Selection of Sand Filtration Rates

Author(s): John L. Cleasby and E. Robert Baumann

Source: Journal (American Water Works Association), Vol. 54, No. 5 (MAY 1962), pp. 579-602
Published by: American Water Works Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41256793
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 Selection of Sand Filtration Rates
A contribution to the Journal by John L. Cleasby, Assoc. Prof., and
E. Robert Baumann, Prof., both of the Civil Eng. Dept., Iowa State
University, Ames, Iowa.
engineer selecting the design
rate for a sand filter in a new
plant or in an expansion of an old
plant should decide whether he will
adhere to the long-established 2-gpm
/sq ft rates or try higher rates with the
use of the new polyelectrolyte coagu-
lant aids. He should consider the ef-
fect of higher rates on water quality,
filter run length, and percentage of
product used in backwashing.
This article might help the engineer
make these decisions. The observa-
tions reported have been made in 3
years of pilot scale research on high
filtration rates at the Iowa State Uni-
versity sanitary engineering labora-
tories and at the Ames, Iowa, munici-
pal water treatment plant. A total of
32 experimental filter runs were con-
ducted at filtration rates of 0.7-9
gpm/sq ft.
Apparatus and Procedure
Two approaches were possible in
investigating filter rates. The first
approach would be to operate one filter
at various rates in succeeding experi-
ments. The second would be to oper-
ate several filters simultaneously, each
at a different rate. Because of the
difficulty of maintaining a constant
filter influent quality for an extended
period, the latter alternative was se-
lected. A pilot plant was constructed
with a raw-water pump, mix tank,
579
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high-lift pump, constant-head tank, and
three plexiglass filters. Each filter
was equipped with a turbidimeter and
flow rate controller. Parallel opera-
tion of the three identical filters at
different rates would permit evaluation
of the filter variables.
Influent Water Sources
Water was filtered from :
1. The Ames municipal wells - raw,
aerated well water that contains 8-9
ppm total iron. Copper sulfate was
added at 0.5 ppm as copper, and the
water was mixed in a slow-speed mix
tank to assure complete precipitation
of the hydrous ferric oxide floe.
2. Iowa State University tap water,
to which ferrous sulfate solution was
added through a constant-head capil-
lary tube feeder to yield the desired
iron concentration of S ppm. The
mixture was aerated and mixed in a
slow-speed mix tank to form the hy-
drous ferric oxide floe.
3. Ames city tap water, to which
ferric chloride solution was added to
yield an iron content of 8 ppm, fol-
lowed by the treatment used with the
university tap water.
4. Filter influent water of the Ames
municipal water treatment plant. This
water was diluted with tap water in
some filter runs to adjust it to a de-
sirable turbidity level and to aid in its
stabilization prior to its use in the pilot
580 J. L. CLEASBY & E. R. BAUMANN Jour. AW W A

filters. The Ames municipal water 30-min theoretical detention time at a

treatment plant uses a typical split-
treatment, lime-soda ash softening
process. The treatment steps include
aeration, chemical addition, mixing,
settling, recarbonation, sludge addition,
mixing, settling, recarbonation, filtra-
tion, chlorination, fluoridation, and
metaphosphate stabilization.
Pilot Plant Apparatus
All components of the pilot plant
were designed to enable operation of
pumping rate of 6 gpm.
The slow-speed mix tank was also
used when filtering the lime-soda ash
softened water from the Ames munici-
pal plant. Water was pumped to the
mixing tank from the recarbonation
tank effluent. The mixing time aided
in completing the recarbonation re-
action, thus providing a more stable
water to the pilot plant filters. In some
filter runs, tap water was added to the

TABLE 1

Quality of Effluent From Typical Filter Runs

£°t"e Iron,«.m Irltppm Iron' **" TmMUy umU Turbidity unit,

gpm/sq

Min. End of Min. End of Min. End of Min End of Min. End of
Level* Runt Level* Runf Level* Runf Level* Runf Level* Runf

1 0.08 0.07 3.9 0.2 0.2

2 0.09 0.12 0.28 7.2 0.3 0.3 0.13 0.30
3 0.03 0.02 1.4 7.2 0.3 0.3 0.16 0.69
4 0.18 0.22 0.01 0.03 0.22 0.81
5 0.02 0.02 0.5 0.7 0.25
6 0.28 0.50 0.03 0.01 0.35 0.93
7 0.03 0.03 0.6 0.6 0.55
8 0.11 0.05

* Attained shortly after the initial improvement period,

t Generally at head loss of approximately 6 ft.

the three filters at any desired rate be-
tween 1 and 10 gpm/sq ft.
Raw-water pump to the mixing tank.
A close-coupled centrifugal pump was
used to pump the water from the aera-
tor or from the filter influent of the
Ames municipal plant to the mixing
tank.
Slow-speed mix tank. A mixing
tank 3 ft high and 3.5 ft in diameter
equipped with a slow-speed paddle was
used to provide the necessary deten-
tion time to complete the iron precipi-
tation reaction. The tank provided a
Ames filter influent water to regulate
turbidity and aid in stabilization.
High-lift pump to the constant-head
tank. A 3,450-rpm, close-coupled, cen-
trifugal pump was used to pump water
from the slow-speed mix tank to the
constant-head tank.
Constant-head tank. All water to
be filtered was pumped to a constant-
head tank 12 in. in diameter and 18 in.
deep equipped with a 10-in. overflow
weir. The tank was located to provide
10 ft of head above the filter sand sur-
face. The water flowed by gravity to

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May 1962 SAND FILTRATION RATES 581
the three filters from the constant-head
tank.
Pilot sand filters. Three sand filters,
shown in Fig. 1 and 2, were con-
structed of 6-in. inside-diameter plexi-
glass tubes i in. thick and S3 in. long.
This diameter provides a sand surface
area of 0.196 sq ft in each filter. Com-
bination piezometer and sampling con-
nections of i-in. inside-diameter plexi-
glass tubing were installed at close in-
tervals through the same depth. The
inside ends of the piezometer connec-
tions were 2, 3, or 4 in. from the inner
face of the filter shell, alternating to
prevent two adjacent sampling points
from lying one directly beneath the
other. The inner end of the ^-in.
plastic tube was molded to permit the
easy entrance of water but to prevent
the passage of sand. The underdrain
system for each filter was 9 in. of
graded gravel placed over a perforated
aluminum cup that was centered over
the £-in. filter effluent and backwash
connection. Sand 30 in. deep was
placed above the gravel. Filter influ-
ent water entered approximately 13 in.
above the sand surface through a f-in.
pipe connection. Backwash water
flowed out through a f-in. pipe connec-
tion in the top flange of the filter.
Immediately outside the filter, each
piezometer connection was provided
with a glass T. One connection led to
a piezometer board and the other con-
nection had a capillary tube and screw
clamp for sampling purposes. The
piezometer boards were 10 ft long and
equipped with nine 4-mm inside-
diameter glass tubes. The upper ends
of the piezometer tubes were connected
to a manifold header to permit the
application of a small constant pressure
on all tubes. The pressure was ex-
erted by a rubber squeeze bulb used at
the beginning of each run to depress
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the water level in the tubes to approxi-
mately the middle of the board, thus
facilitating reading.
Filter sand. Filter sand was ob-
tained from a nearby gravel company.
Several grades of sand were analyzed
using US Standard sieves. The sand
used in the pilot plant had an effective
size of 0.5 mm and a uniformity coeffi-
cient of 1.89 in Runs 1-25. After Run
25, a uniform sand falling between a
20 mesh (0.84 mm) and 30 mesh (0.59
mm) sieves was used.
Flowmeters. Effluent from each
filter passed through a variable-area
glass tube, float-type, flow meter suit-
able for measuring water flow of 0.2-2
gpm. The flowmeters were calibrated
by determining the time to fill a 2-liter
volumetric flask.
Turbidimeters. Each filter effluent
was monitored by a photoelectric tur-
bidimeter that used a nephelometric
method to measure turbidity. The
problems of low-level turbidity moni-
toring and the use of this turbidimeter
have been discussed in a previous arti-
cle.1 The turbidimeter is easily read
to a fineness of 0.02 unit. The absolute
values of turbidity, however, are sub-
ject to the weaknesses inherent in the
standard method of calibration.2
Rate-of-flow controllers. The efflu-
ent from each turbidimeter passed into
a float-operated rate-of-flow controller.
The controller maintained a constant
rate of filtration by holding a constant
head on a needle valve outlet. The
float chamber was 9 in. wide, 9 in.
long, and 12 in. deep. Needle valves
of ^ in., f-in. float valves, and 4-in.
diameter copper floats were provided.
Piping was arranged to pass all or any
portion of the filter effluent through the
turbidimeter before the effluent was
discharged to the float chamber. The
rate-of-flow controllers functioned re-
582 J. L. CLEASBY & E. R. BAUMANN Jour. AW WA

1
1
I ^v ' -in. Inlet Connection From
Constant Head Tank

.' .* '• *i^_iki ' 1. _„ d

• • • • • • • co

Z d i -'"• Piezometer
00 io /" Connection

-1-r^ io /" - Connection i

d

C3 d ^so^o

::
0.2-2 gpm

« ? Photoelectric
* Turbidimeter ^

Rate of Flow
Controller

Fig. 1. Filter and Control Equipment

Piezometer connection shown is typical of nine such connections.

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May 1962 SAND FILTRATION RATES 583

markably well. Occasionally the float TPTZ are required to chelate each fer-
valve might stick for a moment, and rous ion. Both reagents are specific
when it was suddenly released, a surge only for the soluble ferrous ion.
of flow might pass through the filter. Therefore, the normal method for total
When this occurred, some of the previ- iron involves dissolving and reducing
ously deposited sediment would be any precipitated iron with acid and
flushed through the filter, resulting in hydroxyl ammonium chloride before
a drop in head loss. The further re- analysis. Heat is sometimes required
sults for such a run were invalid, and to complete the solution of precipitated
the run was terminated. Fortunately, iron. The reagents can be purchased
this rarely occurred. in a powder that will dissolve and re-
duce the iron in a single step, without
Analytic Methods
In addition to the turbidimetric efflu-
ent monitoring, waters containing iron
floe particles were monitored by mak-
ing colorimetric determinations of the
effluent iron content. As several thou-
sand analyses of total iron were re-
quired during the experimental work,
a simple, accurate method of iron
analysis was desirable.
During the first year of the research,
the phenanthroline method was se-
lected 2 because it is the standard
method for the water supply field.
This method, however, is not sensitive
enough when iron is being measured
at the low levels of typical filter efflu-
ents, generally less than 0.3 ppm. For
this reason, a new reagent that has Fig. 2. Filters and Bottoms of
Piezometer Boards
greater sensitivity for low levels of
iron was used. The properties and
use of this reagent, 2,4,6-tripyridykr- Inside diameter of filter tubes is 6 in.
triazine (TPTZ) have been reported heating. These reagents were used to
elsewhere.3 speed up the analyses.
The reagent 1,10-phenanthroline re- No interfering ions were present in
acts with the ferrous ion to yield an the Ames water in sufficient quantity
orange-red color that obeys Beer's law to affect the accuracy of the results.
and is therefore suited to colorimetric Color was observed on either a photo-
determination. Three molecules of electric filter photometer or a photo-
1,10-phenanthroline chelate each fer- electric spectrophotometer.
rous ion. TPTZ, on the other hand,
Effluent Water Quality
reacts with the ferrous ion to yield an
Requirements
intense violet color that obeys Beer's
law and is also suited to colorimetric In evaluating filter operation, it is
determination. Two molecules of necessary to set a standard of accept-

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584 J. L. CLEASBY & E. R. BAUMANN Jour.AWWA

18 I T I I I I I | I
I ' Run 23

1.5 - I ' -
I'
J '*

i 0.9 - (' V i f'.

o 0.9 - V i ^. -

Q|

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time-min

Fig. 3. Initial Effluent Improvement

After water in filter has been displaced, turbidity drops to minimum. Numbers by
curves indicate filtration rate in gallons per minute per square foot.

IIIIIIII
0.6 - Run 23 >^ -

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Filtrate Volume -gpm-hr

Fig. 4. Effluent Iron Content and Filtrate Volume

Observations for curves were made after initial improvement period. Numbers by
curves indicate filtration rate. Curve along X marks indicates constant pressure.
Rate of this run started at 6 gpm/sq ft and decreased as head loss increased.

