Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
3, June, 185±193
Relacja eps_crack przy zginaniu i rozciaganiu:
eps_cr_direct = 0.7 eps_cr_flexural
Punkt 4.3 Cracking strain w Nguyen et al.
zrodlo: Wee et al. -> Table 4. dla OPC, ostatnia kolumna – ok. 70%
The direct-tension-test method and the mechanical properties of concrete in compression, flexure and tension have
been investigated. The mould used for preparing the specimens in the direct tension test has been modified to
overcome the difficulties in centralizing and aligning the two embedded bars in the specimens. The method adopted
improves the weak bond strength between the embedded bar and concrete and reduces the stress concentration at
the end of the embedded bar. Concrete is most brittle under tension. The state of stress affects the failure
characteristics of concrete. The tensile strain capacity, which is used to evaluate cracking in concrete, should be
chosen judiciously depending on the state of stress in the concrete. The tensile strain capacity obtained from the
flexure test has a higher standard deviation, indicating wider variability of the results. Relationships between
tensile strength and flexural strength and between compressive strength and tensile or flexural strength are also
presented in this paper. The modulus of elasticity from the tension test is similar to that obtained from the
compression test for low-grade concrete, but the values obtained from the tension test are lower than those from
the compression test for concrete of high grade. The values of Poisson's ratio in tension and flexure decrease when
the tensile or flexural stress in the concrete is raised. The values of Poisson's ratio in compression vary
insignificantly before reaching the discontinuity point, and increase sharply afterwards.
Downloaded by [ Technische Informationsbibliothek Universitaetsbibliothek Hannover / TIBUB (NEW)] on [09/11/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Wee et al.
drawbacks, such as load eccentricity and non-uniformity BS 12,19 ground granulated blastfurnace slag (GGBFS)
20
of stress or strain in the tensile specimen for methods complying with BS 6699 and pulverized fuel ash
21
(a)±(d), poor adherence between steel plates and moist (PFA) complying with BS 3892. The chemical com-
concrete for method (c), lack of adequate guidelines to positions and physical properties are given in Table 1.
ensure good bond and central location of the bars for The fine aggregate used in this study was silica with
method (a) and stress concentration at the ends, causing a specific gravity of 2´60 and fineness modulus of
end fracture of the specimens for methods (a), (b) and 2´59. The coarse aggregate (maximum size 20 mm)
(d). In view of the above drawbacks associated with the consisted of solid crushed granite, which had a specific
direct tension tests, the tensile strain capacity is often gravity of 2´65 and fineness modulus of 6´67. The
more conveniently assessed from the tensile fibres in the coarse aggregate was properly washed and separated
constant-moment section of the prism in the flexural- into two categories, i.e. 5±10 mm and 10±20 mm.
strength test. The Corps of Engineers employed a flexur- These categories of aggregate were then proportionally
al-strength test as a measure of the capability of mass mixed (5±10 mm : 10±20 mm 1 : 3) and maintained
10,11
concrete to resist tensile strains. The non-reinforced, in a saturated surface-dry (SSD) condition prior to mix-
12 3 12 3 64 in (300 3 300 3 1600 mm) beams used ing of the concrete. The fine and coarse aggregates
22
in this case were tested to failure under third-point load- complied with ASTM C33-97.
ing. Strains in tension were measured directly at the Ten mixes were designed for the present study. The
extreme fibre of each test specimen. mix proportions are presented in Table 2. Three speci-
The tensile strain capacity can also be estimated mens were cast of each of the following types: 100 mm
from the flexural strength and modulus of elasticity. cubes for compressive-strength tests, standard cylinders
10
Houghton indicated that the estimated tensile strain of size 100 3 200 mm for modulus-of-elasticity tests,
capacity (åtics ) could be evaluated from the flexural 100 3 100 3 400 mm prisms for flexural-strength tests
strength ( f r ) divided by the modulus of elasticity of and 100 3 100 3 500 mm prisms for direct tension
concrete in compression (Ec ): tests. The ambient temperature during mixing and cast-
fr ing was 27 38C. After demoulding (24 h after casting),
åtsc (1) all specimens were cured in a moisture-curing room at a
Ec
temperature of 27 28 and a relative humidity of not
23
Concrete shows different fracture mechanism under less than 90%, and tested at the age of 28 days.
various states of stress. Different flaws and crack pat-
terns induce different values of the limiting tensile strain
under different loading conditions. This paper describes
an improvement and simplification that can be intro- Experimental investigation
duced in the direct-tension-test method. The improved
Compression and modulus-of-elasticity tests
procedure of preparing specimens and testing makes the
direct tension test of concrete more appealing and pro- Cube compressive-strength tests complying with BS
25
vides results that are more accurate, rational and reli- 1881: Part 116 were carried out using a compressive
able. The paper also presents mechanical properties of testing machine of 2000 kN capacity. Modulus-of-elas-
26
concrete, mortar and cement paste under the conditions ticity tests complying with BS 1881: Part 121 were
of the compression, tension and flexural-strength tests. carried out using an Instron Dynamic Materials Testing
The tensile strain capacities obtained in direct tension System. The compressive strain in the latter test was
and flexural-strength tests are presented and compared. measured by four transducers. The transducers were
mounted in the middle 100 mm section of the cylinder.
The lateral strains were measured by electrical-
resistance strain gauges of 60 mm length and gauge
factor 2:09 1%. All strains and load data in this test
Materials and mix proportions
and the other tests described below were acquired
The cementitious materials used in the present study through a portable data logger, which was connected to
were ordinary Portland cement (OPC) complying with a computer.
Table 1. Chemical compositions and physical properties of OPC, GGBFS and PFA
Material CaO: % SiO2 : % Al2 O3 : % Fe2 O3 : % MgO: % SO3 : % Na2 O: % K2O: % Fineness: Specific gravity
cm2 =g
OPC 63´80 21´20 5´50 3´00 2´00 2´00 ± ± 3150 3´15
GGBFS 42´90 32´50 13´80 0´20 5´80 ± ± ± 4500 2´90
PFA 3´37 49´30 28´30 13´01 ± ± 0´21 0´76 91´6%y 2´41
Using Blaine method.
y
Percentage passing a 45 ìm sieve.
Downloaded by [ Technische Informationsbibliothek Universitaetsbibliothek Hannover / TIBUB (NEW)] on [09/11/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Tensile strain capacity of concrete
Downloaded by [ Technische Informationsbibliothek Universitaetsbibliothek Hannover / TIBUB (NEW)] on [09/11/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Wee et al.
Fig. 1. Tensile mould: (a) two-piece mould; (b) mould adjustment with a standard rod and plate; (c) mould with embedded bars
fixed after adjustment
Downloaded by [ Technische Informationsbibliothek Universitaetsbibliothek Hannover / TIBUB (NEW)] on [09/11/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Tensile strain capacity of concrete
3
Mix Compressive Tensile Modulus of
2 strength: MPa strength: rupture:
MPa MPa
Cube Cylinder
1
OPC1 67´8 56´5 3´33 4´73
0 OPC2 58´4 48´8 2´90 4´17
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 OPC3 49´3 40´3 2´73 4´29
Tensile strain: µε OPC4 40´4 32´5 2´68 3´65
PFA 49´2 39´8 2´48 3´93
Fig. 3. Typical stress±strain curves of concrete in tension GGBFS 49´3 38´9 2´70 4´07
M1 41´2 35´2 2´04 2´88
M2 24´5 20´1 1´68 2´65
P1 81´3 61´3 1´22 2´79
listed in Table 4. The results show that concrete with a P2 62´9 42´4 1´01 2´42
higher compressive strength has a lower tensile/com-
pressive strength ratio. The tensile strength of concrete
and mortar is about two-thirds of the flexural strength.
The flexural strength and tensile strength are about compressive, flexure and tension tests are depicted in
8´5±11´5% and 5´5±8´5%, respectively, of the cylinder Figs 5±7. Stress±strain curves of concrete are affected
compressive strength, or 6´5±9´5% and 4´5±7% of the by the applied state of stress. Under uniaxial compres-
cube strength. sion, the higher the compressive strength, the longer
Aggregate arrests cracks much less frequently under the linear portion of the stress±strain curve (Fig. 5).
tension than under compression in concrete. Under ten- However, as expected, high-strength concrete has a low
sion, only a few cracks, can be fully developed and maximum compressive strain at failure, indicating more
cause failure of the specimen, rather than the numerous brittle behaviour. Concrete is more ductile under the
cracks that are developed under compression. Owing to flexural-strength test than under the tension test, as
the lack of aggregate, cement paste shows a very low demonstrated by the longer flat portion of most stress±
tensile strength although its compressive strength is strain curves shown in Fig. 6 compared with those
very high. It seems that fine aggregate shows lower depicted in Fig. 7.
resistance against cracking than coarse aggregate. Mor- The modulus of elasticity of concrete was taken as
tar M1 has lower tensile and flexural strengths than the slope of the linear portion of its stress±strain
concrete OPC4, while both have almost same cube curves. Table 5 lists the values of the modulus of
compressive strength. elasticity under various states of stress. For concrete
The stress±strain relationships of concrete under with low compressive strength (mix OPC4), the values
Downloaded by [ Technische Informationsbibliothek Universitaetsbibliothek Hannover / TIBUB (NEW)] on [09/11/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Wee et al.
Tensile strength to cube Tensile strength to Flexural strength to Flexural strength to Tensile strength to
compressive strength cylinder compressive cube compressive cylinder compressive flexural strength
strength strength strength
OPC1 4´91 5´89 6´98 8´37 70´4
OPC2 4´97 5´94 7´14 8´55 69´5
OPC3 5´54 6´77 8´70 10´64 63´6
OPC4 6´63 8´25 9´03 11´23 73´4
PFA 5´04 6´25 7´99 9´87 63´1
GGBFS 5´47 6´94 8´26 10´45 66´3
M1 4´95 5´79 6´99 8´18 70´8
M2 6´86 8´36 10´82 13´18 63´4
P1 1´50 1´99 3´43 4´55 43´7
P2 1´61 2´38 3´85 5´71 41´7
OPC1 OPC2
50 Mix Modulus of Modulus of Modulus of
OPC3
40
elasticity in elasticity in elasticity in
GGBFS compression: tension: flexure:
30 GPa GPa GPa
20 OPC1 35´1 30´6 28´9
PFA OPC4 OPC2 30´4 27´4 25´8
10 OPC3 28´5 26´3 26´1
0 OPC4 26´0 26´1 25´1
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 PFA 27´0 26´7 27´0
Compressive strain: µε GGBFS 27´5 25´9 23´7
M1 24´0 22´4 21´7
Fig. 5. Stress±strain curves of concrete in compression M2 18´9 20´7 21´5
P1 24´2 21´5 18´1
P2 17´7 17´8 16´5
The moduli of elasticity in tension and flexure are the slopes of the
6
OPC1 GGBFS
linear portion of the stress±strain curve.
5 OPC2
Flexural stress: MPa
4 OPC3
3 PFA
of the modulus of elasticity under different loading
conditions are close to each other. However, for con-
2 OPC4
cretes with greater compressive strength, the values of
1 the modulus of elasticity in the compressive test are
0
greater than those in the tension or flexural-strength
0 100 200 300 400 500 tests. The higher the compressive strength, the greater
Tensile strain: µε the difference. The modulus of elasticity of mortar and
cement paste is lower than that of concrete in general.
Fig. 6. Stress±strain curves of concrete in flexure
The results show that aggregates, especially coarse
aggregate, contribute significantly to the modulus of
elasticity. Coarse aggregate increases the value of the
GGBFS modulus of elasticity under compression, flexure and
OPC1
3 tension.
Tensile stress: MPa
Downloaded by [ Technische Informationsbibliothek Universitaetsbibliothek Hannover / TIBUB (NEW)] on [09/11/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Tensile strain capacity of concrete
30 0·4
Tangent modulus: GPa
Poisson's ratio
25 0·3
20
0·2
15
0·1
10
0
5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
0 Compressive stress: MPa
0 0·5 1·0 1·5 2·0 2·5 3·0 3·5 4·0
Flexural stress: MPa Fig. 11. Typical variation of Poisson's ratio of concrete in
Fig. 8. Typical relationship between tangent modulus and compression
flexural stress
30
25 stress in the flexural-strength test is depicted in Fig. 12.
20 In this case, the Poisson's ratio is the ratio of the lateral
15 compressive strain to the longitudinal tensile strain on
10 the surface in the constant-moment section. Poisson's
5 ratio varies inversely with the level of the stress. Fig.
0 13 shows the relationship between Poisson's ratio and
0 0·5 1·0 1·5 2·0 2·5 3·0 stress in the tension test. The Poisson's ratio, the ratio
Tensile stress: MPa
of lateral compressive strain to longitudinal tensile
Fig. 9. Typical relationship between tangent modulus and strain, decreases with stress only marginally when the
tensile stress load is below 75% of the ultimate strength. The values
then decrease sharply when the specimen is loaded
beyond 75% of its ultimate strength.
50
Compressive stress: MPa
0
–1000 0 1000 2000 0·3
Tensile strain: µε Compressive strain: µε
Poisson's ratio
0·2
Fig. 10. Typical relationship between strains and stresses in
compression test 0·1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
the volumetric-strain curve signifies the discontinuity
Flexural stress: MPa
point. The limiting tensile strain is the lateral tensile
strain at the discontinuity point, which lies between Fig. 12. Typical variation of Poisson's ratio of concrete in
300 ìå and 500 ìå. flexure
Figure 11 shows the relationship between Poisson's
ratio and the compressive stress in the concrete. The
relationship reflects the cracks developing in the con-
crete. The lateral tensile strain is affected by cracking
Poisson's ratio
Downloaded by [ Technische Informationsbibliothek Universitaetsbibliothek Hannover / TIBUB (NEW)] on [09/11/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Wee et al.
Downloaded by [ Technische Informationsbibliothek Universitaetsbibliothek Hannover / TIBUB (NEW)] on [09/11/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Tensile strain capacity of concrete
2. Neville A. M. Some aspects of the strength of concrete. Part 2. anism of plain concrete under uniaxial tension. Concrete Library
Civil Engineering, 1959, 54, 1308±1310. of the JSCE, 1994, No. 24, 31±45.
3. Neville A. M. Some aspects of the strength of concrete. Part 3. 18. Elvery R. H. and Haroun W. A direct tensile test for concrete
Civil Engineering, 1959, 54, 1435±1438. under long- or short-term loading. Magazine of Concrete Re-
4. Lowe P. G. Deformation and fracture of plain concrete. Maga- search, 1968, 20, No. 63, 111±116.
zine of Concrete Research, 1978, 30, No. 105, 200±204. 19. British Standards Institution. Specification for Ordinary
5. Newman K. Criteria for the behaviour of plain concrete under and Rapid Hardening Portland Cement. BSI, Milton Keynes,
complex states of stress. Proceedings of the International Con- 1978, BS 12.
ference on the Structure of Concrete. London, 1965, pp. 255± 20. British Standards Institution. Specification for Ground
274. Granulated Blastfurnace Slag for Use with Portland Cement.
6. Carino N. J. and Slate F. O. Limiting tensile strain criterion for BSI, Milton Keynes, 1992, BS 6699.
failure of concrete. Journal of the American Concrete Institute, 21. British Standards Institution. Pulverized-fuel Ash. Part 1,
1976, 73, No. 3, 160±165. Specification for Pulverized-fuel Ash for Use with Portland Ce-
7. Hughes B. P. and Chapman C. P. Direct Tensile Tests for Con- ment. BSI, Milton Keynes, 1997, BS 3892.
crete Using Modern Adhesives. RILEM, Paris, 1980, Bulletin 26, 22. American Society for Testing and Materials. Standard
pp. 70±80. Specification for Concrete Aggregates. ASTM, Philadelphia,
8. Dunstan M. R. H. Rolled Concrete for DamsÐA Laboratory 1997, C33±97.
Study of Properties of High Fly Ash Content Concrete. CIRIA, 23. Singapore Standards Institution. Testing Concrete. Meth-
London, 1981, Technical Note 105. od of Normal Curing of Testing Specimens. SSI, Singapore, 1987,
9. Xie N. X. and Liu W. Y. Determining tensile properties of mass Part A11.
concrete by direct tensile test. Materials Journal of the American 24. British Standards Institution. Testing Concrete. Method
Concrete Institute, 1989, 214±219. for Determination of Slump. BSI, Milton Keynes, 1983, BS 1881:
10. Houghton D. L. Determining tensile strain capacity of mass Part 102.
concrete. Journal of the American Concrete Institute, 1976, 25. British Standards Institution. Testing concrete. Method for
691±700. Determination of Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes. BSI,
11. Houk I. E., Jr., Paxton J. A. and Houghton D. L. Prediction Milton Keynes, 1983, BS 1881: Part 116.
of thermal stress and strain capacity of concrete by tests on small 26. British Standards Istitution. Testing Concrete. Method for
beams. Journal of the American Concrete Institute, Proceedings, Determination of Static Modulus of Elasticity in Compression.
1970, 67, No. 3, 253±261. BSI, Milton Keynes, 1983, BS 1881: Part 121.
12. Thomas M. D. A., Mukherjee P. K., Sato J. A. and Everitt 27. British Standards Institution. Testing Concrete. Method
M. F. Effect of fly ash composition on thermal cracking in con- for Determination of Flexural Strength. BSI, Milton Keynes,
crete. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Fly 1983, BS 1881: Part 118.
Ash, Silica Fume, and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete, Milwaukee, 28. American Concrete Institute. ACI Manual of Concrete
1995, 1, 81±98. Practice. Mass Concrete. ACI, Detroit, 1989, ACI 207, Part 1-
13. Hunt J. G. A Laboratory Study of Early-age Thermal Cracking 207-4R.
of Concrete. Cement and Concrete Association, London, 1971. 29. Hydroelectricity Department of the People's Republic
14. RILEM. Direct Tensile Test of Concrete. RILEM, Paris, 1963, of China. Experimental method of limiting tensile strain of
Bulletin 20, pp. 84±89. concrete. In Standard Methods of Test for Concrete in Hydraulic
15. Johnson C. D. and Sidwell E. H. Testing concrete in tension Structure. HDPRC, Beijing, 1982, SD 105±82, Part 506±80 [in
and in compression. Magazine of Concrete Research, 1968, 20, Chinese].
No. 65, 221±228.
16. Baishya M. C., Cook R. L. and Kelly M. T. Testing of
polymer injection material. Concrete International, 1997, Apr.,
48±51. Discussion contributions on this paper should reach the editor by
17. Ueda M., Hasebe N., Sato M. and Okuda H. Fracture mech- 25 September 2000
Downloaded by [ Technische Informationsbibliothek Universitaetsbibliothek Hannover / TIBUB (NEW)] on [09/11/18]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.