DSLAM (Digital Subscriber Line

Access Multiplexer)
A DSLAM (Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer) is a network device,
usually at a telephone company central office, that receives signals from
multiple customer Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) connections and puts the
signals on a high-speed backbone line using multiplexing techniques.
Depending on the product, DSLAM multiplexers connect DSL lines with
some combination of asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), frame relay,
or Internet Protocol networks. DSLAM enables a phone company to offer
business or homes users the fastest phone line technology (DSL) with the
fastest backbone network technology (ATM).

multiplexing
Multiplexing (or muxing) is a way of sending multiple signals or streams of
information over a communications link at the same time in the form of a
single, complex signal; the receiver recovers the separate signals, a
process called demultiplexing (or demuxing).

Networks use multiplexing for two reasons:

To make it possible for any network device to talk to any other network
device without having to dedicate a connection for each pair. This
requires shared media;

To make a scarce or expensive resource stretch further -- e.g., to send

many signals down each cable or fiber strand running between major
metropolitan areas, or across one satellite uplink.

In analog radio transmission, signals are commonly multiplexed

using frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), in which the bandwidth on a
communications link is divided into subchannels of different frequency
widths, each carrying a signal at the same time in parallel. Analog cable TV
works the same way, sending multiple channels of material down the same
strands of coaxial cable.

Similarly, in some optical networks, data for different communications

channels are sent on lightwaves of different wavelengths, a variety of
multiplexing called wave-length division multiplexing (WDM).

These techniques are all basically use the same concept. FDM describes
fields that traditionally discuss frequencies (like radio and television
broadcasting). WDM is used in fields that traditionally talk about
wavelengths, like telecommunications and computer networks that use
laser systems (which generate the signals sent over fiber optic cables).
Variations include coarse WDM (CWDM) and dense WDM (DWDM), which
put relatively fewer or more channels of information, respectively, on the
medium at the same time. Other variations use light polarization to
multiplex.

In digital transmission, signals are commonly multiplexed using time-

division multiplexing(TDM), in which the multiple signals are carried over
the same channel in alternating time slots. For example, TDM is used
on SONET links that used to be a mainstay of enterprise WAN and Internet
connectivity.

Code Division Multiplexing (CDM) uses identifying codes to distinguish one

signal from another on a shared medium. Each signal is assigned a
sequence of bits called the spreading code that is combined with the
original signal to produce a new stream of encoded data; a receiver that
knows the code can retrieve the original signal by subtracting out the
spreading code (a process called dispreading). CDM is widely used in
digital television and radio broadcasting and in 3G mobile cellular networks.
Where CDM allows multiple signals from multiple sources, it is called Code-
Division Multiple Access (CDMA).

signal
1) In electronics, a signal is an electric current or electromagnetic field used to convey data from one
place to another. The simplest form of signal is a direct current (DC) that is switched on and off; this
is the principle by which the early telegraph worked. More complex signals consist of an alternating-
current (AC) or electromagnetic carrier that contains one or more data streams.

Data is superimposed on a carrier current or wave by means of a process called modulation. Signal
modulation can be done in either of two main ways: analog and digital. In recent years, digital
modulation has been getting more common, while analog modulation methods have been used less
and less. There are still plenty of analog signals around, however, and they will probably never
become totally extinct.

Except for DC signals such as telegraph and baseband, all signal carriers have a definable frequency
or frequencies. Signals also have a property called wavelength, which is inversely proportional to the
frequency.

2) In some information technology contexts, a signal is simply "that which is sent or received," thus
including both the carrier (see 1) and the data together.

3) In telephony, a signal is special data that is used to set up or control communication. See signaling.

An electromagnetic field, sometimes referred to as an EM field, is generated when charged particles,

such as electrons, are accelerated. All electrically charged particles are surrounded by electric fields.
Charged particles in motion produce magnetic fields. When the velocity of a charged particle
changes, an EM field is produced.

Electromagnetic fields were first discovered in the 19th century, when physicists noticed that electric
arcs (sparks) could be reproduced at a distance, with no connecting wires in between. This led
scientists to believe that it was possible to communicate over long distances without wires. The first
radio transmitters made use of electric arcs. These "spark transmitters" and the associated receivers
were as exciting to people in the early 20th century as the Internet is today. This was the beginning
of what we now call wirelesscommunication.

Electromagnetic fields are typically generated by alternating current (AC) in electrical conductors.
The frequencyof the AC can range from one cycle in thousands of years (at the low extreme) to
trillions or quadrillions of cycles per second( at the high extreme). The standard unit of EM frequency
is the hertz, abbreviated Hz.Larger units are often used. A frequency of 1,000 Hz is onekilohertz(kHz);
a frequency of 1,000 kHz is one megahertz (MHz); a frequency of 1,000 MHz is one gigahertz (GHz).
The wavelength of an EM field is related to the frequency. If the frequency f of an EM wave is
specified in megahertz and the wavelength w is specified in meters (m), then in free space, the two
are related according to the formula

w = 300/f

For example, a signal at 100 MHz (in the middle of the American FM broadcast band) has a
wavelength of 3 m, or about 10 feet. This same formula applies if the frequency misgiven in gigahertz
and the wavelength is specified in millimeters (mm). Thus, a signal at 30 GHz would have a
wavelength of 10 mm, or a little less than half an inch.

The realm of EM field energy is called the electromagnetic radiation spectrum. In theory, this extends
from arbitrarily long wavelengths to arbitrarily short wavelengths, or, as engineers sometimes
imprecisely quip, "from DC to light."

modulation
Modulation is the addition of information to an electronic or optical carrier
signal. A carrier signal is one with a steady waveform -- constant height
(amplitude) and frequency. Information can be added to the carrier by
varying its amplitude, frequency, phase, polarization (for optical signals),
and even quantum-level phenomena like spin.

Modulation is usually applied to electromagnetic signals -- radio,

lasers/optics and computer networks. Modulation can even be applied to
direct current (which can be treated as a degenerate carrier wave with
amplitude 0 and frequency 0) mainly by turning it on and off (as in Morse
code telegraphy), or applied to alternating current (as with power-line
networking).

Common modulation methods include the following:

 Amplitude modulation (AM), in which the height (i.e., the strength or

intensity) of the signal carrier is varied to represent the data being
added to the signal.
 Frequency modulation (FM), in which the frequency of the carrier
waveform is varied to reflect the frequency of the data.

 Phase modulation (PM), in which the frequency of the carrier

waveform is varied to reflect changes in the frequency of the data
(similar but not the same as FM).

 Polarization modulation, in which the angle of rotation of an optical

carrier signal is varied to reflect transmitted data.

 Pulse-code modulation, in which an analog signal is sampled to

derive a data stream that is used to modulate a digital carrier signal.

Radio and television broadcasts and satellite radio typically use AM or FM.
Most two-way radios use FM, although some employ a mode known as
single sideband (SSB).

More complex forms of modulation include phase-shift keying (PSK) and

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).
 Three types
of modulation

A computer modem allows a computer to connect to another computer or to

a data network over a regular analog phone line by using the data signal to
modulate an analog audio tone. A modem at the far end demodulates the
audio signal to recover the data stream. A cable modem uses network data
to modulate the cable service carrier signal.

