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Module No. 6

Irrigation Scheduling

In rainfed agriculture, farmlands can be productive throughout the year. Where rainfall is
scarce and insufficient during the growing period and surface irrigation water is not readily
available, pumping groundwater is imperative. Instead of letting the farm fallow and generate
no income at all, growing crops during the dry season is a viable option using pump irrigation.
This can be done through any of the surface irrigation methods discussed in Module No. 2.

Crops are irrigated over a wide range of soil conditions and crop production practices.
Irrigating effectively a specific crop grown in a specific soil requires the development of a good
irrigation schedule. Irrigation scheduling is simply knowing when to irrigate and how much water
to apply. It implies efficient use of water and energy by applying the right amount of water to
crops at the right time. To figure this out, the field’s moisture content expressed as field capacity,
plant available water, and permanent wilting point must be known. These are already discussed
in Module No.1.

Maximum yield usually does not always translate to maximum profit. The main goal of
irrigation scheduling is to maximize profit by producing the maximum potential yield with
minimum production cost. Evans, Cassel & Sneed had shown that a well-planned irrigation
schedule can save 15 to 35 percent of the irrigation water normally pumped without reducing
yield. The cost of manpower and energy for pumping this excess water is a significant amount in
the reduction of production cost, which consequently translates to more profit (1996a).

On the other hand, when irrigation is postponed too long, drought stress to crops can
also reduce potential yield. In corn for example, yield reduction according to Werner can be by
as much as 10 to 20 bushels/acre per inch of soil water deficit (2002). With one bushel of corn
equivalent to 56 kg (Johanns, n.d), this reduction is about 250 to 500 kg/ha per cm of soil water
deficit.

After thorough and diligent study of this module, you should be able to:

a. Appreciate the importance of pump irrigation in rainfed agriculture;

b. Be knowledgeable and skillful on the different irrigation scheduling methods;

c. Comprehend the concept about ‘application of right amount at the right time’ and
explain the theories behind it;

d. Develop a sound irrigation schedule for different crops using the calculation method; and

e. Draw insights about crop production as a profitable business endeavor.

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I. Application of Right Amount of Water at the Right Time

Considered as good agriculture practice, irrigation scheduling is a fine-tuning process
that minimizes yield loss due to drought stress and waterlogging. The concept of ‘application of
right amount of water at the right time’ is based on the theoretical relationship of yield and
water applied as depicted in Figure 1.

Modified from Armstrong, Thompson & O’Donnell (2001)

Figure 1. Theoretical relationship between yield and water applied

The above figure connotes that (Armstrong, Thompson & O’Donnell, 2001):

 Even without irrigation, yield is still possible (Point 1);

 With too little water (under-application), yield increases (Points 1 to 2);
 Irrigation contributes to continued yield increase (Point 2);
 Optimum water application attains maximum potential yield (point 3). The target
amount of irrigation application is between Points 2 and 3;
 More water causes no increase in yield (somewhere before and after the immediate
vicinity of Point 3); and
 With too much water (over-application), yield declines due to waterlogging (Points 3
to 4).
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Under-application of irrigation water results to drought stress which impairs crop

physiological and biological processes particularly photosynthesis and respiration that result to
stunted growth and thus reduced yield. Over-application, on the other hand, unnecessarily
wastes water, energy and labor, leaches soil nutrients below the root zone, and reduces soil
aeration due to waterlogging and thus yield is reduced. The optimum amount of irrigation water
to be applied is between Points 2 and 3, the target amount of irrigation scheduling.

II. Irrigation Scheduling Methods

As mentioned earlier, the primary objective of irrigation scheduling is to avoid water stress
as a result of under-application (drought) and over-application (waterlogging). There are
several ways to determine when to irrigate. From simple method to more complex ones, these
include: (a) plant observation method; (b) package of technology method; (c) soil moisture
monitoring and measurement method; and (d) calculation method. The plant observation
method is normally used by farmers based on their experiences; while the package of
technology method is based on research results. The soil moisture monitoring and measurement
method as well as the calculation method are science-based techniques, wherein the farmer
utilizes metering devices in monitoring soil moisture; while the latter employs mathematical
calculations based on scientific information and principles.

A. Plant observation method

This method determines when the plants have to be irrigated based on observing
changes in plant characteristics such as changes in color of the plants, curling of the leaves,
and ultimately plant wilting. These visual changes can be detected by looking at the crop as a
whole rather than at the individual plants. When the crop is under water stress, the appearance
changes from vigorous growth to slow or stunted growth. To use the plant observation method
successfully, experience and good knowledge of the local environment are required. Without
any doubt, the farmers are skilful and competent along these requirements.

The disadvantage of the plant observation method is that by the time the symptoms are
evident, the application of irrigation water has already been withheld too long and potential
yield losses are already inevitable. Therefore, it is advisable not to wait for the symptoms to
become observable. Irrigation water has to be applied before the symptoms become evident
especially in the crop development stage (Brouwer, Prins & Heibloem, 1989).

B. Package of technology method

Water management is an integral part of the whole package of technology. Using a

Techno Guide in determining when to irrigate is relatively more accurate than the observation
method but relatively less accurate than the soil moisture monitoring and measurement and
calculation methods. Through the years, numerous studies on various crops grown on different
locations and agronomic environments have been conducted by agricultural researchers.
Based on the results, crop-specific and location-specific recommendations have been
formulated. These science-based results eventually form part of the technology package that
are published in the form of Techno Guides.
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Majority of Filipino farmers employ both the observation and the package of technology
methods at the same time. This indicates that the government’s efforts on disseminating
agricultural technologies at the grassroots level is quite successful. Seemingly in the near future,
the calculation method for irrigation scheduling will be introduced without much difficulty
particularly to ‘modern’ farmers who practice farming as a business enterprise where net profit is
of utmost consideration.

C. Soil moisture monitoring and measurement method

Soil moisture content can be measured directly and indirectly. Direct methods include
gravimetric and volumetric techniques, which both use weight to determine how much water is
in a sample of soil. A soil sample is collected, weighed, oven dried, and weighed again to
determine the sample’s water content either by mass (gravimetric) or by volume (volumetric).
According to Enciso, Porter, Evett, Périès & Peters, the volume of water in soil as determined by
weight is the standard reference against which the indirect methods are calibrated.

Many indirect methods are also available to estimate soil moisture. To name a few, they
include (Muñoz-Carpena, n.d): (a) neutron moderation; (b) time domain reflectometry;
(c) frequency domain; (d) amplitude domain reflectometry; (e) phase transmission; (f) time
domain transmission; (g) ground penetrating radar; (h) x-ray tomography; (i) nuclear magnetic
resonance; and (j) tensiometric methods using special apparatuses such as tensiometer and
electrical resistance meter. Since these two sensors are the most commonly used instruments to
monitor and measure soil moisture in the field, they are describe in this module.

1. Tensiometer

In soil science, a tensiometer (Figure 2) is a sealed, water-filled tube with a porous

ceramic tip on the lower end and a vacuum gauge on the upper end. The tube is installed in
the soil with the ceramic tip placed at the desired root zone depth and with the gauge above
ground. In dry soil, water is drawn out of the instrument, reducing the water volume in the tube
and creating a partial vacuum which is registered on the gauge. The drier the soil, the higher the
reading. When the soil receives water through rainfall or irrigation, the action is reversed. The
vacuum inside the tube draws water from the soil back into the instrument which, in turn, results
in lower gauge readings. The amount of vacuum reflected by the gauge is a direct measure of
soil water tension or soil suction (Harrison, 2012).

