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Module No. 1

Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering and

History of Water Resources Development

This introductory module deals with the definition of agricultural and biosystems
engineering and its role in land and water resources conservation and management. The history
of water resources development is likewise included hoping that, with the advent of new
sciences, you will gain insights in the development of modern irrigation technologies.

After thorough and diligent study of this module, you should be able to:

a. Deduce the importance of agricultural and biosystems engineering in sustainable

agricultural development;

b. Enumerate the different irrigation technologies developed since ancient times and make
scholarly comments on the applicability of these ancient irrigation technologies at
present times;

c. Formulate proposed improvements to make these ancient technologies more effective

and efficient;

d. Gain insights from the needs and problems that triggered the invention and development
of irrigation technologies through the centuries;

e. Identify which of these ancient irrigation technologies are still being used today in your
barangay; and

f. Enumerate modern and sophisticated irrigation technologies that are used today.
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I. Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

As defined in Republic Act 10915 of 2017, Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering (ABE)
refers to the application of engineering science and designs to the:

a. processes and systems involved in the sustainable production, post production and
processing of safe food, feed, fiber, timber and other agricultural and biological
materials; and

b. efficient utilization, conservation, and management of natural and renewable resources

in order to enhance human health in harmony with the environment.

Agricultural and biosystems consist of crops, forestry and other plants, poultry, livestock, fisheries
and aquaculture resources and other animals, wildlife and other living things.

An Agricultural and Biosystems (AB) Engineer refers to a person who is registered and
licensed to practice agricultural and biosystems engineering in the country and who holds a
valid certificate of registration and professional identification card from the Board of Agricultural
and Biosystems Engineering and the PRC.

As one of the academic disciplines with field of specialization along land and water
resources conservation, ABE encompasses the development of engineered solutions and best
management practices that protect and conserve soil and water resources. This role entails the
preparation of engineering designs, plans, specifications, project studies, feasibility studies and
cost estimates of land and water resources conservation structures and facilities and other
hydrologic programs and projects. It also includes the valuation, appraisal, investigation,
inspection, monitoring, and technical audit.

II. History of Water Resources Development

It has been said that “Necessity is the mother of inventions.” and “History is the greatest
teacher of mankind.” In order to survive, man has to produce his own food out of whatever
means and resources available to him. Water resources development started in the Middle East
where societies were already civilized many centuries ago. Filipinos at that time were still
nomads and scattered thinly in the entire archipelago.

Hereunder is a historical perspective of water resources development (Cowen, 1999;

Sojka, Bjorneberg & Entry, 2002; Irrigation Association, 2017). Many of these ancient technologies
are still used today, mostly not in their ancient original forms but improved modern versions in the
light of new knowledge.
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A. Flood water used for irrigation

In about 6000 BC (before Christ), irrigation began at about the same time in Egypt and
Mesopotamia (present day Iraq and Iran) using the water of the flooding Nile River in Egypt, and
Tigris River and Euphrates River that traverse Iraq and Iran. The flood waters, which occurred July
through December, were diverted to fields for 40 to 60 days. The water was then drained back
into the river at the right moment in the growing cycle.

B. Flood water measurement

In about 3500 BC, the ancient Egyptians created a flood gauge called the nilometer
because the annual flood season along the Nile was unpredictable and without records. The
simplest design was a vertical column submerged in the river with marked intervals indicating the
depth of the river. A second design (Figure 2) was a flight of stairs leading into the river. The
nilometer data was then used to predict when the flood would occur.

Source: Cowen (1999)

Figure 2. Nilometer used by the ancient Egyptians to measure and predict flood levels

C. Canal to convey water

In about 3100 BC, the first major irrigation project was created under King Menes during
Egypt’s First Dynasty. He and his successors used dams and canals (one measuring 20 km) to use
the diverted flood waters of the Nile into a new lake called Lake Moeris.
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D. Pipe to covey water

In about 2000 BC, a pipe made with cement and crushed rock was developed by the
Romans to convey water from a point to another point (Figure 3).

Source: Irrigation Association (2017)

Figure 3. Concrete water pipe used by the Romans to convey water

E. Code to regulate water use

In 1792 – 1750 BC, Babylonian King Hammurabi instituted water regulations within his
kingdom. This early code covered: a) the distribution of water proportionally based on the acres
farmed; b) a farmer’s responsibilities in maintaining canals on his property; and c) the collective
administration of the canal by all users.

