Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
1231-1250
N. PETERS
Institut fiir AUgemeine Mechanik
RWTH Aachen, West-Germany
The laminar flamelet concept covers a regime in turbulent combustion where chemistry (as
compared to transport processes) is fast such that it occurs in asymptotically thin layers--called
flamelets--embedded within the turbulent flow field. This situation occurs in most practical
combustion systems including reciprocating engines and gas turbine combustors. The inner
structure of the flamelets is one-dimensional and time dependent. This is shown by an asymp-
totic expansion for the Damk6hler number of the rate determining reaction which is assumed
to be large. Other non-dimensional chemical parameters such as the nondimensional activation
energy or Zeldovich number may also be large and may be related to the Damk6hler number by
a distinguished asymptotic limit. Examples of the flamelet structure are presented using one-
step model kinetics or a reduced four-step quasi-global mechanism for methane flames.
For non-premixed combustion a formal coordinate transformation using the mixture fraction Zas
independent variable leads to a universal description. The instantaneous scalar dissipation rate X of
the conserved scalar Zis identified to represent the diffusion time scale that is compared with the
chemical time scale in the definition of the Damk6hler number. Flame stretch increases the scalar
dissipation rate in a turbulent flow field. If it exceeds a critical value Xq the diffusion flamelet will
extinguish. Considering the probability density distribution of X, it is shown how local extinction
reduces the number of burnable flamelets and thereby the mean reaction rate. Furthermore, local
extinction events may interrupt the connection to burnable flamelets which are not yet reached by
an ignition source and will therefore not be ignited. This phenomenon, described by percolation
theory, is used to derive criteria for the stability of lifted flames. It is shown how values of Xq
obtained from laminar experiments scale with turbulent residence times to describe lift-off of
turbulent jet diffusion flames. For non-premixed combustion it is concluded that the outer mixing
field--by imposing the scalar dissipation rate--dominates the flamelet behaviour because the
flamelet is attached to the surface of stoichiometric mixture. The flamelet response may be
two-fold: burning or non-burning quasi-stationary states. This is the reason why classical turbu-
lence models readily can be used in the flamelet regime of non-premixed combustion. The extent
to which burnable yet non-burning flamelets and unsteady transition events contribute to the
overall statistics in turbulent non-premixed flames needs still to be explored further.
For premixed combustion the interaction between flamelets and the outer flow is much stronger
because the flame front can propagate normal to itself. The chemical time scale and the thermal
diffusivity determine the flame thickness and the flame velocity. The flamelet concept is valid if
the flame thickness is smaller than the smallest length scale'in the turbulent flow, the Kolmogo-
rov scale. Also, if the turbulence intensity v' is larger than the laminar flame velocity, there is a
local interaction between the flame front and the turbulent flow which corrugates the front. A
new length scale Lc = V3F/e,the Gibson scale, is introduced which describes the smaller size of the
burnt gas pockets of the front. Here VF is the laminar flame velocity and e the dissipation of
turbulent kinetic energy in the oncoming flow. Eddies smaller than Lc cannot corrugate the
flame front due to their smaller circumferential velocity while larger eddies up to the macro
length scale will only convect the front within the flow field.
Flame stretch effects are the most efficient at the smallest scale Lc. If stretch combined with
differential diffusion of temperature and the deficient reactant, represented by a Lewis number
different from unity, is imposed on the flamelet, its inner structure will respond leading to a
change in flame velocity and in some cases to extinction. Transient effects of this response are
much more important than for diffusion flamelets. A new mechanism of premixed flamelet
extinction, based on the diffusion of radicals out of the reaction zone, is described by Rogg.
Recent progress in the Bray-Moss-Libby formulation and the pdf-transport equation approach
by Pope are presented. Finally, different approaches to predict the turbulent flame velocity
including an argument based on the fractal dimension of the flame front are discussed.
1231
1232 INVITED LECTURE-TURBULENT COMBUSTION
length scales due to chemistry determine the model presumes the shape of the p d f of the
general solution. One may therefore want to reactive scalar or progress variable to consist
avoid the description by moments and turn to essentially of two delta-functions for burnt and
the most general probabilistic description of a u n b u r n t mixtures. This model will be dis-
turbulent reacting flow which is contained in cussed in detail in section 3.3. A presumed
the j o i n t probability density function of all beta-function p d f was used in ref. 26 to
d e p e n d e n t variables, i.e. the three velocity calculate the mean turbulent reaction rate.
components, the t e m p e r a t u r e a n d the concen- T h e composite or p r e s u m e d p d f approach
trations. In principle, this p d f could be calcu- leads again to m o m e n t equations and is there-
lated at each location within the flow field on fore easier to apply than the calculation of the
the basis of a p d f transport equation. Although entire pdf.
this a p p r o a c h avoids some of the modelling
assumptions used in m o m e n t methods and
therefore should yield more general results, it 2. The flamelet concept for non-premixed
still requires modelling of some of the most combustion
i m p o r t a n t terms, in particular the fluctuating
pressure gradient term and the molecular N o n - p r e m i x e d combustion is generally asso-
diffusion term. A recent review on p d f meth- ciated with diffusion flames which owe their
ods for turbulent reactive flow has been given name to the rate controlling step: to diffusion.
by Pope 2~ T h e classical a r g u m e n t to support T h e convective and diffusive time scales are in
p d f t r a n s p o r t modelling for reactive flows has general of the same o r d e r of magnitude but the
always been that the highly nonlinear chemical chemical time scale is very much smaller.
source term does not need to be modelled. Therefore, the assumption of local chemical
However, if reaction occurs in thin layers only, equilibrium has been used quite successfully for
reaction and molecular diffusion are closely diffusion flames, in particular those of hydro-
coupled and the difficulty with the chemical gen or h y d r o g e n / c a r b o n - m o n o x i d e mixtures.
source term is shifted towards modelling of the T h e scalar structure that it implies can be
molecular diffusion term. In a very interesting thought of as flamelet structure for infinite
pdf-calculation Pope and A n a n d 21 use the sum residence times. For h y d r o c a r b o n flames, how-
of the reaction and diffusion t e r m as appropri- ever, the local equilibrium assumption leads to
ate source term for the flamelet regime of unrealistically high levels of CO and H2 on the
p r e m i x e d flames and c o m p a r e the results with rich side of the flamelet structure. Many ad-hoc
the standard modelling, which they call the assumptions have been p r o p o s e d to cure this
regime of distributed combustion. This p a p e r mtsbehavlour (cf. Etckhoff e ). Nevertheless, the
9 9 9 -- 7
z = Z F = 1 - - - . ZO (1)
ZF, 1 Zo,2 Fro. 1. Schematic illustration of diffusion flamelets
attached to the surface of stoichiometric mixture.
The stoichiometric mixture fraction of the eq. (5). T h e n the surface of stoichiometric
reaction mixture can be d e t e r m i n e d from
v~.F + vo Oz --> products Z(x~,t) = Z,,. (7)
is obtained from ZF,,JVFMF = Zo.sjvoMo as Combustion takes place in a thin layer in the
vicinity of this surface if the local mixture
Z~t= [1 + YF,lV~176] -I fraction gradient is sufficiently high. Let us
yo. 2vFMs (2) locally introduce a coordinate system attached
to the surface of stoichiometric mixture. We
replace the coordinate Xl by the mixture frac-
and the relation between Z and the equivalence tion Z and define the original coordinate system
ratio & is given by such that the coordinate xl does not lie within
this surface (cf. Fig. 1). This is a coordinate
z O-z9 transformation of the Crocco-type (Crocco ex-
o - (3)
z,, ( l - z ) pressed the temperature as function of another
dependent variable, the velocity, in a flat plate
showing that the mixture fraction is uniquely boundary layer). Here the temperature T will
related to the equivalence ratio. be expressed as function of the mixture frac-
In the balance equation for the mixture tion Z. By definition, the new coordinate Z is
fraction the chemical source term cancels iden- locally normal to the surface of stoichiometric
tically. If Fick's law for the diffusion flux and mixture. Using Z2 = x2, Z3 = x3, t* = t as the
equal diffusivities of all species and the tem- other i n d e p e n d e n t variables, we obtain with the
perature are assumed, all Lewis numbers are transformation rules
X a a az a a az a
Le,= =1 ( i = 1 , 2 ..... n). (4) at at*4 at a z ' ax~ = ax~ az
cl, p Di (8)
a a az a
+ (k=2,3)
Now the balance equations for Z and the axk az, axk a z '
temperature T are
the temperature equation in the form
az az a az )
P a t -+Ov<~ ax~ ax~ \ Ox,,] =0 (5) (aT aT aT) O(pD) aT
o 5 7 + v2 az-7 + ~3-g27 ax2 o&
aT aT a (oD OT ~ = _ I "
P~'t "Jr"pVc~ ax a axo~ \ ax a / i Cp ,~=1hffh, (6)
O oD) or oD[( az )2 oz
ax, az, - [\-0-2s +2 ax~ aza&
Here hi are the specific heats and rfii the
chemical production rates of the reacting oz O2T a2r] -• (9)
species (i = 1,2 ..... n). T h e specific heat capaci- +2 azaz +-g 2 +-#73 j = <, ,=,
ties cp, are all assumed constant and equal to cp
for simplicity. We follow ref. 28 and assume the If the flamelet is thin in the Z-direction, an
mixture fraction Z to be given in the flow field order of magnitude analysis similar to that for a
as a function of space and time by solution of boundary layer shows that the second deriva-
LAMINAR FLAMELET CONCEPTS IN TURBULENT COMBUSTION 1235
rive with respect to Z is the dominating term on effect where heat conduction out of the reac-
the left hand side of eq. (9). This term must tion zone exceeds heat generation due to
balance the reaction term on the right hand reaction, which in itself is very sensitive to
side. T h e term containing the time derivative is temperature changes. While this remains to be
only important if very rapid changes, such as the basic mechanism for diffusion flame
extinction, occur. Formally this can be shown by quenching, the details of the flame structure of
introducing the stretched coordinate ~"and the hydrocarbon flames are not correctly predicted
fast time scale r by the one-step mechanism. As Bilger :~~points
out, in the one-step mechanism quenching
/~ = (Z - Z,,) / ~ , r = t*/E 2 (10) occurs due to leakage of fuel and the corre-
sponding temperature decrease on the rich
where E is the inverse of some power of a side, while experiments and numerical calcula-
Damk6hler number. tions of counterflow methane flames show that
A formal asymptotic description of the leakage of oxygen on the lean side is the cause
flamelet structure for a one-step reaction has for quenching. In a 1983 GAMM-workshop on
been performed in ref. 6 using the results from the numerical calculation of the methane-air
Liflikn's x9 asymptotic analysis of a counter flow stagnation point flame measured by Tsuji and
diffusion flame. If the time derivative term is Yamaoka 31 five different groups determined
retained, the flamelet structure is to leading the flame structure of this flame using elemen-
order described by the one-dimensional time- tary kinetics with encouraging agreement 12.
d e p e n d e n t temperature equation Later on, Miller et al. 32 extended the calculation
to more highly stretched flames to determine
n
the extinction condition. T h e same numerical
P-07-o~- Oz ~ 5 ~=, code was employed in ref. 33 using a reduced
four-step mechanism for methane flames
Similar equations may be derived for the I CH4 + 2 H + H20 = CO + 4 H2
chemical species. In eq.(11) II CO + H20 = CO2 + H2
III 2 H + M = H2 + M
/3Z\ 2 IV 02 + 3 H2 = 2 H + 2 H20
This mechanism was derived using steady state
assumptions for the intermediates OH, O, HO2,
CH3, CH2O and CHO and partial equilibrium
is the instantaneous scalar dissipation rate at
of the reactions H2 + OH = H + H2O and OH
stoichiometry. It has the dimension 1/sec and + OH = O + H2O in the same way as in ref. 16.
may be interpreted as the inverse of a character- The rates are those of the remaining elemen-
istic diffusion time, Due to the transformation it tary reactions of the Cl-chain, where the most
implicitly incorporates the influence of convec- important steps governing reactions I - I V are
tion and diffusion normal to the surface of
stoichiometric mixture. I n ref. 28 the physical I CH4 + H--+CH3 + H_~
significance o f x , t has been discussed in detail. In II CO + OHm-CO2 + H
essence, X,t decreases due to diffusion and III H + 02 + M--~HO2 + M
increases due to straining by the flow field. IV H + O2~,~--OH + O
Chemistry models, including the local equilib- Calculations of the diffusion flame structure
rium model and the flame-sheet model in the for two velocity gradients across the flame, a =
limit )6c-+0, have been presented. In ref. 6 it has 100/sec and a = 400/sec corresponding to X,, =
been shown that local q u e n c h i n g of the flamelet 4/sec and X,t = 16/sec, respectively, are shown in
occurs, if X,t exceeds a critical value Xq. This Figs. 2 and 3. T h e case a = 400/sec is very close
analysis was based on a one-step-reaction model to extinction. T h e m a x i m u m temperature
with a large activation energy. An extension to drops from 2000 K for a = 100/sec to 1800 K
an one-step reversible reaction is presented in for a = 400/sec while the leakage of oxygen
ref. 29. Here we want to discuss the nonequilib- increases by a factor of approximately 2.5.
rium flamelet structure on the basis of a reduced T h e r e is no leakage of fuel through the
reaction mechanism for methane flames. reaction zone. This may be understood by an
asymptotic analysis34 which leads to the flamelet
2.2 The inner structure of stretched steady state structure shown in Fig. 4. O n the lean side of
diffusion flamelets stoichiometry there is a relatively broad layer of
T h e one-step mechanism with a large activa- thickness ~ < i, where E is related to the
tion energy describes quenching as a thermal Damk6hler n u m b e r (assumed to be large) of
1236 INVITED LECTURE-TURBULENT COMBUSTION
2000-
, o~z)./0(6)
tT T,,-~ ><~To j"
lO0/s
i
IK]
1500
1000
soo \
Z=t Z 1.0
o.'o5 d~ o.;s o12 6~ d.6 d.8 ~o
Z ----=- FIG. 4. Asymptotic structure of a methane-air
diffusion flamelet.
Fzc. 2. Temperature as a function of the mixture
fraction for a stagnation point diffusion flame9At the section 3.2. An important difference is the
velocity gradient a = 400/see the flame is close to diffusion of oxygen from the lean side and its
extinction. leakage through the i n n e r flame structure. On
the rich side of the fuel consumption layer all
the chain breaking step H + 02 + M---~HO2 + radicals are depleted and the rich part of the
M. The H-radical is in steady state in this layer flame structure therefore remains chemically
which leads to the global reaction inert. With an increasing velocity gradient the
residence time is reduced, such that the reac-
IIIa 2 H2 + 02 = 2 H 2 0 tion IV consumes less oxygen leading to a
larger leakage. This in t u r n reduces the tem-
as a combination of reactions III and IV. The perature due to coupling relations and de-
z-layer is the broadest layer within the reacting creases the highly temperature d e p e n d e n t reac-
part of the flame structure a n d therefore deter- tion rate IV even f u r t h e r until, finally, the
mines its overall thickness. Between this layer flamelet will extinguish.
a n d the inert layer of order O(1) on the fuel rich In Fig. 5 the S-shaped curve for steady state
side, there is a thin fuel consumption layer of diffusion flames is shown schematically. Here,
order O(6), where 6 is small a n d proportional to the m a x i m u m temperature is plotted over the
the ratio of the rates of the reactions H + Damk6hler n u m b e r (for one-step kinetics) or
Oz---~OH + O and CH4 + H---~CH3 + H 2. The over the inverse of X,t, if the kinetics (elemen-
radicals presented by the H-radical (to which O tary or global) are fixed. B u r n i n g of the
and OH are related by partial equilibrium flamelet corresponds to the u p p e r branch of
assumptions) are in steady state except for a thin the curve. If X,t is increased the curve is
radical consumption layer embedded within the traversed to the left until Xq is reached, beyond
fuel consumption layer. T h e asymptotic flame
structure is very similar to that of a premixed
stoichiometric methane-air flame discussed in
T~nlQx i ,osol
T~ax ]
~sculesplit / "tO I
--0= 100Is i / Yi
OZO ~, . . . . . 'OO/s i /"0.75
i CH6/ ~ 0 0O0~- 0000 0012
015
010
\ ~, l/a(sl~
0.05 / e_ I
Xq .log Da
Xsf [sl
, . 100_X .,Y i 0z
ol ~--'~ ..... o
0.0 0.05 0.1 015 02 0./. 0.6 08 10 FIG. 5. The S-shaped curve for diffusion flames.
Z---~" The points Q and I correspond to quenching and ig-
nition, respectively. Inserted are numerical results of
FIG. 3. Some species mass fraction profiles corre- the upper branch, using an elementary mechanism 3~
sponding to Fig. 2. - - - -, and a reduced four-step mechanism3 3 . -
LAMINAR FLAMELET CONCEPTS IN TURBULENT COMBUSTION 1237
which only the lower, extinguished steady state joint distribution function of Z a n d X,t. In ref.
exists. T h e transition from the point Q to the 28 the properties of the j o i n t probability density
lower state corresponds to an unsteady transi- function of Z and g~t have been discussed in
tion. Autoignition, which would correspond to detail and the relation to semi-empirical turbu-
an unsteady transition from the point I to the lence models of the k-E-type have been pointed
u p p e r curve, is unlikely to occur in diffusion out. Liew et al. ~s'39 have applied the flamelet
flames, since the required very large residence concept based on the two variable description
times (very small values o f Xst) never occur. by assuming a two-delta function distribution of
Inserted into this picture are the numerical X which leads to a splitting into a burning phase
results from the calculations with an elementary and a n o n - b u r n i n g phase. They have calculated
mechanism 32 and with the r e d u c e d four-step a library of stretched diffusion flamelets using
mechanism 33. T h e a g r e e m e n t is excellent ex- elementary kinetics which were introduced into
cept close to extinction, where the four-step a numerical code that provides the overall
mechanism predicts a larger velocity gradient turbulence properties o f j e t diffusion flames.
o f approximately a - 400/sec, while in ref. 32 This a p p r o a c h was recently extended using
approximately a = 350/sec is obtained. partially p r e m i x e d diffusion flamelets by Rogg
One o f the shortcommings o f the steady state et al. 37.
analysis o f the flamelet structure is related to Local quenching effects which lead to a
b o u n d a r y conditions. It is assumed that the disruption of the flame surface may have
structure extends (as in a steady state counter- i m p o r t a n t consequences for turbulent diffusion
flow diffusion flame) from x = -oo on the rich flame stability. Starner and Bilger 4~ have mea-
side to x = +0o on the lean side which sured the electrical conductivity between the
corresponds in the mixture fraction plane to nozzle and the main flame brush in a specially
applying the b o u n d a r y conditions at Z = 1 and designed piloted diffusion flame. They found
Z = 0. However, in particular close to the intermittency in the electrical conductivity
lift-off height of turbulent j e t diffusion flames, which points towards an interruption of the
fuel and air are partially p r e m i x e d on both reacting (and therefore electrically conducting)
sides o f the flamelets. Partial premixing of flame surface and therefore towards local flame
steady state diffusion flamelets has been con- quenching. Likewise, Dibble et al. 41, using
sidered in ref. 35 and experimental and nu- C2-fluorescence as well as Rayleigh scattering,
merical investigations o f partially premixed observed increasing local flamelet extinction in
counter-flow diffusion flames, showing excel- a turbulent methane j e t diffusion flame as they
lent agreement, have been p e r f o r m e d by Sesha- increased the j e t exit velocity.
dri et al. 36 and Rogg et al. 37, respectively. In turbulent j e t flames the mean scalar
dissipation rate decreases with distance from
the nozzle. Therefore, if a flame is burning far
2.3 Two-variable statistical description of
downstream, the probability of quenching of a
non-premixed turbulent combustion flamelet increases with decreasing distance
T h e flamelet concept postulates that a turbu- from the nozzle. But also there may be flame-
lent diffusion flame consists o f an ensemble of lets which were not reached by an ignition
thin diffusion flamelets where reaction takes source and therefore stay unignited. Even
place. In ref. 28 five different states of a within the turbulent flame brush there may be
diffusion flamelet have been identified. burnable yet unignited clusters of flamelets that
are not connected to b u r n i n g flamelets. A
1. the steady unreacted initial mixture
theory that is able to account for such a
2. the unsteady transition after ignition
situation is percolation theory 28. Percolation
3. the quasi-steady b u r n i n g state
theory (cf. for instance Kirkpatrick 42) describes
4. the unsteady transition after quenching
the conduction in r a n d o m l y distributed net-
5. the unsteady transition after reignition
works. For example, if holes are punched
I f one assumes that the unsteady transitions are r a n d o m l y into carbon p a p e r 43, there will be a
not very frequent, only the two steady states 1 threshold, beyond which the probability that an
and 3 contribute to the overall statistical de- electric current can pass from one side of the
scription o f a turbulent diffusion flame. The p a p e r to the other decreases to zero. T h e r e is
unreacted state 1 is i n d e p e n d e n t o f Xst but the an analogy to lifted flames, where local quench-
burning state 3 depends on two parameters, Z ing o f diffusion flamelets corresponds to the
and Xst. In a turbulent flow field these parame- holes in the carbon p a p e r and the lift-off height
ters are statistically distributed. To predict to the percolation threshold 2s. In a first ap-
non-equilibrium effects in turbulent diffusion proximation, assuming zero variance of the
flames, it is therefore necessary to predict the probability distribution of X,t and statistical
1238 INVITED LECTURE-TURBULENT COMBUSTION
independence between Z and X~t, the lift-off tude as the velocity fluctuations in a turbulent
height should correspond to the downstream flame at blow-off. This would it)crease the
location where the mean scalar dissipation rate turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation levels of
is equal to the laminar quenching value )(q44,45. the flow and mixing field and therefore should
This prediction provides a basis for a verifica- lead to a better agreement between prediction
tion of the flamelet concept. In ref. 46 measure- and data in Fig. 6. It also points towards more of
ments of stabilization heights in r o u n d meth- a mutual interaction between combustion and
ane-air jet flames diluted with nitrogen were turbulence. Nevertheless, the flamelet concept
performed. T h e stoichiometric mixture frac- for non-premixed combustion, as it incorpo-
tion Z,t was kept constant by also diluting the rates non-equilibrium effects, appears to be a
fuel. The residence times d/uo for each dilution, promising tool for the investigation of impor-
where d is the nozzle diameter and u0 the exit tant questions like flame stability, but also of
velocity, were scaled with the corresponding NOx-and soot-formation, which are yet to be
value of Xq obtained from an evaluation of the explored.
laminar counterflow flame results of Ishizuka
and Tsuji 47. Fig. 6 shows Xq for the different
dilutions, multiplied with the residence time 3. The ltamelet concept for p r e m i x e d
d/uo, plotted over the lift-off height H, divided combustion
by d. It is seen that this scaling of turbulent
flame data with the laminar flamelet quenching In premixed combustion the flamelets are
parameter reduces the lift-off data to a single not attached to a surface imposed by the mixing
curve. The prediction is based on a k-E-type field as in n o n - p r e m i x e d combustion, but they
turbulence model 45 using statistical indepen- propagate normal to themselves into the un-
dence of Z and X~t. b u r n t mixture. T h e i r location therefore de-
In summary, the flamelet concept has proven pends on the flow field itself--rather than on
to be useful for non-premixed combustion the mixing f i e l d - - a n d is determined by the
because it is a straight-forward extension of the interaction of the flame with the entire range of
local equilibrium model and because a two-vari- length and time scales of the oncoming flow.
able statistical formulation, which resulted from The fact that the flame is propagating leads to a
the flame-attached coordinate transformation, characteristic velocity scale--the flame s p e e d - -
appears to be a reasonable approximation. and a characteristics length scale--the flame
However, the importance of unsteady effects, thickness. These scales have to be compared
not only" for the prediction of scalars, needs to be with characteristic scales of the flow field which
explored further. For instance, a recent defines different regimes of premixed turbu-
analysis48 indicates that quenching events, which lent combustion to be discussed below. The
occur on a fast time scale, induce velocity question of flamelet quenching which was quite
changes which are of the same order of magni- important in n o n - p r e m i x e d combustion, is now
to be answered differently for the different
regimes. In principle, premixed flamelets are
t not expected to extinguish as easily as diffusion
I
X ~ d .lo3 l. flamelets, as they are embedded between the
i X02,oi r
9 0.210
cold u n b u r n t and the hot b u r n t gas rather than
o 0.205 between two cold mixtures. They therefore
Iy.predicfion 9 0.200 loose heat only to one side and can receive heat
9 0.195
, : o.19o and some chemically active radicals from the
.\ 9 0.185 b u r n t gas side. Nevertheless, volumetric heat
9 0.180
\ Lx 0175
loss, for instance by radiation, or differential
9 \', A 0170 diffusion combined with flame stretch, but also
diffusion of radicals out of the reaction zone
~,. and chemical effects close to the flammability
limits49 will enhance local extinction of flame-
10 20 30 ~.0 SO lets. Compared to diffusion flamelets, pre-
Hid mixed flamelets may be expected to recover
much more easily from such extinction events.
FIG. 6. The laminar quenching value Xq, nondi- All these considerations suggest that the un-
mensionalized with the turbulent flame residence steady response of premixed flamelets leading
time d/uo plotted over the nondimensional lift-off to a much more vigorous dynamical interaction
height H/d for different mole fractions Xo2 of oxygen with the flow field must be considered.
in air. A recent review on laminar flamelet rood-
LAMINAR FLAMELET CONCEPTS IN TURBULENT COMBUSTION 1239
1/3
e,- (17)
6 t 10 ~ 10~ 106 10 8
It/IF
These definitions can be used to derive the
following relations between the ratios v'/Vr and
G/fF in terms of the three non-dimensional FIO. 7. Phase diagram showing different regimes in
numbers Re, D a and K a as premixed turbulent combustion.
1240 INVITED LECTURE-TURBULENT COMBUSTION
x
indicating that flame stretch is strong and that
the smallest eddies can enter into the flame
structure since s < fF, thereby broadening the
flame structure. These eddies produce the
largest straining rates and may lead to local
T ;x1 \
extinction of some i n n e r reaction zone, but unburntmix ; burntgos
nothing definite is known about this interaction
at present.
The flamelet regime is subdivided into the ~ r v o t u r e
regimes of wrinkled flamelets and corrugated - '! o.
flamelets. This b o u n d a r y is viewed by Williams8
as the one between single and multiple flame
sheets. Clearly, i f v ' < VF a n d v' is interpreted as
the circumferential velocity of the large eddies, i
burnt
cellular wrinkles due to the instability mechan- changes. A numerical analyses of the problem
ism described above decreases with Vr, since it is in ref. 86, that resolves the thin reaction zone,
proportional to fe which decreases with ve has been performed by Darabiha et al. 9~ Ex-
according to eq. (16). Using eq. (17), one may perimental work on stretched twin flames s9 was
also write eq. (25) in the form performed by Sato and Tsuji 91, Sato 92, Sohrab
et al. 93 and C h u n g et al. 94. Again asymptotically,
L--~G=- ( VF~~ (26) for weak strain the effect of intermediates in a
el \v'} " two-step mechanism was found to retard
extinction9~ (cf. also refs. 96-97), if the activa-
tion energy of the first reaction is large. The
An illustration of the kinematics of the interac- interaction of weak stretch and heat loss with
tion between a premixed flame and a turbu- chemical extinction effects at the lean flamma-
lent flow field may be found in Fig. 9 of the bility limit (due to the modelled competition of
paper by Ashurst and Barr ~3. In this numerical the reactions H + O2---~OH + O and H + 02 +
study the characteristic macro length scale 6 M---~HO2 + M) was analysed in ref. 49. These
was kept constant while the turbulence inten- papers, although they use model reactions,
sity was increased, showing corrugations of indicate that the presence of intermediates may
smaller and smaller size. A similar effect is influence the response of premixed flames
observed in the 2-D visualisations of the flame considerably.
front in I.C. engines by Baritaud and Green a4 Stretched lean (q5 = 0.6) and rich (05 = 1.4)
and zur Loye and Bracco s5 with increasing hydrogen-air flames with elementary kinetics
engine speed. Here it may be argued that the have been analysed numerically in ref. 15. Due
macro length scale is determined by the geo- to the large diffusivity of hydrogen, the Lewis
metrical dimensions of the combustion cham- n u m b e r is 0.3133 in the lean case and due to
ber and that the turbulence intensity increases the large thermal diffusivity it is 3.018 in the
linearly with engine speed9 Since eddies rich case. Therefore, in both cases the Lewis
smaller than LG (but larger than fk) will not n u m b e r differs considerably from one. T h e
wrinkle the flame front, L~ has the character results show that in this case the Lewis n u m b e r
of a lower cut-off scale9 This property of the effect is dominating over details of the chemical
L(;-scale will be used in the context of fractal kinetics and that Sivashinsky's65 analysis for
dimensions in section 3.4. weak stretch is a good approximation for the
flame response. In particular, extinction is
found for positive stretch in the rich hydrogen
flame. The Karlovitz n u m b e r at extinction was
3.2 The response and inner structure of stretched
found to be as small as 0.029 in agreement with
stead~' state prem&ed flamelets prediction. Recently, Rogg 9s has calculated
stretched methane flames on the basis of the
As in n o n - p r e m i x e d combustion it is useful in reduced four-step mechanism derived in ref.
premixed combustion to introduce a coordinate 16 which was discussed in section 2.2. The
system attached to the flame front a n d - - w i t h structure of the corresponding unstretched
the assumption that the flamelet is t h i n - - flame is analysed asymptotically in ref. 99 and is
analyse the one-dixnensional flamelet structure presented schematically in Fig. 1 la. Steady state
and its response to flame stretch. For weak of H has been assumed here which reduces the
stretch in stead~, flow fields it has been shown four-step mechanism to a three-step mechan-
by Sivashinskv65 and Buckmaster and Ludford ism with reaction I replaced by
(cf. ref. 7, p. 146) that flow divergence and
curvature have an equivalent influence. There-
Ia CH4 + 02 = CO + H2 + H20
fi)re, as a first step in analysing the influence of
chemistry and heat loss it is illuminating to
calculate the response of a plane flame in a and reaction III by I l i a (cf. section 2.2). In
diverging flow field9 This has been done nu- terms a coordinate nondimensionalized with fF
merically by Libby et al. 86-89 in a series of the flame structure consists of a chemically
papers ~br a one-step mechanism with a large inert preheat zone of thickness O(1), a thin
activation energy and weak to strong strain. fuel consumption layer of thickness & where
Lewis n u m b e r effects ss's9 and heat loss to the CH4 is consumed and H2 and CO are formed
b u r n t gas s7 as well as density effects are con- due to reaction Ia, and a downstream
sidered9 It is concluded that a Lewis n u m b e r CO/Hz-oxidation layer of thickness ~ governed
larger than one and heat loss promotes flame by the rate of the reaction H + Oz + M----~HO2
extinction, but that it is retarded by density + M. At the leading edge of the oxidation
LAMINAR FLAMELET CONCEPTS IN TURBULENT COMBUSTION 1243
~
06
)~H2-, CO-nonequilibrium
l layer. O(v) 20 000 ~ 04
fuel consumptionlayer
,doo 2~oo ~o
C H ~ ~radical consumption a[11sl~
F16. 12. Maximum H and H2 mass fraction, flame
position 77 and mass flow rate as function of the
velocity gradient in a counterflow premixed stoichio-
metric methane flame from ref. 98. The flame
o position is defined by the maximum of the methane
consumption rate and r/defined as in ref. 86.
Era. 1l. Asymptotic inner structure of premixed
stoichiometric methane-air flamelets. Fig. 1la shows
three layers embedded within each other and Fig. 1lb gas is drastically increased, such that produc-
a blow-up of the fuel consumption into which a tion of H by chain-branching reactions can no
radical consumption layer is embedded. longer balance the losses. In Fig. 12 it is seen
that quenching occurs at a non-zero maximum
value of YH and YH2 with a vertical tangent of
layer there is a nonequitibrium layer of reaction these curves. The mechanism resembles that of
lI with thickness v which tends to equilibrium diffusion flamelet quenching, where heat losses
downstream. The ordering of the relative width to both sides cannot be balanced bv heat
of the layers is 6 < u < e < 1. No activation production and quenching occurs at a tempera-
energy appears as an expansion parameter in ture well above ambient. Again, the Karlovitz
the analysis, the crucial cut-off of the chemistry n u m b e r at quenching, defined as in ref. 15, is
in the fuel consumption layer being essentially 0.15, thereby sufficiently less than one, such
due to depletion of radicals by the fuel accord- that quenching is possible in the flamelet
ing to the reaction CH4 4- H--+CH3 + H2 in a regime.
thin radical consumption layer embedded Another interesting outcome from Rogg's
within the fuel consumption layer as shown in analysis are the plots of the temperature arid
Fig. 1 lb. the mass fractions of H, CH4, 02 and H20,
The numerical calculations by Rogg 98 were shown in Figs. 13 and 14, over that of CO> The
performed for stoichiometric methane flames mass fraction of CO2 was chosen to present the
in a counterflow of u n b u r n t mixture and progress variable c used in the BML-model. It
equilibrium b u r n t gas similar to the flow in ref. has the advantage to be produced only by a
86. As seen from Fig. 12, the flame is quenched single reaction in the downstream oxidation
by a velocity gradient a = 2270/sec, when the layer, while the temperature or any other
fuel consumption layer nearly reaches the species take part in several reactions. Figs. 13
stagnation point. Therefore, the flame velocity and 14 show that the scalar structure is changed
is nearly zero at quenching, which is different by flame stretch, while the BML-model assumes
from the hydrogen flames analysed in ref. 15. linear relations between all scalars, which would
The quenching mechanism here is not differ- correspond to straight lines in these figures. A
ential diffusion of heat and reactants, but formulation similar to the two parameter statis-
enhanced diffusion of the hydrogen radical to tical description of diffusion flamelets could be
both sides of the flame, to the u n b u r n t mixture developed using the mass fraction of CO2 and
as well as to the b u r n t gas. When the inner the strain rate (or an equivalent stretch parame-
flame structure reaches the stagnation point, ter that includes the influence of curvature) as
the gradient of the H-profile towards the b u r n t two parameters in analogy to Z and X, respec-
1244 INVITED LECTURE-TURBULENT COMBUSTION
TI 2500t
[K] l l
a=O
a =IO00/S
020
--- a = 2270/s
2000"
0.15
1500 0.06 !H
0.10
i II Hxl(] -0.04
1000
0.05.
-0.02
500'
O.
0 0.05 0.10 0.137
0.05 0.1'0 0.137
Yc%-~a,.
Yco2---.=,-
such as scalar transport and turbulence produc- flames to 1.5 for large density ratios uT. How-
tion113, and crossing frequency statis- ever, quoting PopeSl: "Pope a n d Anand's result
ticssz'u4-u6. A shortcoming o f the model is its that the turbulent flame speed scales with u'
inability to predict the turbulent flame speed, (specifically ur = 2.1 u') is a direct consequence
which in turn is required as an input to the of the assumption that the mixing rate is
calculations p e r f o r m e d in a phase plane with ~ as proportional to r -1'' (the inverse of the turbu-
i n d e p e n d e n t variable. T h e spatial structure of lent macro time scale, Pc.) " i n d e p e n d e n t of
the turbulent flame could only be resolved, if in uL/u'." This r e m a r k refers to the fact that the
addition the mean reaction rate was known. It model contains, in addition to the consideration
has been shown ~~ that the mean reaction rate is o f diffusion in the flamelet structure, a stan-
proportional to the dissipation rate of the d a r d mixing model which causes pure (c = 0)
progress variable Xc, or to the inverse of the reactants to be mixed with material c > 0 at a
mean crossing frequency tmI~ but this does rate proportional to r -~. It is not clear to what
not close the problem. Since Xc is influenced by extend this modelling assumption, which accen-
both, the straining of the scalar field by the flow tuates the behaviour at the cold boundary, i.e.
field and the scalar gradients generated by the c = 0, predetermines the results.
flamelets, there is no convincing model available
for this quantity. This situation is fundamentally 3.4 Attempts to predict the turbulent flame speed
different from that in n o n - p r e m i x e d combus- In spite of the acquired u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the
tion, where the scalar dissipation o f the con- structure o f p r e m i x e d turbulent flames, the
served scalar Z, which is i n d e p e n d e n t of chemis- central problem of practical interest, the pre-
try, represents the characteristic diffusion time. diction o f the turbulent flame speed, remains
As far as the modelling of the mean crossing unresolved. A large body of experiments has
frequency tm is concerned, it seems evident that been provided by the Leeds g r o u p (cf. Abdel-
the time scale TG = Lc,/vF, the turnover-time of Gayed, Bradley et al. us-123) using the double
the eddies o f the Gibson scale, should enter as a kernel method d u r i n g explosions in a fan-
lower cut-off time. stirred combustion bomb. These data cover a
A n o t h e r promising a p p r o a c h to premixed large range o f v'/vF-ratio, o f turbulent Reynolds
turbulent flamelet combustion is the solution o f n u m b e r and a large n u m b e r o f different fuels.
a p d f equation by Pope and A n a n d 2~, A n a n d Although the scatter o f the data permits a
and Pope 11v (cf. also ref. 51) using a Monte- variety o f interpretations, a general feature of
Carlo method. They consider two cases: the data is the b e n d i n g o f the curves VT/VF
plotted over v'/vr where vr is the turbulent
1. T h e classical pdf-equation formulation
flame speed. This behaviour has been discussed
where molecular diffusion is modelled in
in the context o f spark ignition engines in detail
the same way as for chemically inert turbu-
by A b r a h a m et al. 124 where f u r t h e r experimen-
lent flow, which they call the case of distrib-
tal work is referenced.
uted combustion and
A m o n g the theoretical work based on flame-
2. a flamelet formulation where the chemical
let considerations there is in particular the
source term is replaced by the sum of the study by Klimov 195 (cf. also Klimov126). Klimov
source term and the diffusive term, both
considers the evolution o f the turbulent flame
expressed as a function of the progress
surface, originally convoluted by the turbu-
variable and d e t e r m i n e d from the solution
lence, d u r i n g a time interval until opposite
of a plane laminar flame.
fronts merge due to flame propagation. He
In their recent work u7 they have a d d e d the obtains
effect of density changes and find striking
a g r e e m e n t with many predictions by the BML-
model including the manifestation of counter- -- = n = 0.7 (29)
gradient diffusion. The p d f equation approach UF \ OF/
is more general than the BML-model because a
n u m b e r o f terms, for instance the correlation and claims good a g r e e m e n t with data. A short-
between velocity fluctuations and the chemical coming of the analysis is that only a single
source term u-/r'S and the second and third length scale o f the flame surface is considerd.
conditional moments of the velocity need not to Recently Kerstein lz7 has developed a pair-
be modelled, but are calculated on the basis of exchange model based on the idea o f random
the p d f equation. T h e authors also predict the exchange of fluid elements in direction normal
turbulent flame speed and obtain a linear to the flame. He obtains an e x p o n e n t o f n = 0.5
relation u r - u ' , where the constant of propor- in the relation v r - ( v ' ) '~ for very large values of
tionality changes from 2.1 for constant density the turbulent Reynolds numbers and n > 0.5
1246 INVITED LECTURE-TURBULENT COMBUSTION
for not so large values. This interesting model where eq. (26) was used. As far as the fractal
considers the entire range of length scales, dimension of the flame front is concerned, it is
ranging from the Kolmogorov scale to the expected that D approaches the value 2.35 for
integral scale, to be present in the flame very large values of V'/VF where the motion of
surface. However, in view of the discussion in the front normal to itself is negligible compared
section 3.1 we would expect that scales larger to the turbulent motion. For not so large values
than the Kohnogorov scale but smaller than the of v'/Vr, however, the flame motion would
Gibson scale L~ will not appear in the flame smooth out the surface, thereby decreasing D.
surface because the circumferential velocity of Cheng 135 and T r o m a n s recently have evaluated
these eddies is too small to interact with the some data from ref. 84 and find a fractal
flame motion. dimension of D = 2.167, whereas we find a
A different approach to predict the turbulent value of D = 2.20 for the data ref. 84 and D =
flame speed has recently been proposed by 2.13 for our own V-shaped flame data sl. This is
Gouldinl~s. He applies the concept of statistical shown in Fig. 15. Thus, the combination of
geometry known as fractals advocated by Man- totally i n d e p e n d e n t findings such as Gibson
delbrot " " to the geometry of the flame sur- scale and the fractal dimension of a turbulent
face. The derivation starts from Damk6hler's 1~2 flame front yields exponents in eq. (29) be-
observation that the ratio of the turbulent to the tween n = 1.05 for D = 2.35 and n = 0.4 f o r D
laminar flame speed should be proportional to = 2.13 which cover the entire range of turbu-
the ratio of the instantaneous flame surface area lent flame speed measurements. This does not
At of the turbulent flame to the cross-sectional solve the turbulent flame speed problem, but it
area A of the flow lends additional support for the Gibson scale as
the lower cut-off scale in a turbulent flame
Vv _ At front. More experimental work such as refs.
(30) 84-85 and an evaluation in terms of fractal
VF A
dimension and the i n n e r cut-off scale Lc would
Now, according to the concepts of statistical be highly desirable.
geometry, homogeneous turbulence is not
space-filling but has a fractal dimension be-
tween 2 and 3. This concept is related to the 4. Summary
intermittent nature of turbulence (cf. Frisch et
al.l~:~). A recent evaluation of measurements in The inner structure of premixed and diffu-
turbulent clouds by Hentschel and Procaccia TM sion flamelets in a t u r b u l e n t flow consists of
suggests a fractal dimension of 2.35. A basic several layers e m b e d d e d within each other. A
feature of fractal dimension is the dependence common feature of both is the response of this
of the geometry on the length scale f with inner structure to flame stretch and the possi-
which it is measured, for a fractal surface area bility of local quenching. However, the quench-
A e - f2-• (31)
I Fronke, Peters
where D is the fractal dimension. This indicates
that the surface area in a turbulent flow gI[m
okml ~ si0pe = _ O,13
increases like A ~ - f-0.~5, if D = 2.35, as the
o o o
length scale decreases, because smaller measur-
ing scales can better resolve the finer structure
o o o
of the surface, Gouldin 12s argues that as in
non-reacting turbulence the true surface area 1.4 ~ I BaritQud, Green
A, should be the one measured with f = fk, the
Kolmogorov scale, while the cross-sectional 1.3 ~ [ sl0pe =-0.2
area A should be the one measured with the
macro length scale ft.
Again, based on the argument about the "No :
Gibson scale as lower cut-off for the length 12 ' '
-I.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
scales that appear in a flame surface, we want to'
replace (k by L(; and write eq.(30) as log ,t / [ram] --"
ing m e c h a n i s m is d i f f e r e n t and the flame FUKUTANI, S., JINNO, H., MILLER,J.A., KEE, RJ.,
stretch r e q u i r e d to achieve q u e n c h i n g o f pre- SMOOKE, M.D., PETERS, N., EFFELSBERG, E.,
m i x e d flamelets is m u c h l a r g e r than for diffu- WARNATZ, J., BEMRENDT, F.: Twentieth Sympo-
sion flamelets. F u r t h e r m o r e , a g e n u i n e prop- sium (International) on Combustion, p. 1893,
erty o f p r e m i x e d flamelets not shared by "['he Combustion Institute, 1984.
d i f f u s i o n flamelets is their ability to p r o p a g a t e 13. PETERS, N., WARNATZ,J. (Eds.): Numerical Meth-
a n d to interact with eddies o f a specific scale, ods in Laminar Flame Propagation, Vieweg,
the Gibson scale. T h i s interaction as well as the Braunschweig, 1982.
m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f stabilizing o r destabilizing Lewis 14. DixoN-LEwis, G.: Combustion Chemistry (W.C.
n u m b e r effects in t u r b u l e n t flames m a k e their Gardiner, Ed.), p. 21, Springer, 1984.
r e s p o n s e m u c h m o r e d y n a m i c than that o f 15. WAR~,'ATZ,J., PETERS, N.: Progress in Astronau-
diffusion flamelets. F o r d i f f u s i o n flamelets, a tics and Aeronautics 95, 61 (1984).
two-variable quasi-static statistical f o r m u l a t i o n 16. PETERS, N.: Lecture Notes in Physics 241, 90
a p p e a r s to be a plausible a p p r o x i m a t i o n . A (1985).
similar p r o c e d u r e bears s o m e potential for 17. PACZKO, G., LEEDAL, P.M., PETERS, N.: Reduced
p r e m i x e d flames as far as local q u e n c h i n g is reaction schemes for methane, methanol and
c o n c e r n e d , but the p r e d i c t i o n o f the most propane flames, This Symposium (1986).
i m p o r t a n t statistical quantity, i.e. the turbulent 18. FENDELL,F.E.: J. Fluid Mech, 56, 81 (1972).
flame speed, remains unsolved. It seems evi- 19. LII~.~N,A.: Acta Astronautics 1, 1007 (1974).
d e n t that the p r o p e r t i e s o f the t u r b u l e n t flow 20. POPE, S.B.: Progr. Energy Combust. Sci. 11, 119
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the largest e n e r g y c o n t a i n i n g eddies to the (International) on Combustion, p. 403, The
lower c u t - o f f scale will m a n i f e s t itself for in- Combustion Institute, 1984.
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(1984).
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