . S02Jx . (H 20)m . (NH 3)j 8 02"(H 2 0h 5,7
NH4"(H 2 0)k 7 02"(H 20)4 7
NO 7,50 02" 'NO'H 2 0 8
NO + 4, 24, 25, 50 02"(H 20)m 21
NO+ and additional ions 48,49 02"(H 2 0)n 5
NO+ 'C0 2 4 03 7
NO+(H 20h 4,50 03"(H 20) 8
NO+ 'H 20 4 ot 4
NO+(H 20 2) 4 04" 5,7
NO+(H 20)m 50
N0 2 7 P-32 759
N02"(H 20) 8,9 P-33 759
N02"S02 9 Pb 294
NO 3" 786 Pb 212 28
N03"(H 20)n 7 Pb 214 54
N2 6,13,50 Pb + 25, 26, 27
Nt and additional ions 48,49 Pb+(H 20)n 78
Nt line at Venus 570 Pb+-H 2 0 26
N 20 7 Po 210 30,40,41
Nt and additional ions 48, 49 Po 214 54,250
Nt 50 Po 218 54,57,250
Nt and additional ions 48, 49 Pt 294
Na+ 24,25 Pu 238 30
NaCI 18,20
NaCl Solution 19,20,265 RaB 760
Ni 294 RaC 760
n-C 6 H14 and additional ions 47 Rb+ 25
Rn 222 54, 55, 56, 57
o I line in spectrum 633 S-35 759

01,0 II - lines in spectrum 647 S02 7,8, 14,24,25,82, 584
o 7,46,50 S04 76
o and additional ions 48, 49
0+ 649 ThB 28,760
OH 7
OH- 50,158 Zn 294
823
Index of Localities and Areas
Aachen, 90, 229 Brisbane, Australia, 497, 499, 501, 502
Aberdeen, Maryland, 6 Britain, 177, 657, 719
Africa, 258, 514, 767 Brookhaven, New York, 15
- , central, 468, 710 Byrd Station, Antarctica, 590
-, north, 110
-, south, 479, 482, 483, 484, 486, 692, 753 California, 755
-, west, 677 Cambridge, 82
Alaska, 504 -, Massachusetts, 459, 741
-, gulf of, 89, 455, 457, 504 Canada,474,482,483,590, 652,653,755,805
Albany, New York, 17,82,451,453,456,507,641,661, -, south-east, 486
753 Cape Canaveral, Florida, 362
Aldesago, Switzerland, 634 Cape Cod, Massachusetts, 322, 451, 456
Algeria, 173 Cape Kennedy, see also Cape Canaveral
Amazon (river region), 677 Capri, Italy, 653
America, 477, 480, 767 Carnegie vessel, 175, 177, 182
-, central, 677 Carri bean Sea, 333
-, south, 468, 479, 514 Ceylon University, 230
-, East Coast, 677 Champaign, Illinois, 745
Amundsen Scott Station, 161 Chatanika, Alaska, 538
Andros, Bahamas, 451 Chichi-Shima, 126, 129, 130
Antarctica, 161, 166,215,460,477 China Sea, 126
Aquatoria, 160 Clwyd, United Kingdom, 723
Arabian Sea, 767 College, Alaska, 576, 577
Arctic, 160, 504 College Park, Maryland, 803
Argentia,90 Colorado, USA, 673
Arizona, 342 Congo (river region), 672
Asia, south, 514 Czechoslovakia, 805
-, south-east, 479
Atlanta, Georgia, 15
Atlantic Ocean, 109, 130, 166, 182,419,464,470,477, Davos, 301
482, 505,677, 767 Daytona Beach, Florida, 362
- -,north, 109,440,464,482,485,486,487, 802 De Bilt, 90
Austin, Texas, 134 Denmark,805
Australia, 710, 805 Desert, north African, 110
Downsview, Ontario, 108
Austria, 805
Dourbes, 217
Azores Islands, 712
Duluth, Minnesota, 432
Durham, England, 228
Bahamas, 418,450,451, 453,455,456,457
Barrow, Alaska, 580
Base Roi Baudouin, 165 East Coast, USA, 482, 483, 485, 486
Bavaria, 806 Eastern Test Range, Florida, 431, 432
Bay of Biscay, 679 Eglin, Florida, 757
Bedford, Massachusetts, 367 Eleuthera, Bahamas, 451
Belgium, 805 England, 506
Belsk, Poland, 728 -, see also Great Britain, UK = United Kingdom
Ben Gurion Airport, 117 Equatorial Atlantic, 506
Berlin, Germany, 676, 677, 687, 693, 710 Europe, 484, 486
Bet-Dagan (Israel), 109 - 118 -, middle, 617
Bethel, Vermont, 215 -, northern, 486, 722
Bonin Island, 126, 130 -, southern, 482
Bonn, Germany, 527, 670, 682 -, western, 483
Boston, 89
Borneo, 755 Far East, 767
Boulder Colorado, 3, 167, 188,278,361,387,431,432, Fairbanks, Alaska, 576, 581
438,439,503,705,746,753 Finland, 805
824
Florida, 329, 419, 457, 750, 755, 809 Jupiter (planet), 558, 560, 564,592
Fort Churchill, Canada, 731 Jupiter's moons, 564
France, 805
-, western, 679 Kanazawa, Japan, 614
Frankfurt, Germany, 710 Kayoshima, Japan, 431, 432
Frascati, 22 Kennedy Space Center, Florida, 188, 603
KeyWest, Florida, 457
Gainesville, Florida, 603, 606 Kingston, Rhode Island, 440, 441, 446, 449
Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, II, III, V, VII, IX, Kiev, 268, 402
XII, 179,267, 759, 796,805,806 Kobe (Japan), 135, 137, 140
Garmisch valley, Germany, 760, 808 Kyushu Island, 122
Germany, Democratic Republic, 805
-,455,457 Lakehurst, 90
-, Federal Republic, 805 La Rioja, Argentina, 677, 687
-, southern, 474 Laurel, Maryland, 495
Geneve, 181 Leningrad, 159, 160,217,221,249,268,269,314,353,
Gran Mexico, Florida, 451 388,404,410,417,460,461,488,506,706
Great Britain, 506, 719, 805 Le Puy, France, 724
-, see also England, UK, United Kingdom Lewiston, New York, 715
Great Lakes, USA/Canada, 486 London, 506
- Whale River, Canada, 731 -, Ontario, 156,203
Greenland,91 Locarno, Switzerland, 421
Grenoble, France, 588, 797 Los Angeles, 77
Gulf of Mexico, 456,482, 483, 485 Lugano, Switzerland, 633, 638, 639, 640, 652, 653, 654,
- of Panama, 677 655
Gulf Stream, 451
Magdalena Mountains, New Mexico, 354, 607
Hachijojima, Japan, 431, 432, 460, 461 Malignant Cove, 143
Hanover, New Hampshire, 211, 216 Manchester, England, 272, 285, 293, 313, 377, 383, 622
Hawaii, USA, 161, 163,274, 327, 419, 660, 692, 710 Marcus Island, 120
Hawaiian Islands, 677 Mars (planet), 560, 567, 568, 571, 572, 592
Heidelberg, Germany, 6, 82 Maryland, 456, 457
Hemisphere, northern, 109 Mauna Kea, Hawaii, 419
Hokkaido, 321 - Loa, 161, 162, 163,419,420
Honolulu, Hawaii, 484, 485 McMurray, Alberta, Canada, 591
Honshu, Japan, 552, 554 Mediterranean, eastern, 101, 111, 116
Houston, Texas, 237, 632 Mediterranean Sea, 677
Hudson Bay, Canada, 574 Mercury, (planet), 558, 560
Hungary, 805 Menlo Park, California, 487
Miami, Florida, 340, 451, 484, 485, 752
Ibadan, Nigeria, 328, 393 Midwest, USA, 482, 483, 485
Iceland, 344 Millstone Hill, USA, 517
India, 468, 692, 805 Moon, terrestrial, 557, 560, 567, 571, 592
-, north-west, 168 Montreux, Switzerland, VII, 70, 805, 806
Indialantic, Florida, 758 Moskva, 75
Indonesia, 419, 692 Monte Bre, Switzerland, 634
Innsbruck, Austria, 808 Montecito, California, 651
Ireland, 805 Monte San Salvatore, Switzerland, 633, 634, 636, 637,
Ishikari, Hokkaido, Japan, 315, 316 638,639,640,704,707,742
Israel, 114, 805 Mt. Teine, Japan, 414
Italy, 805 Mt. Withington, 348
Munchen, Germany, VII, 15,81,710,759
Japan, 177,480,482,483,484,486,503, 505,660,673, Munich, see Munchen
710,805 .
- Sea, 614 Nagoya, 210
Jo (Jupiter's moon), 558, 566 Nancy, France, 517
Johannesburg, South Africa, 645, 699 Nantucket, Mass., 322,451,456
825
Nekoma, North Dakota, 211 Scotland, 506
Niger (river region), 672 Sea of Japan, 315
New Mexico, 334, 340, 344, 347, 354, 399 Seattle, Washington, 15
Norfolk, 89, 90 Siberia, 314, 614
Northumberland Strait, 144 Socorro, New Mexico, 55, 59, 327, 352, 613, 623, 627
Nova Scotia, 143,451 South Africa, 482, 483, 484, 486, 724, 805
Nigeria, 392, 469, 805 - lightning, 595
Nix-Olympia Tharsus Ridge (on Mars), 468 South America, 468, 479, 514,688
South Pole, 161, 163,740
Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany, 495 Soviet Union, 806
Ogasawara Islands, 119, 120 Spitzbergen, 516, 543
- Shoto, 126, 130 St. Louis, Missouri, 487
Oldham, Lancashire, England, 308 St. Lucia, Australia, 497, 502
Orly, France, 717 Stockholm, Sweden, 15
Sri-Lanka, 230
Pacific Ocean, 126, 130,419,470,477,478,480,555,673 Summit, Maryland, 451
Pacific islands, 482, 483 Sweden, 653, 805
- region, 484 Swider, Poland, 728, 736
-, western, 119-125 Switzerland, 653, 658, 805
Palestine, Texas, 235 Syowa Base, Antarctica, 460, 461, 463, 552, 553, 590
Panama, 710 Syowa Station, Antarctica, 166, 315
Paris, 484
Payerne, Switzerland, 677, 687 Tallahassee, Florida, 286, 496, 658
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 486 Tampa, Florida, 658
Philippines, 419 Tanana Valley, Alaska, 576
Poestenkill, New York, 451 Tashkent, 268
Poker Flat, Alaska, 580 Tasmanian Sea, 504
Poland, 805 Tel-Aviv, 109, 111, 113, 117
Polar regions, 176 Terre Adelie, 215
Pole, South, 161 Thailand, 805
Poona, 109, 174 Thule, 177
Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 805 Tohoku,Japan, 552, 553
Pretoria, South Africa, 727 Tokyo, VII, 119, 120, 125, 126,210,255,334,463,504,
Prince Edward Island, 144 805,806
Provincetown, Mass., 451 Tokyo Bay, 121, 122
Puy-de-Dome, France, 344 Tateno, Japan, 460, 461, 462
Toronto, Canada, 100, 185,217,224,677,687
Queensland, Australia, 501 Toulouse, France, 15, 51
Toyokawa,Japan, 130,481,617,67~677,687
Ramat-Aviv, Israel, 401 Trelew, Argentina, 677, 687
Ravensburg, Germany, 686 Tsushima, 614
Reno, Nevada, 326 Tucson, Arizona, 85, 637, 709
Reston, Virginia, 331 Tyrrhenian Sea, 504
Rocky Mountains, USA, 482, 483, 485, 486
Roi Baudouin Station, 162 UK, see United Kingdom, England, Great Britain
Rolla, Missouri, 15 United States of America, 482, 486, 805
Rome, Italy, 484 - eastern seaboard, 740
Roorkee, India, 168, 173,408 -, northern, 474
-, north-eastern, 450
Sacandaga Lake, New York, 451 -, south-western, 168, 173
Sahara, 96, 173 -, continental, 484
San Diego, California, 710 Unoke, Japan, 614
San Miguel, Argentina, 677, 687 Uppsala, Sweden, 50, 460, 461, 535, 593, 656, 718
Sapporo, Japan, 315, 321, 378,416 Urawa-shi, Japan, 712
Saratoga Lake, New York, 451 Urbana, Illinois, 487
Schenectady, New York, 451, 749 USSR, 268, 488, 805
Scotia, New York, 646 -, arctic, 160
826
Venus (planet), 567, 569, 571, 592 Weissfluhjoch, Switzerland, 294, 301
Vietnam, 419 Wentworth-by-the-Sea, New Hampshire, VII, 805
Vitemolla, Sweden, 653 White Sands, New Mexico, 432, 438
Woodbridge, Ontario, 100
Waldorf, 93, 96
-, Maryland, 451, 677, 687 Yellowstone Park, 266
Wank (mountain near Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Yuma Dunes, 173
Germany), V, VII, 267, 759, 770, 777, 778, 780, 784,
808 Zollikon, Switzerland, 744
Washington D. c., 69, 566, 573, 575, 677, 687, 740 Zugspitze, (mountain near Garmisch-Partenkirchen,
Weissenau, Germany, 460, 461, 463, 466, 471, 475, Germany), V, VII, 161, 267,432,474,475, 589, 590,
476,506,574,617,677,686,712 759, 769, 770, 776, 790, 808
827
Index of Institutes, Agencies, Organizations
Advisory Board, Fifth Conference, II, VII, 805

Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories, 6, 360, 367,458
Akademia Nauk SSSR, 75
American Geophysical Union, (AGU), 809
- Meteorological Society (AMS), 329, 809
Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins, 489, 495
Astronomisches Institut Tiibingen, 466, 476
Atlanta University Center, 15
Atlantic Science Corporation, 758
Atmospheric Sciences Research Center, 17
- Physics and Chemistry Laboratory, NOAA, 361,439
- Environment Service of Canada, 100, 108,217,224,687
Atomic Energy Commission, USA, 713
Australian Research Grants Committee, 502
Ballistic Research Laboratory, 6

Balloon Facility NCAR, 235
Bavarian Official Travel Agency, V
Bavaria, State of, 806
Bayrisches Landesamt flir Umweltschutz, IX
Bell Telephone Laboratories, 53
Belsk Observatory, Poland, 728
British Meteorological Office, 659
Brookhaven National Laboratory, 6, 24
Canadian Meteorological Society, 185

Carnegie, 740
Carnegie cruises, 470, 802
- expedition, 126
- measurements, 477, 504
"Carnegie" research vessel, 109
CCOG Committee, 593
CCIR = Comiti: Consultative Internationale de Radio, 502
CIGRE = Conference Internationale des Grands Reseaux Electriques, 489
Central Meteorological Institute (Israel), 109
Cold Regions Research Laboratory, 211, 216
Colutron Corporation, 387
Commission of Atmospheric Science, WMO, 181, 807
Committee on Atmospheric Electricity, (AMS), 809
- on Atmospheric and Space Electricity (AGU), 809
Conference on Atmospheric Electricity, 3rd and 4th, 647
Council on Environmental Quality, USA, 713
- for Scientific and Industrial Research of South Africa, 726
CSIR, India, 408
DASA,3
Defense Meteorological Satellite Program, USA, 750
Desert Research Institute, 326
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft = German Research Association, VII, XII, 692, 806
Durham University, 229
Eastern Test Range, Florida, 438

Edwards Air Force Base Flight Test Center, 366
Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, 757
828
Eidgenossisches Institut flir Schnee- und Lawinenforschung, 301
Electric Research Board, Australia, 502
Empire State Building, New York, 658
Environment Protection Agency, 183
Environmental Research Laboratories, NOAA, 3
European Research Office (USA), 292
Executive Panel, Fifth Conference, II, VII, X, XI, XII
Explorer II balloon, 740
Federal Aviation Administration, U. S., 366

- - Agency, 234, 284
Florida State University, 286, 496
Franklin GNO Company, 191
Fourth International Conference on Atmospheric Electricity, Tokyo 1968,334
Fraunhofer Society for Applied Research, II, IV, V, VII, VIII, X, XII, 179,805
Garmisch-Partenkirchen, town of = Marktgemeinde, V, VII, 806

GARP experiment, 568
GATE experiment, 568
German Research Association = Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, V, 806
General Electric Research Laboratory, Schenectady, 749
Geophysical Observatory, Belsk and Swider, Poland, 729
Gidrometeorological Institute, Leningrad, 159
Government Federal Republic of Germany, II, V, VII, VIII, X, XII
Hakuho-Maru Research Vessel, 477, 480

Heinrich Hertz Institute, Berlin, 669, 676, 687, 693
Hokkaido University, 321, 378,416
Hydrometeorological Service USSR, 805
IAMAP = International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, II, X, 797, 805
IAGA,797
ICAE see International Commission on Atm. Electr.
Illinois State Water Survey, 487
Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, 174
Institute for Atmospheric Environmental Research = Institut flir Atmospharische Umweltforschung, II, VII, IX,
XI, XII, 179, 759, 796, 805
International Commission on Atmospheric Electricity = ICAE, II, VII, IX, XI, 189, 318, 329, 588, 593, 727, 797, 805,
807,809
International Conference on Large High Voltage Electric Networks, 724
International Geophysical Year, 460
IUGG, see also UGGI, International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, 588
Institutet for Hogspanningsforskning, Uppsala, 50, 656, 718
Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research, 299
Ionospheric Observatory Uppsala, 535
Ishikawa-ken Sand-dune Agricultural Experimental Station, Japan, 616
Israel Meteorological Service, 118
Japan Meteorological Agency, 438, 463

Johns Hopkins University, 489, 495
Kennedy Space Center, Florida, 188, 703, 755

Kyoto University, 556
Laboratoire Radiometeorologique, Switzerland, 687

Langmuir Laboratory, Socorro, New Mexico, 54, 56, 354, 623, 626
829
Leningradskij Gidrometeorological Institute, 159,353,410
Lightning Protection Company, Ltd., 723
Main Geophysical Observatory Leningrad, 160,249,314,388,409,417,488,706

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 459, 741
Max Planck Institut flir Radioastronomie, 682
Meteor expedition, 505
"Meteor" Research Vessel, 464, 712
Meteorological Office, British, 327
- - London, 352
- -, United Kingdom, 719
- Research Institute Tokyo, 125
Ministry for Culture and Education, Bavaria, VII
- for Environmental Problems, Bavaria, VII, IX
- for Research and Technology, Fed. Republ. Germany, VII, VIII
Monte San Salvatore Observatory, Switzerland, 633, 658
Montreux Conference, XI, 586
NASA, see National Aeronautic and Space Administration

National Academy of Science, US, 799
- Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA), 6, 566, 604, 631, 703, 753, 755, 757
Nagoya University, 130, 481
National Center for Atmospheric Research, USA, 235, 277, 278, 326, 568, 660
National Electrical Engineering Research Institute, South Africa, 726
- Hail Research Experiment, USA, 661
- Institute for Telecommunications, South Africa, 645
National Laboratory Brookhaven, 15
National Science Foundation, U. S., 16,28,58, 165,277,350,360,487,542,549,566,573,575,593,604, 612, 621,
627,631,637,752
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U. S., 167, 188, 361, 748, 753
National Weather Service, NOAA, 3, 362
Natural Environment Research Council (UK), 283, 307, 383, 621
Naval Research Laboratory, USA, 69, 89, 90, 91, 93, 96, 687, 740
New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, 59, 328, 352,613,627
NOAA, see National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
-, Space Environment Laboratory, 705
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA, 714

Observatoire du Puy-de-Dome, 344
Observatorio Nacional de Fisica Cosmica, Argentina, 687
"Oceanographer", research vessel, 109
Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo, 126,480
Office of Naval Research, USA, 16, 58,236,277,326,350,360,458,566,586,604,612,627, 631, 651, 703, 752
Office of Telecommunication, U. S., 447
Osservatorio Ticinese, 421
Radioastronomisches Institut Bonn, 527

Research Institute of Atmospherics, Japan, 130,210,617,670,687
Research Ministry, Fed. Rep. Germany, 806
Rice University, Texas, 237, 260, 573, 632
Ryofu-Maru research vessel, 119, 120
Saitama University, 712

Saudia Laboratories, 366
Science University of Tokyo, 44, 210
Secretariat TRIP, 809
Sekikawa Seminar, 210
830
South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, 698
Space Environment Laboratory, NOAA, 705
Stanford Research Institute, 587
State of Bavaria, V, VII, IX, X, XII
State University of New York at Albany, 17,458, 507, 641, 646, 661, 753
St. Kalinowaki Geophysical Observatory, Swider, Poland, 736
Stockholm Universitet, 15
"Subcommission VIII", 189
Schweizerisch, see Swiss
Swedish National Board for Technical Development, 656
Swider Observatory, Poland, 728
Swiss High Voltage Research Committee, 637
- National Fund, 299
- - Research Foundation, 637
Technical University Miinchen, 15

Tel-Aviv University, 401
Ten Year Program in Atmospheric Electricity, 689
Thunderstorm Research International Program, (TRIP), 809
Tokai-Kisen Company, 126
Tokyo Conference (IVth Conference on Atmospheric Electricity 1968), 504
TRIP, 809
UGGI, see also IUGG, Union de Geodesie et Geophysique Internationale

UGGI, 797, 805, 807
Ukrainian Hydrometeorol. Research Institute, 402
UN Conference Stockholm 1972, IX
Universitat Tiibingen, 686
Union de Geodesie et Geophysique Internationale, II, IX
Universite Paul Sabatier, 50,51
University of Alaska, 756, 581
- of Arizona, 85, 576, 604, 704
- of California, Los Angeles, 329
- of Colorado, 29
- of Florida, 604, 606
- of Hawaii Research Council, 277
- of Ibadan, 393
- of Illinois, USA, 661
- of Manchester, Institute of Science and Technology, 272, 285, 293, 313, 383, 622
- of Maryland, 803
- of Minnesota, Daluth, 165,438
- of Missouri, 15
- of Queensland, 502
- of Roorkee, 408
- of Texas at Austin, 134
- of Texas at Dallas, 573
- of Tokyo, 126,556
- of Washington, 15
- of Western Ontario, Canada, 652
- of the Witwatersrand, South Africa, 698
Uppsala Ionospheric Observatory, 593
U. S. Army Research Office, Durham, 645
U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, 28
U. S. Coast Guard Otis Station, 326
U. S. Navy, 710
U. S. Weather Bureau, 482
831
Voeikov Main Geophysical Observatory, 217, 221
Waldorf Conference 1972,687,692,711

Water Research Institute Nagoya, 130
Wentworth Conference, 346
World Data Centre, Atmospheric Electricity, Leningrad, 194,217
Working Group on Atmospheric Electricity ofWMO/CAS, X, 181
WMO = World Meteorological Organization, II, VII, X, 181,446,460,461,707,724,799,800,807
832
Subject Index
Where a subject is mentioned more than once in any paper, only the first reference from that paper is listed in this index.
Absorption of radiation in ionization chamber, 204 - - production, 41