Sometimes a carrier signal can carry more than one modulating information
stream. A process called multiplexing combines the streams onto a single
carrier -- e.g., by encoding a fixed-duration segment of one, then of the
next, for example, cycling through all channels before returning to the first,
a process called time-division multiplexing (TDM).

wavelength
A wavelength is a measure of distance between two identical peaks (high
points) or troughs (low points) in a wave -- a repeating pattern of traveling
energy like light or sound.

The distance between repetitions in the waves indicates the type of

wavelength on the electromagnetic radiation spectrum, which includes
radio waves in the audio range and waves in the visible light range.
Wavelengths are measured in kilometers, meters, millimeters, micrometers
and even smaller denominations, such as nanometers, picometers and
femtometers, to measure ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays.
Conversely, radio waves have much longer wavelengths -- typically
measured in meters.

Wavelength is inversely related to frequency, which refers to the number of

wave cycles per second. The higher the frequency of a signal, the shorter
the wavelength. A wavelength can be calculated by dividing the velocity of
a wave by its frequency.

Wave division multiplexing

In fiber optic networks, techniques that include wavelength-division

multiplexing (WDM) and dense wavelength-division multiplexing can add
capacity to optical networks, also called photonic networks. This is
achieved by enabling a single strand of optical fiber to transmit multiple
signals -- beams of light -- that can travel through the fiber simultaneously
by using different wavelengths.

The following graphic illustrates an example of a wavelength:

The three most common wavelengths in fiber optics are 850 nanometers
(nm), 1,300 nm and 1,550 nm.

In the 1990s, the ability to use fiber optic cable to carry data was
significantly increased with the development of WDM. AT&T's Bell
Labs originally developed the capability to split a beam of light into different
wavelengths that could travel through the fiber at the same time. This
created the ability to transmit multiple channels within a single optical fiber.

Wavelengths in wireless networks

Although frequencies are more commonly discussed in wireless

networking, wavelengths are also an important factor in Wi-Fi networks. Wi-
Fi operates at five frequencies, all in the gigahertz range: 2.4 GHz, 3.6
GHz, 4.9 GHz, 5 GHz and 5.9 GHz. Higher frequencies have shorter
wavelengths, and signals with shorter wavelengths have more trouble
penetrating obstacles like walls and floors. As a result, wireless access
points that operate at higher frequencies (with shorter wavelengths) often
consume more power to transmit data at similar speeds and distances
achieved by devices that operate at lower frequencies (with longer
wavelengths).

frequency
Posted by: Margaret Rouse

WhatIs.com

Follow:

For an oscillating or varying current, frequency is the number of complete

cycles per second in alternating current direction. The standard unit of
frequency is the hertz, abbreviated Hz. If a current completes one cycle per
second, then the frequency is 1 Hz; 60 cycles per second equals 60 Hz
(the standard alternating-current utility frequency in some countries).

Larger units of frequency include the kilohertz (kHz) representing

thousands (1,000's) of cycles per second, the megahertz (MHz)
representing millions (1,000,000's) of cycles per second, and the gigahertz
(GHz) representing billions (1,000,000,000's) of cycles per second.
Occasionally the terahertz (THz) is used; 1 THz = 1,000,000,000,000
cycles per second. Note that these prefixes represent specific powers of
10, in contrast to the prefixes for multiples of bytes, which represent
specific powers of 2.

Computer clock speed is generally specified in megahertz and, more

recently, in gigahertz.

Frequency is important in wireless communications, where the frequency of

a signal is mathematically related to the wavelength. If f is the frequency of
an electromagnetic field in free space as measured in megahertz, and w is
the wavelength as measured in meters, then
w = 300/f

and conversely

f = 300/w

analog

1) In telecommunications, an analog signal is one in which a base carrier's

alternating current frequency is modified in some way, such as by
amplifying the strength of the signal or varying the frequency, in order to
add information to the signal. Broadcast and telephone transmission have
conventionally used analog technology.

An analog signal can be represented as a series of sine waves. The term

originated because the modulation of the carrier wave is analogous to the
fluctuations of the human voice or other sound that is being transmitted.

2) Analog describes any fluctuating, evolving, or continually changing

process.
bandwidth
Bandwidth is the capacity of a wired or wireless network communications
link to transmit the maximum amount of data from one point to another over
a computer network or internet connection in a given amount of time --
usually one second. Synonymous with capacity,bandwidth describes
the data transfer rate. Bandwidth is not a measure of network speed -- a
common misconception.

While bandwidth is traditionally expressed in bits per second (bps), modern

network links have greater capacity, which is typically measured in millions
of bits per second (megabits per second, or Mbps) or billions of bits per
second (gigabits per second, or Gbps).

Bandwidth connections can be symmetrical, which means the data capacity

is the same in both directions to upload or download data, or asymmetrical,
which means download and upload capacity are not equal. In asymmetrical
connections, upload capacity is typically smaller than download capacity.

How bandwidth works

The more bandwidth a data connection has, the more data it can send and
receive at one time. Bandwidth can be compared to the amount of water
that can flow through a water pipe. The bigger the pipe, the more water can
flow through it at one time. Bandwidth works on the same principle. So, the
higher the capacity of the communication link, or pipe, the more data can
flow through it per second.

End users pay for the capacity of their network connections, so the greater
the capacity of the link, the more expensive it is.

The maximum capacity of a network connection is only one factor that

affects network performance. Packet loss, latency and jitter can all degrade
network throughput and make a high-capacity link perform like one with
less available bandwidth. An end-to-end network path usually consists of
multiple network links, each with different bandwidth capacity. As a result,
the link with the lowest bandwidth is often described as
the bottleneck, because the lowest bandwidth connection can limit the
overall data capacity of all the connections in the path.

Considerations for calculating bandwidth

Technology advances have made some bandwidth calculations more

complex, and they can depend on the type of network link being used. For
example, optical fiber using different types of light waves and time-division
multiplexing can transmit more data through a connection at one time,
which effectively increases its bandwidth. In wireless networks, bandwidth
is defined as the spectrum of frequencies operators license from the
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the National
Telecommunications and Information Administration for use in mobile
services in the U.S.

Bandwidth limitations are a concern with cloud backup

Learn how not to fear bandwidth limitations when choosing a cloud backup option. In this video, Ben

Woo discusses moving data to the cloud.

Effective bandwidth, which is the highest reliable transmission rate a link

can provide, can be measured using a bandwidth test in which the link's
capacity is determined by repeatedly measuring the time required for a
specific file to leave its point of origin and successfully download at its
destination.

In addition to testing, organizations need to calculate how much bandwidth

they need to run all of the applications on their networks. To find out how
much capacity they need, organizations need to calculate the maximum
number of users who might be using the network connection at one time,
then multiply that number times the bandwidth capacity required by each
application.

To calculate needed bandwidth for the cloud, it's important to know the
capacity needed to send and receive traffic from public clouds. Capacity
can be affected by any congestion on the connections used to reach public
cloud providers, particularly if that data is traveling over the internet.

Bandwidth on demand

In addition to dedicated communication links with maximum amounts of

available bandwidth, which is typically sold at a set price by the month,
bandwidth on demand -- also called dynamic bandwidth allocation or
burstable bandwidth -- is an option that allows subscribers to increase the
amount of available bandwidth at specific times or for specific purposes.
Bandwidth on demand is a technique that can provide additional capacity
on a communications link to accommodate bursts in data traffic that
temporarily require more bandwidth.

Rather than over-provisioning the network with expensive dedicated links,

dynamic bandwidth allocation provided by service providers is frequently
used in wide area networks to increase capacity as needed for a particular
event or at a particular time of day. Using this technique, bandwidth on a
shared telecommunications network can be increased, and users pay for
only the additional bandwidth they consume.

Burstable bandwidth is available through many service providers, because

the network links they provide to customers have additional bandwidth
available through them, but customers pay only for the capacity they need.
For example, a 100 Mbps link might be able to burst up to a gigabit
because the service provider's connection has available capacity. If a user
needed more than the absolute maximum bandwidth available on that link,
another physical connection would be required.

Occasionally, a service provider will allow customers to burst above their

subscribed bandwidth cap without charging additional usage fees.

SD-WAN eases bandwidth needs

Software-defined WAN technology provides customers with extra capacity

because it makes bandwidth from multiple connections, rather than one,
available to users. These often include a Multiprotocol Label
Switching (MPLS) connection or other types of dedicated bandwidth link,
plus a broadband internet link or cellular connection.

With SD-WAN, if one connection is congested or fails completely, traffic is

routed automatically over the link with available capacity. While the
bandwidth of both SD-WAN links is finite, the SD-WAN management
software addresses constricted bandwidth before a problem affects the
user.

wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)

Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a method of combining multiple signals on laser beams

at various infared (IR) wavelengths for transmission along fiber optic media. Each laser is modulated
by an independent set of signals. Wavelength-sensitive filters, the IR analog of visible-light color
filters, are used at the receiving end.
WDM is similar to frequency-division multiplexing (FDM). But instead of taking place at radio
frequencies (RF), WDM is done in the IR portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Each IR channel
carries several RF signals combined by means of FDM or time-division multiplexing (TDM). Each
multiplexed IR channel is separated, or demultiplexed, into the original signals at the destination.
Using FDM or TDM in each IR channel in combination with WDM or several IR channels, data in
different formats and at different speeds can be transmitted simultaneously on a single fiber.

In early WDM systems, there were two IR channels per fiber. At the destination, the IR channels were
demultiplexed by a dichroic (two-wavelength) filter with a cutoff wavelength approximately midway
between the wavelengths of the two channels. It soon became clear that more than two multiplexed
IR channels could be demultiplexed using cascaded dichroic filters, giving rise to coarse wavelength-
division multiplexing (CWDM) and dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM). In CWDM, there
are usually eight different IR channels, but there can be up to 18. In DWDM, there can be dozens.
Because each IR channel carries its own set of multiplexed RF signals, it is theoretically possible to
transmit combined data on a single fiber at a total effective speed of several hundred gigabits per
second (Gbps).

The use of WDM can multiply the effective bandwidth of a fiber optic communications system by a
large factor, but its cost must be weighed against the alternative of using multiple fibers bundled into
a cable. A fiber optic repeater device called the erbium amplifier can make WDM a cost-effective
long-term solution.

fiber optics (optical fiber)

Fiber optics, or optical fiber, refers to the medium and the technology
associated with the transmission of information as light pulses along a
glass or plastic strand or fiber. A fiber optic cable can contain a varying
number of these glass fibers -- from a few up to a couple hundred.
Surrounding the glass fiber core is another glass layer called cladding. A
layer known as a buffer tube protects the cladding, and a jacket layer acts
as the final protective layer for the individual strand.

How fiber optics works

Fiber optics transmit data in the form of light particles -- or photons -- that
pulse through a fiber optic cable. The glass fiber core and the cladding
each have a different refractive index that bends incoming light at a certain
angle. When light signals are sent through the fiber optic cable, they reflect
off the core and cladding in a series of zig-zag bounces, adhering to a
process called total internal reflection. The light signals do not travel at
the speed of lightbecause of the denser glass layers, instead traveling
about 30% slower than the speed of light. To renew, or boost, the signal
throughout its journey, fiber optics transmission sometimes
requires repeaters at distant intervals to regenerate the optical signal by
converting it to an electrical signal, processing that electrical signal and
retransmitting the optical signal.

Types of fiber optic cables

Multimode fiber and single-mode fiber are the two primary types of fiber
optic cable. Single-mode fiber is used for longer distances due to the
smaller diameter of the glass fiber core, which lessens the possibility
for attenuation -- the reduction in signal strength. The smaller opening
isolates the light into a single beam, which offers a more direct route and
allows the signal to travel a longer distance. Single-mode fiber also has a
considerably higher bandwidth than multimode fiber. The light source used
for single-mode fiber is typically a laser. Single-mode fiber is usually more
expensive because it requires precise calculations to produce the laser
light in a smaller opening.
Fiber Optic Cable

Multimode fiber is used for shorter distances because the larger core
opening allows light signals to bounce and reflect more along the way. The
larger diameter permits multiple light pulses to be sent through the cable at
one time, which results in more data transmission. This also means that
there is more possibility for signal loss, reduction or interference, however.
Multimode fiber optics typically use an LED to create the light pulse.

While copper wire cables were the traditional choice for telecommunication,
networking and cable connections for years, fiber optics has become a
common alternative. Most telephone company long-distance lines are now
made of fiber optic cables. Optical fiber carries more information than
conventional copper wire, due to its higher bandwidth and faster speeds.
Because glass does not conduct electricity, fiber optics is not subject
to electromagnetic interference and signal losses are minimized.

In addition, fiber optic cables can be submerged in water and are used in
more at-risk environments like undersea cable. Fiber optic cables are also
stronger, thinner and lighter than copper wire cables and do not need to be
maintained or replaced as frequently. Copper wire is often cheaper than
fiber optics, however, and is already installed in many areas where fiber
optic cable hasn't been deployed. Glass fiber also requires more protection
within an outer cable than copper, and installing new cabling is labor-
intensive, as it typically is with any cable installation.

Fiber optics uses

Computer networking is a common fiber optics use case, due to optical

fiber's ability to transmit data and provide high bandwidth. Similarly, fiber
optics is frequently used in broadcasting and electronics to provide better
connections and performance.

dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM)

Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) is a technology that puts together -- multiplexes --
data signals from different sources so they can share a single optical fiber pair while maintaining
complete separation of the data streams. Each signal is carried on a separate light wavelength; the
dense part of DWDM refers to the fact that more than 80 separate wavelengths, each about 0.8 of a
nanometer (nm) wide, can share a single optical fiber.

DWDM allows enormous amounts of data to traverse a single network link. Because they are carried
on distinct wavelengths, the streams -- also called channels -- do not interfere with each other.
Consequently, data integrity is maintained, as well as any security-related partitioning -- separate
tenants in the same data center, for example.

Because of its ability to handle so much data, DWDM is popular with telecommunications and cable
companies and is an integral part of their core networks. It is also of interest to anyone running
densely populated data centers, particularly hyperscale cloud service providers for their IaaS
infrastructures or colocation providers for their densely multi-tenanted spaces, for example.
How DWDM works

DWDM wavelength channels are implemented via an array of infrared (IR) laser beams. In a system in
which each channel carries 100 Gbps and 192 channels per fiber pair, that translates to 19.2 Tbps
capacity per pair. Because the channels are physically distinct and don't interfere with each other
thanks to the properties of light, each of the channels can use different data formats and be
transmitted at different data rates.

For example, IP over DWDM would permit 100 Mbps and 10 Gbps data channels to share an optical
fiber, in addition to sharing it with an OC-192 Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) data channel.

Alternative to DWDM

Coarse wavelength division multiplexing (CWDM) also uses laser beams to transmit information over
fiber optic cables. Because it uses less-sophisticated electronics and photonics, CWDM channels are
much wider than DWDM channels, which means it supports fewer channels.

coarse wavelength division multiplexing (CWDM)

Coarse wavelength division multiplexing (CWDM) is a method of combining multiple signals on laser
beams at various wavelengths for transmission along fiber optic cables, such that the number of
channels is fewer than in dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) but more than in standard
wavelength division multiplexing (WDM).

CWDM systems have channels at wavelengths spaced 20 nanometers (nm) apart, compared with 0.4
nm spacing for DWDM. This allows the use of low-cost, uncooled lasers for CWDM. In a typical
CWDM system, laser emissions occur on eight channels at eight defined wavelengths: 1610 nm, 1590
nm, 1570 nm, 1550 nm, 1530 nm, 1510 nm, 1490 nm, and 1470 nm. But up to 18 different channels
are allowed, with wavelengths ranging down to 1270 nm.

The energy from the lasers in a CWDM system is spread out over a larger range of wavelengths than
is the energy from the lasers in a DWDM system. The tolerance (extent of wavelength imprecision or
variability) in a CWDM laser is up to ± 3 nm, whereas in a DWDM laser the tolerance is much tighter.
Because of the use of lasers with lower precision, a CWDM system is less expensive and consumes
less power than a DWDM system. However, the maximum realizable distance between nodes is
smaller with CWDM.

time-division multiplexing (TDM)

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of putting multiple data streams in a single signal by
separating the signal into many segments, each having a very short duration. Each individual data
stream is reassembled at the receiving end based on the timing.

The circuit that combines signals at the source (transmitting) end of a communications link is known
as a multiplexer. It accepts the input from each individual end user, breaks each signal into segments,
and assigns the segments to the composite signal in a rotating, repeating sequence. The composite
signal thus contains data from multiple senders. At the other end of the long-distance cable, the
individual signals are separated out by means of a circuit called a demultiplexer, and routed to the
proper end users. A two-way communications circuit requires a multiplexer/demultiplexer at each
end of the long-distance, high-bandwidth cable.

If many signals must be sent along a single long-distance line, careful engineering is required to
ensure that the system will perform properly. An asset of TDM is its flexibility. The scheme allows for
variation in the number of signals being sent along the line, and constantly adjusts the time intervals
to make optimum use of the available bandwidth. The Internet is a classic example of a
communications network in which the volume of traffic can change drastically from hour to hour. In
some systems, a different scheme, known as frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), is preferred.

CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access)

CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access) refers to any of several protocols used in second-generation
(2G) and third-generation (3G) wireless communications. As the term implies, CDMA is a form of
multiplexing, which allows numerous signals to occupy a single transmission channel, optimizing the
use of available bandwidth. The technology is used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone
systems in the 800-MHz and 1.9-GHz bands.

CDMA employs analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) in combination with spread spectrum technology.
Audio input is first digitized into binary elements. The frequency of the transmitted signal is then
made to vary according to a defined pattern (code), so it can be intercepted only by a receiver whose
frequency response is programmed with the same code, so it follows exactly along with the
transmitter frequency. There are trillions of possible frequency-sequencing codes, which enhances
privacy and makes cloning difficult.

The CDMA channel is nominally 1.23 MHz wide. CDMA networks use a scheme called soft handoff,
which minimizes signal breakup as a handset passes from one cell to another. The combination of
digital and spread-spectrum modes supports several times as many signals per unit bandwidth as
analog modes. CDMA is compatible with other cellular technologies; this allows for nationwide
roaming. The original CDMA standard, also known as CDMA One, offers a transmission speed of only
up to 14.4 Kbps in its single channel form and up to 115 Kbps in an eight-channel form. CDMA2000
and Wideband CDMA deliver data many times faster.
The CDMA2000 family of standards includes 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev 0, EV-DO Rev A and EV-DO Rev B
(renamed Ultra Mobile Broadband -- UMB). People often confuse CDMA2000 (a family of standards
supported by Verizon and Sprint) with CDMA (the physical layer multiplexing scheme).

Fast Guide to DSL (Digital

Subscriber Line)
How It Works | Who's Offering It When |
ADSL | CDSL | DSL
Lite | DSLAM | G.Lite | HDSL | IDSL | RADSL | SDSL | UDSL | VDSL | x2/D
SL |
Summary Table | Test Your Knowledge

DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is a technology for bringing

high- bandwidth information to homes and small businesses over ordinary
copper telephone lines. xDSL refers to different variations of DSL, such as
ADSL, HDSL, and RADSL. Assuming your home or small business is close
enough to a telephone company central office that offers DSL service, you
may be able to receive data at rates up to 6.1 megabits (millions of bits) per
second (of a theoretical 8.448 megabits per second), enabling continuous
transmission of motion video, audio, and even 3-D effects. More typically,
individual connections will provide from 1.544 Mbps to 512 Kbps
downstream and about 128 Kbps upstream. A DSL line can carry both data
and voice signals and the data part of the line is continuously connected.
DSL installations began in 1998 and will continue at a greatly increased
pace through the next decade in a number of communities in the U.S. and
elsewhere. Compaq, Intel, and Microsoft working with telephone
companies have developed a standard and easier-to-install form of ADSL
called G.Lite that is accelerating deployment. DSL is expected to
replace ISDN in many areas and to compete with the cable modem in
bringing multimedia and 3-D to homes and small businesses.
How It Works

Traditional phone service (sometimes called POTS for "plain old telephone
service") connects your home or small business to a telephone company
office over copper wires that are wound around each other and
called twisted pair . Traditional phone service was created to let you
exchange voice information with other phone users and the type of signal
used for this kind of transmission is called an analog signal. An input device
such as a phone set takes an acoustic signal (which is a natural analog
signal) and converts it into an electrical equivalent in terms of volume
(signal amplitude) and pitch (frequency of wave change). Since the
telephone company's signalling is already set up for this analog wave
transmission, it's easier for it to use that as the way to get information back
and forth between your telephone and the telephone company. That's why
your computer has to have a modem - so that it can demodulate the analog
signal and turn its values into the string of 0 and 1 values that is
called digital information.

Because analog transmission only uses a small portion of the available

amount of information that could be transmitted over copper wires, the
maximum amount of data that you can receive using ordinary modems is
about 56 Kbps (thousands of bits per second). (With ISDN , which one
might think of as a limited precursor to DSL, you can receive up to 128
Kbps.) The ability of your computer to receive information is constrained by
the fact that the telephone company filters information that arrives as digital
data, puts it into analog form for your telephone line, and requires your
modem to change it back into digital. In other words, the analog
transmission between your home or business and the phone company is a
bandwidth bottleneck.

Digital Subscriber Line is a technology that assumes digital data does not
require change into analog form and back. Digital data is transmitted to
your computer directly as digital data and this allows the phone company to
use a much wider bandwidth for transmitting it to you. Meanwhile, if you
choose, the signal can be separated so that some of the bandwidth is used
to transmit an analog signal so that you can use your telephone and
computer on the same line and at the same time.

Splitter-based vs. Splitterless DSL

Most DSL technologies require that a signal splitter be installed at a home

or business, requiring the expense of a phone company visit and
installation. However, it is possible to manage the splitting remotely from
the central office. This is known as splitterless DSL, "DSL Lite," G.Lite, or
Universal ADSL and has recently been made a standard.

Modulation Technologies

Several modulation technologies are used by various kinds of DSL,

although these are being standardized by the International
Telecommunication Union ( ITU ). Different DSL modem makers are using
either Discrete Multitone Technology ( DMT ) or Carrierless Amplitude
Modulation ( CAP ). A third technology, known as Multiple Virtual Line
( MVL nother possibility.

Factors Affecting the Experienced Data Rate

DSL modems follow the data rate multiples established by North American
and European standards. In general, the maximum range for DSL without
a repeater is 5.5 km (18,000 feet). As distance decreases toward the
telephone company office, the data rate increases. Another factor is the
gauge of the copper wire. The heavier 24 gauge wire carries the same data
rate farther than 26 gauge wire. If you live beyond the 5.5 kilometer range,
you may still be able to have DSL if your phone company has extended the
local loop with optical fibercable.

The Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer (DSLAM)

To interconnect multiple DSL users to a high-speed backbone network, the

telephone company uses a Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer
( DSLAM ). Typically, the DSLAM connects to an asynchronous transfer
mode ( ATM ) network that can aggregate data transmission at gigabit data
rates. At the other end of each transmission, a DSLAM demultiplexes the
signals and forwards them to appropriate individual DSL connections.

Who's Offering It When

DSL is now offered in most parts of the United States, in the UK, and
elsewhere. The availability of DSL service depends on whether a local
company has made the necessary investment in equipment and line
reconditioning and on your own proximity to the telephone company.

Companies offering DSL service in various parts of the United States

include BellSouth, Covad, Primary Network, Qwest, SBC Communications,
and Verizon. In general, a faster and more expensive is offered for
business users.

Types of DSL

ADSL

The variation called ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) is the form
of DSL that will become most familiar to home and small business users.
ADSL is called "asymmetric" because most of its two-way
or duplex bandwidth is devoted to the downstream direction, sending data
to the user. Only a small portion of bandwidth is available for upstream or
user-interaction messages. However, most Internet and especially
graphics- or multi-media intensive Web data need lots of downstream
bandwidth, but user requests and responses are small and require little
upstream bandwidth. Using ADSL, up to 6.1 megabits per second of data
can be sent downstream and up to 640 Kbps upstream. The high
downstream bandwidth means that your telephone line will be able to bring
motion video, audio, and 3-D images to your computer or hooked-in TV set.
In addition, a small portion of the downstream bandwidth can be devoted to
voice rather data, and you can hold phone conversations without requiring
a separate line.
Unlike a similar service over your cable TV line, using ADSL, you won't be
competing for bandwidth with neighbors in your area. In many cases, your
existing telephone lines will work with ADSL. In some areas, they may need
upgrading.

CDSL

CDSL (Consumer DSL) is a version of DSL, trademarked by Rockwell

Corp., that is somewhat slower than ADSL (1 Mbps downstream, probably
less upstream) and has the advantage that a "splitter" does not need to be
installed at the user's end. Rockwell no longer provides information about
CSDL at its Web site and does not appear to be marketing it.

G.Lite or DSL Lite

G.Lite (also known as DSL Lite, splitterless ADSL, and Universal ADSL) is
essentially a slower ADSL that doesn't require splitting of the line at the
user end but manages to split it for the user remotely at the telephone
company. This saves the cost of what the phone companies call "the truck
roll." G.Lite, officially ITU-T standard G-992.2, provides a data rate from
1.544 Mbps to 6 Mpbs downstream and from 128 Kbps to 384 Kbps
upstream. G.Lite is expected to become the most widely installed form of
DSL.

HDSL

HDSL (High bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line), one of the earliest forms of
DSL, is used for wideband digital transmission within a corporate site and
between the telephone company and a customer. The main characteristic
of HDSL is that it is symmetrical: an equal amount of bandwidth is available
in both directions. HDSL can carry as much on a single wire of twisted-pair
cable as can be carried on a T1 line (up to 1.544 Mbps) in North America or
an E1 line (up to 2.048 Mbps) in Europe over a somewhat longer range and
is considered an alternative to a T1 or E1 connection.
IDSL

IDSL (ISDN DSL) is somewhat of a misnomer since it's really closer to

ISDN data rates and service at 128 Kbps than to the much higher rates of
ADSL.

RADSL

RADSL (Rate-Adaptive DSL) is an ADSL technology from Westell in which

software is able to determine the rate at which signals can be transmitted
on a given customer phone line and adjust the delivery rate accordingly.
Westell's FlexCap2 system uses RADSL to deliver from 640 Kbps to 2.2
Mbps downstream and from 272 Kbps to 1.088 Mbps upstream over an
existing line.

SDSL

SDSL (Symmetric DSL) is similar to HDSL with a single twisted-pair line,

carrying 1.544 Mbps (U.S. and Canada) or 2.048 Mbps (Europe) each
direction on a duplex line. It's symmetric because the data rate is the same
in both directions.

UDSL

UDSL (Unidirectional DSL) is a proposal from a European company. It's a

unidirectional version of HDSL.

VDSL

VDSL (Very high data rate DSL) is a developing technology that promises
much higher data rates over relatively short distances (between 51 and 55
Mbps over lines up to 1,000 feet or 300 meters in length). It's envisioned
that VDSL may emerge somewhat after ADSL is widely deployed and co-
exist with it. The transmission technology (CAP, DMT, or other) and its
effectiveness in some environments is not yet determined. A number of
standards organizations are working on it.
x2/DSL

x2/DSL is a modem from 3Com that supports 56 Kbps modem

communication but is upgradeable through new software installation to
ADSL when it becomes available in the user's area. 3Com calls it "the last
modem you will ever need."

A DSL Summary Table

Data Rate
DSL Distance
Description Downstream; Application
Type Limit
Upstream

IDSL ISDN Digital 128 Kbps 18,000 Similar to the ISDN

Subscriber Line feet on 24 BRI service but
gauge wire data only (no voice
on the same line)

CDSL Consumer DSL 1 Mbps 18,000 Splitterless home

from Rockwell downstream; less feet on 24 and small business
upstream gauge wire service; similar to
DSL Lite

DSL "Splitterless" From 1.544 Mbps 18,000 The standard ADSL;

Lite DSL without the to 6 Mbps feet on 24 sacrifices speed for
(same "truck roll" downstream, gauge wire not having to
as depending on the install a splitter at
G.Lite) subscribed the user's home or
service business

G.Lite "Splitterless" From 1.544 Mbps 18,000 The standard ADSL;

(same DSL without the to 6 Mbps , feet on 24 sacrifices speed for
as DSL "truck roll" depending on the gauge wire not having to
Lite) subscribed install a splitter at
service the user's home or
business
HDSL High bit-rate 1.544 Mbps 12,000 T1/E1 service
Digital duplex on two feet on 24 between server
Subscriber Line twisted-pair lines; gauge wire and phone
2.048 Mbps company or within
duplex on three a company;
twisted-pair lines WAN, LAN, server
access

SDSL Symmetric DSL 1.544 Mbps 12,000 Same as for HDSL

duplex (U.S. and feet on 24 but requiring only
Canada); 2.048 gauge wire one line of twisted-
Mbps (Europe) pair
on a single duplex
line downstream
and upstream

ADSL Asymmetric 1.544 to 6.1 1.544 Used for Internet

Digital Mbps Mbps at and Web access,
Subscriber Line downstream; 18,000 motion video,
16 to 640 Kbps feet; video on demand,
upstream 2.048 remote LAN access
Mbps at
16,000
feet;
6.312
Mpbs at
12,000
feet;
8.448
Mbps at
9,000 feet

RADSL Rate-Adaptive Adapted to the Not Similar to ADSL

DSL from line, 640 Kbps to provided
Westell 2.2 Mbps
 downstream; 272
Kbps to 1.088
Mbps upstream

UDSL Unidirectional Not known Not Similar to HDSL

DSL proposed known
by a company
in Europe

VDSL Very high 12.9 to 52.8 4,500 feet ATM networks;

Digital Mbps at 12.96 Fiber to the
Subscriber Line downstream; Mbps; Neighborhood
1.5 to 2.3 Mbps 3,000 feet
upstream; at 25.82
1.6 Mbps to 2.3 Mbps;
Mbps 1,000 feet
downstream at 51.84
Mbps

frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is a scheme in which numerous signals are combined for
transmission on a single communications line or channel. Each signal is assigned a different
frequency (subchannel) within the main channel.

A typical analog Internet connection via a twisted pair telephone line requires approximately three
kilohertz (3 kHz) of bandwidth for accurate and reliable data transfer. Twisted-pair lines are common
in households and small businesses. But major telephone cables, operating between large
businesses, government agencies, and municipalities, are capable of much larger bandwidths.

Suppose a long-distance cable is available with a bandwidth allotment of three megahertz (3 MHz).
This is 3,000 kHz, so in theory, it is possible to place 1,000 signals, each 3 kHz wide, into the long-
distance channel. The circuit that does this is known as a multiplexer. It accepts the input from each
individual end user, and generates a signal on a different frequency for each of the inputs. This
results in a high-bandwidth, complex signal containing data from all the end users. At the other end
of the long-distance cable, the individual signals are separated out by means of a circuit called a
demultiplexer, and routed to the proper end users. A two-way communications circuit requires a
multiplexer/demultiplexer at each end of the long-distance, high-bandwidth cable.

When FDM is used in a communications network, each input signal is sent and received at maximum
speed at all times. This is its chief asset. However, if many signals must be sent along a single long-
distance line, the necessary bandwidth is large, and careful engineering is required to ensure that the
system will perform properly. In some systems, a different scheme, known as time-division
multiplexing, is used instead.

ATM (asynchronous transfer mode)

ATM (asynchronous transfer mode) is a dedicated-connection switching technology that organizes

digital data into 53-byte cell units and transmits them over a physical medium using digital signal
technology. Individually, a cell is processed asynchronously relative to other related cells and is
queued before being multiplexed over the transmission path.

Because ATM is designed to be easily implemented by hardware (rather than software), faster
processing and switch speeds are possible. The prespecified bit rates are either 155.520 Mbps or
622.080 Mbps. Speeds on ATM networks can reach 10 Gbps. Along with Synchronous Optical
Network (SONET) and several other technologies, ATM is a key component of broadband ISDN
(BISDN).

ATM also stands for automated teller machine, a machine that bank customers use to make
transactions without a human teller.

frame relay

Frame relay is a packet-switching telecommunication service designed for cost-efficient data

transmission for intermittent traffic between local area networks (LANs) and between endpoints in
wide area networks (WANs). The service, once widely available and implemented, is in the process of
being discontinued by major Internet service providers. Sprint ended its frame relay service in 2007,
while Verizon said it plans to phase out the service in 2015. AT&T stopped offering frame relay in
2012 but said it would support existing customers until 2016.

Frame relay puts data in a variable-size unit called a frame and leaves any necessary error correction
(retransmission of data) up to the endpoints, which speeds up overall data transmission. For most
services, the network provides a permanent virtual circuit (PVC), which means that the customer
sees a continuous, dedicated connection without having to pay for a full-time leased line, while the
service provider figures out the route each frame travels to its destination and can charge based on
 usage. Switched virtual circuits (SVC), by contrast, are temporary connections that are destroyed
after a specific data transfer is completed.

An enterprise can select a level of service quality, prioritizing some frames and making others less
important. A number of service providers, including AT&T, offer frame relay, and it's available on
fractional T-1 or full T-carrier system carriers. Frame relay complements and provides a mid-range
service between ISDN, which offers bandwidth at 128 Kbps, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM),
which operates in somewhat similar fashion to frame relay but at speeds of 155.520 Mbps or
622.080 Mbps.

Devices

In order for a frame relay WAN to transmit data, data terminal equipment (DTE) and data circuit-
terminating equipment (DCE) are required. DTEs are typically located on the customer's premises
and can encompass terminals, routers, bridges and personal computers. DCEs are managed by the
carriers and provide switching and associated services.

Frame relay is based on the older X.25 packet-switching technology that was designed for
transmitting analog data such as voice conversations. Unlike X.25, which was designed for analog
signals, frame relay is a fast packet technology, which means that the protocol does not attempt to
correct errors. When an error is detected in a frame, it is simply dropped (that is, thrown away). The
end points are responsible for detecting and retransmitting dropped frames (though the incidence of
error in digital networks is extraordinarily small relative to analog networks).

Frame relay is often used to connect LANs with major backbones as well as on public wide area
networks and also in private network environments with leased T-1 lines. It requires a dedicated
connection during the transmission period and is not ideal for voice or video, which require a steady
flow of transmissions. Frame relay transmits packets at the data link layer of the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model rather than at the network layer. A frame can incorporate packets from
different protocols such as Ethernet and X.25. It is variable in size and can be as large as a thousand
bytes or more.

How DSL Works

BY CURT FRANKLIN




NEXT

A DSL modem uses telephone lines for high-speed Internet connections. See
more internet connection pictures.

PHOTO COURTESY HOWSTUFFWORKS SHOPPER

When you connect to the Internet, you might connect through a

regular modem, through a local-area network connection in
your office, through a cable modem or through a digital
subscriber line(DSL) connection. DSL is a very high-speed
connection that uses the same wires as a regular telephone
line.

Here are some advantages of DSL:

 You can leave your Internet connection open and still

use the phone line for voice calls.
 The speed is much higher than a regular modem

 DSL doesn't necessarily require new wiring; it can use

the phone line you already have.

 The company that offers DSL will usually provide the

modem as part of the installation.

But there are disadvantages:

 A DSL connection works better when you are closer to
the provider's central office. The farther away you get
from the central office, the weaker the signal becomes.
 The connection is faster for receiving data than it is for
sending data over the Internet.

 The service is not available everywhere.

In this article, we explain how a DSL connection manages to

squeeze more information through a standard phone line -- and
lets you make regular telephone calls even when you're online.

