(Monocot), Rosaceae (Roses), Asteraceae/ Concepts Compositae (Daisies, asters, sunflowers), Poaceae/ Graminae (Grasses: wheat, rice, corn), Brassicaceae - Fossils /Cruciferae (Mustards), Apiaceae/Umbelliferae ‣ Lines of evolution that have become extinct (Umbels: celery, dill) - Phylogeny 4. Order ‣ Hereditary relationships of any group of organisms ‣ –ales ‣ Evolutionary history of each member of the group ‣ Ex. Fabales (Eudicot), Liliales (Monocot) ‣ The steps that were involved as a group/several groups of 5. Class organisms evolved from some early ancestor ‣ –opsida ‣ Reality ‣ Ex. Magnoliopsida (Eudicot), Liliopsida (Monocot) - Systematics 6. Division ‣ Study; Understand these evolutionary lines ‣ –phyta ‣ Determine which organisms share a recent ancestry with ‣ Ex. Chlorophyta (Green Algae), Coniferophyta others (Conifers), Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants) ‣ Concerned about the amount of evolutionary changes that 7. Kingdom may have occurred between ancestries 8. Domain ‣ Hypothesis, attempt to map evolution ‣ Archaea - Taxonomy ‣ Bacteria ‣ Classifying and naming organisms ‣ Eukarya - Nomenclature - Lumpers ‣ System of names that reflects the relationships of ‣ Taxonomists, believe that distantly related species should evolutionary lines accurately be grouped together in large genera ‣ Has numerous levels: closely related = genus, genera = ‣ Ex. Cranberries and blueberries are similar enough that family, and so on the should be grouped in genus Vaccinium - Taxonomists / Systematists - Splitters ‣ Discover organisms and assign names ‣ Prefer many small genera with few closely related species ‣ Identify and explain lineages and evolution ‣ Ex. Cranberries are distinct enough from blueberries that - Goals of Taxonomists the should be grouped in their own genus Oxycoccus ‣ Developing a Natural System of Classification - Monophyletic Group • Closely related organisms are classified together ‣ Genera are natural • Nomenclature reflects natural system of classification ‣ All species in the genus are closely related by a common (see below) ancestor ‣ Assigning plant names based on phylogenetic ