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Melanie Grajek
Biology 213-07
Introduction:
The function of the kidneys is to maintain water balance, plasma volume, plasma
osmolarity, and acid base balance in the body through the excretion of substances from
filtrate as they turn into urine. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidneys. It is
made up of the afferent arteriole, efferent arteriole, the glomerulus, the Bowman’s
capsule, the proximal convoluted tubule, the Loop of Henle, the distal convoluted tubule,
and the collecting duct. Peritubular capillaries run along the nephron intertwining with
the different sections of the nephron. This is where glomerular filtration, tubular
Glomerular filtration is the passive movement of plasma from the walls of the
glomerulus into the Bowman’s capsule, which is first site of urine production.
Glomerular filtration is driven by hydrostatic pressure pushing the filtrate from the
Bowman’s capsule and into the proximal convoluted tubule. Tubular reabsorption occurs
in the proximal convoluted tubule where 99ml/min of water and solutes are reabsorbed
from the tubules back into the peritubular capillaries, while 100% of glucose is
reabsorbed at the proximal convoluted tubule via the sodium-glucose secondary active
transport. There is no hormone regulation at the proximal convoluted tubule, but rather in
the distal convoluted tubule. Aldosterone is a steroid hormone that acts primarily in the
renal collecting ducts to stimulate sodium reabsorption when baroreceptors detect low
arteriole, detect low blood pressure and low blood volume. These cells produce and
secrete the enzyme renin when the body’s blood pressure drops. The liver secretes
Osmotic Regulation 3
angiotensin II. This stimulates the release of ADH and triggers the adrenal cortex to
release aldosterone. Aldosterone is secreted from the adrenal cortex in response to low
blood pressure, low blood volume, and low plasma osmolarity. Once secreted, it raises
blood pressure, raises blood volume and raises plasma osmolarity. This will result in a
decrease urine flow rate because the body is absorbing more water instead of releasing,
which in turn also raises urine corrected specific gravity because the body is holding onto
insertion of aquaporin channels into the membranes of the kidney tubules. These
channels transport the water back to the blood, leading to a decrease in plasma
produce ADH when the body’s plasma osmolarity is too high (Bowen). ADH is
hypothalamus. The release of ADH results in a raise in blood pressure, a raise in blood
volume and a decrease in plasma osmolarity. The results trigger a decrease in urine flow
atrial cells in response to an increase in blood volume. Its purpose is to inhibit sodium
and water reabsorption and gets rid of sodium in the body by increasing water excretion
(Zeidel, 1990). ANP’s target sides are the distal convoluted tubule, the collecting duct,
and all the places where ADH and aldosterone are secreted and produced. The results of
Osmotic Regulation 4
the secretion of ANP are a decrease in blood volume, and increase in glomerular filtration
because ANP causes vasodilation of the afferent arteriole. This allows more blood to
enter the glomerulus and allows plasma to filter at a faster rate. In turn, the corrected
specific gravity is decrease because of the urine is diluted and an increase in urine flow
rate.
capillaries into the proximal and/or distal convoluted tubules to be excreted into the urine
(Sherwood, 2015). If the blood is experiencing blood acidosis, the kidneys will increase
the secretion of hydrogen protons from the peritubular capillaries to get the blood pH
back to normal range. Blood acidosis can be caused by a high increase of hydrogen ions
The purpose of this experiment was to study the osmotic regulation of the kidneys
in maintaining fluid balance in the body and analyze and compare the changes in urine
flow rate and specific gravity during fasting and following an ingestion of water, Coke or
Gatorade. The purpose was also to test a urine sample for blood, ketones, glucose,
protein, and pH levels using the Labstix strip (Manuguid, 2018). Water, Coke, and
Gatorade were tested because they all have various tonicities compared to plasma. Water
Having three different drinks, each one having a different tonicity, would make it easier
to compare their effect on the plasma because they are so distinctive from each other. My
hypothesis for average urine flow rate was that water would have the highest urine flow
Osmotic Regulation 5
rate, second Coke, then Gatorade and lastly non-drinking group would produce the lowest
urine flow rate. For average corrected urine specific gravity, I hypothesized non-drinking
would produce the highest urine specific gravity, second water, next Coke, and lastly
Gatorade would produce the lowest urine specific gravity. For the Labstix strip test, I
hypothesized that there would be no trace of blood, ketones, protein, or glucose in the
Methods:
On the night before the experiment, heavy exercise should be limited as well as
salt, sugar, and caffeine and alcohol consumption. These can all alter the data and have an
effect on the overall class data. Five hours before the lab began, there should have been
no intake of food or drink of any kind and a refrain from any type of vigorous heavy
exercise. If there was any discomfort, there could have been an intake of up to 8oz of
water during the first two hours of fasting. One hour before the lab, the bladder must have
been emptied with the time recorded. Once in lab and the drinking/non-drinking group is
assigned, the amount of fluid for the drinking groups was be calculated. The amount of
fluid intake depended on body weight, so it was specific for each person.