The standard unit of soil water tension in the metric system of measurement is bar (1 bar =
0.987 atmosphere, atm = 14.504 pounds per square inch, psi). Most tensiometers are calibrated
in hundredths of a bar (called centibars) and graduated from 0 to 100. A tensiometer can
operate in a range of 0 to 80 centibars.
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Source: Kerr (2017) Source: Shreeja (n.d)

Figure 2. Components of tensiometer used to measure soil moisture

In order to absorb and use the soil water in the root zone, plant roots must overcome the
soil water tension. Table 1 shows the interpretation of gauge readings.

Table 1. Interpretation of tensiometer gauge reading

Gauge Reading Interpretation
(centibar)
0 to 5 This range indicates a nearly saturated soil and often occurs for one to
three days following a heavy and prolonged rainfall event or excessive
irrigation application. Waterlogging sensitive crops suffer from lack of
oxygen in the root zone if readings in this range persist.
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Table 1. (continued)
Gauge Reading Interpretation
(centibar)
5 to 20 This range indicates field capacity. Discontinue irrigation in this range to
prevent waste of water by percolation and also to prevent leaching of
nutrients below the root zone.

20 to 60 This is the usual range for starting irrigation. Most field crops having root
system 18 inches deep or more will not suffer until readings reach the 40 to
50 range. Starting irrigations in this range ensure maintaining readily
available moisture at all times. It also provides a safety factor to
compensate for practical problems such as delayed irrigation, or inability to
obtain uniform distribution of water to all portions of the field.

70 and higher This is the stress range for most soils and crops. Deeper rooted crops in
medium textured soils may not show signs of stress before readings reach
70. A reading of 70 does not necessarily indicate that all available water is
used up, but that readily available moisture is below that required for
maximum growth.

Source: Harrison & Tyson (2004)

2. Electrical resistance meter

In soil science, an electrical resistance meter (Figure 3a) determines the soil water by
measuring the electrical resistance between two wire mesh rings embedded in porous gypsum
block (Figure 3b) or similar material that is semi-permanently put in place in the soil (Figure 3c).

The electrical resistance of the block varies with its water content, which in turn is
dependent upon the water content of the soil in contact with it. As the soil dries, the block loses
water and the electrical resistance increases. Therefore, resistance changes within the block as
measured by the meter can be interpreted in terms of soil water content. The blocks, which
have stainless steel electrodes embedded in them, are installed semi-permanently in the soil at
one-third and two-thirds of the rooting depths of the crop being irrigated (Werner, 2002).
Insulated wires from each block are brought above the soil surface where they can be plugged
into a portable meter for reading.

Resistance blocks are generally calibrated in terms of soil water tension so as to make
readings applicable across soil textures. Blocks should be calibrated for each soil type. The way
blocks manufactured by different companies respond to changes in soil water tension varies
considerably. For this reason each manufacturer furnishes calibration curves for their own
instruments and blocks (Harrison, 2012).

The same guidelines for tensiometer also apply to interpreting electrical resistance
readings (Harrison & Tyson, 2004).
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(a) Electrical resistance (b) Gypsum block sensors (c) Placement of sensors in
meter the root zone

Source: University of Florida (2014) Source: ICT International (n.d) Collaged & modified from Brouwer, Prins
& Heibloem (1989) & Washington State
University (n.d.)

Figure 3. Electrical resistance meter used to measure soil moisture

D. Calculation method

Since irrigation scheduling requires knowledge of soil-water-plant relationships (Module

No. 1 of this course) and crop evapotranspiration (Module No. 5 of Hydrometeorology), there is
a need to recapitulate the lessons from our previous modules before we proceed any further if
only to enhance better understanding of the topic at hand.

The soil is composed of three major parts: air, water, and solids. The solid component
composed of minerals and organic matter forms the framework of the soil where plant roots are
anchored and absorb soil nutrients and water. The mineral fraction is made up of sand, silt, and
clay particles. Their relative proportion defines the soil texture which, in turn, defines its water
holding capacity. Sandy soils have low water holding capacity; while clayey soils have high
water holding capacity.

The proportion of the soil occupied by water and air is referred to as the pore volume.
The ratio of air to water stored in the pores changes as water is added to or lost from the soil. The
pore volume is a reservoir for holding water. Not all of the water in the reservoir is available for
plant use.
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After heavy rainfall or basin irrigation where all the pores are filled with water, a saturated
soil condition persists. This is shown in Figure 4 as the topmost RED dotted line. By gravity, some of
the water will percolate through the soil profile beyond the root zone and eventually deposited
in the aquifer. This is called gravitational water, which is not available to plants.

Figure 4. Definition sketch of soil moisture content

After about one to three days of percolation of gravitational water, the soil is at field
capacity (FC), the RED dotted line below the saturation point. Under FC condition, the soil
contains the greatest amount of water that is potentially available to plants. This is called
capillary water. The amount of moisture present when the soil is at FC depends on the soil
texture. Sandy soils have relatively lower FC than clayey soils.

Surface tension or suction holds capillary water around the soil particles. As water is
absorbed by plant or removed through evaporation from the soil surface, the films of water
remaining around the soil particles become thinner and are held by the soil particles more
tightly. When the surface tension becomes high, the plant can hardly take up water and wilts
during daytime but recovers during nighttime. The water content of the soil at this point is called
temporary wilting point (TWP), the 4th RED dotted line below the saturation point. Still when no
water is added and the plant has removed all available water, the water content of the soil has
reached the permanent wilting point (PWP), the RED dotted line below TWP. Below the PWP is
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the oven-dry soil condition, which is not possible in natural condition. Oven-dry soil can be
attained only under controlled laboratory conditions. The oven-dry weight of soil samples is an
input in the calculation of soil moisture content.

The difference between the volume of water stored when the soil is at FC and the
volume still remaining when the soil reaches the PWP is called total available moisture (TAM),
sometimes called plant available water (PAW). As the plant extracts more water from the soil,
the amount of TAM remaining in the soil decreases. The TAM removed is the depletion volume.
Mathematically,

TAM = FC – PWP (Eq. 1)

where: TAM Total available moisture

FC Field capacity
PWP Permanent wilting point

The water holding capacity of different soils in terms of FC and PWP are presented in
Table 2 (gravimetric method). The apparent specific gravity is also included for reference in the
later discussion on depth of readily available moisture (RAM).

Table 2. Water holding capacity and apparent specific gravity of different soils
Soil Field Permanent Wilting Apparent Specific
Texture Capacity1/ Point1/ Gravity2/
(FC, %) (PWP, %)
Sand 7 – 17 2–7 1.65 (1.55 – 1.80)
Loamy sand 11 – 19 3 – 10
Sandy loam 18 – 28 6 – 16 1.50 (1.40 – 1.60)
Sandy clay loam 27 17
Loam 20 – 30 7 – 17 1.40 (1.35 – 1.50)
Sandy clay 36 25
Silt loam 22 – 36 9 – 21
Silt 28 – 36 12 – 22
Clay loam 36 22 1.35 (1.30 – 1.40)
Silty clay loam 30 – 37 17 – 24
Silty clay 30 – 42 17 – 29 1.30 (1.30 – 1.40)
Clay 32 – 40 20 – 24 1.25 (1.20 – 1.30)
1/ Ranges are from Allen, Pereira, Raes & Smith (1998) and whole numbers are from Saxton & Rawls (2006)
2/ Source:Orcullo (1997). Normal ranges are shown in parenthesis. Use mean in the calculation. Values for blank spaces
( ) can be interpolated.
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Theoretically, in irrigation scheduling, it is assumed that potential crop yield and quality
are not affected for as long as there is enough water available to crops. This availability of water
in the root zone should not be less than the management allowed depletion or maximum
allowable depletion (MAD). Irrigation scheduling based on the concept of MAD is reflected in
Figure 5. It is the percentage of available water that is allowed to be depleted during the crop’s
most sensitive growth stage.