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May 1962 SAND FILTRATION RATES 585

able water quality. Because the water
is virtually sterile as it is pumped from
the wells, a bacterial evaluation would
be of little value.
In runs filtering water containing
precipitated iron, an iron content in the
effluent greater than 0.3 ppm was con-
sidered unsatisfactory. This meets
USPHS drinking water standards.4
In runs filtering influent water of
the Ames municipal plant, the effluent
quality was evaluated on the basis of
its turbidity content. USPHS drink-
ing water standards limit turbidity to
5 units; however, many plants strive
on the candle turbidimeter and diluted
to the desired level. As it is unlikely
that absolute zero-turbidity water was
used in making the dilutions, the abso-
lute level of the turbidity is subject to
question.
In this study, a maximum level of
0.5 unit of effluent turbidity was arbi-
trarily set as a desirable goal.
Filtration Rate and Effluent Quality
Many engineers and water plant per-
sonnel are lulled into a false sense of
security by the use of the long-standard

TABLE 2

Average Filter Influent Quality

Total Alkalinity* - ppm T

Run Teo£P- £easrst
*»* (co,)- (Hcos)- umts
18 56-58 83 28 24 9.2 5 unstable plant operating one well
9 at 1,100 gpm
19 56-57 82-89 26 25 9.3 9 unstable plant operating two wells
14 at 1,400 gpm
24 59-63 79-85 22 15 9.2 7 stable plant operating two wells
0 at 1,650 gpm; influent
diluted with tap water§
25 61-63 83-89 20 21 9.2 6 stable same as above
0

* Expressed as CaCOi.
t As measured with turbidimeter.
t As indicated by drop in alkalinity and hardness through the dirty filter, ppm CaCOs.
§ To control turbidity and stability.

for a much better water quality. This filtration rate of 2 gpm/sqft. It

is because "turbidity greater than about
0.5 unit may be noticeable to the con-
sumer when the water is held in a
white enamel container." 5
Less than 0.2 unit of turbidity is a
desirable goal.6"8 It is doubtful, how-
ever, that the techniques that have
been used in establishing this goal
would yield valid results at this level.
Turbidity in the reported studies was
measured by the Baylis turbidimeter
calibrated against suspensions observed
should be emphasized that acceptable
water is not assured at 2 gpm/sq ft,
or even at lower rates, unless adequate
pretreatment is provided. On the
other hand, with adequate pretreat-
ment, acceptable water can usually be
obtained at higher rates.
George W. Fuller is usually given
credit for establishing the standard
2-gpm/sqft rate. In his initial work,
Fuller had no control over the rates
used m the proprietary devices tested.

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586 J. L. CLEASBY & E. R. BAUMANN Jour. AW WA

Later he was limited to less than 2
gpm/sqft by the physical limitations
of the apparatus. Fuller 9 shows that
he was aware that he had not reached
the upper limit of desirable nitration
rates :
decline during the filter run. Figure 3
demonstrates the typical initial im-
provement in effluent iron content at
the various filtration rates in Run 23.
Figure 4 shows typical effluent iron
content as observed in Run 23 follow-

In the judgment of the writer, it would
be advisable to construct the [Louisville]
plant on the basis of 100 mgd . . . with
the knowledge that in all probability, the
rate would be safely increased to a con-
siderable degree in meeting the demand
for a greater consumption of water.
Fuller's conclusions are supported by
this study.
ing the initial improvement period.
The effect of filtration rate on efflu-
ent quality (Table 1) varied for the
different influent water types. When
filtering Ames water and added ferric
chloride, acceptable water could not be
obtained at rates as low as 1 gpm/sq ft.
On the other hand, when filtering Uni-
versity tap water and added ferrous

TABLE 3

Effluent Turbidity

Turbidity - ppm

Filtration *
Rate Run 18* Run 19* Run 24 Run 25
gpm/sq ft

Initialt Final* Initialt Final}: Initialt Final* Initialt Final*

1 0.2 0.2 0.14 0.14

2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.16 0.21 0.13 0.30
3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.16 0.34 0.16 0.69
4 0.36 1.16 0.22 0.81
5 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.25
6 0.3 0.3 0.5 1.7 0.5 1.2 0.35 0.93
7 0.6 0.6 0.55

* Values less reliable than those of later runs,

t After initial improvement period,
t At terminal head loss of 5-6 ft.

Effluent water quality was the poor-
est near the beginning of each filter
run. Turbidity or iron content reached
a peak at approximately the theoretical
time required to displace the water
from the filter and the turbidimeter.
This observation has been reported by
others.10 The effluent turbidity then
quickly improved to some minimum
level. At the lower rates of filtration,
this level was maintained throughout
the filter run. At the higher filtration
rates, effluent quality might gradually
sulfate, filtration rates as high as 8
gpm/sqft had little effect on quality.
Filtration of the Ames filter influent
water resulted in poorer quality at
higher rates, but fairly uniform quality
throughout the filter run at any given
time. Dilution of this water with city
tap water to regulate stability, how-
ever, changed the filtering characteris-
tics with the result that effluent quality
declined as the filter runs progressed.
A similar effluent behavior was noted
in the filtration of Ames raw water

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May 1962 SAND FILTRATION RATES 587

with copper sulfate added to aid in
the iron precipitation.
A water of zero turbidity or zero
iron content was never achieved in any
of the filter runs, even at rates as low
as 0.7 gpm/sqft.
The observed behavior of effluent
quality might be expected because the
fluent were in the range of 1-10 /x; a
few particles as large as 40 /x were
observed. The particles were observed
with a counting chamber and a cali-
brated ocular micrometer in the eye-
piece of the microscope. Observations
were made at 100- and 430-power
magnification. It is possible that some

IIIIIIII

Run 23 XS yr

1II

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Filtrate Volume -gpm-hr

Fig. 5. Total Head Loss and Filtrate Volume

No optimum-rate tendency appears. Uncontrolled run (along X marks) started at

6 gpm/sq ft and was allowed to decrease in rate as head loss increased.

suspended particles being filtered were
heterogeneous in size and, most likely,
also in charge characteristics. The
hydrous ferric oxide particles were
generally in the range of 1-20 fx in size,
most being about 5 /a. Calcium car-
bonate particles in the Ames filter in-
particles were smaller than 1 fx but
could not be seen.
With this range in particle size, one
would expect the smaller fractions to
be less easily filtered. Therefore, the
increment of quality improvement at
successively lower rates would become

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588 J. L. CLEASBY & E. R. BAUMANN Jour. AW W A

8IIIIII

Run 18 V

1I I2 r I1 r v

oL

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Filtrate Volume -gpm-hr

Fig. 6. Total Head Loss and Filtrate Volume

Ames filter influent was used while plant operated one well at 1,100 gpm.
In this run, optimum-rate tendency appeared at all flow rates.

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May 1962 SAND FILTRATION RATES 589
smaller and smaller because the par-
ticles remaining are the most difficult
fraction to remove. As rates are pro-
gressively increased, the quality will
decline more and more rapidly as the
more easily removed particle fractions
are forced through the bed.
Function of the Filter
It can be concluded from the experi-
mental observations that:
1. All filters pass some suspended
material throughout the entire filter
run. This is supported by the conclu-
sions of other workers who monitor
filter effluent with sensitive devices.11
2. The amount of suspended mate-
rial that passes through the filter is
generally increased by higher filtration
rates. This increase in suspended
material might be so small, however,
as to be insignificant for a given water.
3. The selection of standard filtra-
tion rates does not assure good filter
effluent quality. With some waters
poor quality can result at standard
filtration rates or even lower.
In view of these observations, the
proper function of the filter in the
treatment process can be defined as
polishing the water and assuring a
crystal-clear, low-turbidity water. The
filter can never be relied on as the
final safeguard of public health. Dis-
infection is necessary for this.
Factors in Rate Selection
The two chief factors that govern
the selection of the design rate for the
filters are: (1) production of water
of acceptable clarity, and (2) maxi-
mum overall economy, with invested
capital and operating costs taken into
consideration. Operating costs, in
turn, are affected by such factors as
water production per filter run and
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the percentage of product used in
backwashing.
Current research has shed some in-
teresting light on the factors that in-
fluence operating costs. Several reports
have been made on the production of
water per filter run at various filtration
rates. An analysis of these data re-
veals no consistent relation between
water production per filter run and
filtration rate.
The data in some reports on high-
rate filtration indicate less water pro-
duction or no increase in production
TABLE 4
Relative Water Production*
Filtration
Rate Run 18 Run 19 Run 24 Run 25
gpm/sqft
1 0.8 0.6f
2 1111
3 1.93 1.42 1.23f 1.03
4 1.52 1.21
5 2.65 1.47
6 2.32 1.84 1.40 1.21
7 2.07
♦Terminal total head loss of 5 ft; production of 2
gpm/sq ft considered unity,
t Estimated by extrapolation.
per run as rates are increased.10'12"18
Curves for head loss as against time
in most of these studies were linear or
nearly linear. The studies indicate
that acceptable water can be produced
at rates up to 5 gpm/sqft, but that
special care must be exercised in pre-
treatment with coagulation aids during
periods of weak coagulation. The
data in other reports indicate better
water production per run or per foot
of increase in head loss as filtration
rates increased.11'19"25 With one ex-
ception,24 curves for head loss as
against time were not linear ; head loss
increased at a more rapid rate as the
filter run progressed.
590 J. L. CLEASBY & E. R. BAUMANN Jour. AW W A

The relative economy of high-rate of head loss increase. Data expressed

filtration from the standpoint of water
produced per run has not been fully
investigated under controlled condi-
tions. Some waters are such that
higher rates yield deeper penetration
and greater production for a given
head loss increase. Other waters do
not demonstrate this improved produc-
in these two ways are not comparable.
The filtration rate that results in
maximum production per filter run will
usually result in the minimum per-
centage of the product used in back-
washing. This rate might be called
the "optimum filtration rate." It must
be emphasized, however, that capital

5 1 i ' ' ' ~P T' 3» '

Run24 / / s S* j/0*

or iiii

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Filtrate Volume -gpm-hr

Fig. 7. Total Head Loss and Filtrate Volume

Ames filter influent, equally diluted with tap water, was used, Ames plant was oper-
ating with two wells at total rate of 1,650 gpm.

tion. The studies reported represent
a variety of water characteristics and
filter details. Some were pilot scale or
laboratory scale studies with good con-
trol and high terminal head loss ; some
were plant scale studies in which con-
trol of conditions and terminal head
loss were limited by the physical ar-
rangement of the plant. Some of the
reports indicate production per run,
and others indicate production per foot
and labor costs have not been included
in this definition.
Experiments With No Optimum Rate
A series of experimental pilot plant
runs was made to determine whether
filtration has an optimum rate from
the standpoint of maximum volume of
acceptable water produced per filter run.
When filtering water containing pre-
cipitated hydrous ferric oxide particles,

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May 1962 SAND FILTRATION RATES 591
no pronounced optimum rate was ap-
parent. Figure 5, for Run 23, is a
typical curve for total head loss as
against volume of filtrate for this type
of filter influent water.
As the plotting of total head loss as
against filtrate volume in Fig. 5 is also
used in other figures, some explana-
tion might aid the reader to interpret
the curves correctly. The ordinate,
total head loss, represents the total
drop in pressure (feet of water) from
the top piezometer tube above the sand
to the bottom piezometer tube in the
gravel layer, including the clean-bed
head loss. The head loss is given at
the actual water temperature of the
filter run as noted in the tabulations
of filter influent water quality data.
No attempt was made to correct for
viscosity changes so that the data could
be expressed at a standard tempera-
ture, because temperature changes re-
sult in other more important head loss
influences that cannot be evaluated.
Thus, to correct for one variable and
not for the others might tend to ob-
scure the true importance of tempera-
ture changes on head loss development.
The temperature change during any
filter run never exceeded 5°F, and was
generally less than 3°F.
The abscissa, filtrate volume, is ex-
pressed in the volume unit, gallons per
minute, multiplied by the time in hours.
This volume unit was selected because
it is readily determined as the product
of the experimental observations made,
rate and time. This unit of volume
can also be converted readily to run
length (hours) or to volume expressed
in gallons or gallons per square foot
of filter area. One gallon per minute-
hour (1 gpm-hr) is equal to 60 gal.
This volume divided by rate (gallons
per minute) will yield the duration in
hours of the run that produced the
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indicated volume. As the sand filter
area in the pilot filters is 0.196 sqft,
it is a simple matter to compute the
relationship between volume and area
(gpm-hr/sqft) if so desired.
Consider a simple example with a
filtration rate of 4 gpm/sqft and a
filtrate volume of 10 gpm-hr. This is
equivalent to a volume of 600 gal. The
filtration rate is (4 gpm/sq ft) X (0.196
sq ft) = 0.784 gpm. The run length
to produce the indicated volume is
10 gpm-hr/0.784 gpm = 12.8 hr.
Filter influent water in Runs 16,
22, and 23 (Run 23, as shown in
Fig. 5 is typical) had the following
characteristics :
Characteristic Range
Total iron 7-9 ppm
Ferrous iron 0-0.07 ppm
Temperature
Runs 16 & 23 57-58°F
Run 22 57-62°F
pH 7.5-7.7
Certain general characteristics are
evident in Fig. 5. The curves are
nearly linear, particularly at the higher
filtration rates. The curves also tend
to be parallel. No pronounced opti-
mum rate is present with nearly linear
curves, and the lowest filtration rate
will generally produce the largest vol-
ume of water for a given terminal head
loss. Effluent quality at a terminal
loss of 6 ft was acceptable, except at
rates of 6 gpm/sq ft or above.
Experiments With Optimum Rate
When filtering the influent water of
the Ames municipal lime-soda ash sof-
tening plant, a pronounced tendency
for greater production per run was
apparent as filtration rates were in-
creased. In some runs, the production
reached an optimum at some medium
filtration rate, and decreased at higher
rates. Figures 6 and 7, for Runs 18
592 J. L. CLEASBY & E. R. BAUMANN Jour. AW WA
and 24 respectively, are typical curves
for total head loss as against volume
of filtrate for this type of water. The
chemical characteristics of the influent
water during these filter runs are
shown in Table 2.
Certain general characteristics are
apparent in Fig. 6 and 7. At the lower
rates of filtration, the head loss in-
creases faster as the run progresses.
At higher filtration rates, this tendency
is reduced. The curves can approach
linearity at high filtration rates, as in
Fig. 7. In Fig. 6 and 7, beyond the
rate at which the curves most nearly
become linear, higher rates resulted in
head loss curves that were nearly par-
allel. The optimum rate, where maxi-
mum production for a given head loss
will occur, is the lowest rate at which
the head loss development approaches
linearity.
Effluent turbidity (Table 3) was not
always satisfactory at the higher filtra-
tion rates. Therefore, the optimum
rate from the standpoint of production
might not be a feasible rate because
water quality is unacceptable. Table 4
shows relative production to a 5-ft
terminal total head loss (including ini-
tial clean-bed head loss) in Runs 18,
19, 24, and 25.
Study of Tables 3 and 4 reveals that
when filtering a fairly high-quality in-
fluent water, as is produced with one
well operating at the Ames municipal
plant (Run 18), the optimum filtration
rate lies between 3 and 5 gpm/sqft.
Expected production per run will be
over twice the production at the stand-
ard rate of 2 gpm/sqft. Rates in
excess of 5 gpm/sq ft result in reduced
production and reduced water quality.
Runs 24 and 25 are similar in some
respects to Run 18. In these runs a
stable water of moderate turbidity was
filtered. The optimum rate from a
production standpoint was 4 gpm/sq ft,
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where 152 and 121 per cent of the
standard rate production was obtained,
respectively, in Run 24 and 25. The
terminal turbidity at the optimum rate
was above the acceptable level of 0.5
unit. Therefore, the desirable operat-
ing rate would be between 3 and 4
gpm/sq ft.
When filtering, a less stable, more
turbid influent water, as is produced
7|
*f 4 - / Run 23 "~
5 / o Total Head Loss
| 3 _ / • Top I-in. Layer -
/ a 2-ft 4-in. Layer
j£s_L - i - i - i -
0 12 3 4 5
Filtration Rate -gpm/sq ft
Fig. 8. Demonstration of Laminar Flow
in Dirty Filter
Demonstration was made after a run at
4 gpm/sqft with water containing hy-
drous ferric oxide.
when the Ames municipal plant oper-
ates more than one well, the optimum
rate had not been reached even at 6
gpm/sqft (Run 19). Production in-
creased steadily as the filtration rate
increased. Terminal water quality was
not acceptable, however, even at 3
gpm/sqft. Therefore, with this type
of water, the filtration rate should be
governed by the acceptable water qual-
May 1962 SAND FILTRATION RATES 593

ity and established at between 2 and lower production in Runs 18 and 19

3 gpm/sqft.
It is evident that the optimum tend-
ency is more pronounced in Runs 18
and 19, in which an unstable water was
filtered, than in Runs 24 and 25, in
which the influent water was stable.
The instability of the water results in
precipitation of calcium carbonate in
the filter bed. This unstable calcium
(Fig. 6) than in Runs 24 and 25
(Fig. 7).
Optimum-Rate Tendency
The test results indicate that the
two types of water being filtered con-
tained particles that were distinctly dif-
ferent from the standpoint of head loss
development. The water that con-

6l

Run 24

o Total Head Loss y^

• Top 1-in. Layer Sand y^
5 "~ a l-ft 3-in. Layer yS ~

4 _ yS - 20

{,_ / -ij

oL^^^ "T
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Filtration Rate - gpm/sq ft

Fig. 9. Demonstration of Laminar Flow in Dirty Filter

Demonstration was made after a run at 4 gpm/sqft with Ames filter influent water.

carbonate precipitate is catalyzed by tained hydrous ferric oxide particles

the calcium carbonate already removed
in the filter. The amount of after-
precipitation is practically nil on the
clean sand at the beginning of a filter
run, but soon reaches an equilibrium
value that is constant throughout
the rest of the filter run. After-
precipitation in the bed is a significant
load on the filter, as evidenced by the
caused nearly linear head loss develop-
ment at all rates of filtration. The
filter influent water of the Ames mu-
nicipal treatment plant, which con-
tained principally calcium carbonate
particles, caused head loss to go up at
an increasing rate as the run pro-
gressed. This tendency was most pro-
nounced at lower rates.

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594 J. L. CLEASBY & E. R. BAUMANN Jour. AW WA
With a typical development of con-
stant rate of head loss (straight-line
plot), increased filtration rates result
in reduced water production for a
given terminal head loss. With a typi-
cal development of increasing rate of
head loss (curved plot), increased
filtration rates result in greater water
production for a given terminal head
loss. When the rate of head loss in-
creases, an optimum rate may be
reached as the head loss development
curve approaches linearity, and further
rate increases will result in reduced
production. There are several basic
reasons behind these two characteristic
manners of head loss development.
Hydraulic Conditions in Dirty Filter
To evaluate the reasons that might
cause an optimum-rate tendency, it is
necessary first to study the hydraulic
conditions in a filter bed as it becomes
filled with sediment. Laminar flow in
a clean sand filter has been observed
by several investigators. This obser-
vation has also been duplicated at all
rates of filtration studied. The char-
acteristics of flow through a dirty filter,
however, have not been reported.
One researcher 25 has suggested that
the excessive passage of material
through the filter might be associated
with the development of turbulent flow,
and he developed a "filtrability index"
for turbulent flow conditions. Valid
experimental proof of turbulent flow
was not presented.
According to Darcy's law for lami-
nar flow through porous media, head
loss is directly proportional to the rate
of flow. The observation of this pro-
proportionality in a dirty filter, there-
fore, would prove the presence of lami-
nar flow. On several occasions the
authors observed the change in head
loss with flow rate at the end of a filter
run when the filter was quite dirty.
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The head loss at various depths was
observed as the rate of filtration was
progressively reduced. In Fig. 8 and
9 examples of the typical curves show
an almost linear relation of head loss
to filtration rate for the full bed and
for the upper layers, where turbulence
might be expected to develop because
of the high degree of clogging. Figure
71
1 'Run 24 1 ' 1 ' P
o Total Head Loss /
_ - -x-^-Top ls-in. Layer /
6 _ - / x~ 3.0
• 1-ft 3-in. Layer / /
- o- 3-ft 5- in. Layer / /
5 - / / - 2.5
i4-///~2°?
i // / I
- // / s
2 - '// / ~ 10
ol/^l
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Filtration Rate -gpm/sq ft
Fig. 10. Head Loss and Filtration Bate
After run at 2 gpm/sq ft, Ames filter
influent water was used,
8 represents a typical run with water
containing precipitated hydrous ferric
oxide. Figure 9 represents a typical
run on Ames filter influent water.
The curves of Fig. 8 and 9 are
slightly concave downward. Turbu-
lence would have had the opposite ef-
fect, because the head loss in turbulent
flow is proportional to the second
May 1962 SAND FILTRATION RATES 595
power, approximately, of the flow rate,
as shown in the general equation
H, = rQ»
in which :
Hf is head loss due to friction,
r is resistance coefficient,
Q is flow rate in volume per unit time,
and
n is exponent (approximately 2, ac-
cording to most turbulent flow
equations).
The unexpected downward concave
tendency in Fig. 8 and 9 must, there-
fore, be due to some increase in perme-
ability as rates are decreased. The
permeability increase is due to reduc-
tion of the compressive forces exerted
by the hydraulic gradient. These
forces are reduced as the flow rate is
decreased. The curvature is most pro-
nounced in the upper layers and absent
in the lower layers, which supports this
hypothesis.
After a run on Ames filter influent
water at 2 gpm/sq ft, Run 24 showed
a nearly linear relation between head
loss and rate of nitration (Fig. 10).
The curve for head loss through the
full bed and the top ''-m. layer are
slightly concave upward. Turbulence
would be most apt to develop in a
run of this type at low rates with a
strong tendency for surface removal.
If there were turbulence, it should
be in the top layers. The curve for
the top layer is far from the exponen-
tial type of curve for turbulent flow.
It can be concluded that laminar flow
conditions were found throughout all
filter runs, in all layers of the filter,
for all waters, and for all filtration
rates covered by this study.
Surface and Subsurface Head Loss
Development
A study of the head loss develop-
ment in the top layer of sand and in
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the remaining depth of the filter bed
permits some conclusions about the
reason for an optimum-rate tendency.
In the water containing hydrous ferric
oxide particles, the head loss in the
top 1-in. layer developed in a nearly
linear manner, as did the head loss in
the entire bed. Figure 11 is a typical
plot of the head loss in the top 1-in.
layer for Run 23. Figure 5 shows the
typical linear development of head loss
in the entire filter bed for the same
run.
When filtering Ames filter influent
water, the loss in the top layer was
almost entirely responsible for the typi-
cal increasing rate of head loss devel-
opment. This is illustrated for Run
24 by the head loss development curves
for the top 1 in. of the bed (Fig. 12)
and for the remainder of the filter bed
(Fig. 13). It can be observed that
the head loss exclusive of the surface
layer develops in much the same man-
ner as with the water containing hy-
drous ferric oxide precipitate. The
curves at different rates are nearly
linear and parallel. The slight upward
curvature (Fig. 13) is probably due
to increased load received by this por-
tion of the filter bed as the surface
layer gradually becomes so dirty that
it removes a smaller and smaller por-
tion of the applied load. Figure 12,
for the top 1-in. layer, shows the typi-
cal increasing rate of head loss devel-
opment at lower filtration rates, with
tendency diminishing as rates are
increased.
It is apparent from these typical
figures that the surface layer is respon-
sible for the two different types of
head loss development. With one type
of head loss development, a filter will
have an optimum-rate tendency. With
the other type, the filter will have no
such tendency.
596 J. L. CLEASBY & E. R. BAUMANN Jour.AWWA

I|IIII|
2.o

0 *r i

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Filtrate Volume - gpm-hr

Fig. 11. Head Loss in the Top 1-in. Layer and Filtrate Volume

Numbers by curves indicate filtration rate. Water containing precipitated hydrous

ferric oxide particles was used.