Acetone, 15 - - size, 42
Accretion, 280 - particles, 131
Accuracy of measurement, demand, 175 Age of air mass, 126
Acoustic location of lightning, 328 - of ion, 30
- propagation in clol,ld, 628 Ageing of surface, 294
- reconstruction of "channel", 623 -, parameter, 32, 34, 37, 39
Activity, human, 114, 161, see also "pollution", Agglomeration, 45
"aerosol" Aggregation, electric influence on, 263
Advection, 54, 59 Agitation, thermal, 32
Advection current, 228 Agrimeter, 168
Aerosol, 15, 114, 759 Air, artificial, 31, 34
-, air pollution, 109 - as weak electrolyte, 384
-, aloft, 165 - -conditioning and hearing of thunder, 484
- and climate, 119 - discharge, 52
- charge, 40,41, 157 -, "dry", 9, 82
-, charged, 90 Airborne measurements, bibliography, 202
-, charged double and triple, 67 Aircraft, 94
-, charge distribution, 40 - instrumentation, 362
- , charge ratio, 69 - instruments, 193
- charging, 24, 60 - measurements, 362, 450
-, chemical composition, 760 - measurement in shower clouds, 370
- chemistry, 175 - measurement, simultaneous, 362
- climatology, 127, 178 -, protection by sferics measurements, 800
- composition, 58 - sounding, 191,460
-, desert-borne, 110 -, struck by lightning, 388
-, discharge to, 645 - stabilization, 238
-, distance from land, 121 -, supersonic, effects, 584
- exchange, vertical, 771 Air-earth current, 161,760
- formation, 5, 26, see also "aerosol generation" -, annual variation, 460, 505
-, volcanic eruptions, 584 - and visibility, 460
- generation, 41, 194, see also "aerosol formation" - antenna, 225
-, growing by water vapor, 783 -, convective turbulent, 496
-, industrial, 157 - density, 100
-, ion attachment in upper atmosphere, 583 - -, measurement, 225
- loading, 506 - -, over Atlantic, 464
-, maritime, 126 -, height constancy, 464
- mass, 114, 115 - in showery snowfalls, 373
- measurements, 464 - in stratosphere, 460
-, monodisperse, 43 - profile, 584
- over land and ocean, 119 - 125 Air-earth interface, 91
- , polydisperse, 43 - -, variation with altitude, 503, 505
- profile, 759 Air filter sampler, 250
-, radioactive, 95, 250 Air flow in and around cloud, 330
-, ratio of charged, 68 Air-ice interface, 157
-, residence time, 119 Air impurity, 15
-, scavenging, 124 Air, laboratory, 31, 32, 33
-, secular increase, 486 Air mass, 89, 271
- size distribution, 115, 119, 175, 176 -, age, 126
- size spectrometry, 119 - and columnar resistance, 471
- time constant, 122 - change, 58
Aerosol particle as probe, 131 -, trade wind, 450
- - population, 29 - trajectory, 127
833
Airplane charging by ventilation, 385 -, radioactive, 189, 238, 256
Airplane measurement, 418, 504, 507 -, -, theory, 194
Airplane model, 489 -, screening, 93 .
Air pollution, see also "pollution", IX, 76, 785 Anthropogenic influence, 114, 161
Airport observation sites, 484 - pollution, 116, see also "pollution"
Air, "pure", 10,83 Anti-coincidence gate, 251
Air quality, 109 Anvil of cloud, 363
Air-sea interface, 91 Apollo experiments on lunar surface, 573
Air stream line, 127 - program, 557
Aitken nuclei, 15, 110, 760, 771 - 12 Launch, 800
Albeds of ice crystals, 190 Applicability criteria, 185
Alcohol, 52 Application of atmospheric electricity, 181
Alignment of ice crystals, t 90. - of atmospheric electricity to meteorology, X
Alkali metal ion, 25 Apse, 60
Alkaline permanganate, 302 Apsidal distance, 61
Alpha decay, 251 Area, populated, 109
-, ionization, 204 Argon, 11,31, 34, 35
- particle beam, 131 Argon 40 in lunar soil, 573
- particles, 240 Artificial air, 31
- pulses, 250 Artificial ground surface, 221
- radiation, 41 Aspiration, 92
- rays, 30, 40 Association processes, 5
Altielectrograph, 234, 374 Atmosphere, arctic, 160
Altitude profile of conductivity, 512 - as weak plasma, 1
Altitude sensor, atmospheric electric, 238 -, clean, 129
Altocumulus, 269 -, contaminated, 157
Altostratus, 269, 774 -, horizontal heterogeneous, 160
Ambipolar diffusion, 131 -, oceanic, 126
Amino acid formation by lighting, 571 -, real, 7
Ammonia, 7, 14, 17,25,82 -, reducing, on prehistoric Earth, 571
-, cluster, 25 -, stable, 111
- iIi prehistoric atmosphere, 571 --space coupling, 509, 588
Ammonium cluster ion, 14 -, total mass, 714
- ions, 787 -, upper, 160
- sulfate solution, 300 -, urban, 40
Amplitude spectra, sferics, 668 Atmospheric chemistry, 15
Analytic fog model, 325 Atmospheric electric aircraft stabilization, 238
Analogue and digital tape, 194 - - climate, 161
Analogy moon-Earth, 564 - - field, 168
Analysis, statistical, tOO - - fog effect, 90
Angular momentum of Earth, 509 - - intensification period, 457
Anisotropic conductivity, 539 - electricity and meteorology, 100, 157, 181, 712
- region, 544 - and understanding of atmospheric physics, X
Anisotropy, electric, 512 - -, classical picture, 529
Annual average, 175 - -, coverage, V
- hourly means of omega, 217 - -, fundamental problem, 676
- variations of global circuit parameters, 460 - - in atmospheric sciences, 799
Antenna, air-earth current, 225, 464 - - on moons and planets, 557
- , cylindrical, for field measurement, 552 - - research, 759
-, for current, 92 - load, particulate, 109
- , installation, 221 - or sferic, 657
-, longwire, for field measurement, 552 - resistance, total, 471
-, open and shielded, 225 - sciences, 799
-, passive, 199 - stability, 268, 269
-, placement, 217 - -, aloft, 185
-, plate, 225 Atmospherics, see also sferics
-, -, for field measurement, 552 - activity, diurnal and annual variation, 676. 710
834
- Analyzer Network, 807 Background aerosol, 15
- analyzer, 676, 687, 710 - pollution, 129
- -, distance range, 692, 693 - radiation, 205
- -, errors in evaluate photorecords, 692 Backscatter radar, 552
-, broadband reception, 668 Backscattering profiles, lidar, 784
- count, 515 Balance field test, laboratory, theory, 327
-, global monitoring, 468, 681, 705 Balloon antenna, 190
- monitors, 507 "Balloon-Borne Sensor", 231
- observation, 706 "Balloon Electric Field Sensor", 231
-, propagation, 663 Balloon, captive, 354
-, research problems, 663 -, free, 360
-, receiving, 663 -, free and tethered, 94
-, sources, 663 - measurement, 91, 161
-, spectral analysis, 668 -, of fields, 552
- spectrum, 663 - -, of ionospheric fields, 539
Atomizer, 19, 287 - -, of stratospheric fields, 574
Attachment, 15, 32, 57 - motion in stratosphere, 575
- coefficients, 66, 126, 176 - over thunderstorm, 574
- of ions, 60 -, pilot, 760
- of molecules, 36 - sounding, 191, 454
- of neutral molecules to ions, 9 -, tethered, 193
-, permanent, 33, 34 "Bandwagon" effects, 799
- probability, 30, 34 Barium release, 521, 536
- process, 30, 32 Barrier height, 27
- reactions, 2 Baseline measurement, 161
- to aerosol, 512 - station for pollution monitoring, 109
- to ion, 39 Basic research and application, 181
Attenuation of thunder, 629 Bay-type magnetic disturbance, 728
Attitude of airborne vehicles, 489 Beam of alpha particles, 131
A2 Absorption, 590 Benchmark establishment, 161
Aural observation of lightning, 498 Benzene, 52
Aurora, 728 Beryllium 7 concentration, 764
Aurora and electric field, 576 Beta decay, 251
-, latitudinal width, 591 Beta ionization, 204
-, visual, 578 - pulses, 250
Auroral absorption, 536 - radiation from Krypton, 714
- belt, 161 -rays, 30
- break-up, 578 Bibliography on measuring techniques, 201
- event, electric field, 574 Bibliographies on thunderstorm electrification, 302
- influences, 437, 588 Binary collision, 69
- oval, 510, 522, 729 - mixture droplets, 78
- parameters, measurements, 576 - reaction, 8
- substorms, 552, 555, 576 Bipolar cloud, 269
- x-rays, 541 Bipolar ion, 43
Ausgleichsschicht, 583 Biological phenomena, 799
Austausch, see exchange - processes, atmospheric electric influence on, 802
Austausch generator, 423, 429, 468 Birkeland current, 522
Austausch layer, see exchange layer Bismuth, 28
Austausch layer, convection, 489 Blanchard effect, 503, 505
- -, day-night variation, 423 Blizzard, electric charge, 215
Austausch over ocean, 503 Blowing dust, 168
Autoconversion process, 394 Blowing snow, 162, 166,211,577
Automatic measuring system, 249 Blunt probe conductivity measurements, 590
Autopilot, electrostatic, 489 Boltzmaun distribution, 24
Avalanche breakdown, 190 Bond, chemical, 15
Average and distinct values, 471 - energy for ion, 29
Averages, long-time and short-time, 175 - spectrum, 38
835
Bonding, chemical, 3, 24 C. C. 1. R. flash counter, 686, 707
-, electrostatic, 25 Celestial bodies, other, 509
-, hydrogen, 3, 25 Center of nucleation, 24
Boundary layer, 96, 177 Central charge, 24
- , electric, 496 - ion, 28
- -, outside magnetosphere, 521 Ceraunic level, 497
- -, stability, 496 C-field change, 595
- space charge, 286 Chaff seeding, 801
Bow shock of Jovian magnetosphere, 558 Chains of aggregated ice crystals, 310
- - of Mercury, 558 Chapman-Ferraro current, 521
B-phase of lightning initiation, 644 Channel (lightning) capacitance, inductance,
Bragg ionization curve, 240 resistance, 605
Breakdown, electric, in planetary atmospheres, 567 Charge acquisition by falling drops, 270
Breaking of bubbles, 505 - center in thundercloud, 612
- of ice crystals, 309 - centers in clouds, 330
Bremsstrahlung, 588, 590 - at cloud base, 774
Brightness, general local, 769 - density distribution in stochastic cloud model, 398
- of lightning, cause, 605 - distribution, 40
Brownian motion, 277 - -, in clouds, 273
Bubble burst, 265, 308 - -, in thunderclouds, 389
- oflow conductivity, 489 -, electric, of planets, 564
Bubbling effect, see Blanchard Effect - equilibrium, 40
Bubbles, cavity, 264 - exchange, 52, 394
-, ejection, 414 - generation, 373, 762, 780
- in ice, 302 - -, in warm clouds, 273
Budget, electric, of Earth's atmosphere, 567 - - mechanisms, in warm clouds, 275
Bullet (snow crystal), 315, 331 - in lightning, 607
Bursting of droplets, 263 - in meltwater, 302
Burst spectra of sferics, 678 -, mechanical transport, 92
Business Meetings, V - moment (lightning), 597, 664
Butane, 716 - moment, global and per flash, 440
-, net, of Earth, 527
Cable car measurements, 267 Charge of aerosol, 40, 41
- cars as platforms, 759 - of drifting snow, 211
Calcium plage index, 768 - of droplet, 23
Calibration, 189 - of graupe1, 368
Capacitor, cylindrical, 92 - of precipitation, 302
- model, 532 - on aerosol, 90, 95
Captive balloon, 354 - on fictive spheroid, 592
- - in thundercloud, 349 - on frozen droplet, 413
Carbon dating, 745 - on hydrometeor, 402, 620
Carbon dioxide, 3 - on ice and snow crystals, 331
- and monoxide in prehistoric atmosphere, 571 - on ice crystals, 309
- -, atmosphere on Venus, 570 - on precipitation elements, 368
- -, on Mars, 568 - on raindrops, 376
-, in mesosphere, 83 - on raindrops in thunderstorms, 417
Carnegie curve, 450, 740 - on snow crystals, 315, 370
- measurements, 460 - output of thunderstorm, 467
- vessel, 161 - per ion, 29
Cassette recorder, 194 - per precipitation particle, 335
Catastrophes, weather, 800 - region in cloud, size, 363
Cavitation, 263 - separating agent, 333
Cavity bubbles, 264 Charge separation, 90
- earth-ionosphere, 504, 665 - along streamer channel, 643
- excitation, 442 - by droplet-ice particle'interaction, 280
- resonator (atmosphere), 440 - by gravitation, 273
C-band radar, 697 - during crystallisation, 158
836
-, electrochemical, 384 Circuit elements, resistive, capacitive, inductive, 530
-, ice particle collision, 294 -, equivalent, 92
- in clouds, 157,263,362 -, global, 87, 161
- in snowfall, 299 Circulation pattern in exchange layer, 450
- in thunderclouds, 333 - - in polar ionosphere, 536
- in thunderstorm areas (large scale), 514 Cities, pollution, 182
- in warm cloud, 286 Classical hypothesis, 164
- mechanism, 418 - model, of atmospheric electricity, 544
-, thermoelectric, versus surface potential - picture, of atmospheric electricity, 217, 450,529
theories, 299 Clay, 173
Charge-size relationship, of droplets, 264 Clean air benchmark, 164
- sonde, 374 Clean atmosphere, 129
- specific, of precipitation, 334 Clear sky, 111
-, surface generated, on moon, 557 Climate and aerosol, 119
-, total, transferred by lightning, 702 -, atmospheric-electric, 117, 161
- transfer, 1, 9, 15 - modification, 799
-, at and near collision, 320 - -, inadvertent, 109
- budget, 335 Climatic change, 506, 760
-, cloud to ground, 595 - -, natural and man-made, 482
- efficiency, 394 - seesaw, 486
- equation, 320 Climatology, aerosol-, 178
- in collision, 270 - of severe storms, 482
- in crystal collision, 309 Cloud air conductivity, 354
- reactions, 351 - - flow, 330
- transmission by lightning, 742 -, altostratus, 774
-transport by convection, 333 - as electrostatic generator, 342
- - by precipitation, 333 - as plate capacitor, 279
- transported by convection, 88 - base, 279
- transport, neutralization length, 338 - - charge, 268, 774
- trapped in ice surface, 297 - condensation nuclei, number, 80, 486
Charged aerosol, 42 - development, 271
- - fraction, 40 - discharges, lightning, 683
- drops, inertia and damping, 403 - droplet charge, 397
- fraction, 43 - - - radiosonde, 273
Charging by dust motion on Mars, 569 - - spectrum, 75
- by inductive process, 320 - droplets, electric properties of, 157
- by outgasing on prehistoric Earth, 572 - -, supercooled, 373
- current through thundercloud, 379 - electrification, 267, 279, 294, 333,418,715
- mechanism, inductive and non-inductive, 279 - as active parameter, 333
-, in non-lightning-producing clouds, 270 - - without icing, 779
- -, of snow and soft hail, 315 - - with positive feedback, 342
- -, precipative, 279 - electric fields, 268
- mechanisms in plantary atmospheres, 567 - electricity, 409, 762
- of aerosol, 24, 157 - energy, electric, 354
- of earth, by ion ventilation, 385 --ground flash discrimination, 709, 710
- offog drops, 417 -, glaciated, 309, 396
Chemical bond, 15 - investigation radiosonde, 273
- bonding, 24 - life stage, 273
- composition of ions, 6, 24 - measurements, 189
- ion interactions, 9 - model, 273, 286
- modelling techniques, 6 - modification, 287, 800
- reaction, 1, 85 -. microphysics. 236
- substances in air, influence on electrification, 157 - microphysics, electric influence, 264
Chemistry, atmospheric, 15, 760 -, noctilucent, 15, 80
Chimney exhaust, 801 - nuclei, 80, 486
Chromatograph, 191 - parameter, comprehensive, 264
Cigre lightning (flash counter), 652, 707 - particle current, 279
837
Cloud particle current, life time. 335 Coincidence, time and chance, 251
- particles, 70 Cold chamber experiment, 412
- photography, 362 Cold front approach, 793
- physics, 263, 799 - - passage, 792
- - data, 362 "Cold region type" snow, 370
- polarization, 268 Collection efficiency, 287, 289
- simulation, 273 Collection of droplets, 287
- structure, electric, 362 Collector, radioactive, 92, 238, 256
- thickness and electrification, 269 Colliding ice particles, 294
- to ground lightning ratio, 469, 497 Collimator for alpha particles, 131, 132
- top electric field, 314 Collisional interaction, 1
- type and electrification, 260 Collision, 1, 7
-, unipolar, bipolar, multipolar, 269 -, binary, 69
-, warm, 306 -, cross section, 48, 61
Clouds, convective, 314 - dominated mobility, 512
-, effect of, 169 - efficiency, 70, 335
-, electric effects, 263 - -, increase by charge, 329
-, electric properties, 157 -, elastic, 32
- emitting microwaves, 800 -, electric influence on, 263
-, ice-water, 396 - frequency, 9, 32
-, large, charge separation, 362 - -, ionosphere, 667
-, non-convective, 263 -, grazing, 338
-, satellite pictures, 271 -, hail and neutral droplets, 336
-, stratiform, 774 - interactions, 6
- with or without precipitation, 314 - scavenging, 29
Cluster, 21 -, elastic, in cloud, 333
-, ammonia, 25 - target distance, 71
-, critical size, 27 Columnar recombination, 251
- formation, 17, 80 - resistance, 89,426,450,467,479, 552, 762, 769
-, hydrated, 6 - and air mass, 471
- ion, 6, 24 -, annual variation, 460
-, labile, 22 - and pollution, 471
-, molecular, 24, 28 -, oceanic, 503
-, nucleation, 27 Column (ice crystals), 370
-, quasi-stable population, 27 - (snow crystals), 315, 331
- radius, 76 Combination coefficient, 60
- water, 25 Communication, firm lines of, atm. electricity and
Clustering, 2 meteorology, 800
Clusters around ions, 76 - gap between basic science and application, 182
-, stable, 77 Composite flash, 497
-, structure, 76 Composition of ion, 6, 24
Coagulation by gravity, 73 Comprehensive cloud monitoring, 264
-, electric, 74 Computer analysis, 194
- equation, 72 - calculated lightning fields, 597
- growth, 70 Concentration of charged droplets, 336
- growth rate, 74 Condensation, 29
- in cloud, 72 - center, 91
- rate, 70 - electric phenomena, 783
- raindrop - cloud droplets, 417 - electrification, 275
Coalescence, 274 - embryo, 5
- efficiency, 70, 394 - nuclei, 54,90,109,114,115,126,175,263
-, electric influence on, 263 - - counter, 22
-, enhancement by electric field, 623 - - production 266
- of small drops, 418 - of water vapour, 30
Coefficient of attachment, 126 - on ions, 17
Coherence, 100 - process, 760
- coefficient spectrum, 100 Condenser, see capacitor
838
Conducting layer, upper, 583 Contaminant, see impurity, 52
Conduction current, 225, 234, 468 Contaminated atmosphere, 157, 802
Conductivity, 15, 88, 100, 109, 126, 175 Continental station, 160
- along geomagnetic lines, 583 Continuous spectrum, 30
- and air pollution, 785 Convection, 54, 59
-, anisotropic, 510, 531, 539, 544 Convection, changes at eclipse, 143
-, austausch layer, 428 Convection current, 212, 225, 286, 423,506,511,529
- at eclipse, 143 -, model, 496
- at ground level, 92 - -, oceanic, 496
- at radioactive probe, 195 - -, turbulent, 496
-, Cowling, 513 - -driven mechanism, 342
-, day, sunrise, night, 429 - energy, 333
-, effective in electrified clouds, 404 - field, electric, 521
-, frequency-dependent, 531 - -, magnetospheric, 536
- function, 425 - -, - and polar, 552
- in austausch layer, 489 - hypothesis, 419
-, in cloud, 344, 356, 396, 402, 404 - in austausch layer, 489
- in cloud, turbulent, 409 -, magnetospheric, 536
- increase, vertical, 423 - mechanism in cloud electrification, 404
- - with height, 468, 512 -, organized, 454
-, in electrified cloud, 420 . - over ocean, 505
- , influenced by air traffic, 584 - patterns from electric soundings, 452
- in fog, 322 - plumes, 454
- in ionosphere, magnetosphere, exosphere, 425 - theory, 419
- in lower and upper atmosphere, 511 Convective cells, in austausch layer, 489
- in thundercloud, 620 - cloud, electrified, 494
-, low, in bubble, 489 - - pattern, 343
-, isotropic, anisotropic, 667 - clouds, radio emission 353
- meter, 89, 92 - electrification, 286
- model, 531 - layer on Mars, 568
- of cloudy air, 354 - generator, 450
- of planetary atmospheres, 567 - mechanism, 400
- of planet's body, 559 - motions at clouds, 333
- on ocean, 99, 479 - process, 489
-, parallel, 510 - space charge transport, 286
-, parallel, Pedersen, Hall, 512, 531 Conversion coefficents (sferics), 667
-, Pedersen, 544 Core ion, 7
- profile, 441, 496, 583, 770 Corona, 749, 757
-, day and night, 544 Corona between falling raindrops, 417
- -, ionospheric, 504 - breakdown, associated with ice crystals, 313
- -, quiet and PCA-event, 538 - cloud, 756
- ratio, 769 - currents, 469
-, routine measurements, 462 - discharge, 58, 81, 189, 190,227
-, secular change, 116 -, in cloud, 386
-, stratospheric, 584 - -, in fog, 417
-, transverse, 522 - -, produced by space charge, 574
-, Venus atmosphere, 570 - emission from lightning, 661
Conservation of space charge, 95 - from colliding raindrops, 618
Constant of evaporation, 34 - from hydrometeor, 618, 642
Contact activation, 52 - in cloud, 344
- current, 234 - in thundercloud, 619
- effect, 320 - products, 264
- electrisation, 409 - propagation field, 382
- erosion, 52 - shell around lightning, 651
- time, 30, 299 - streamer, 641, 697
- -, of particles, 395 Corio lis force, 515
- potential, 261, 277 Corotational field, 523, 552
839
Heteromolecular homogeneous nucleation, 76 -, - and purity, 620
- nucleation, 15,26,29,76 - crystal aggregation, 266
High atmosphere, atmospheric electricity, 797 - albedo, 190
High-pressure reaction cell, 24 - breaking, 789
H 2 0 dissociation, 651 - clumps, 313
Holiday effect, 112 - growth, 263, 309
Homogeneous nucleation, 26, 28, 80 - precipitation, 162, 580
Horizontal current, 211, 764 - crystals and clathrates, 716
- electric field, 92, 493, 507 - crystals corona, 313
- fields, in high atmosphere, 532 -, electric charge, 309
- -, in ionosphere, 191,450,467,479 -, free falling, 309
- -, in upper atmosphere, 473 -, near surface field, 312
- ionospheric potential difference, 527 -, polarization charge, 312
- lightning, 608 - germs, 716
- potential difference in 60 km, 506 - impacting on ice, 296
- differences, 438 - - on metals, 296
- - difference in ionosphere, 767 -, melting, 302
- - -, in upper atmosph., direction, 589 - needle growth, 313
Hourly average, 175 - particle collision, 294
Human activity, 114 - - growth, 266
Humidity change, 136 - particles, droplet interaction, 280
-, relative, 100 - -, in free fall, 302
Hurricane forecast, 800 - - striking targets, 294
Hydranium, 52 - pellets, electrified, 411
Hydrated C04 , 17 -, rimed, impurities, 414
- cluster, 6 - surface, cleaned, 298
- O2 ,17 - - conductivity, 618
Hydration, 6, 157 -, surface layer of, 296
- rate, 28 -, thermo-electric effect, 216
Hydrocarbons, 7, 8, 15, 83 - -water interface, 158
-, ignition, 646 - with bubbles, 302
Hydrogen excitation energy, 649 -, work function, 294
Hydrogen, in prehistoric atmosphere, 571 Icing process electrification?, 779
-, lunar, 560 Icing rate, 362
- plasma, 649 Image capture distance, 65
- processes, rates, 647 - - sphere, 60
- spectra, 647 - effect, 268
Hydromagnetic plasma, 513 - force, 60
- shock,559 Impact current, 234
- wavelength, 532 -, of particles, 189, 194
Hydromagnetics, 513 - parameter, 61
Hydrometeor charges, 264 Impedance, atmospheric, 92
- flux, 279 Importance, of meteorological elements, 107
- polarization, 279 Impurity, 32, 39
-, swept volume, 335 -, dissolved in ice, 302
- velocity, 379 - molecules, 30
Hydrometeors, 166 -, nucleogenic, 39
-, charged, falling, 333 -, organic, 52
-, properties, 330 Impurities in water, effect on electrification, 294
Hydrophylic matter, 157 Incidence angle of sferic, 665
Hydrosphere, on prehistoric Earth, 571 Incoherent scatter radar, 536, 565
Hyperelectrification, 346 Index of pollution, 88
Indicators of meteorological processes, electric, 263
Ice, 91 Induced dipole, 287
Ice-air interface, 157 Induction charging, 320
Ice, bulk conductivity, 297 - effect, 275, 413
- conductivity, effect of temperature, 300 - field, 529, 549
847
Induction field of lightning, 597, 702 -, agglomeration, 45
-, on snow crystals, 373 -, alkali metal, 25
- process, model, 402 - analyzer, 40
- ring, 288, 355 -, annihilation, 9
- - technique, 420 -, artificial! y produced, 84
- term, 664 -, as sink, 29
- theory, 328 -, attachment, 32, 39, 42, 54
-, unipolar, 521 -, - to aerosol, 40, 60
Inductive charge transfers, 334 -, - to nuclei, 54
- charging mechanism, 279 - beam deflection, 565
- process, 320 -, bipolar, 43
Industrial activity, 11 0 - capture, 88, 344, 354
- aerosol, 157 - by aerosol, 783
Inertia of charged drops, 403 - by image, 61
- of droplet, 290 -, depending on polarity, 384
Infinity as current sink, 423 -, selective, 373, 376,411,417
Influx, of solar particles, 474 -, central, 28
Infrared data transmission, 322 - changes, time constant, 9
Inhomogeneities of field in thundercloud, 382 - charge, 29
Inhomogeneity of field in clouds, 269 -, chemical composition, 6, 24
Initial breakdown for lightning, 612 - chemistry, 4,52
Initiation oflightning, 618 - cloud injection, 536
Instability, electrodynamic, in thundercloud, 403 - clouds, artificial, 193
-, hydrodynamic, of drops, 618 - cluster, 1, 15, 21, 25, 83
- in troposphere, 793 -, collision cross section, 48
Instrumentation, 189 -, composition, 6, 9, 24, 28
Insulation degradation, 194 - -, change in time, 47, 48, 49
Intensification period, of ten-year program, 455 -, condensation, 17, 38
Intensity, from distributed source, 442 -, core, 7
Interaction, drop-droplet, 279 - counter, 135
- radius, 25 - current, in solar wind, 562
Intercel! flash, 498 - density, 91, 114, 126
Intercloud and intracloud lightning, 497 - -, in Venusian cloud, 571
Interface liquid gas, electric double layer, 302 - denuder, 40
Interfaces, air-water, air-ice, water-ice, 157 -, development, 15, 38
Interferometric technique in drop research, 265 - diameter, 32
Interlinking, of cloud properties, 264 - diffusion, 12, 94, 286
Intermediate ion, 30 - - coefficient, 131
International character of conference, XI - -, in clouds, 345
- cooperation, XI, XII - -dipole interaction, 24
- magnetospheric study, 588 -, drift velocity, 9
- system of units, 808 -, electronic structure, 24
Interplanetary field, 526 - equilibrium, 3,15,17,84,88
- magnetic field, 521, 536, 557 - evaporation, 23
Interpretation of measurements (by experts), 800 -, evolution, 1,45
Interrelation of parameters, 193 -, - time, 48
Interstroke field change, 595 -, "final", 50
Inversed thunderstorms, 468 -, formation measurement, 204
Inversion, 92, 450, 770 - gate, 191
-, conductivity, discontinuity, 454 - generation, 194
-, subsidence, 111 - - per alpha ray, 241
-, trapping of haze, 322 -, (heavy) metal, 29
Inverted polarity, of thunderclouds, 348 - impact on moon, 561
10 in Jovian plasma, 558 -, in free atmosphere, 85
lon, accelerations on moon, 573 - interactions, chemical, 9
-, age, 9,15,20,30,39,47 - -, electrostatic, 9
-, advection, 276 -, intermediate, 30, 35, 36
848
- -ion recombination, 60 -, collisional-radioactive, 649
-, large, density, 114 -, column, 131
-, light, 1 -, cosmic ray, 713
-, maritime, 81 -, diurnal variation, 209
-, mass, 12, 32, 45, 52, 64, 68, 83 - in D-layer, 576
-, - spectrum, 8, 81 - in troposphere, 759
-, mass and mobility diagram, 46 -, photo-, 1
-, mean free path, 60, 66, 345 -, potential of, 1,29,351
- measurements, bibliography, 202 -, propagation in onset of spark, 646
-, measurement techniques, 191 -, rate, 2, 133, 175, 190, 239
- migration, in electric field, 54 -, to recombination ratio, 496
-, mobility, 1, 18,45,52,64,82,83,175 -, rate measurement, 204
-, - analyzer, 40 -, residual, 204
-, - distribution, 42 -, source, 1, 10, 40
-, - spectrum, 11,81 Ionized sheath, 239
-, molecular, 24 - volume at probe, 195
- molecule rate constants, 15 Ionizer, see radioactive antenna
- -molecule reactions, 1,45,85 Ionizing radiation, 204
- -molecule switching reaction, 26 "Ionenstau", 344
-, movement. at moon, 561 Ionopause, of planet, 559
-, nature, 1,24,46,84 Ionosphere, and double-layer intersection, 523
-, number density, 175 -, conductivity, 425
-, - -, over North Atlantic, 802 -, equipotentiality, XI
- orbits on moon, 561 -, equipotential surface, 588
-, organic, 47 -, influenced by thunderstorm, 544
- pair, 1 -, layer model, 667
- production, 88, 127 -, lower, 440
-, - rate, 3, 114 -, lunar, 557
- precursor, 7, 15 -, measurement, 191
-, produced by air ionization, 21 - penetration by sferic, 665
-, radius, 34, 39 -, polar cap, 536
-, radon daughter, 55 Ionospheric current systems, 729
-, - progeny, 25 - disturbance, sudden, 674
- recombination, 54, 88, 286 - field at balloon altitude, 519, 536
- - coefficient, 132 - horizontal fields, 191,467,479
-, shell, 7 - plasma, 665
-, size, 83 - potential, 191,428,450,467,764
-, small, 1, 30 -, annual variation, 460
- spectrum, 8, 88 - -, secular variation, 740
- -, effect of pollution, 90 - -, diurnal -,471
-, spherical, 34 - profile, 443
- source, 191 - reflection, 665
- stability, 3, 24, 191 Ions, applied research, 87
-, stable and unstable, 30, 38, 39 -, as turbulence tracers, 88
-, structure, 24 -, atmospheric, 24
-, terminal, 6, 84 -, -, mobility spectrometry, 120
-, thermalized, 28 -, basic research, 1
- translational energy, 4 -, created by point discharge, 793
-, vertical distribution, 91 -, fast, 1
- trapping, 344 -, -, number density, 760
Ionic current, 239 -, formation, 1
- mass, 9 -, heavy, 12
- population, bipolar, 286 -, identify, 9
Ionization, above 30 km, 590 -, information on, 801
- background, 714 -, large, medium, middle, small, 136
-, by alpha, beta, gamma, and cosmic rays, 204 -, life time, 1, 84
-, chamber of, 204 -, primary (fast), 512
849
Ions, role in atmospheric chemistry, 15 Life, mean, of radon daughter ion, 57
-, - in nucleation, 26 Life stage, of cloud, 273
-, tropospheric, 1, 45, 82 Life time, of charge on hydrometeor, 402
-, stratospheric, 1, 9 - -, of cloud particle, 335
-, variations with altitude, 1 Ligand, 7
I-phase of lightning initiation, 644 Light absorption, scattering, 760
Iso-butene, 716 Light, effect on electrification, 421
Isokeraunic level, 724 - emission from cloud preceding the stepped-
leader, 644
J-change in lightning, 608 - - transition probability between states, 648
J -discharge, 595 Lightning, see also discharges, flash, stroke
J-field change, 595 Lightning activity, absolute, 440
Junction, semiconducting, 297 - , diurnal variation, 440
Junge layer, 512 - -, global, 440, 497
Jupiter's magnetic field, 558 - - and radar reflectivity, 628
Jupiter's magnetosphere, 558, 566 - analyzer network = Atmospherics Analyzer, 441
Jovian, see also Jupiter's -, artificial and natural, 745
- as short circuit, 514
Katabatic wind, 589 -, broadband fields, 700
K-change, 504,694 Lightning as cause of sferics, 663
K-field change, 595 - channel capacitance, inductance, resistance, 605
Khamsinic, 110, 111,116 - excitation temperature, 634
K index, 736 -, hydrodynamic expansion, 648
Kinetic energy, 64 -, length, 628
Kinematics, and electric field, 800 - location, 191
K-pulse, 710 -, model of, 648
Krypton 85, 176 - plasma, 647
- temperature, 745
Laboratory air, 33 - top, 694
L-field, 517, 552 - turtuosity, 709
L-geomagnetic variations, 515 - characteristics, 725
Laminar flow, 43 -, charge moment, 440
Land breeze, 117 - charge transport, 742
"Land effect", on columnar resistance, 552 -, charging and discharging mechanisms, 658
Land station, 217 -, ground to cloud ratio, 469
Langmuir probe, 565 -, connecting leader, 638
Large ion density, 114 -, corona sheath, 647
- scale fields, 509 - counters, 488
Lapse rates of temperature and humidity, 784 - counting, 468
Laser beam, 182 - current, 468, 724, 742
-, bistatic, 183 -, current amplitudes, impulse charges, energy
-, in drop research, 265 integrals, 641
- radar, see lidar, 759 -, - characteristics, 633
-, scattering, 191 - - oscillogram, 636
Latham-Mason theory, 328 -, - rise time and fall time, 657
Lattice of clathrates, 717 -, - waveform, 657, 725
Layer, mixing, 89 -, damage prevection, 799
-, surface, monomolecular, 157 - detection, optical, 753
Lead,28 -, differentthickness in different light frequencies, 647
Levitation, 389 - dissipation arrays, 754
-, and rain gush, 395 -, electric and magnetic fields, 700
-, of charged hydrometeors, 379 -, electron densities, 649
-, of drops and hail, 265 - elimination, 754
Lichtenberg figure, 658 -, embryo, 620
Lidar, 182, 191 -, excitation energy, 648
-, dual frequency, 759 - fatalities, 800
- reflectivity profile, 771 - field changes, structure, 683
850
- jump change of polarity with distance, 686 -, regional differences, 725
- polarity change, 708 - research at San Salvatore, summary of 30 years, 638
- penetration to ionosphere, 550 -, rise times of field, 683
- fields, electric, magnetic, 597 -, source location, 441
-, electrostatic, induction, radiation, 597 - spectra, 647
-, mirror images, 657 - spectroscopy, 633
- from non-straight, non-vertical channels, 657 -, spectrum and current, 633
-, reflected from ionosphere, 657 - spectrum, Stark broadening, 647
-, first, 333 - statistics, 497, 652
- flash counter, 682, 724 - stroke, 595, 756, 758
- - density, 497, 750 - structure, intracloud, 628
- frequency, 440,678,719 -, subtropical, 497
-, fronts, troughs, 501 - temperature, 648
- -, objective measurements, 507 -, time-resolved spectrum, 633
- - in winter storms, 615 -, termination in cloud, 601
- from satellites, 750 - to aircraft, 388
-, ground and cloud discharges, 683 - to towers, 638
-, hazard and protection, IX - tracing in Britain versus USA, 657
-, history, 745 -, transmission-line model, 657
-, horizontal and vertical, 504 -, triggering, 263, 618
- incidence, annual variation, 722 -, upward from tower, 658
- -induced rain, 287 -, - and downward, 742
- induced voltages in transmission line, 708 -, VHF pictures, 694
- in H-alpha light, fine structure, 647 Lightnings, number per second, 440
- initiation, 379, 618, 642 -, per unit area, 488
-, intracloud, intercloud, air, ground, 497, 628, 630 Limiting sphere, 60
- investigation by thunder, 628 Limit of charge separation, 334
- in volcano clouds, 569 - trajectory, 70
- in warm clouds, 419 Limonene, 52
- localization by single station, 687, 706 Line spectrum, 38
- locations, 712, 800 - - of mobility, 13
- -, acoustic, 328 Liquid nitrogen trap, 19
-, "loop" at connection, 639 - water content, 362
-, luminosity measurements, 497 Loading of radioactive probe, 189, 198
- measurements, bibliography, 202 Local and global time, 88
- monitoring, XI, 682 - and diurnal variation of thunderstorm
- observation, visual, aural, 498 frequency, 514
-, optical thickness, 637 - effects, 89
- parameter measurements, 724 - forecasting, 799
- parameters in South Africa, 726 - generator, 452, 769
- photographs, 638 - perturbation, 88
-, photon energy, 648 Localization of sferics source, 669, 670
- physics, 663 Location oflightning, 441
- plasma conditions, 647 Long distance correlation, 450
-, - temperature, 649 - wire field antenna, 552
- polarity in winter, 614, 660 Loop antennas in sferics reception, 671
-, positive, negative, cloud originated, ground Lorentz Field, 515
originated, 638 L-phase of lightning initiation, 644
-, positive streamer, 642 Lorentz force, 515
- and precipitation, 659 Low conductivity bubble, 489
-, prehistoric, 571 Lunal region of balloon, 231
- prevention, by small dipoles, 801 Lumber losses, 801
- probability in nimbostratus, 388 Luminosity of positive streamer, 643
- protectors, radioactive, 758 Lunar atmosphere, 567
- radiation, vertical versus horizontal, 449 - -, loss, 560
- and rain gush, 623 - electricity, 557, 560
- reactions of atoms, ions, electrons (Hydrogen), 649 - gravity, 560
851
Lunar helium, 560 - shower cloud, 362
- hydrogen, 56U - storms, 190
- ion orbit, 561 Marshall-Palmer drop-size distribution, 270
- mode, 517 Martian atmosphere, 567
- potential and currents, 562 Mass, accretion rate, 266
Lyman alpha, 3 - analyzer, 11
- and mobility, 18
Maeda-wind, 516 - and mobility measurements, 16
Magnetically disturbed day, influence on horizontal - and mobility of ions, 9
fields, 552 - concentration of particulates, 114, 11 5
Magnetic disturbance by drifting snow, 211 - distribution function, in stochastic cloud model, 397
- and electric field of Earth, 736 - spectrometer, 1, 17, 24
Magnetic field, 512 - spectrum, 17, 175
- antenna, 701 - - of ions, 13
-, interplanetary, 521 Matching of current antenna, 92, 93, 94, 98, 99
-, Jovian, 558 - of networks, 93
- from lightning, 597 Mature stage of cloud, 274
- lines, as equipotentials, 425 Maximum field meter, 190
- sector, structure, 526 Maxwellian current, 193
- induction, 510 Maxwell equations, 509
- - field, secondary, 511 MD Effect, 766
- potential, 510 Mean free path, 60
- pulsation, 728 Mean value determination, 249
- stress, 511, 513 Measurement of electric field, 238
- storm, 577 Measuring space, 31
- substorm, 560 Mechanically transported current, 96, 212
- tape, 194 Mechanical transfer current, 225
Magnetometer, triaxial, 232 Melted snow water, 411
Magnetopause, 521 Melting electrification 302, 410
Magnetosphere, 510 - ice, 302
-, as cavity, 521 - layer, 788
- boundaries, 513 - process, 789
-, conductivity, 425 - rate, importance for electrification, 308
-, inner, 513 - snow, 267
-, solar wind interaction, 536 - - electrification, 308
Magnetospheric convection field, 552, 589 - zone in clouds, 375
- dynamics, 536 Meltwater charge, 302
- horizontal fields, 467 Meridional wind, 515
- tail, 511 Mercury bow shock, 558
Magnetosheath at Earth, 559 - magnetic field, 558
Magnetotail, 522 - magnetosphere, 558
Magnetotelluric field, 728 Mesopause, 28
Manifestations, of atmospheric electricity, 800 Mesosphere, 80, 83, 164
Mapping down of fields, 536 Metal electrodes, 646, 749
- - of fields from ionosphere, 565 Metal ion, 29
- factor, 539 Metals, various, as target for ice particles, 294
- from ionosphere to lower atmosphere, 518 Metastable state, 21
- of fields, 509 Meteorological forecasting, 87
- up and down, 423, 434, 518, 519, 539 - parameters, 96, 193, 759
- up and down, dependence on frequency, 550 - verification of lightning localization, 690
- up of thunderstorm fields, 514 Meteorologic-electrical relation, 217
- up of time-varying thunderstorm field, 548 Meteorologists, cooperation with, 799
Marine, see maritime Meteorology, and atmospheric electricity, 100, 175, 181
Marine fog, 322 -, on planets, 567
Mariner missions, 567 Meteorotropic events, 802
- 10 mission, 558 Methane, 83
Maritime aerosol, 126 Methods, comparison, 182
852
Methyl chloride, 716 - of thundercloud, 403
M-field change, 595 - - - electrification, 394
Microdroplets, 22 -, one-dimensional, of thundercloud, 402
Microphone network, 191 -, steady-state, of cloud, 286
Microphysical processes, electric, 800 Modeling-experiment interaction, 327
- -, in clouds, 800 Modeling, mathematical, XI
Microwave emission, from clouds, 800 Modes of sferic, 665
Mid Range Plan, 201 Modification of clouds, 287
- - - Effort, 175, 588 - offog, 717
Migration length, 57 - of weather, climate, 799
Millipore filter, 250 Moisture, 91
Mirror image, 316, 354, 373 Molecular attachment, 39
- - effect, 793 - cluster, 28
- - of lightning field, 601 - clustering, 24
Mixing, 111 - diffusion, 95
- layer, 89, 111 - dissociation, 6
-, of air, 143 - properties, 24
-, turbulent, 95 - rearrangement, 1
-, vertical, 759 Molecules, attached, 1
Mobility, 1,88,114 -, organic, 15
-, analysis, 17 -, polar, 15,24,29
-, analyzer, 11, 18, 52 Monitoring of sferics, 664
-, and gas density, 9 Monodisperse drop generation, 287
-, and ion nature, 11 Monthly average, 175
-, and particle radius, 43 Monthly hourly means of omega, 217
-, average, 9, 130 - means of omega, 217
-, changing in drift space, 22 - variation of omega, 217
-, discrete, 11, 15 Moon, 164
-, distribution, 119 -, charge distribution, 592
-, in stratosphere, 12, 82 -, analogy to Earth, 564
-, "line" spectrum, 12 -, electric charges, 557
-, measurements, 9 -, external currents, 557
-, of intermediate ion, 35 -, gravitation, 517
- of ions, 755 -, nighttime potential, 564
-, of protons in ice, 158 -, passing through Earth's magneto tail, 562
-, ofsmall ion, 36 -, plasma sheath, 557
- peak, 17, 30,38,84, 85, 191 -, subsolar point, 557
-, reduced, 9,19 -, terminator, 557
- resolution, 191 Motion of air, electrically-driven, 263
-, spectrometer, 9, 21, 82, 119, 192 "Mountain effect" on columnar resistance, 552
- spectrum, 1,20,30,135,175 - - on horizontal fields above, 552
-, composite, 15 Mountain top observations, 270
- -, continuous, 84 - - station, 762
- -, resolution, 84 Multiple charges, 29
Model airplane stabilization, 238 - point corona, 757
Model, analytic, of magnetospheric electric field, 523 - station network (sferics), 675
-, continuous and stochastic, 394 Multipolar cloud, 269
- for cloud electrification, 279 Multistation lightning measurement, 607
-, numerical, of convective cell, 490
- of charge in fog, 325 Navier-Stokes equation, 94
- of circuit, 529 Needs in practical application, 183
- of cloud, 273 Negative charge, immobilized in streamer, 643
- of cloud electrification, 350 - cloud tops, 364
- of convection current, 496 - feedback in cloud electrification, 409
- of induction process, 402 Net charge of Earth, 527, 592
- oflightning, 597, 618 Network of atmospherics analyzers, 676, 687
- of non-raining cloud, 286 - of atmospheric electricity stations, 759
853
Network of rain gauges, 623 Ocean nuclei, 22
- of stations for lightning measurements, 607 - surface charging, 568
Neutralization in collision, 335 October War (Israel), 114
Neutral sheet in terrestrial magnetotail, 559 Ohm's law, 100, 147. 175.229,764
- wind, 515 -, degree of fulfillment, 217
Neutron density, 768 - deviation, 769
Neutrons from lightning, 745 Omega coefficient, 217
Nimbostratus, 269, 270 -. Ohm's law fulfillment, 764
- base, 789 - parameter in sferics direction, 673
- discharges, 388 - standard frequency, 672
-, polarity, 370 Optical extinction, 90
Nitrate ion concentration, 786 - field measurement, 190
Nitric oxide, 1 - global lightning monitoring, 705
Nitrogen, 3, 31, 34, 37, 38 - lightning detection at day, 753
-, molecular, 1 - ray representation of wave propagation, 668
Nitrous gases in turbulence, 788 Open plain condition, 175, 193
Noctilucent clouds, 15,28,80 Organic acid, 83
Noise in ELF, extraterrestrial, 443 - components, 157
Noisiness of observation site, 484 - contaminants, 52
Noise, natural electromagnetic, 441 - impurities, 52
- spectrum of distant lightnings, 800 - ion, 47
- - of stroke, 504 - pollution, 52
Non-inductive charging mechanism, 279 - vapors, 50, 82
Nose boom mount of field mill, 322 Organized convection, 454
Nuclear explosion, 177 Orifice of mass spectrometer, 16
- reactor operation, 713 Orographic distortion, 434
Nucleation, 15,24,29,34,39,78 Orography, influence, 438
-, about particles, 26 Oscillation amplitude at height z, 530
-, by cavitation, 264 Oscillations, in field and current, 555
-, by small vegetable or animal fibers, 330 -, of electric field, 574
-, by solid surface, 264 Oscillator-damping instability, 403
- center, 15, 24 Oval, auroral, 510, 522
-, electric influence, 203 Overwater, see maritime
-, embryo, 29 Oxidation potential, 384, 420
-, from cluster, 27 Oxydation-reduction potential, 384
-, heteromolecular, 15, 26, 29, 76 Oxide layer on metal, 296
-, - homogeneous, 76 -, nitric, 1
-, homogeneous, 26, 29, 80 Oxonium, 3, 12, 28
-, ion-induced, 24, 26 -, hydrated, 6
- process, gas phase, 26 - hydrates, 3
-, role of ions, 26 Oxygen, 3
-, theory, 30, 38 - increase in prehistoric atmosphere, 571
-, time, 309 Ozone, absence, in prehistoric atmosphere, 511
Nuclei, cloud, 80
-, condensation, 23, 56 Palm tree, point discharge, 389
-, in evaporated spray, 22 Parachute descent through thundercloud, 338
-, maritime, 22 - radiosonde, 279
-, radius, 126 Parallel conductivity, 512, 531
-, salt, 18 Parameter interrelation 193
Nucleus, concentration, 126 -, meteorological, 193, 759
NWC-VLF Station Australia, 710 Parameters, global and local, 471
-, to be measured, 193
Observation of thunder, reliability, 720 Particle impact, 189, 194
Oceanic atmosphere, 126 - injection, 109
- convective generator, 454 - measurements, bibliography, 202
- exchange layer, 450 - penetration, 588
- organic material, on prehistoric Earth, 572 Particles, as nucleation center, 26
854
-, energetic, precipitating from space, 538 - chromatograph, 191
-, size distribution, 126 - cloud drift, 565
-, trapped, 522 -, collision dominated, 522
Particulate load, 109 -, collisionless, 513, 521
- mass concentration, 114, 115 -, convection, 513
Particulates, 88 -, corotating, on Jupiter, 566
Paschen curve, 569 - drift, in magnetosphere, 521
Passive antenna, 94, 199 - drifts, 552
Past atmosphere of Earth, 567 -, dynamic equation, 511
PCA-Event,443 -, electronic and ionic (ionosphere), 665, 667
PCA-polar cap absorption event, 536 -, forced motion, 515
p-charge, 373 -, hydromagnetic, 513
Peak mobility, 30 - instability, 403
Peaks in spectrum, 84 -, magnetospheric, 536
Pedersen conductivity, 512, 531, 544 -, motion, 513
- current, 513 -, optically thin vs. thick, 650
Pellet growth, 280 -, pressure, kinetic, 511, 513
Pellets, ice, electrified, 411 - probe, theory, 562
Peltier element, 296 - sheath on moon, 557
Penetration of magnetospheric fields, 474 - sheet, 522
Periodicity, 88 - tail of planet, 559
Permanent attachment, 34 -, thermal, 523
Permeability, 511 -, two-component, 512
Permittivity, 511 - void, behind moon, 560, 564
Perturbation, local, 88 Plasmapause, 521, 525
Perturbations, 191, 193 Plasmasphere, 523, 552
Phase coefficient spectrum, 100 Plasmaspheric convection, 555
- difference in sferics location, 671 Plate antenna, 89, 225
- spectra (sferics), 668, 689 - capacitor model for clouds, 279
Photoactivation of Martian dust layers, 569 - (ice crystal), 370
Photochemical dissociation, 7 - (snow crystal), 315, 331
- ion production, 512 Plume break-up, 203
Photocurrent, 562 - location, 191
Photoelectron current density, 562 Plumes, coalescence, chemical processes, 801
- sheath, at lunar surface, 563 -, convecting, 454
Photoelectrons on moon, 557 Plutonium fissioning, 714
Photoemissivity, lunar, 563 Point antenna, 93
Photoionization, 1 - charge distribution model in thundercloud, 612
Photon energy in lightning, 648 - discharge, 58, 172, 227, 354, 376, 782
Physics, atmospheric, and atm. electr., X - current, 267, 283, 760
Pioneer 10 space probe, 558 - -, in cloud, 405
Placement of antenna, 217 - -, below thunderclouds, 389
Plain, open, 175 - at ice crystals and drops, 788
Plane, non-rimed snow crystals, 371 -, self quenching, 361
- (snow crystal), 370 -, in thunderclouds, 389
Planet-solar, wind interaction, 559 -, in trees, 389
Planetary atmospheric electricity, 509, 567 - - ionization, 754
- - physics, 567 Poisson's equation, 239
- body, equilibrium potential, 562 Polar air, 89
- charge, 564 - cap absorption, 536
- electric fields, measurement, 557 - - event, 588
- electricity, 557 -, electric field, ionospheric, 524
- meteorology, 567 -, electric fields, 474, 536
- missions, 557 -, ionosphere, 536
Planets, 164 -, potential drop, 538
Plane wave, 511, 729 -, regions, 458
Plasma, 1 - caps on Mars, 568
855
Polar convection field, 552 Positive charge in thundercloud, lower, 389
- electrojet, 522 - island at base of thundercloud, 686
- molecules, 24, 29 - streamers, 642, 643
- region, 462 Potential barrier, 158
- - measurements, 588 - differences, horizontal, 438
Polarity changes, 793 - -, noon-midnight, in ionosphere, 527
- charge frequency, 268, 373 -, electric, at eclipse, 143
- of drops, 419 -, electrokinetic, 410
- of precipitation charge, 356 - energy, 61
- of rain charge, 376 - fluctuation at eclipse, 143
- of showercloud, 370 - function, 425
- of snowfall and rain, 267 - gradient, 100, 161, 168, 267
- of thunderclouds, 368 - -, at eclipse, 143
Polarizability, 1, 15,46 -, increase with height, 513
Polarization charge, 333, 338 -, ionospheric, 191,450,467,740,764
- - , on ice crystals, 312 -, -, annual variation, 460
- charging, 299 - noise spectrum, 143
- - mechanism, 394 - of a planetary body, 562
- effects from space, 588 -, oxidation-reduction-, 384
- field, electric, 513, 515 - waves, 425, 435
-, in drops, 292 Power density, 423, 503
-, of charge on frozen droplets, 413 - -, at mountain top, 433
-, of clouds, 268 - in atmosphere, electric, 468
- of hydrometeors, 279 - line faults, 501
- theory, 419 - spectrum, 95, 100
Polarized light to measure cloud fields, 190 Practical application, 90
Pole to equator propagation, 667 Precipitating particles, in upper atmosphere, 576
Pollak counter, 41, 126 Precipitation, 175, 263
Poloidial field, 517 - burst, 334
Pollution, 88, 97, 109, 126, 135, 175 -, charged, 279
-, and electric field, 89 -, charge, 302, 333,420
-, and conductivity, 477 -, charge distribution, 381
-, atmospheric, 76, 87 - charge, polarity, 356
-, background, 129 - charging mechanism, 279
-, charge, 503 - chemistry, 762
-, climatology, synopsis, 109 - current, 267, 279, 354,468, 760
-, diffusion, 127 - -, in thunderstorm fields, 380
- effect on conductivity, 87 - development, 263
- on electric field, 87 - - in thundercloud, 623
- on ion spectrum, 90 - electricity, 368, 786, 793
- in space charge, 90 -, eleven year cycle, 802
- on vertical current, 87 - formation, 70, 287
-, global, 119, 126 - - process, 314
- index, 87,109,179 - generator, 468
-, long-term trend, 109 -, influenced by cloud electricity, 333
-, mesoscale, 89 - mechanism, 418
-, monitoring, 182,799,801 - -, for generation of field, 382
- Monitoring Agency, 182 -, of energetic particles, 590
- monitoring network in Bavaria, IX - physics, 268, 799
-, regional, 89 - radioactivity, 762
Polonium, 41,131,210 - rate, 381
- probe, 452 - scavenging, 54, 58
Polyester electrode, 646 - -sedimentation hypotheses, 333
Polymerization, 15 - shaft,280
Populated area, 109 -, sudden growth, 623
Population increase, 801 Pre-condensation electric phenomena, 783
Porto nation, 45 . Prediction of thunderstorm formation, 800
856
Pressure, 136 - background,205
-, atmospheric, 100 -, beta-, 1
-, electric, in droplet, 22 -, cosmic, 1
Probability of attachment, 30 -, electromagnetic, 760
Probe antenna for current, 89 - field of lightning, 597
Probe, passive, 199 - - waveform, 601
-, radioactive, 89, 189,238,250 -, gamma-, 1,714
-, -, theory, 194 - hazard, 714
Process, random, 95 -, ionizing, 204
Processes in cloud, 330 -, Lyman alpha, 3
Product E xi, 764 - term, 664
Production rate of ions, 3 -, ultraviolet, 3
Profile of atmospheric parameters, 759 Radioactive aerosol, 95
- of electric field, 279 - antenna,238,452
Project Hindsight, 186 - collector, 92, 238, 489
Propagation conditions, day/night variation (sferics), - -, probe antenna, 256
674 - decay, 54, 57
- constant of free space, 441 - fallout, 177
- constants, sferics, 673 - gases, 454, 512
- of damped waves, 530 - gas from ground, 143
- function of sferics, 711 - lightning protectors, 758
- of sferics, 663 - probe, 89, 94, 189, 238
-, vertical, of fields, 529 -, and wind, 195
Propane-air ignition, 646 -, bibliography, 201
Propane seeding, 716 -, conductivity, 195
Properties, molecular, 24 -, loading, 198
Proton affinity, 1, 52 -, local parameters, 199
- density, 764 -, response time, 198
- event, solar, 443 -, shielding, 198
- mobility in ice, 158 -, space charge, 196
-, thermal, 523 - -, theory, 194
- transfer, 2, 52, 331 - -, wind and resistance, 197
Protonic semiconductor, 158 Radioactivity, 110
Pulsation from stepped leader, 595 -, atmospheric, 175, 713, 759
-, geomagnetic, 509 -, from ground, 97
-, magnetic, 728 -, natural, 177
Pulse profile of sferic, 664 -, Martian, 569
- train technique, 800 Radio burst, 589
Pump, electrohydrodynamic, 286 - emission from clouds, 353
- - from Venus, 569
Q noise, lightning VHF, 694 - flux, 10.7cm, 443
Quadrants of balloon, 232 - noise, 664, 706, 707
Quadrupole spectrometer, 45, 84 - propagation index, 768
- mass spectrometer, 11 - wave propagation, 706
Quality of air, 109 - waves, 509
Quasiliquid layer, 157 Radionuclide sampling, 759
Quasistationary conditions, 424 Radiosonde, Dropsonde, 161, 193, 279, 374, 761
Quenching of corona, 361 -, field measurement, 437
Quick radar, 623 -, for cloud investigation, 273
Quiet day (geomagnetism), 729 -, for electric field, 273
-, for potential gradient, 348
Radar, 190, 623, 761 -, for raindrop charge, cloud droplet charge, space
-, backscatter, 552 charge, 273
-, dual-doppler, 328 -, measurement, 454, 460, 464, 471
-, rapid sweep, 191 - -, of electric potential, 425
-, reflectivity observation, 266 Radius, critical, 38
Radiation, alpha-, 1 - of interaction, 25
857
Radon 222, 58 -, chemical versus ion molecule, 85
-,2,28,92,119,150,204,250,512 -, mechanism, 7
- concentration, 122 - paths of ions, 15
- content, 769 - rate, 4, 17, 81, 84
- daughter, 54, 204 - - constant, 14
- - ion, 55 - scheme, 3, 85
- - products, 250 - thermodynamics, 25
- decay, 1 -, 3-body, 4, 50
- ion, 57 - times of ions, 14
- progeny ion, 25 -, 2-body, 4, 50
Raft as instrument carrier, 190 - velocity, 52
Rain, 138 Reactor fuel, 713
Rain development, after lightning, 349 "Real World" atmospheric electricity, 87
Raindrop deformation, 263 Rearrangement, chemical, 7
Raindrop charge, 376, 397 Rebounding of particles, 281
- - radiosonde, 273 RC member, 93
- charging, in thunderstorms, 417 Recoil streamer, lightning, 694
- cloud particle interaction, 279 Recombination, 5, 54, 57,60,63
- hailstone transformation, 264 -, at radioactive antenna, 256
-, hydrodynamic instability, 642 - coefficient, 67, 114, 128, 176
- in downdrafts, 419 -, collisional-radioactive, 649
- size distribution, 265 -, columnar, 241
- specific charge, 347 - , effect in cloud electrification, 418
- spectra, 800 -, - on charge separation, 337
- threshold for corona, 642 -, in thunderclouds, 333
Rainfall, steady, 375 -, role in thunderstorm electrification, 399
Rain gauges, spacing 660 - to ionization ratio, 496
- gush,287, 399,623 Rectification, ice-metal contact, 297
-, after levitation, 395 Red Spot, Jupiter, 567
- -, after lightning, 333, 800 Reduced mobility, 19
- - problem, 191 Reduction factor, 221
Rainmakers, 800 Reflection altitute (sferic), 674
Rain out, 54 Reflection coefficient, sferics, 666
- season, 328 Refractive index of atmosphere, 510
- shower, 80 Regional effect in global field, 477
Rains, seasonal, 169 - - of field, 506
-, warm, 80, 778 Relative humidity, 100
Raman spectrum, 182 Relaxation time, 354, 395
Random process, 3, 95 - -, local, 529
Rate constant, 50 Relay air, 52
- constants of ion evolution, 45 - contact activation, 52
- of hydration, 28 Remotely piloted aircraft, 238
- ofriming, 375 Remote sensing, 190
Ratio of cloud and ground lightnings, 469 - -, bibliography, 202
- of conductivities, 769 Removal of ion, 28
- of durations, of negative to positive point - of radioactivity, 713
discharge, 389 Replenishment of cloud droplets, 336
- of negative to positive point discharge, 389 Replica, slide method, 412
Rawinsonde, 760 Replicas of snow particles, 318
Rayleigh bursting, 263 Reprocessing of nuclear fuel, 714
- charge limit, 288 Research, basic, and application, 181
- disruption, 266 -, -, and development, XI
- limit, 22 - and quality of life, VIII
- - to evaporation, 265 -, fundamental and applied, VIII
- scattering, 182 Residual crystal, 23
- threshold, 265 - ionization, 204
Reaction cell, 28 Resin, mixed bed, 302
858
Resistance, above thunderstorms, 476 - effect, 125
-, columnar, 89, 450, 467,552 Schumann frequencies, 665
-, -, annual variation, 460 - resonances, 440, 504
- of radioactive probe, 196 Scintillation counter, 250
-, total, of atmosphere, 471 Scratching of surface, 294
Resolution in mobility measurement, 191 Screen, grounded, 92
- of ion spectrometer, 21 Screening, 98
Resonance case in drop collision, 293 - layer, 190, 342
- frequency, 442 - - at cloud edge, 494
Resonant cavity, 665 - - transport, 346
- frequencies in radiation from lightning, 665 - shell of cloud, 391
Response time of radioactive probe, 198 S~ current, 524
Return-stroke channel characteristics, 647 Sea breeze, 113
- current, field, 597 - fog, see marine fog
- electric and magnetic fields, 702 - salt, in rimed ice, 414
- luminosity, 600 - spray, 22
- model, 600 - surface measurement, 127
- spectrum, 633 Seasonal average, 175
- velocity, 597, 600, 635 - variation, 175
Reversal distance for sferics, 369 - - of thunderstorm and field, 514
Riming ice probe, 375 Sectors of solar magnetic field, 526
- rate, 375 Sedimentation, 54
Ring current, 522 Seeding experiments, 799
Riometer, 590 - of fog, 716
- absorption, 576 Segregation of charge, 403
Risetime of lightning current, 603, 704 Selective ion capture, 384
- - - field, 708 Semiconducting junction ice-metal, 297
Rocket field mill, 190 Sensing, remote, 190