Telephone Lines
If you have read How Telephones Work, then you know that a
standard telephone installation in the United States consists
of a pair of copper wires that the phone company installs in
your home. The copper wires have lots of room for carrying
more than your phone conversations -- they are capable of
handling a much greater bandwidth, or range of frequencies,
than that demanded for voice. DSL exploits this "extra
capacity" to carry information on the wire without disturbing
the line's ability to carry conversations. The entire plan is
based on matching particular frequencies to specific tasks.

To understand DSL, you first need to know a couple of things

about a normal telephone line -- the kind that telephone
professionals call POTS, for Plain Old Telephone Service. One
of the ways that POTS makes the most of the telephone
company's wires and equipment is by limiting the frequencies
that the switches, telephones and other equipment will carry.
Human voices, speaking in normal conversational tones, can
be carried in a frequency range of 0 to 3,400 Hertz (cycles per
second -- see How Telephones Work for a great demonstration
of this). This range of frequencies is tiny. For example, compare
this to the range of most stereo speakers, which cover from
roughly 20 Hertz to 20,000 Hertz. And the wires themselves
have the potential to handle frequencies up to several million
Hertz in most cases.

The use of such a small portion of the wire's total bandwidth is

historical -- remember that the telephone system has been in
place, using a pair of copper wires to each home, for about a
century. By limiting the frequencies carried over the lines, the
telephone system can pack lots of wires into a very small
space without worrying about interference between lines.
Modern equipment that sends digital rather than analog data
can safely use much more of the telephone line's capacity. DSL
does just that.

A DSL internet connection is one of many effective

communication tools for keeping employees in touch with the
office.

Asymmetric DSL
PREV NEXT

DSL signals can't pass through fiber-optic cables.

PHOTO COURTESY CORNING

Most homes and small business users are connected to

an asymmetric DSL(ADSL) line. ADSL divides up the available
frequencies in a line on the assumption that
most Internet users look at, or download, much more
information than they send, or upload. Under this assumption,
if the connection speed from the Internet to the user is three
to four times faster than the connection from the user back to
the Internet, then the user will see the most benefit most of
the time.

Precisely how much benefit you see from ADSL will greatly
depend on how far you are from the central office of the
company providing the ADSL service. ADSL is a distance-
sensitive technology: As the connection's length increases, the
signal quality decreases and the connection speed goes down.
The limit for ADSL service is 18,000 feet (5,460 meters),
though for speed and quality of service reasons many ADSL
providers place a lower limit on the distances for the service.
At the extremes of the distance limits, ADSL customers may
see speeds far below the promised maximums, while
customers nearer the central office have faster connections
and may see extremely high speeds in the future. ADSL
technology can provide maximum downstream (Internet to
customer) speeds of up to 8 megabits per second (Mbps) at a
distance of about 6,000 feet (1,820 meters), and upstream
speeds of up to 640 kilobits per second (Kbps). In practice, the
best speeds widely offered today are 1.5 Mbps downstream,
with upstream speeds varying between 64 and 640 Kbps. Some
vast improvements to ADSL are available in some areas
through services called ASDL2 and ASDL2+. ASDL2 increases
downstream to 12 Mbps and upstream to 1 Mbps, and ASDL2+
is even better -- it improves downstream to as much as 24
Mbps and upstream to 3 Mbps.

You might wonder -- if distance is a limitation for DSL, why is it

not also a limitation for voice telephone calls? The answer lies
in small amplifiers called loading coils that the telephone
company uses to boost voice signals. Unfortunately, these
loading coils are incompatible with ADSL signals, so a voice
coil in the loop between your telephone and the telephone
company's central office will disqualify you from receiving
ADSL. Other factors that might disqualify you from receiving
ADSL include:
 Bridge taps - These are extensions, between you and
the central office, that extend service to other customers.
While you wouldn't notice these bridge taps in normal
phone service, they may take the total length of the
circuit beyond the distance limits of the service provider.
 Fiber-optic cables - ADSL signals can't pass through
the conversion from analog to digital and back to analog
that occurs if a portion of your telephone circuit comes
through fiber-optic cables.

 Distance - Even if you know where your central office is

(don't be surprised if you don't -- the telephone companies
don't advertise their locations), looking at a map is no
indication of the distance a signal must travel between
your house and the office.

Next, we'll look at how the signal is split and what equipment
DSL uses.

Splitting the Signal

PREV NEXT

The CAP System

There are two competing and incompatible standards for ADSL.
The official ANSI standard for ADSL is a system called discrete
multitone, or DMT. According to equipment manufacturers,
most of the ADSL equipment installed today uses DMT. An
earlier and more easily implemented standard was
the carrierless amplitude/phase (CAP) system, which was used
on many of the early installations of ADSL.
CAP operates by dividing the signals on the telephone line into
three distinct bands: Voice conversations are carried in the 0
to 4 KHz (kilohertz) band, as they are in all POTS circuits. The
upstream channel (from the user back to the server) is carried
in a band between 25 and 160 KHz. The downstream channel
(from the server to the user) begins at 240 KHz and goes up to
a point that varies depending on a number of conditions (line
length, line noise, number of users in a particular telephone
company switch) but has a maximum of about 1.5 MHz
(megahertz). This system, with the three channels widely
separated, minimizes the possibility of interference between
the channels on one line, or between the signals on different
lines.

The DMT System

DMT also divides signals into separate channels, but doesn't
use two fairly broad channels for upstream and downstream
data. Instead, DMT divides the data into 247 separate
channels, each 4 KHz wide.

One way to think about it is to imagine that the phone

company divides your copper line into 247 different 4-KHz lines
and then attaches a modem to each one. You get the
equivalent of 247 modems connected to your computer at
once. Each channel is monitored and, if the quality is too
impaired, the signal is shifted to another channel. This system
constantly shifts signals between different channels,
searching for the best channels for transmission and
reception. In addition, some of the lower channels (those
starting at about 8 KHz), are used as bidirectional channels, for
upstream and downstream information. Monitoring and sorting
out the information on the bidirectional channels, and keeping
up with the quality of all 247 channels, makes DMT more
complex to implement than CAP, but gives it more flexibility on
lines of differing quality.

Filters
CAP and DMT are similar in one way that you can see as a DSL
user.

If you have ADSL installed, you were almost certainly given

small filters to attach to the outlets that don't provide the
signal to your ADSL modem. These filters are low-pass filters --
simple filters that block all signals above a certain frequency.
Since all voice conversations take place below 4 KHz, the low-
pass (LP) filters are built to block everything above 4 KHz,
preventing the data signals from interfering with standard
telephone calls.

DSL Equipment
PREV NEXT
ADSL uses two pieces of equipment, one on the customer end
and one at the Internet service provider, telephone company or
other provider of DSL services. At the customer's location
there is a DSL transceiver, which may also provide other
services. The DSL service provider has a DSL Access
Multiplexer (DSLAM) to receive customer connections.

The Transceiver
Most residential customers call their DSL transceiver a "DSL
modem." The engineers at the telephone company or ISP call it
an ATU-R. Regardless of what it's called, it's the point where
data from the user's computer or network is connected to the
DSL line.
DSL modem

PHOTO COURTESY ALLIED TELESYN

The transceiver can connect to a customer's equipment in

several ways, though most residential installation uses USB or
10 base-T Ethernet connections. While most of the ADSL
transceivers sold by ISPs and telephone companies are simply
transceivers, the devices used by businesses may combine
network routers, network switches or other networking
equipment in the same platform.

The DSLAM
The DSLAM at the access provider is the equipment that really
allows DSL to happen. A DSLAM takes connections from many
customers and aggregates them onto a single, high-capacity
connection to the Internet. DSLAMs are generally flexible and
able to support multiple types of DSL in a single central office,
and different varieties of protocol and modulation -- both CAP
and DMT, for example -- in the same type of DSL. In addition,
the DSLAM may provide additional functions including routing
or dynamic IP address assignment for the customers.

The DSLAM provides one of the main differences between user

service through ADSL and through cable modems. Because
cable-modem users generally share a network loop that runs
through a neighborhood, adding users means lowering
performance in many instances. ADSL provides a dedicated
connection from each user back to the DSLAM, meaning that
users won't see a performance decrease as new users are
added -- until the total number of users begins to saturate the
single, high-speed connection to the Internet. At that point, an
upgrade by the service provider can provide additional
performance for all the users connected to the DSLAM.

For information on ADSL rates and availability in the United

States, go to Broadband Reports. This site can provide
information on ADSL service companies in your area, the rates
they charge, and customer satisfaction, as well as estimating
how far you are from the nearest central office.

ADSL isn't the only type of DSL, and it's not the only way to get
high-speed Internet access. Next, we'll look at ADSL
alternatives.

Alternatives to ADSL
PREV UP NEXT

There are lots of variations in DSL technology -- many of them

address DSL's distance limitations in one way or another. Other
types of DSL include:

 Very high bit-rate DSL (VDSL) - This is a fast

connection, but works only over a short distance. It is
 capable of handling Internet access, HDTVand on-demand
services at rates of 52 Mbps downstream and 12 Mbps
upstream.
 Symmetric DSL (SDSL) - This connection, used mainly
by small businesses, doesn't allow you to use the phone
at the same time, but the speed of receiving and sending
data is the same.

 Rate-adaptive DSL (RADSL) - This is a variation of

ADSL, but the modem can adjust the speed of the
connection depending on the length and quality of the
line.

 ISDN DSL (IDSL) - This is a combination of the

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and DSL
technology. ISDN was the solution to dial-up Internet -- it
allowed voice, text graphics, video and other data to
share one telephone line. This made it possible to talk on
the phone and use the Internet at the same time. IDSL is
faster than ISDN connections but slower than DSL. It can
travel a longer distance of 5 to 6 miles, so it is usually a
good option for people who can't get DSL in their area.

 Universal DLS (Uni-DSL) - This emerging technology,

developed by Texas Instruments, is backwards compatible
with all existing versions of DSL. It offers somewhat of a
middle ground between ASDL and VDSL -- at longer
distances, it can reach the speeds of ASDL, but it can
provide greater speeds than VDSL at shorter distances. In
some locations, Uni-DSL can provide four times the
amount of speed as VDSL.

Alternatives to DSL
With DSL's distance limitation and lower availability, what are
some other options? There are two major alternatives to DSL
-- cable and wireless.
Cable and DSL are the two big rivals in the world of broadband.
Cable isn't limited by distance like DSL -- cable wires reach
most neighborhoods, and signal strengths don't weaken over
long distances. While DSL allows you to use the telephone and
Internet simultaneously, cable lets users watch television and
surf the Internet at the same time. Many cable companies are
also beginning to bundle services with cable TV, Internet and
digital telephone on one bill. Although cable and DSL speeds
are about the same, the one disadvantage with cable is
bandwidth -- connection speeds can slow down if too many
people are using a cable service at the same time.

A new technology, known as WiMax or 802.16, looks to

combine the benefits of broadband and wireless. WiMax will
provide high-speed wireless Internet over very long distances
and will most likely provide access to large areas such as
cities. WiMax technology will be available in most American
cities in 2008.

To learn more about DSL and other topics, read on to the next
page.

A DSL modem needs to have the Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) and Virtual Circuit Identifier
(VCI) set in order to work correctly. In essence, these two numbers tell
the DSL equipment on both ends that they should talk to each other, you can think of
them as having a similar functionality to dialing a number on a regular phone line.
Each DSL provider uses a set of these two numbers.

Bellow is the actual technical definition of both:

VPI (Virtual Path Identifier) is an eight-bit field in an ATM cell's header that identifies
the virtual path (a bundle of virtual channels that have the same endpoint) to which the
cell belongs as it travels through an ATM network.

VCI (Virtual Channel Identifier) is a 16-bit field in an ATM cell's header that identifies
the cell's next destination as it travels through an ATM network (similar to Frame Relay's
DLCI). A virtual channel is a logical connection between two end devices on
an ATM network.

An ATM switch uses either the VPI, VCI, or a combination of both to route the cell to its
destination.
bandwidth
Bandwidth is the capacity of a wired or wireless network communications
link to transmit the maximum amount of data from one point to another over
a computer network or internet connection in a given amount of time --
usually one second. Synonymous with capacity,bandwidth describes
the data transfer rate. Bandwidth is not a measure of network speed -- a
common misconception.

data transfer rate (DTR)

The data transfer rate (DTR) is the amount of digital data that is moved
from one place to another in a given time. The data transfer rate can be
viewed as the speed of travel of a given amount of data from one place to
another. In general, the greater the bandwidth of a given path, the higher
the data transfer rate.

In telecommunications, data transfer is usually measured in bits per

second. For example, a typical low-speed connection to the Internet may
be 33.6 kilobits per second (Kbps). On Ethernet local area networks, data
transfer can be as fast as 10 megabits per second. Network switches are
planned that will transfer data in the terabit range. In earlier
telecommunication systems, data transfer was sometimes measured in
characters or blocks (of a certain size) per second. Data transfer time
between the microprocessor or RAM and devices such as the hard
disk and CD-ROM player is usually measured in milliseconds.

In computers, data transfer is often measured in bytes per second. The

highest data transfer rate to date is 14 terabits per second over a single
optical fiber, reported by Japan's Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT
DoComo) in 2006.
PPPoE (Point-to-Point Protocol
over Ethernet)
PPPoE (Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet) is a specification for
connecting multiple computer users on an Ethernet local area network to a
remote site through common customer premises equipment, which is the
telephone company's term for a modem and similar devices. PPPoE can be
used to have an office or building-full of users share a common Digital
Subscriber Line (DSL), cable modem, or wireless connection to the
Internet. PPPoE combines the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), commonly
used in dialup connections, with the Ethernet protocol, which supports
multiple users in a local area network. The PPP protocol information is
encapsulated within an Ethernet frame.

PPPoE has the advantage that neither the telephone company nor the
Internet service provider (ISP) needs to provide any special support. Unlike
dialup connections, DSL and cable modem connections are "always on."
Since a number of different users are sharing the same physical connection
to the remote service provider, a way is needed to keep track of which user
traffic should go to and which user should be billed. PPPoE provides for
each user-remote site session to learn each other's network addresses
(during an initial exchange called "discovery"). Once a session is
established between an individual user and the remote site (for example,
an Internet service provider), the session can be monitored for billing
purposes. Many apartment houses, hotels, and corporations are now
providing shared Internet access over DSL lines using Ethernet and
PPPoE.