At the time of the experiment, T=0, the bladder was emptied into the cups provided and
amount of urine voided and the time was recorded. As soon as possible, the urine
temperature was taken so it was most accurate by not giving the urine time to cool down,
along with duration of time since last void, measured specific gravity and the calculated
temperature of the urine sample and adding 0.001 for every 3 degrees above 15 degrees
of the urine temperature taken from the urinometer. Urine flow rate was also calculated
Flow rate (ml/min) = Volume voided (mL)/Duration of time since last void (min)
These steps were repeated four more times. However, during T=0, a Labstix strip was
used to test if there was any presence of blood, ketones, glucose, proteins in the urine and
Results:
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
T=0 T=30 T=60 T=90 T=120
Time (minutes)
Fig. 1.1 At T=0 all of the groups had about the same urine flow rate. At T=30, drinking
groups, water, Coke, and Gatorade, all had a significant increase in urine low rate until
T=90. At T=90 minutes, all drinking groups, reached their peak urine flow rate and then
experienced a decrease at T=120. The non-drinking group had a continuous slight decline
at each time interval.
Osmotic Regulation 7
1.035
1.030
1.025
1.020
1.015
1.010
1.005
1.000
T=0 T=30 T=60 T=90 T=120
Time (minutes)
Fig. 1.2 Drinking groups, water, Coke and Gatorade, and the non-drinking group
experienced about the same average corrected urine specific gravity until T=30. After
T=30, the drinking groups experienced a drop in corrected urine specific gravity. The
non-drinking group, Coke, and Gatorade experienced a very slight increase between
T=90 and T=120 while the water group experienced a fairly big increase during the same
time.
Fig. 1.3 Presence of blood, ketones, glucose, and protein were all negative. Urine pH was
at 6.0.
Discussion:
Non-drinker:
All students came into class dehydrated; therefore the plasma osmolarity would
be high from high solute concentration. At T=0, the average urine flow rate was at
0.94mL/min. ADH was secreted to reabsorb water, which lowered plasma osmolarity.
Osmotic Regulation 8
ADH only has a half-life of 16-18 minutes. Since it only lives for a short period of time,
by the time 30 minutes passes, there is a little bit of urine produced instead of it all being
continuously reabsorbed. At T=30 average UFR was 0.85mL/min and at T=60, average
UFR was 0.67mL/min. The lowest average UFR was at T=120 with 0.44mL/min. Low
amounts of hormone ANP was being released from T=30 through T=120 to raise blood
pressure and blood. The average CSG stayed about the same through out the entire
experiment. At T=0 CSG was at 1.026 and raised to 1.029 from T=30 to T=90. At
Water:
The water group had low plasma osmolarity, high blood pressure and high blood
volume. At T=0 the average UFR was 0.84mL/min so low amounts of ADH were
secreted at T=30 to increase plasma osmolarity and lower blood. This increased average
UFR from 0.84mL/min to 1.45mL/min. The low blood volume and high plasma
osmolarity resulted in a decrease in blood pressure and an increase of UFR. The average
UFR at T=60 was 4.16mL/min. At T=90, high amounts of ADH were secreted to lower
plasma osmolarity resulting in a 5.69 mL/min average UFR which lowered at T=120 to
3.84mL/min. The CSG decreased for the most part through out the experiment. At T=0
average CSG was at 1.030 and decreased to 1.024 at T=30, and then decreased to 1.015 at
T=60. At T=90, CSG continued to decrease to 1.014 and finally raised to 1.020 at T=120.