- flights, 6 Separation efficiency, 320, 394
- measurement of field, 552 - of charge in clouds, 157
Rockets with trailing wire, 801 Settling chamber, 11
Role of Atmospheric Electricity, 799 Seven-station network, 389
Royco optical counter, 119 Severe storm climatology, 482
Rubbing, asymmetric, 331 - - indicator, 750
Ruby lidar, 771 - thunderstorm forecast, 800
Runaway electrons, 592 Sferic, disturbance by solar flare, 674
- modes, 665
Sail plane, 260 - reflection altitude, 674
Salt nuclei, 18 Sferics, see atmospherics, 595
- solution conductivity, 288 -, amplitude statistics, 669
Sandstorm, 211, 469 -, attenuation, 672
- discharges, 664 -, burst spectra, 678
SA (sferic), 668, 710 - counter, 652
SAR (sferic), 669, 689, 710 - , dispersion, 669
SAR, source controlled and waveguide controlled -, frequency groups, 669
part (sferics), 669 - location and meteorological observations, 690
Satellite lightning photography, 750 - , narrowband reception, 669
- measurements, of electric field, 521, 536, 552 - network, 428
- photography, sferics sources, 767 - physics, 663
- pictures of clouds, 271 - propagation, day/night difference, 690
- monitoring of thunderstorms, 705 -, reversal distance, 369
- verification of lightning localization, 682 -, sources, location of, 663
Saturation density, 304 - spectra, mean, amplitude, phase, 668, 669
Saturn's rings, 567 -, spectral analysis, 665
Scale height, 453 -, - groups, 669
Scavenging by collision, 29 - stations, global network, XI
- by precipitation, 54 -, statistical comprehension, 711
859
Sferics, storm location. 800 -, temperature, 213
- from tropical storms, 709 -, wet, in cloud, 364
-, VHF,694 Snowfall, 140
Sheath, ionized, 239 -, quiet, 371, 375
Sheet current, 524 -, showery, 373
Shell, equipotential, 523 Snowflake, charging, 315
Shield between ionosphere and Earth, 586 -, formation, 309
Shielding at radioactive probe, 189, 198 Snowflakes, dendritic, 315
- layer at radioactive antenna, 238 Snowstorm, 211
Ship exhaust, 464, 505 - discharges, 664
Shock, hydromagnetic, 559 - field,309
Shore, distance, 127 Soda-lime trap, 19
Shower and thunderstorm, maritime, 365 Sodium chloride solution, 287, 300, 302
Shower cloud, 362, 368 Solar activity, 443,728,736
- -, polarity, 370 Solar and lunar gravitation, 515
- formation, 268 - burst, 589
Showers, 333, 787 - cycle, 590, 719
-, in global circuit, 468 - - variation, 471
-, rain and snow, 788 - eclipse, 87, 96,143,177
Shutter in field mill, 92 - - shadow, in ionosphere, 517
SID,674 - eclyptic plane, 561
Side plane (ice crystal), 370 - electromagnetic radiation, 576
- - (snow crystal), 315, 331 - energy, 801
Side scatter, .183 - eruption, 475
Signal modulation, 194 - event, 506, 589, 764
Signs during snowfall and rain, 267 - flare disturbance on sferic, 674
Silica, 158, 173 - - effect, 762
Silver iodide, 300 - - influence on ionospheric reflection, 674
Simultaneous air and ground measurements, 362 - flare influence on stratospheric fields and currents,
- flights in various altitudes, 362 526
- investigation of cloud, 409 - - - on sferics propagation, 710
Single sferics station observation, 800 - flares, 161,513,580
- station localizing of lightning, 687 - flux 15.4, 9.1, GHz, 764
Size distribution of aerosol, 119 - geophysical data, 737, 764
Sky, clear, 111 - heat input, 515
Sky-pulse of atmospheric polarity, 657 - - -, distribution, 515
Skin, depth, 511, 529 - influence, 164
Slip-flow, 72 -, on atmospheric electricity, 802
Slope of potential curve, 459 - -, on global circuit, 471
Slow tail sferic, 664 - -, on thunderstorm frequency, 802
Small ion and droplet interaction, 273 - noise burst, 766
Smog, 77 - observation satellite, 751
-, photo-chemical, 137 - -, influx, 474
-, blowing, 162, 166 - proton event, 443
Snow, blown up, 577 - quiet, 479
- charge, 211 - radiation, 110,509
-, charge, sign, shape, diameter, 318 - -, at eclipse, 143
-, cold region type, 370 - -terrestrial correlation, 423
- crystal charge, 370 - - effects, 509
- - sonde, 374 - - relations, 161, 760
- crystals, shape and charge, 315 - wind, 509, 764
- dipole, 377 - action on planets, 559
-, drifting, 162, 166, 211, 316 -, bow shock, 557
-, melting, 267 -, induced fields, 536
-, -, electrification, 375 -, ion current, 562
- particle charge, 211 -, magnetosphere interaction, 536
-, positive or negative, 315 - momentum, 509
860
- - protons, electrons, 557 Spectroscopy of H-atom, 647
- X rays, 513, 710 - of lightning, 633
Solid water, 716 Spectrum, bond, 38
Solstice tidal wind, 520 -, continuous, 30, 34, 37, 39
Solubility of air in water, 304 -, discontinuous, 36
Solution droplets, 263 -, discrete, 30, 36, 37
Source dipole moment, ELF, 443 -, ion mobility, 135
- function (sferics), 711 -, line, 38
- impedance, in current measurements, 92 -, mass or mobility, 175
- location (lightning), 441 -, of ion mobility, 18
- receiver distance (sferic), 667 -, power, 95
Space-atmosphere coupling, 509, 588 -, power, coherence and phase, 100
Space charge, 88, 97,131,175,190 -, sferic, 665
-, at eclipse, 143 -, stability, 107
-, at fog, 324 Sphere, field increase, 190
-, at radioactive probe, 196 -, image capture, 60
- cloud from point discharge, 756 -, limiting, 60
-, conservation equation, 95 Spherical capacitor model, 557
-, convection, 286 - - -, of global circuit, 423
- density, 95, 168 - - theory, 507
- -, over land and sea, 450 - charge distribution model in thundercloud, 612
- distribution, fluctuation, 95 Spicules from frozen droplets, 413
- eddy transport, 496 Spider web, 155
-, effect of pollution, 90 - -, nucleation on, 330
-, Fourier spectrum, 96 Spin paddles, 232
- generation, 194 Spinning top atomizer, 287
- -, by points, 227 Splinter ejection when freezing, 413
-, in cloud, 274 Sporadic radio emissions from planets, 570
-, -, excess, 276 Spray droplets, 18
-, information on, 801 -, evaporated, 22
-, in shower and thunderclouds, 368 -, evaporating, 19
- layer on ocean, 479 - generator, 287
- - over ocean, 450 Spray-produced ions, 18
- movement, 228 Sq-field, 552
-, on large (slow) or small (fast) ions, 95 -, and current, 515
- over ocean, 505 Sq-geomagnetic variations, 515
-, produced by corona, 574 Squall line and air mass thunderstorm, 800
-, profile, 496 Stability, atmospheric, 268, 269, 286
- radiosonde, 273 - of air and field changes, 793
- release equipment, 347 -, of ion, 24
- repulsion, 28 Stable and unstable surface layer, 117
- sources, 191 - atmosphere, 111
-, sub-cloud, 286 - ion cluster, 25
- updraft, 342 - state of ion, 30
- electricity, 553 - stratification, 91
- problems of atmospheric electricity, 797 Stabilization, of aircraft, 238
Spark to drops, 264 Standing waves, electric and magnetic, 442
Specific charge, maximum, 345 Stark effect on H-alpha line, 637
- -, value of droplets, 334 "Static master", 241
Spectral amplitude (sferic), 668, 669, 677, 689 Static noise, 211
Spectral decay, 95 Station above exchange layer, 762
- groups, sferics, 669 Stationary Afterglow Method, 4
- phase, sferics, 669 Stations, atmospheric electric, 759
Spectrometer, 18 Statistical analysis, 100
-, mass, 45, 84 Steady rain and snow, 788
-, mobility, 82, 89, 119, 192 Steel wool model of cloud, 386
-, quadrupole, 45, 84 Stepped leader, 646, 694
861
Stepped leader field, 708 - - clouds on Venus, 570
- initiation, 642 Sun, central meridian, 763
-, interpulse interval, 595 Sunspot cycle, 471,802
- spectrum, 633, 709 - number, 722, 737, 768
- triggering, 621 Supercooled cloud droplets, 373
Steric hindrance, 46 - droplets, 333
Stochastic cloud model, 397 - drops, 264
- growth, 279 Superposition of electric fields and under clouds,
Stokes law, 292 781
Storm centers, location of, 663 Supersaturation, 28, 38, 80, 330
Storm, geomagnetic, 522 Surface-active compounds, 157
-, magnetic, electric field, 577 Surface charge, 148
-, severe, indicator, 750 -, induced, 231
Stratification, 91 - -, on insulator, 194
- near surface, 96 - -, on ground, 527
Stratiform clouds, 268, 774 - contamination, 158, 194
Stratocumulus, 268, 269, 270, 774 - doping, 294
Stratopause, 586 - electricity, of water and ice, 157
Stratosphere, 6, 80, 82, 163 -, equipotential, 324, 450
Stratosphere-troposphere exchange, 761 - generated charge on moon, 557
-, air-earth current, 460 - layer, 117, 157
Stratospheric aerosol, 759 - -, liquid, 330
- conductivity, variation, 802 - layers on clouds, 333
- currents and fields, 552 - potential, 157, 261, 277
- electric fields, 574 - difference, 294
- electricity, 582 - -, measured values, 295
- ions, 9 - effect, 275
- nuclei, 584 - of ice crystals, 331
- nuclides, 759 - on drops, 273
- particle accumulation, 801 - roughness, 92
- warming, 586 - saturation density, 304
Stratus, 269 -, sublimated, 331
-, low, 799 - tension, 76, 80, 265
Streamer emission, 339 - treatment, 294
- intensification, 642 S~-variations, 521
- propagation in field, 618 Swirling motion of space charge, 228
- system, energy budget, 643 Switching processes, 6
- tip charge, 643 - reactions, 2, 15, 26
Stress, electric, 309 Synopsis of atmospheric electricity, 168, 173
Strip chart recorder, 194 Synoptic air and ground measurements, 362
Stroke, see flash, lightning, 595 - meteorology, 800
Structure of ion, 24
Styrene, 52 Tail, magnetospheric, 511, 522
Sub-grid weather system, 799 Technical Note for WMO, 181
Sublimated surface, 331 Teflon target, 300
Sublimation, versus deposition of ice, 294 Telegraph equation, 530
- of water, 717 Telephone relay, 52
Subsidence, 165 Telluric current, see ground current
- inversion, 111 Temperature, 136
Sub-solar point on moon, 557 -, dew point spread, 90
Substorm-associated electric fields, 536 - gradient, 772
Substorms, auroral, 552, 555, 576 - gradient in ice, 158
-, magnetospheric, 522, 536, 589 -, of atmosphere, 100
Sucrose, 22 - of snow, 213
Sudden ionospheric disturbance, 674 -, photoelectron, (at moon), 563
Sulfates, 157 Ten point seven flux, 443
Sulfuric acid, 39, 76 Ten Year Program, XI, 423, 455
862
Theory, of radioactive antenna, 238 - detailed signature, 628
Terminal speeds of charged particles, 403 - heard, reliability, 720
- velocity, 263, 279 - lightning location, 612
- -, of charged hydrometeors, 379 - measurement, 191
Test ban treaty, 177 - observation, 720
Tethered balloon, 94, 193 - and pressure perturbation, 629
- -, high altitude, 471 -, reflection of sound, 628
- -, measurement, 420 - research and cloud physics, 628, 631
Tethered balloon, see also captive balloon - scattering by turbulence, 629
TE wave, 665 -, source, 628
Thermal agitation, 32 - spectrum, 628, 801
- energy, 4 Thunderstorm activity, 164, 175,423,583,663,719
- neutron detector, 746 - -, global, 450, 477
Thermalization, 1 - -, quantitative, 488
Thermalized ion, 28 -, charging current, 755
Thermals detection, 495 - day, 440, 719
Thermals location, 191 - duration, 726
Thermal stability, 343 - dynamics and barographic field, 679
Thermochemical data, 6 - discharges, per unit area, 488
Thermodiffusion, 158 - electric field, 181, 231
Thermodynamics, applicability, 28 -, - structure, 612
- of reaction, 25 - electrification, 286, 302, 333, 410, 417
Thermoelectric effect, 320, 331 - field, 189, 190, 203, 309
- -, in ice, 216, 294 - fields, influence on radon, 54
- process, 216 - -, maximum, 726
- theory, 294 - frequency, 191, 766, 768
Thermophoresis, 125, 277 - -, objective measurement, 507
Thermosphere, 515 - -, secular trends, 482
-, dissipative, 515 - generating mechanism, 476
Thoron,28,155,204 - generator, 467
- daughter, 204 - high fields, generation, 379
- decay, 1 -, influence on ionosphere, 544, 593
Three-body association reactions, 8 - - on ionospheric conductivity, 583
- process, 79 - intensity from sferics, 678
- reaction, 50 - localization, 664
- trapping, 60 - parameters, diurnal and annual variation, 497
Threshold selection (sferics reception), 669 - -, statistic, 497
Thunder activity, 706 - project, 329, 331, 807
- analysis, 628 - -, first, second, 809
- attenuation, 629 - pumping, 567
Thundercloud base, 354 - region, current flow, 425
- charge output, 467 - research, 762
- charging current, 379 - tracking, 679
-, convection portion, 375 Thunderstorms, 169, 333
-, drop development, 74 -, base height, 468
-, electrification, 376, 790 -, dry, 334
-, -, field study, 327 - , heat, frontal, 677
-, electrodynamic instability, 403 -, inversed, 468
- fields, 266 - , maritime, 190, 656
- -, mapping up, 544 -, number, 467
-, lower positive charge, 302 -, tropical, 468
- polarity, 368 -, Sahara, 710
- stages, early, mature, late, 499 -, squall line and air mass, 800
-, with inverted polarity, 348 -, theory, 189,403
Thunder day, 500, 506, 514 -, winter, 614, 660
- - frequency, 482 Tidal motions, in upper atmosphere, 450
- definition, 628 Tidal theory, 514
863
Tidal wave, diurnal, 515 Triggered lightning, 263, 350
- winds, 515 Tritium, 714
Time between flashes and return strokes, 652 Turbidity, 110, 179
Time constant, 354 Turbulence, 87, 93, 96, 97, 153, 177, 284
-, in circuit, 424 - in cloud model, 404
- -, in radiosondes, 506 - and clouds, 786
- -; of cloudy air, 282 Turbulent conductivity, in cloud, 409
Time, global and local, 88 - diffusion, 94
Time-lapse photograph, 364 - energy, 88, 343
- photos of cloud motion, 352 - mixing, 90, 91, 95
Time of contact, 30 - - and charge separation, 338
- of flight, 191 - -, role in thunderstorm electrification, 399
- - -, apparatus, 18 - processes in thunderclouds, 333
TM wave, 665 - wind, 168
Tornado, 678 Twenty kilometer layer, 428
- detection, 185 Two-body reaction, 50
-, devastating outbreak, 752 Two-storm electron beam plasma instability, 403
- discovery, 800
- forecast, 800 U-2 aircraft, 362
- and lightning, 751 Ultraviolet, 3
- location, 800 Unipolar cloud, 269
Toroidal magnetic field, 517 - induction, 521
Town, see thoron, 204 Unitary variation of ionospheric potential, 453
Townsend discharge, 45, 47 Universal and local time, 88
Trace constituents, 7 - variation, 88
- gas, 1, 17, 29,41, 52, 82, 179, 760 Unstable air upturn, 342
Tracer, see also indicator - state of ion, 30
Traces, atmospheric electric, 185 Updraft,279
Trade-wind air mass, 127 -, and downdraft in cloud, 363
Traffic influence, 114 - in cloud, 286
- jam effect, 344 - of positive space charge, 342
-, motor vehicle, 110 Updrafts, thermal, 494
Trailing-wire rocket, 801 Uranium fission, 713
Trajectory of air mass, 127 Urban atmosphere, 40
- of alpha particle, 131 - effect, 109, 117
Tramway, aerial, see cable car - lee rainfalls, 487
Transient phenomena, plasmasphere, 525 Urbanization, 109
Transients, electric, energy from, 801
- of electric field, 532 Vacuum chamber, 16
Transition, land-ocean, 126 Values, average and distinct, 471
Translational energy, 4 VA phase of cloud flash, 694
Transmission coefficient (sferic), 666 Vapor diffusion, 263
Transmission-line model of current, 657 - pressure effect, 275
- - - oflight, 701 Vapors, organic, 47, 50, 82
- - - of return stroke, 600 Variations, diurnal and annual, 460
Transport, vertical, 759 -, unitary, of ionospheric potential, 453
Transversal electric wave, 665 Vector electric field, 231
- magnetic wave, 665 Vehicle traffic, 11 0
Trapped ions, 523 Velocity of hydrometeors, 379
- particles, 522 - of light, 510
Trapping distance, 60, 64, 65, 67 -, terminal, 263, 279
Trees, point discharge, 389 -, -, of precipitation particles, 338
Trend of conductivity, 109, 116 Venusian atmosphere, 567
- of pollution, 109 - clouds, 570
- of visibility, 117 Vertical current, see air-earth current
Triangulation of sferics sources, 679 - exchange, 177
Tribo electrification, 194 Very low frequencies, 440
864
VHF lightning location, 612 Waves, electromagnetic, propagation, 663
VHF pictures of lightning, 694 -, standing, electric and magnetic, 442
VHF sferics and weather radar, 696 Weather catastrophes, 800
Vibrating reed electrometer, 205 - changes, large scale, by solar events, 767
Vibrational frequency of drops, 265 - modification, 799
Vibration of drops, 263, 265 - systems, sub-grid size, 799
Viscosity, 88 Weekly pattern, 114
-, molecular, 94 Weissenau-equator potential difference, 588
Visibility, 90, 136, 760 Whistlers, 509, 514, 536, 664
- and air-earth current, 460 Whistler observations, 521
- and ion density, 90 Whitecaps, 456
-, trend, 117 Wild electric storm, 350
Visual observation of lightning, 498 Wilson induction theory, 273
VLF, 664, 760 - mechanism for raindrop charging, 358
VLF-Band,440 Wilson's hypothesis, 464, 467
VLF Standard Station, 710 - model (cloud electrification), 286
Volcano charging, 568 - theory, 464, 467
- discharges, 664 Wind, 93
- lightning, 344 -, at eclipse, 143
Voltage drop caused by lightning, 758 - carried current, 212
Voltage errors of radioactive probe, 189 - direction, 112, 113, 135
Volta potential, see surface potential, contact - effect on radioactive antenna, 195, 238
potential - energy, 801
Volta potential, 261, 277 -, meridional and zonal, 515
-, neutral 515
Warm cloud electricity, 273, 403 - speed, 117, 135
- electrification, 286, 339, 418 -, speed and direction, 100, 769
- lightning, 340,419 - speed at radioactive antenna, 256
- - investigation in tropical areas, 340 - -, high, 168
- processes, 333 - tunnel experiments, 226, 241, 265, 294, 302, 329,
Warm clouds, 396 333, 334
- cumulus clouds, 397 -, turbulent, 168
Warm stratified clouds, 286 Winter lightning polarity, 614
Washout, 54, 713 - thunderstorms, 614, 660
- effect, 125 Wire antenna, 89, 93
Water adsorption on ice, 158 WMO responsibilities in atmospheric electricity, X
- clathrates, 716 Work function of surface, 294
- cluster, 25 World-wide, see global
- electrode, 646 - lightning activity, 440
-, fresh and salt, 505 - thunderstorm activity, 428, 450
Water-ice interface, 158
Water molecules, oriented, 158 X-band radar, 697
- particles, (solid), 716 X-ray counter, 590
- vapor, 3,25 - flux, 590
- - gradient, 773 - penetration, 588
- pressure, 717, 769 - radiation from sun, 517
Watson transformation, 668 X-rays, 3
Wave equation, homogeneous and inhomogeneous, -, auroral, 541
668 -, solar, 764
Waveform, 549, 701 -, discharge produced, 749
Wave guides, terrestrial, 663
- impedance spectrum (sferic), 667, 670 Zero order mode of sferic, 665
Wavelength, hydromagnetic, 532 Zero potential, placement, 423
Wave polarization in sferics, 671 Zonal electric current, 513
- profile of sferic, 664 - harmonics in wave propagation, 668
- propagation, 511, 668 Zonal wind, 515
- resistance, 510 Zugspitze cable car, 769
865
Meteorology - Bioclimatology
H.-J. AufmKampe
Das Wetter und seine Ursamen