F. Shadoof to lift water to higher elevations

In about 1700 BC, a shadoof or shaduf (Figure 4) was developed by the ancient
Egyptians who lived along the Nile River and used it for irrigation. It was constructed using a
large pole balanced on a crossbeam, a rope and a bucket on one end and a heavy counter
weight at the other end. By pulling the rope, it lowered the bucket into a canal or river. The
operator would then raise the full bucket of water by pushing down on the counter weight. The
pole could be swung around and the bucket emptied in a field or different canal.

Today, shadoof is called either a swape, counterpoise lift, well pole, well sweep, or simply
sweep In the US. In the Ilocos, it is called battuag. In Hungary, shadoof is known as heron wells. It
is also known by the Greeks as kelon or keloneion.
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Source: Sojka, Bjorneberg & Entry (2002)

Figure 4. Shadoof used by the ancient Egyptians to lift water from streams and wells

G. Noria to extract water from stream or river

In 700 – 600 BC, noria was developed by the ancient Egyptians. Also called the Egyptian
water wheel (Figure 5), noria is a wheel with buckets or clay pots along its circumference. The
wheel was turned by the current of the river. The flow filled buckets by immersion and as it
rotated the upper buckets are emptied by gravity into a trough or aqueduct. The empty
buckets then returned to be refilled. The noria provided the ancient world with its first non-human
operated lifting device.
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Source: Cowen (1999)

Figure 5. Noria used by the ancient Egyptians to lift water from the Nile River

H. Qanat to extract subsurface or underground water

In 550 – 331 BC, the development of the qanat, first by the Persians (present day Iranians)
and later by the Romans, allowed the use of groundwater to become the primary source of
irrigation water for crops. A qanat (Figure 6) was built by first digging a vertical well into sloping
ground. Once the well was completed, a tunnel was dug nearly horizontal to the lower end of
the well. The natural slope would allow well water to travel by gravity down the tunnel and
emerge some distance down slope from the well. Construction of qanats was labor intensive
and vertical openings were placed every 20 to 30 meters to allow the tunnel/diggers to breathe
and to remove the debris from the tunnel. Once the tunnel was completed, the area had a
constant source of water. Qanats are still in use today and at least 20,000 are still operational
mostly from China and Morocco.
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Source: Sojka, Bjorneberg & Entry (2002)

Figure 6. Qanat used by the Persians and Romans to extract subsurface water

I. Sakia to lift water from well

In about 500 BC marked the first use of a sakia (Persian water wheel) or what is now
called a pump. As shown in Figure 7, this device was an endless series of pots on a rope which
ran over two pulleys. The oxen-powered device powered a cogged wheel allowing the pots to
enter the water supply, fill and then be raised and emptied.

In concept, the sakia is similar to the noria except that the sakia is powered by an
external force rather than by the flow of the river’s current in the case of the noria. The sakia is
used to lift water out of a well or a body of standing water; while the noria is placed on the bank
of a stream or river.
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Source: Wikipedia (2017b)

Figure 7. Sakia used by the Persians to lift water from wells

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J. Tambour to lift water from stream or river

In about 250 BC, while visiting Egypt, the Greek scholar Archimedes created the tambour
(now known as Archimedes screw), which consisted of a screw inside a hollow tube (Figure 8).
The screw was turned and as the bottom end of the screw rotated, it scooped up water. The
water travelled up the length of the screw until it poured out the top of the tube. Today, the
principle is used in moving cereal grains and any granular materials from lower to higher
elevation.

Source: Sojka, Bjorneberg & Entry (2002)

Figure 8. Tambour created by Archimedes and used by the ancient Egyptians

to lift water from streams

K. Windmill as source of power for irrigation

In about 500 AD (anno Domini or in the year of our Lord Jesus Christ), a water pumping
windmill from Persia (present day Iran) was first used. The design had vertical sails made of
bundles of reeds or wood which were attached to a central vertical shaft that provided power
for lifting water from a source (Figure 9).
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Source: Irrigation Association (2017)

Figure 9. Windmill power used by the Persians to lift water from a source

L. Dam to retain and control rainwater

In about 600 AD, one of the first dams of ancient times was built in Yemen. It was built
right across the bed of the stream (Figure 10). The structure was meant to be a giant weir to hold
back some of the annual flood waters coming down the valley, and to divert some of that
water, under control, out of sluices and into a canal system.
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Source: Wikipedia (2017a)

Figure 10a. Dam viewed from upstream

Source: Wikipedia (2017a)

Figure 10b. Dam viewed from downstream

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M. Canal network to distribute irrigation water

In the 14th century, the Hohokam built a network of some 1,100 km of irrigation canals in
what is today central Arizona, USA to feed their emerging civilization (Figure 11).