The MAD depends on the soil and the crop. Most crops will recover overnight from
temporary wilting if less than 50 percent of the TAM has been depleted. Thus, a 50 percent MAD
often represents a reasonable overall value for most purposes. When accuracy is desired,
however, MAD values given in Appendix Table 1 can be used.

Modified from Rain Bird (n.d)

Figure 5. Irrigation scheduling based on maximum allowable depletion

Although soil moisture is theoretically available until wilting point, crop water absorption
rate is continuously reduced until PWP is reached. Where the soil is sufficiently wet, the soil
supplies water fast enough to meet the atmospheric demand of the crop, and water uptake
equals crop evapotranspiration (ETc). As the soil moisture content decreases, water becomes
more strongly bound to the soil particles and is more difficult to extract. When the soil water
content drops below a threshold value, soil moisture can no longer be transported quickly
enough towards the roots to respond to the transpiration demand and the crop begins to
experience stress (Allen, Pereira, Raes & Smith, 1998).

When the ETc is low, MAD will be up to 20 percent more than the values listed in
Appendix Table 1. A numerical approximation for adjusting MAD for ETc rate is (Allen, Pereira,
Raes & Smith, 1998):

MADAdj = MADTable + 0.04 (5 – ETc) (Eq. 2)

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where: MADAdj Adjusted maximum allowable depletion = 0.1 to 0.8

MADTable Tabular values of MAD given in Appendix Table 1
ETc Crop evapotranspiration (mm/day)

The fraction of TAM that a crop can extract from the root zone without suffering water
stress is called the readily available moisture (RAM). It is the soil moisture held between field
capacity and a nominated refill point (Pw) for unrestricted growth (see Figure 5). In this range of
soil moisture, plants are neither waterlogged nor water-stressed. Mathematically (Allen, Pereira,
Raes & Smith, 1998),

RAM = MADAdj x TAM (Eq. 3)

where: RAM Readily available moisture or soil water in the root zone
MADAdj Average fraction of total available moisture (TAM) that can be
depleted from the root zone before moisture stress or reduction in
ET occurs (0.1 to 0.8)
TAM Total available moisture

As reflected in Figure 4, the lower limit of RAM represents the moisture content of the soil
every time irrigation water must be applied, which is referred to above as Pw. The Pw is the
minimum amount of soil moisture which the plant can tolerate. Below this level could result to
drought stress wherein crop yield and quality is adversely decreased. Pw can be determined
using the following equation (Allen, Pereira, Raes & Smith, 1998):

Pw = FC – RAM (Eq. 4)

where: Pw Moisture content of the soil every time irrigation water must be
applied
FC Field capacity
RAM Readily available moisture or soil water in the root zone

Application of irrigation water is normally expressed in unit depth of water. The depth of
RAM (dRAM) can be determined by the formula (Orcullo, 1997):

dRAM = [(FC – Pw)/100] (As)(RZD) (Eq. 5)

where: dRAM Depth of readily available moisture (same unit of RZD)

FC field capacity
Pw Moisture content of the soil every time irrigation water must be applied
As Apparent specific gravity of the soil from Table 2 above (dimensionless)
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RZD Crop root zone depth (same unit of dRAM)

Rooting depth is the depth of the soil reservoir that the plant can reach to get TAM. Crop
roots do not extract water uniformly from the entire root zone. Thus, the effective root depth is
that portion of the potential rooting depth where the crop extracts the majority of its water. The
potential rooting depth is the maximum root depth of a crop when grown in a moist soil with no
barriers or restrictions that inhibit root elongation. For most agricultural field crops, the potential
rooting depth ranges from about 2 to 5 feet (Evans, Cassel & Sneed, 1996b).