Neuere Erkenntnisse yom Wettergeschehen
(Weather's Origin)
1951. VIII, 164 pp., 129 figs. OM 20,-
In German language.
B.Diill
Wetter und Gesundheit

(Weather and Health)
1941. XI, 100 pp., 46 figs. Out of print.
In German language.
W. Georgii
Wettervorhersage
(Weather-Forecast)
1924. VIII, 114 pp., 58 figs. Out of print.
In German language.
R. Reiter
Felder, Strome
und Aerosole in der unteren Troposphire
Nach Messungen im Hochgebirge bis 3000 m NN
(Electric Fields, Electric Currents, and Aerosols)
1964. XXIV, 603 pp., 217 figs., 50 tables. OM 182,-
In German language.
R. Schulze
Strahlenklima der Erde

(Radiation Climate of the Earth)
1970. XI, 217 pp., 108 figs., 36 tables. OM 66,-
In German language.
DR. DIETRICH STEINKOPFF VERLAG· DARMSTADT

Environment Protection
W. Jost
Globale Umweltprobleme
Sechs Vorlesungen fiir Horer aller Fakultaten
(Global Environmental Problems)
1974. VIII, 125 pp., 23 figs., 14 tables. DM 17,80 (UTB 338)
In German language.
K. Lang
Wasser, Mineralstoffe, Spurenelemente
Eine Einfiihrung fiir Studierende der Medizin, Biologie, Chemie,
Pharmazie und Ernahrungswissenschaft
(Water, Minerals, Tracers)
In German language.
W.A. P. Luck
Homo investigans
Der soziale Wissenschaftler
(The Social Scientist)
1976. XII, 308 pp. DM 24,80 (stb 8)
In German language.
W. L.H. Moll
Taschenbuch £iir Umweltschutz
(Environment Protection)
Band 1: Chemische und technologische Informationen
(Chemical and Technological Informations)
Band 2: Biologische Informationen
(Biological Informations)
1976. X, 234 pp., 3 figs., 50 tables. DM 23,80 (UTB 511)
Band:?: Okologische Informationen
(Ecological Informations)
1977 in preparation.
In German language.
J. L. Monteith
Grundzuge der Umweltphysik
(Principles of Environmental Physics)
1977. Approx. VIII, 220 pp., 110 figs., 15 Tables. In preparation.
German translation of the English original publication.
R. Otto, K. Felix, F. Linke (Editors)