Coke:
At T=0, the Coke group had very high plasma osmolarity, high blood volume and
high blood pressure. The average UFR was 0.86 mL/min. At T=30, very high amounts of
ADH were secreted to lower plasma osmolarity and UFR resulting in a 0.86 mL/min. A
Osmotic Regulation 9
high amount of insulin was secreted to tell muscle cells to uptake glucose. This kept the
blood volume and blood pressure high. ANP was secreted to decrease the high blood
pressure and low amounts of ADH were secreted to raise plasma osmolarity and lower
blood volume. At T=60, the average UFR was increased to 3.4 mL/min and at T=90,
UFR raised along to 5 mL/min with blood pressure because the caffeine in coke finally
started to take effect. At T=120, the UFR lowered backed down to 3.88 mL/min. The
average CSG for Coke continuously decreased from T=0 to T=90 from 1.028 to 1.027
Gatorade:
The Gatorade group also had high plasma osmolarity, high blood volume and
high blood pressure at T=0 with a UFR of 0.76 mL/min. ADH is secreted to lower
plasma osmolarity while sodium from the Gatorade continued to increase blood pressure
and blood volume. At T=30, the UFR was raised to 1.04 mL/min. Low amounts of ADH
were being secreted so plasma osmolarity increased, while blood pressure and blood
volume decreased which dramatically increased URF to 4.46 mL/min at T=60. ANP
secretion increased glomerular filtration rate and UFR as a result of high water and
sodium levels. The UFR continued to increase until T=90 where its peak was reached at
5.98 mL/min and then back down to 3.88 mL/min at T=120. Average CSG was at 1.028
at T=0 and at T=30 was at 1.029. It then decreased at T=60 to 1.017 and then again at
have the lowest urine flow rate, which was correct. However, I hypothesized that water
would have the highest urine flow rate, but Gatorade had the highest UFR, then water,
Osmotic Regulation 10
and coke as the second lowest. For corrected specific gravity my hypothesis was also
rejected. Non-drinkers had the highest CSG, but following the non-drinking group, the
second highest was Coke, not water, then Gatorade, not Coke, and water as the lowest.
The purpose of avoiding food and drink before the lab began was to have all of
the subjects at about the same level of hydration. Since the entire class, in theory, was
dehydrated, there would be a more dramatic result when big amount of liquids were
consumed. Each hormone reacts to different stimulus in the body so we would be able to
see how each hormone reacts under each condition. For example, aldosterone and anti
diuretic hormone secretion occurs when blood volume is low while atrial natriuretic
peptide hormone secretion occurs when blood volume is high. The hormones work to
My hypothesis for the urine Labstix analysis was supported: in that there would
be no presence of blood, ketones, glucose or protein in my urine. All of the results came
back negative and I had a pH of 6.0, which is in the normal range. There was no presence
of blood, protein, ketones and glucose because it was all filtered out or reabsorbed during
For glucose, trace amounts could be found in the urine if I was pregnant, was under great
diabetes mellitus. A trace of ketones would show that the body is using fat as the main
source of energy instead of carbohydrates. It could also mean that the person has diabetes
mellitus, is starving, vomiting, fasting, or eating an all protein diet. Blood in the urine
would indicate that there is a leak in the glomerular membrane, not allowing blood to be
Osmotic Regulation 11
filtered out, an allergic reaction or they are experiencing hematuria, a symptom of renal
diseases and disorders of genitourinary system. Traces of blood in the urine could also be
from menstruation.
According to the study done by Grandjean (2000), those who drank water
compared to those who drank a carbonated beverage and water, the results were about the
same as the ones done in class. The result from the study was done pre and post-
treatment morning voids, and the results had no significant changes. For water, the urine
specific gravity read 1.019 ± 0.006 about the same results the class received, and for
carbonated beverage it was also 1.019 ± 0.005. There was more of a difference in the
class data but that is probably because the Coke group did not also ingest an equal
amount of water.
Conclusion:
This lab showed how the kidneys maintain fluid balance in the body by
comparing the changes in urine flow rate and specific gravity during fasting and
following an ingestion of water, Coke or Gatorade. The Gatorade group produced the
highest urine flow rate and the non-drinker group produced the highest corrected specific
gravity. In the future, it would be interesting to have a control group who did not fast or
change anything about this diet to see under normal conditions how the Gatorade, water,
References
http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/hypopit/adh.html
Grandjean, Ann. (2000). The Effect of Caffeinated, Non-Caffeinated, Caloric and Non-
Sherwood, L (2015). Human Physiology: From Cells to System (9th edition). Cengage
Learning.
https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.52.030190.003531