I FT I I I I I
Run 24 j

^^' |

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Filtrate Volume -gpm-hr

Fig. 12. Head Loss in the Top 1-in. Layer and Filtrate Volume

Number by curves indicate filtration rate. Ames filter influent diluted with tap water
was used.

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May 1962 SAND FILTRATION RATES 597
Surface Filtration Observation by
Others
Chemical engineers have observed
typical exponential head loss develop-
ment when filtering various types of
compressible precipitates on cloth fil-
ters. Such filtration might be de-
scribed as cake filtration because the
deposited precipitate, or cake, acts as
the filtering medium except for a short
period at the beginning of the filter
run. Equations have been developed
for both constant pressure and constant-
rate cake filtration.26 Neglecting the
head loss in the filter cloth, the equa-
tion for head loss development during
constant-rate filtration is
__ wvap (dV'*
A*g(l - mw)' d$ /
in which :
V is volume of filtrate in cubic feet ;
6 is time in seconds,
P is pressure difference across the cake
in pounds per square foot,
A is area of the filter cake normal to
direction of fluid flow in square feet,
p is density of filtrate in pounds per
cubic foot,
w is weight fraction of solids in the
slurry,
a is specific cake resistance,
v is viscosity of fluid in pounds per
foot-second ,
m is weight ratio of wet cake to dry
washed cake, and
g is constant, gravitational 32 ft/sec/
sec.
For a given slurry, all items in Eq
dV
2 are constant except P, 0, -jr, and a.
Combining the various constants, Eq
2 can be simplified as follows for con-
stant rate filtration.
p=Ka(diy°
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The specific cake resistance a has
been found to be pressure-dependent
for cakes that exhibit some compressi-
bility. In the usual range of pressures
in industrial cake filtration, the relation
between « and P has been ex-
pressed 27 as :
a =a'P>
in which :
a' is a constant determined largely by
the size of the particles forming the
cake, and
s is cake compressibility.
The cake compressibility s varies
from zero for granular incompressible
cakes to 1 for highly compressible
cakes. For most industrial slurries, s
lies between 0.1 and 0.8. Combining
Eq 3 and 4 for an incompressible cake
yields :
p=Kai~iy$
Equation 5 indicates a linear devel-
opment of pressure during the filter
run. Combining Eq 3 and 4 for a
partially compressible cake yields :
(dV'2 -m)0
dV'2 1171~*
For values of s between 0 and 1,
Eq 7 indicates an exponential develop-
ment of pressure during the filter run.
Strongly increasing head loss curves
have been observed when filtering iron-
coagulated water through diatomaceous
earth filters without the aid of body
feed.28 In these experiments, with the
fine precoat layer acting as the only
filtering medium, surface straining was
the predominant mechanism of re-
moval. When the surface became
clogged, the head loss increased at a
more and more rapid rate (Fig. 14).
598 J. L. CLEASBY & E. R. BAUMANN Jour. AW WA

The head loss development is expo-
nential at all filtration rates and there-
fore conforms with Eq 7 for cake filtra-
tion of a compressible precipitate. The
slope of these curves is equal to
1/1 - s. Calculated values of the
cake compressibility s (Fig. 14) yield
values of 0.51 at 2, 4, and 5 gpm/sqft
and 0.58 at 1 gpm/sqft.
eluded that the relationship of head
loss as against volume, which ap-
proaches an exponential curve, is an
indication of the formation of a partially
compressible surface cake. To cause
such exponential development of head
loss, the surface cake must have ade-
quate strength to bridge across the
sand openings and resist the hydraulic

i i I I "z7 I i s°
25 _ Run 24 S Q yS _

0L

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Filtrate Volume -gpm-hr

Fig. 13. Head Loss Excluding Top 1-in. Layer and Filtrate Volume

Numbers by curves indicate filtration rate. Ames filter influent diluted with tap water
was used.

The use of adequate body feed to
preclude completely the development
of a surface sediment layer caused the
head loss curves to become linear.28
Surface Removal Observations
On the basis of the foregoing equa-
tions for cake filtration, it can be con-
forces tending to wash the deposited
material deeper into the bed.
Such a surface cake development
was evident when filtering Ames filter
influent water at low rates of filtration.
For example, a layer of calcium car-
bonate precipitate was apparent on the
sand surface at all filtration rates in
Run 18. At the lowest rate, 1 gpm

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May 1962 SAND FILTRATION RATES 599
/sq ft, this layer appeared to be j^-^-in.
thick. When backwashed, the layer
disintegrated into large pieces, many
of which were as large as 1 in. These
particles could not be removed by
backwashing and resisted further dis-
integration, indicating that the layer
had been strongly compressed. The
surface layer was not so thick at 3
gpm/sqft and left unwashed particles
of about £ in. At 5 gpm/sqft the
layer was thin and broken into pieces
of less than -J in., most of which were
removed in backwashing.
The development of a compacted
surface layer was not evident in any
of the filter runs on water containing
precipitated hydrous ferric oxide. Al-
though the sand surface was generally
covered with a layer of red iron pre-
cipitate, the layer was soft and back-
washed from the filter without difficulty.
Conformity With Surface Cake
Equations
It can be hypothesized that head
loss development on a sand filter is
the sum of the head loss caused by tur-
bidity removal in the sand bed plus the
head loss caused by the surface cake
when such a cake develops during the
run. The head loss caused by turbidity
removal in the bed should develop in
a nearly linear manner at constant
sediment-loading rates, because the
sand will act as a rigid matrix to pre-
vent compression of the sediment.
The head loss caused by the surface
cake should develop exponentially in
accordance with Eq 7.
To test the validity of this hypothe-
sis, an attempt was made to separate
these two components of head loss de-
velopment for the top sand layer for
all filter runs on Ames filter influent
water. A tangent line representing
head loss in the sand bed was fitted to
the slope of the initial head loss devel-
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opment. This slope was chosen on the
assumption that the initial slope, be-
fore the surface cake had time to de-
velop, would represent the linear de-
velopment in the sand layer. The in-
crease in head loss above this tangent
line was assumed to be the develop-
ment in the surface cake. This in-
80 1
.
11.
1 10 I /■ ft
1 1 10 / I Mr /■ ft
100 200 300 500 700 1,000
Filtrate Volume -gal/sq ft
Fig. 14. Total Head Loss and Filtrate
Volume for Diatomite Filters
Without Body Feed 28
Numbers by curves indicate filtration
rate. Ferric chloride -coagulated water
zvith 0.15 Ib/sqft precoat was used with
no body feed. Influent turbidity was 1
unit.
crease in head loss was plotted on log-
log paper against filtrate volume to
determine if it was exponential and
in accordance with Eq 7.
Typical curves for Run 24 indicate
conformity with an exponential equa-
tion (Fig. 15). The slope of the
curves is equal to 1/1 - s. Values of
the cake compressibility were calcu-
600 J. L. CLEASBY & E. R. BAUMANN Jour. AW WA

lated for all runs on Ames filter influ-
ent water (Table 5). Some decrease
in cake compressibility is apparent at
higher rates. This was said by another
observer to be a time phenomenon.20
Less time is available for compression
of the cake at higher rates, and thus
lower values of compressibility are ob-
tained. Theoretically, the cake com-
pressibility should be independent of
:i Run
Run 24 i 24 1 1 1 1 1 1 =fr
4
ing the design filtration rate. The con-
sequences of higher rates in terms of
water quality, filter run length, and
percentage of product used in back-
washing are important factors. This
article, based on 3 years of pilot scale
research, has been an attempt to show
how higher filtration rates affect these
factors.
The effect of higher rates on water
quality will vary with different waters.
Several general conclusions can be
drawn :
1. Sand filters pass some material
at all filtration rates, even at rates well
below the long-standard rate of 2
gpm/sq ft.

1i
<1:i- 2. The use of the standard rate does
not assure good water quality.
3. Higher rates may result in worse
£ 0.6
water quality; in some waters, how-
£ !„ 0.6 ever, the change in water quality may
be insignificant.
1 0.3

t - iftif#"
4. Therefore, the proper role of
filtration is to serve as a polishing step
to assure acceptable effluent clarity. It
o.i cannot be relied on as a final pathogen
0.08
0.06
control.
In view of these conclusions, certain
0.04
factors should guide the consultant or
operator in selecting the operating rate
0.03 '

1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20 30 40
Filtrate Volume -gpm-hr
Fig. 15. Surface Cake Head Loss and
Filtrate Volume
Numbers by curves indicate filtration
rate. Ames filter influent diluted with
tap water was used.
the rate. Compressibility might vary
for the different runs because of slight
differences in the particle characteris-
tics. The overall average value of
cake compressibility is 0.59.
Summary and Conclusions
More and more water plants are
using higher filtration rates. Several
factors should be considered in select-
for a filtration plant. He should select
the rate that results in a water of ac-
ceptable clarity with the maximum
overall economy in initial investment
and operating costs. The operating
costs are partially dependent on the
water production per run and on the
percentage of product used in back-
washing. A rate that results in maxi-
mum production per filter run and,
therefore, in minimum backwash per-
centage, was defined as the optimum
rate. Capital and labor costs have not
been included in this optimization.
Several conclusions have bearing on
the ascertaining and determining of an
optimum rate of filtration.

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May 1962 SAND FILTRATION RATES 601
1. In the filtration of suspensions
that cause head loss to develop at an
increasing rate as the filter run pro-
gresses, greater water production per
run can be expected as rates are in-
creased. An optimum rate can be
reached, however, beyond which fur-
ther rate increases result in decreased
production.
2. The optimum-rate tendency is ab-
sent when filtering suspensions that
cause head loss to develop in a nearly
linear manner. Head loss develop-
ment curves for such suspensions are
TABLE 5
Particle Compressibility* At Various
Compression Rates
Filtration Run Run Run Run Run
imfcfi 18 19 20 24 2S
Compressibility (s)
1 0.75 0.55
2 0.65 0.69 0.60 0.55 0.63
3 0.63 0.51 0.50 0.55
4 0.60 0.52 0.52
5 0.62 0.51
6 0.50 0.60 0.50 0.45
7 0.65
* Based on Eq 7.
nearly parallel at different filtration
rates. As the higher rates cause higher
initial head losses, lower production
can be expected at any fixed terminal
head loss.
3. The optimum rate can be identi-
fied as the lowest rate at which the
head loss development curve becomes
most nearly linear.
4. At and above the optimum rate,
head loss development curves are
nearly parallel, and resemble the curves
of a suspension with no optimum-rate
tendency.
Several conclusions have bearing on
the cause of the optimum-rate tendency :
1. The increasing rate of head loss
development associated with an opti-
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mum-rate tendency is caused by the
development of a compressible surface
cake on the sand surface.
2. The surface cake only develops
when filtering a suspension that has
a strong tendency to be removed at
the surface, a suspension in which
the particles have adequate internal
strength to resist the hydraulic shear
forces tending to wash them down into
the filter.
3. Total head loss in the filter bed
is the sum of the surface cake head
loss development and the head loss
development in the sand bed.
4. The head loss within the sand bed
develops in a linear manner because
the rigid matrix of the sand grains pre-
vents compression of the deposited
material.
5. Head loss in the compressible
surface cake increases exponentially as
the filter run progresses. The expo-
nent depends on the cake compressi-
bility. (It averaged 2.4 for the Ames
filter influent water.) This develop-
ment is in agreement with established
equations for cake filtration.
6. Production increases at higher
rates because relatively fewer particles
are removed in the surface cake. This
permits greater production before a
significant surface cake is produced.
7. At the optimum rate of filtration,
the surface cake influence has been
minimized and the head loss develop-
ment approaches linearity. Above the
optimum rate, production to a given
terminal total head loss decreases, as
the underlying cause of an optimum
rate tendency has been minimized or
eliminated.
Acknowledgments
This study, for which complete data
have been published,29 was supported
by a research grant from USPHS.
The authors wish to thank Harris
F. Seidel, Superintendent of Water
602 J. L. CLEASBY & E. R. BAUMANN J our. AW W A
and Sewage Treatment; and John M.
Carpenter, City Manager, Ames, Iowa,
for their permission to locate and oper-
ate the pilot equipment in the munici-
pal treatment plant.
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