Organismen und Umwelt
(Organisms and Environment)
1939. XIV, 275 pp., 67 figs. Out of print.
DR. DIETRICH STEINKOPFF VERLAG' DARMSTADT

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INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY

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With a Banquet Address by

With 478 figures and 42 tables

DR. DIETRICH STEINKOPFF VERLAG

CIP-Kurztitelaufnahme der Deutschen Bibliothek

Electrical processes in atmospheres: proceedings of the 5. Internal. Conference on Atmospheric

ISBN -13: 978-3-642-85296-1 e- ISBN -13: 978-3-642-85294-7

NE: International Conference on Atmospheric Electricity (05,1974, Garmisch-Partenkirchen);

Cover design by Ulrich Fleischer, Darmstadt

*) Marktgemeinde: Town of Garmisch-Partenkirchen.

Ladies and Gentlemen,

Meine sehr verehrten Darnen, meine Herren!

Ladies and Gentlemen,

Ions, Basic Research

Ions, Applied Research:

Application of Atmospheric Electricity Concepts and Methods to Other Parts of

Principles and Problems of Instrumentation, Methods of Calibration, Data Handling

Review of Instrumentation for Atmospheric Electricity, D. R. Lane-Smith. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Cloud Physics, Non-Convective Clouds and Precipitation

Some Electrical Effects in Clouds, J. Latham. . . . . . . . . . . 263

Thunderstorms and Showers

An Assessment of Thunderstorm Electrification Mechanisms, C. B. Moore 333

Global Circuit and Ten-Year Program

Theoretical Problems of the Global Atmospheric Electric Circuit, H. W. Kasemir. . . . . . , . . . . . 423

Atmosphere-Space Coupling, Solar-Terrestrial Effects,

Global, Quasi-Static Electric Fields in the Earth's Environment, H. Volland . 509

Physics of Lightning and Sferics

Remark by the Editors . . . . . 595

Physics of Lightning and Sferics

The Propagation of Atmospherics, W. Harth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663

Krypton 85, a Global Contaminant, W. L. Boeck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713

Atmospheric Electricity Activities of the Institute for Atmospheric Environmental Research

The Role of Atmospheric Electricity in the Atmospheric Sciences, H. E. Landsberg . . . . . . . . . . . 799

Report on the Fifth Conference

IONS, BASIC RESEARCH

Formation, Nature, and Mobility of Ions of Atmospheric Importance*)

With 11 figures and 2 tables

50L-____- L______i L ______ ~ ______L __ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _~

10- 3 10- 2 10- ' 10

References for Introduction

e Third body - [H2 0} • /C02 } - - - [C02 ) " [H2 0} ® Recombination

Gas Composition: NH3 = 28 ppm

0 3 + 02" . (H 20)2 .... 03'(H 20) + H 20 + O 2

K + = 1.37 x 1O- 4} m 2jVot·sec

Table 2a. Average mobilities of atmospheric small ions

K+(x 104 m 2 jV's) K-( x 104 m 2 jV' s)

Zwang and Gutman, 1958 1.13 1.28 1.13

TaQle 2 b. Average mobilities of small ions produced in "pure" air.

Zeleny, 1900 1.36 1.87 1.38

Small ion mobil ity in 10- 4 m2 ·V- 1 sec-I

Mass spectrum of negative ions

Fig. 10. Mass spectrum of negative ions (Mohnen (9))

POSITIVE MOBILITY SPECTRUM

Gas Composition: NH3 = 28 ppm

Acetone (CH 3 COCH 3):

Takahashi, Boulder, Colorado, USA:

Eichmeier, Miinchen, West-Germany:

B. A. Thomson and J. V. Iribarne

With 6 figures and 1 table

2 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.2

*) All mobilities are given in reduced values (at NTP).

50L-- Li L ~ L _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _~

1.0 ......._....L...--'---'-~_--L_ _"---'_'_....L..._---'