Water uptake by a specific crop is closely related to its root distribution in the soil. About
70 percent of plant's roots are found in the upper half of the crop's maximum rooting depth as
reflected in Figure 6. Thus, about 70 percent of the water used by the crop comes from the
upper half of the root zone. This zone is the effective root depth which should be used to
compute the volume of TAM in the soil reservoir (Anonymous, n.d). Hence, use 50 percent of the
crop RZD in the calculation of dRAM using Equation 5. This condition is true only when the root
depth is not specifically specified as ‘effective root zone depth.’ Otherwise, the data on
effective RZD given in Appendix Table 1 can be used directly in Equation 5.

Source: Rogers & Sothers (1996) Source: Anonymous (n.d)

Figure 6. Moisture extraction at varying root depths

The number of days elapsed to deplete dRAM between two irrigation occasions is called
irrigation interval (Ii). The depletion rate is dependent on several factors such as location,
climate, type of soil and kind of crop, which is referred to ETc or crop water use. The irrigation
interval (in days) can be calculated by the formula (Orcullo, 1997):
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Iiday = dRAM / ETc (Eq. 6)

where: Ii Irrigation interval (days)

dRAM Depth of readily available moisture
ETc Crop evapotranspiration or crop water use

The computed number of days irrigation interval in Equation 6 implies a gap after the last
irrigation application and the following round of application, assuming there is no rainfall
between the said schedules.

Example 1 – Determining irrigation schedule for off-season rice

Problem: What would be the irrigation schedule for direct seeded off-season rice
grown on a clayey soil using furrow irrigation method? Assume ETo for the
entire growing period is 3.4 mm/day and the corresponding crop
coefficient curve is as shown in the figure below.

Source: Roa (2017)

Kc curve for off-season rice

Solution:

From Table 2, determine For clayey soil:

field capacity (FC) and
permanent wilting point FC = (32 + 40)/2 = 36 %
(PWP), thus:
PWP = (20 + 24)/2 = 22 %
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Solve for total available Substituting values in the equation:

moisture (TAM) using
Equation 1, thus: TAM = FC – PWP
TAM = 36 – 22 = 14 %

From Appendix For rice, MADTable = 20 %

Table 1, determine
maximum allowable
depletion (MAD):

From the given figure, Approximate Kc values are:

determine crop
coefficients (Kc) for off- Kcini = 0.32
season rice at initial, mid
and late growth stages Kcmid = 1.15
(Kcini, Kcmid and Kcend,
respectively), thus: Kcend = 0.70

Solve for rice crop Substituting values in the equation:

evapotranspiration (ETc)
at different growth ETc = Kc x ETo
stages:
ETc (ini) = 0.32 (3.4) = 1.1 mm/day
ETc (mid) = 1.15 (3.4) = 3.9 mm/day
ETc (end) = 0.70 (3.4) = 2.4 mm/day

Solve for adjusted Substituting values in the equation:

maximum allowable
depletion (MADAdj) at MADAdj = MADTable + 0.04 (5 – ETc)
different growth stages
using Equation 2, thus: MADAdj (ini) = 0.20 + 0.04 (5 – 1.1) = 35.6 %
MADAdj (mid) = 0.20 + 0.04 (5 – 3.9) = 24.4 %
MADAdj (end) = 0.20 + 0.04 (5 – 2.4) = 30.4 %

Solve for readily Substituting values in the equation:

available moisture
(RAM) at different RAM = MADAdj x TAM
growth stages using
Equation 3, thus: RAM (ini) = (0.356)(0.14) x 100 = 5.0 %
RAM (mid) = (0.244)(0.14) x 100 = 3.4 %
RAM (end) = (0.304)(0.14) x 100 = 4.3 %

Solve for minimum soil Substituting values in the equation:

moisture content which
the rice plant can Pw = FC – RAM
tolerate (Pw) at different
growth stages using Pw (ini) = 36 – 5.0 = 31.0 %
Equation 4, thus: Pw (mid) = 36 – 3.4 = 32.6 %
Pw (end) = 36 – 4.3 = 31.7 %
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From Table 2, determine For clayey soil, As = 1.25

apparent specific
gravity (As):

From Appendix For rice, RZD used for irrigation scheduling = 0.50 m
Table 1, determine or
effective root zone 500 mm
depth (RZD):

Solve for depth of Substituting values in the equation:

readily available
moisture (dRAM) at dRAM = [(FC – Pw)/100](As)(RZD)
different growth stages
using Equation 5, thus: dRAM (ini) = [(36 – 31)/100](1.25)(500) = 31.2 mm
dRAM (mid) = [(36 – 32.6)/100](1.25)(500) = 21.2 mm
dRAM (end) = [(36 – 31.7)/100](1.25)(500) = 26.9 mm

Solve for irrigation Substituting values in the equation:

interval (Iiday) at different
growth stages using Iiday = dRAM/ETc
Equation 6, thus:
Iiday (ini) = 31.2/1.1 = 28 days
Iiday (mid) = dRAM / ETc = 27.5/3.9 = 7 days
Iiday (end) = dRAM / ETc = 26.9/2.4 = 11 days

Therefore, the irrigation interval during the initial, mid and end growth stages of the direct
seeded off-season rice would be 28, 7 and 11 days, respectively.

However, in the case of the initial growth stage (Day 0 to Day 20) wherein the loss of soil
moisture is more of evaporation, the 28-day irrigation interval is not practical. Instead, the
evaporative power of the atmosphere (ETo) should be used, thus:

Iiday (ini) = dRAM/ETo

Iiday (ini) = 31.2/3.4 = 9 days

Therefore, the irrigation interval during the initial growth stage of the rice plant would be 9
days.

Recommendations:

Day 0, Day 9 and Day About 32 mm depth of irrigation water should be applied.
18 (9 days interval)

Days 25, 32, 39, 46, 53, About 22 mm depth of irrigation water should be applied and
60, 67, 74, 81, 88 and 95 repeat application every 7 days thereafter until Day 95 for a
(7 days interval) total of 12 schedules.

Day 106 (11 days Last application of about 27 mm depth of irrigation water.
interval)
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Note: The above irrigation schedule is true only when there is no rainfall throughout the
duration of the growing period. If rainfall occurs, the schedule should be adjusted
accordingly depending on the amount of effective rainfall.
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Passing Score: 75 points

Due Date: ASAP but not later than ____________________________________.
Penalty for Late Submission: 5 points deduction per day of delay

If space is not enough, continue at the left-side directly opposite the item being answered.

1. Why pump irrigation is so important in rainfed agriculture? Discuss its benefits to the farmers
and to the Philippine economy. (15 pts)

2. Enumerate at least 5 specific examples of ‘observation method’ used by farmers to

determine or decide as to ‘when to irrigate’ their crops. (15 pts)
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3. In not more than 100 words, make a scholarly review or synopsis on a particular package of
technology on irrigation management for any given crop of your choice. (10 pts)

4. If you were to install tensiometers in your family farm, how would you do it? Discuss the step-
by-step procedure. (10 pts)
 19

5. Summarize in your own words the theories behind the concept about ‘application of right
amount at the right time.’ (10 pts)

6. Develop a sound irrigation schedule for any crop of your choice (refer to Appendix Table 1).
Assume other data and/or conditions, if necessary. These assumptions is where you differ
from your classmates. Duplication of assumptions is extremely prohibited. (30 pts)
 20