Figure 11. Canal network used by the Hohokam to convey and distribute irrigation water
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N. Development in the 19th century up to present times

The mid-19th century marked the advancement of scientific learning, which included
chemistry, physics, mineralogy, and biology. These were adapted, blended, and applied in
important emerging new sub-disciplines of soil chemistry, soil physics, plant physiology and
agronomy, whose fundamental principles were to prove essential for sustainable irrigation
system design and operation.

In the mid-20th century, the invention of internal combustion engines and electric motors
led to irrigation systems that could pump groundwater out of aquifers.

After World War II, irrigation development worldwide entered a heady period of rapid
expansion. In the last half of the 20th century to early 21st century, the worldwide total irrigated
area was about 94 million ha in 1950 and grew to about 198 million ha by 1970, about 220 million
ha by 1990, and to 263 million ha by 1996. About 279 million ha of fertile lands were equipped
with irrigation infrastructure in 2000, and in 2008 the scale of irrigated land increased to an
estimated total of 325 million ha worldwide. About 68 percent of these areas are located in Asia,
17 percent in the America, 9 percent in Europe, 5 percent in Africa and 1 percent in Oceania
(Sojka, Bjorneberg & Entry, 2002).

Note: The role of irrigation in agricultural development in the Philippines will be discussed in
details in the next module.
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Passing Score: 75 points

Due Date: ASAP but not later than ____________________________________.
Penalty for Late Submission: 5 points deduction per day of delay

If space is not enough, continue at the left-side directly opposite the item being answered.

1. Based on the ABE definition and its role in land and water conservation and management,
enumerate as many specific importance of ABE in sustainable agricultural development as
you can deduce. (20 pts)
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2. List down all irrigation technologies that have been developed since ancient times up to the
present. Make scholarly comments on the applicability of each technology today including
your proposed improvement(s) for efficiency. (20 pts)

Ancient Irrigation Technology Applicability at Present Times Proposed Improvements

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3. What are the needs and problems that triggered the invention and development of
irrigation technologies through the centuries? Enumerate as many as possible. (20 pts)

4. Which of these ancient irrigation technologies are still being used today in your
barangay? Provide pictures to show proof. (20 pts)
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5. In the world-wide-web, find at least five modern irrigation technologies and describe
their basic operations and utilization. Include pictures, drawings, sketches, or illustrations.
Cite also the source(s) or reference material(s) from which these were lifted. (20 pts)
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Clipart Library. (n.d). Agricultural and biosystems engineering [Logo]. Retrieved from
http://clipa.cash/agricultural-biosystems-engineering-logo.html

Cowen, R. (1999). Exploiting the Earth. Chapter 17: Ancient irrigation. Notes on Geology 115.
University of California at Davis: Johns Hopkins University Press. Retrieved from
mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/cowen/~gel115/115CH17oldirrigation.html

Irrigation Association. (2017). Irrigation timeline. Retrieved from

http://www.irrigationmuseum.org/exhibit2.aspx

National Irrigation Administration (NIA). (1990). A comprehensive history of irrigation in the

Philippines. Quezon City, Philippines: NIA. Retrieved from
www.nia.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf_reader/nia-book.pdf

Republic Act No. 10915. (2017). An act strengthening, modernizing and aligning the practice of
agricultural engineering in the country into the internationally recognized practice of
agricultural and biosystems engineering, and for other purposes. Retrieved from
https://www.senate.gov.ph/republic_acts/ra%2010915.pdf

Sojka, R.E., Bjorneberg, D.L. & Entry, J.A. (2002). Irrigation: A historical perspective. Retrieved from
https://Eprints.Nwisrl.Ars.Usda.Gov/815/1/1070.pdf

Wikipedia. (2017a). Banaue rice terraces [Photograph]. Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banaue_Rice_Terraces

____________________. (2017b). Sakia [Photograph]. Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakia