2018 JC1 H2 Chemistry Tutorial

H2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Instruction:
Before you begin to attempt the tutorial questions, draw a vertical line on the right side of your writing
paper leaving a suitable area on the right for note–taking during tutorial.

[T] Tutorial

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The sub–atomic particles

1 (a) Describe what is meant by the terms

(i) isotope

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Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same number of
protons but different number of neutrons.
(ii) nucleon number [2]

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The term nucleon number is the total number of protons and neutrons in
an atom or nucleus.
N2010/III/4(a) modified

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(b) In most cases, different isotopes of the same element have identical chemical
reactions. Why is this so? or
Chemical properties are determined by the number of electrons. Isotopes have the
same number of electrons and hence identical chemical reactions.
J99/I/1(a),(b),(c)
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(c) Atoms or ions that contain the same number of electrons are called isoelectronic.
Those that contain the same number of neutrons are called isotonic. Those that
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contain the same number of protons are called isotopic.

The rest of this question is concerned with various properties of the following five
ions. (N.B. the symbols V, W, X, Y and Z are not the atomic symbols of the elements
concerned.)
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31 3- 32 2- 32 2- 31 - 35 -
15 V , 15 W , 16 X , 15 Y , 17 Z

Which of the above ions are

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(i) isoelectronic (ii) isotonic (iii) isotopic?

(i) V3–, X2–, Z–
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(ii) V3–, X2–, Y–

(iii) V3–, W 2–, Y–
N2002/III/1(b)
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2 Some isotopes are unstable and undergo nuclear (radioactive) reactions. In one type of
reaction, an unstable nucleus assimilates an electron from an inner orbital of its electron
cloud. The net effect is the conversion of a proton and an electron into a neutron.

Which of the following describes this type of reaction?

A 11
C → 12C
B 111
I → 111Te
C 76
Br → 75Br
D 76
Kr → 75Br

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The question states that an electron and a proton will be converted into a
neutron. Hence, the following processes have occurred:
• proton number will decrease by 1,
• total number of electrons will decrease by 1,
• total number of neutrons will increase be 1

Reactant no. of sub atomic species Product no. of sub atomic species
in reactant in product

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A 11C 6 protons, 6 electrons, 5 12C 6 protons, 6 electrons, 6
neutrons neutrons
111 111
B I 53 protons, 53 electrons, Te 52 protons, 52
58 neutrons electrons, 59 neutrons

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C 76Br 35 protons, 35 electrons, 75Br 35 protons, 35 electrons,
41 neutrons 40 neutrons

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D 76Kr 36 protons, 36 electrons, 75Br 35 protons, 35 electrons,
40 neutrons 40 neutrons

C
3 Which one of the following ions has more electrons than protons and more protons than
neutrons?
[H = 11H ; D = 21H ; He = 42 He ; O = 168 O ] or
A D− B He+
OH−
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C D D3O+
Modified N88/III/4; J92/IV/I; N98/III/4
Answer C:
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2 factors to consider
1. More electrons than protons: It must be an anion.
2. More protons than neutrons: Ion contains at least one H atom.
(Out of the given isotopes, only H has one proton and no neutrons.)
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OH– fulfils both criteria.

No. of proton No. of neutron No. of electron

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9 8 10
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The behaviour of particles in an electric field

4 (c) A plasma is a gaseous mixture in which the atoms have been completely stripped
of their electrons, leaving bare nuclei. Because of possible use in controlled
nuclear fission reactions, plasma behavior has been intensively studied. When
passed between two plates carrying a certain electric charge, 1H and 4 He nuclei
are deflected as follows.

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Giving reasons for your answers, suggest

(i) the polarity (+ or –) of plate A

or
Polarity of plate A: negative
Since 1H contains only protons in its nuclei, it is positively charged and
should be attracted towards negatively charged plate.
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(ii) why 1H is deflected twice as much as 4 He
For species with different mass and charge,
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angle of deflection α charge to mass ratio (z/m)

1
H has a z/m ratio of (1/1 =) 1 and 4He has a z/m ratio of (2/4 =) ½.
Hence, 1H is deflected twice as much as 4He.
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(iii) the angles of deflection of I: 2 H nuclei

II: 3 He nuclei
I: z/m ratio of 2H = ½ = z/m ratio of 4He
Hence, angle of deflection of 2H = angle of deflection of 4He = 2°
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II: z/m ratio of 3He = 2/3.

Hence, angle of deflection of 3He = 2/3 x 4° (angle of deflection of 1H) = 8/3°
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[4]
modifiedJ2000/I/1(c)
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7 (a) Fill in the relevant blanks in the table below.

FULL ground state electronic

Atomic No. of
Species configuration (using s, p, d, f
no. electrons
notation)
Li+ 3 2 1s 2

C 6 6 1s2 2s2 2p2

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O2- 8 10 1s2 2s2 2p6
Mg2+ 12 10 1s2 2s2 2p6
As3– 33 36 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6

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P3- 15 18 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Ga3+ 31 28 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10
Ar 18 18 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

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*Br- 35 36 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6
Mn : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2
*Mn2+ 25 23

C
Mn2+ : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5
Sc 21 21 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2
*Co 27 27 or 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2
Co2+ 27 25 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7
Cr : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
Cr3+ 24 21
Cr3+ : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3
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Cu : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
*Cu+ 29 28
Cu+ : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10
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Zn 30 30 Zn : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2

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Trend in Ionisation Energies Across the Period and Down the Group

8 The use of the Data Booklet is relevant in this question.

The graphs below show the variation in first ionisation energies of some elements.

Figure 1 refers to elements in the same period. Figure 2 refers to elements in the same
group as element C.

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C
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(a) Element C, with atomic number X, is in Group 2 of the periodic table. Justify this,
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using information from Figure 1.
Across the period, Group 13 and Group 16 elements have lower than expected
first ionisation energies (IE).
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Since from C to D there is a decrease in 1st I.E and there is another decrease in
1st I.E from F to G,
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D is in Group 13 and G is in Group 16.

This shows that C is in Group 2.
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(b) State which period element C is in, and explain your reasoning
Period Atomic no. of Group II element
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2 4
8
3 12
8
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4 20
18
5 38

C is not in Period 2 since there is no element before it with atomic number (x – 8).
C is not in Period 4 or above since the element below has atomic number ≥ (x +
18). Hence, C is in Period 3.

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(c) Explain the trend in first ionisation energies across the period from element D
to F.
From element D to F, nuclear charge increases (as the number of protons
increases). Shielding effect is similar since successive elements have an
additional electron in the valence shell. The increase in nuclear charge
outweighs the increase in shielding effect. Attraction of positively charged nucleus
for the negatively charged valence electrons increases. Energy required to
remove the valence electrons increases.

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(d) Why is the first ionisation energy of element D lower than that of element C?
C (Group 2) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
D (Group 13) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

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The increase in shielding in D due to the inner 3s outweighs the increase in
nuclear charge.

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Therefore, less energy is required to remove the 3p electron of D, resulting in a
lower first ionisation energy for D.

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(e) Why is the first ionisation energy of element G lower than that of element F?
F (Group 15) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3px1 3py1 3pz1
G (Group 16) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3px2 3py1 3pz1
or
The paired 3p electrons in G experience inter–electronic repulsion which
outweighs the increase in nuclear charge.
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Hence, less energy is required to remove one of the paired p electrons, resulting
in lower first ionisation energy for G.
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(f) Explain the variation in the first ionisation energies illustrated by the graph in
Figure 2.
Down the group, nuclear charge increases. But number of electronic shells
increase, which result in valence electron further away and more shielded
from nucleus. The increase in shielding and distance outweigh the increase in
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nuclear charge. Thus, valence electron experiences weaker (electrostatic)

attraction from the nucleus. Less energy is required to remove the valence
electrons.
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Trend in SUCCESSIVE Ionisation Energies of an element

10 The diagram below shows successive ionisation energy values for an unknown element X.
log10 IE

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Order of electrons removed

(a) Explain why there is a general increase in the successive ionisation energy values

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as electrons are removed from element X.

Concept : X(g) X+(g) + e– X2+(g) + e–

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As electrons are removed, there is less inter-electronic repulsion among the
remaining electrons. Since nuclear charge remains the same, there is stronger
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(electrostatic) attraction between the valence electrons and nucleus. More energy
is required to overcome the stronger (electrostatic) forces of attraction between the
nucleus and the electron to be removed.
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(b) Account for the following observations in the ionisation energy data as reflected in
the diagram given.
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(i) The energy difference between the removal of the 4th and 5th electrons is
larger than that between the 3rd and 4th electrons.

The 3rd and 4th electrons are removed from the p subshell which is more shielded
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by the inner s subshell than the 5th electron that is removed from the s subshell.

More energy is required to overcome the stronger (electrostatic) forces of

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attraction between the nucleus and the 5th electron.

(ii) There is a large increase in ionisation energy for the removal of the
7th electron.
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The 7th electron is removed from an inner principal quantum shell that is nearer
to and less shielded from the nucleus.

More energy is required to overcome the stronger (electrostatic) forces of

attraction between the nucleus and the 7th electron.

(c) Deduce the valence electronic configuration of element X.

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The 1st to 6th electrons are removed from the valence shell.
There are 6 electrons in the valence shell.
Thus element X is in Group 16.
Valence electronic configuration: ns2 np4

Atomic and Ionic Radius

12 (a) Sketch the general trend of the atomic radius of elements across the third period of

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the Periodic Table.

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C
or
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(b) Explain why the anion P3− is larger than the atom P.

Both P atom and P3− ion have the same nuclear charge (i.e. same proton number).
However, the P3− ion has 3 more electrons than the P atom.
Inter-electronic repulsion increases, resulting in the valence electrons in P3–
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being further away from the nucleus.

There are weaker (electrostatic) forces of attraction between the nucleus and the
valence electrons in P3–.
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(c) Explain why the cationic radius of Mg2+ is less than that of Na+.

Mg2+ : 1s2 2s2 2p6 Na+ : 1s2 2s2 2p6

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Mg2+ has a greater nuclear charge than Na+.

Shielding effect is the same since Mg2+ and Na+ are isoelectronic.
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Hence Mg2+ experiences stronger (electrostatic) forces of attraction between the

nucleus and its valence electrons than Na+, resulting in a smaller radius for Mg2+.

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[A] Additional Practice

1 Sir James Jeans, who was a great populariser of science, once described an atom of
carbon as being like six bees buzzing around a space the size of a football stadium.
(a) (i) Suggest what were represented by the six bees in this description.
electrons
(ii) Explain (in terms of an atom of carbon) what stopped the bees from flying
away from the space of the football stadium.
(electrostatic) forces of attraction between positively charged protons in the

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nucleus and negatively charged electrons
(iii) What is missing from Jean’s description when applied to an atom of carbon?
Electrons are confined in regions of space (orbitals) and are not free to move
everywhere in the atom.

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[3]
(b) The diagram below represents the energy levels of the orbitals in atoms of the

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second period, lithium to neon.
(i) Label the energy levels to indicate the principal quantum number and the type

C
of orbital at each energy level.

energy
or 2p
2s
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1s
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nucleus

(ii) Sketch the shapes of the two types of orbital.

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s-orbital p-orbital

(iii) Complete the electron configurations of nitrogen and oxygen on the energy
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level diagrams below, using arrows to represent electrons.

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nitrogen oxygen

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(iv) Explain, with reference to your answer to (iii), the relative values of the first
ionisation energies of nitrogen and oxygen. The values are given in the Data
Booklet and should be quoted in your answer.
First I.E. of N: 1400 kJ mol–1 First I.E. of O: 1310 kJ mol–1

N: 1s2 2s2 2p3 O: 1s2 2s2 2p4

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The paired 2p electrons in O experience inter–electronic repulsion which
outweighs the increase in nuclear charge. Less energy is required to
remove one of the paired p electrons in O, resulting in lower first I.E. for O.

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[6]
J2002/II/1(a),(b)

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2 (a) Describe the lithium atom, 7 Li , as fully as you can, including the nature and location
of the sub–atomic particles.
Lithium atom is a Group 1 metal and has a relative atomic mass of 7 and atomic

C
number of 3. It has 3 protons (each of which has a relative charge of +1) and 4
neutrons (which are electrically neutral) in its nucleus. It has 3 electrons (each
of which has a relative charge of –1) occupying 2 subshells and has an electronic
or
configuration of 1s22s1.
(b) Predict, with reasons, how the radius of
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(i) the fluoride ion, F–
F–, Mg2+ and Ne are isoelectronic with one another.
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The radius of F– is larger than that of the neon atom. F– has a smaller
nuclear charge than Ne due to its lesser number of protons. Hence, the
valence electrons of F– are attracted less strongly and hence further
away from the nucleus.
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(ii) the magnesium ion, Mg2+

The radius of Mg2+ is smaller than that of the neon atom. Mg2+ has larger
nuclear charge than Ne due to its greater number of protons. Hence, the
valence electrons of Mg2+ are attracted more strongly and hence closer
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to the nucleus.

compares with the radius of the neon atom.

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J95/I/3
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3 Magnesium, like aluminium, is a fairly strong and light-weight metal that is commonly
used to make body panels of racing cars.

The graph of successive ionisation energy of magnesium and aluminium are given below:

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C
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(a) Write an equation to represent the second ionisation energy of magnesium.
Mg+ (g)  Mg2+ (g) + e- ∆H >0
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(b) Explain why the ionisation energies increase for both magnesium and aluminium as
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electrons are successively removed.

As electrons are successively removed, there is less inter-electronic repulsion
among the remaining electrons. Since nuclear charge remains the same, there
is stronger (electrostatic) attraction between the valence electrons and nucleus.
More energy is required to overcome the stronger (electrostatic) forces of
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attraction between the nucleus and the electron to be removed.

(c) Explain why the third ionisation energy of magnesium is much higher than that of
aluminium.
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Al2+ : [Ne]3s1
Mg2+: [Ne]
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The electron to be removed in Al2+ lies in the 3rd quantum shell which is further and
more shielded from the nucleus due to the inner 2nd quantum shell as compared to
the electron to be removed from Mg2+.
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4 Elements K, L, M and N are four consecutive Period 3 elements. The table below shows
the first four ionisation energies (in kJ mol–1) of elements K, L, M and N.

Element First I.E Second I.E Third I.E Fourth I.E

K 577 1820 2740 11600
L 786 1580 3230 4360
M 1060 1900 2920 4960
N 1000 2260 3390 4540

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(a) For element K, briefly explain why the energy difference between the removal of

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the 2nd and 3rd electrons is smaller than that between the removal of the 3rd and
4th electrons.
2nd and 3rd electrons occupy the same quantum shell while 3rd and 4th electrons are

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removed from the different quantum shells.
In particular, a large amount of energy is required to remove the 4th electron from

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an inner principal quantum shell.

(b) Explain why the first ionisation energy of element N is lower than that of element M.
N  N+ or +e
2 2 6 2 4 2 2 6 2 3
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

M  M+ +e
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1s22s22p63s23p3 1s22s22p63s23p2
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Element N is Group 16 and Element M is Group 15.

There is interelectronic repulsion between the paired electrons in the 3p orbital
of element N which outweighs its higher in nuclear charge
Less energy is required to overcome the weaker (electrostatic) forces of
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attraction between the nucleus and the paired valence 2p electron in N compared
to the unpaired valence 2p electron in M.
Hence, 1st ionisation energy of M > N.
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5 The following graph shows the 1st and 2nd ionisation energies of the elements lithium to
magnesium.

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(a) Why is there a sudden drop in the 1st ionisation energy after neon?
Ne : 1s2 2s2 2p6 Na : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

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The 3s electron to be removed from Na is further away and more shielded
from the nucleus due to the additional inner 2p subshell. This increase in
shielding effect and distance outweighs the increase in nuclear charge,
or
Less energy is required to overcome the weaker (electrostatic) forces of
attraction between the 3s electron and the nucleus.
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(b) Explain why the atomic radii decreases across the period from Li to F.
Across the period, the nuclear charge increases
However, the shielding effect is similar as the additional electrons across the
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period are added to the same valence shell

This gives rise to a stronger (electrostatic) force of attraction between the nucleus
and the valence electrons.
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(c) Explain why the ionic radius of N3-is larger than C4+
N3- : 1s2 2s22p6 C4+ : 1s2
N3 has one more filled principal quantum shell compared to C4+
The valence electrons of N3- are further away and more shielded from the
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nucleus than in C4+. The distance and shielding outweighs its higher nuclear
charge.
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Hence there are stronger (electrostatic) forces of attraction between the nucleus
and the valence electron in C4+ compared to N3-

(d) Sketch the third ionisation energy for the elements Lithium to magnesium.
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Graph should show the following:

• All the 3rd IEs of each element should be higher than their corresponding 1st
and 2nd IEs
• General trend for 3rd IE must be correct; correct relative positions
• The 3rd IE for Be should be the highest
• Dip in 3rd IE from C to N

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6 One method for measuring the ionisation energy of an element is by using photoelectron
spectroscopy. The voltage applied to ionise the gaseous atoms can be used to calculate
ionisation energy.

In an experiment, samples of consecutive elements Q to Z, with atomic numbers below

20, were analysed and their nth ionisation energies were recorded and plotted as shown.

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C
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(a) W is a Group 15 element and has 16 neutrons within the nucleus.

(i) Identify W. Hence, draw the energy level diagram representing the electronic
configuration of W.
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W: Phosphorus (1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3) Energy

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3p
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3s

2p

2s

1s

(ii) Sketch and label all the orbitals in the valence shell of W

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z z z
z
y y y y

x x x x

3px 3py 3pz

3s

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(b) Determine the value of n, giving a reason to justify your answer.
From the graph, T has the highest nth IE.

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Since T is a group 2 element, this indicates that two valence electrons have been
removed from T and the high IE shows that the 3rd electron is removed from the
inner quantum shell which is closer to and less shielded from the nucleus.

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A large amount of energy is needed to overcome the stronger (electrostatic)
forces of attraction between the 3rd inner shell electron and the nucleus.

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Thus n = 3 (indicating 3rd ionisation energy).

7
below:
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The first ionisation energies, in kJ mol–1, of Group 2 and Group 13 elements are given

Group 2 Group 13
Be 900 B 799
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Mg 736 Al 577
Ca 590 Ga 577
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Sr 548 In 558
Ba 502 Tl 589 [Tl = thallium]

(a) (i) Define, by means of an equation, what is meant by the first ionisation energy
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of an element.
X(g) → X+(g) + e–

(ii) Explain why the first ionisation energies decrease in magnitude on

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descending Group 2.
Down Group 2, the nuclear charge and number of electronic shells
increases. The increase in shielding effect and the distance between the
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valence electron and nucleus outweighs the increase in nuclear charge,

resulting in less (electrostatic) attraction by the nucleus. Thus, less energy
is required to remove the valence electron.
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(b) (i) On the grid below, plot and label the two graphs of the variation of the first
ionisation energies of these two groups of elements. Join the points of each
group using a ruler.

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Group 2

Group 13

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[1]

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(ii) Explain why the first ionisation energy of aluminium is less than that of
magnesium.
Mg: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 Al: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
or
The 3p electron in Al is further away from the nucleus than the 3s
electron in Mg and is less strongly attracted to it. Therefore, less energy is
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required to remove the 3p electron, resulting in a lower first I.E. for for Al.

(iii) Suggest why the first ionisation energy of thallium, Tl, is greater than that of
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barium.
Electronic configuration of Tl: [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p1

Tl has a higher nuclear charge than Ba. The increase in shielding effect
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caused by the additional 4f and 5d orbitals is insignificant due to more

diffused and less penetrating power, resulting in an increase in the
effective nuclear charge in Tl compared to Ba, hence higher 1st ionization
energy as compared to Ba.
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J94/III/1
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[C] Challenging Question

1 (a) The lanthanides are a group of metals with similar properties. They all form
tripositive ions M3+ (aq). The first member lanthanum, La, has proton number 57
and the electronic configuration [Xe] 4f0 5d1 6s2.

(i) State the likely electronic configuration of lutetium, Lu, the last member of
the lanthanide group.

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Lu : [Xe] 4f14 5d1 6s2
(ii) Suggest why both lanthanum and lutetium have only one oxidation state (the
tripositive).
La: [Xe] 4f0 5d1 6s2 Lu: [Xe] 4f14 5d1 6s2

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3+ 0 3+
La : [Xe] 4f Lu : [Xe] 4f14

In the +3 oxidation state, both ions have fully filled orbitals. This electronic

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configuration is stable (similar to idea of octet configuration) and is hence a
favoured oxidation state.
(iii) Another member of the lanthanide group which has only a single tripositive

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oxidation state is gadolinium, Gd. Suggest the likely electronic configuration
of gadolinium and explain why this configuration gives it a single tripositive
oxidation state.
Gd : [Xe] 4f7 5d1 6s2 or Gd3+: [Xe] 4f7

In the +3 oxidation state, the 4f orbitals are all singly filled. Hence, the inter-
electronic repulsion is minimised, giving rise to a stable electronic
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configuration.
(b) The third ionisation energies of lanthanum, gadolinium and lutetium are given
below.
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La Gd Lu
third ionisation energy / kJ mol–1 1850 1990 2022
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Suggest why the third ionisation energy increases from lanthanum to lutetium.
Going across the period, the nuclear charge increases while the screening
effect remains relatively unchanged. More energy is required to overcome
the stronger attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons,
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resulting in increasing ionisation energy.

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