7. Elucidate the concept about ‘farming is a business enterprise.’ (10 pts)

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Appendix Table 1. Maximum allowable depletion and maximum root depth for selected field
crops and orchards during their most sensitive growth stage and grown under normal conditions
Crop Maximum Allowable Effective
Depletion (MAD) 1 Root Zone Depth (RZD)2
(for ET ≈ 5 mm/day) (m)
A. Small Vegetables
Broccoli 0.45 0.40 – 0.60
Cabbage 0.45 0.50 – 0.80
Carrots 0.35 0.50 – 1.00
Cauliflower 0.45 0.40 – 0.70
Celery 0.20 0.30 – 0.50
Garlic 0.30 0.30 – 0.50
Lettuce 0.30 0.30 – 0.50
Onion 0.30 – 0.60 0.30
Spinach 0.20 0.30 – 0.50
Radish 0.30 0.30 – 0.50
B. Vegetables – Solarium
Eggplant 0.45 0.7-1.2
Sweet pepper (bell) 0.30 0.5-1.0
Tomato 0.40 0.7-1.5
C. Vegetables – Cucurbitaceae
Cantaloupe 0.45 0.9-1.5
Cucumber 0.7-1.2 0.50
Squash 0.50 0.6-1.0
Watermelon 0.40 0.8-1.5
D. Roots and tubers
Cassava
- year 1 0.5-0.8 0.35
- year 2 0.7-1.0 0.40
Potato 0.35 0.4-0.6
Sweet Potato 0.65 1.0-1.5
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Appendix Table 1. (continued)

Crop Maximum Allowable Effective
Depletion (MAD)1 Root Zone Depth (RZD)2
(for ET ≈ 5 mm/day) (m)
E. Leguminoceae
Beans, green 0.45 0.5-0.7
Beans, dry 0.45 0.6-0.9
Beans, lima, large vines 0.45 0.8-1.2
Chickpea 0.50 0.6-1.0
Cowpea 0.45 0.60 – 1.00
Garbanzo 0.45 0.6-1.0
Groundnut (Peanut) 0.50 0.5-1.0
Soybeans 0.50 0.6-1.3
F. Perennial vegetables
Asparagus 0.45 1.2-1.8
Strawberries 0.20 0.2-0.3
G. Fiber crops
Cotton 0.65 1.0-1.7
H. Oil crops
Castor bean 0.50 1.0-2.0
Rapeseed, Canola 0.60 1.0-1.5
Sesame 0.60 1.0-1.5
Sunflower 0.45 0.8-1.5
I. Cereals
Maize, grain 0.55 1.0-1.7
Maize, sweet 0.50 0.8-1.2
Sorghum
- grain 1.0-2.0 0.55
- sweet 1.0-2.0 0.50
Rice 0.20 0.5-1.0
J. Forages
Bermuda 1.00 – 1.50 0.55
Grazing pasture
- Rotated grazing 0.5-1.5 0.60
- Extensive grazing 0.5-1.5 0.60
 23

Appendix Table 1. (continued)

Crop Maximum Allowable Effective
Depletion (MAD)1 Root Zone Depth (RZD)2
(for ET ≈ 5 mm/day) (m)
K. Plantation crops, Tropical fruits, and orchards
Banana
- 1st year 0.5-0.9 0.35
- 2nd year 0.5-0.9 0.35
Cacao 0.30 0.7-1.0
Coffee 0.40 0.9-1.5
Pineapple 0.50 0.3-0.6
Rubber Trees 0.40 1.0-1.5
Sugarcane 0.65 1.2-2.0
L. Grapes
Grapes
- Table or Raisin 1.0-2.0
- Wine 1.0-2.0
M. Fruit trees
Avocado 0.70 0.5-1.0
Citrus
- 70% canopy 1.2-1.5 0.50
- 50% canopy 1.1-1.5 0.50
- 20% canopy 0.8-1.1 0.50
1 The values for MAD apply for ETc ≈ 5 mm/day, which can be adjusted for different ETc
according to: MAD = MADTable + 0.04 (5 – ETc); where MAD is expressed as a fraction and ETc
as mm/day.
2 The larger values for RZD are for soils having no significant layering or other characteristics that
can restrict rooting depth. The smaller values must be used for irrigation scheduling and the
larger values for modeling soil water stress or for rainfed conditions.
3 Sugar beets often experience late afternoon wilting in arid climates even at MAD< 0.55, with
usually only minor impact on sugar yield.
Source: FAO (Undated)
 24

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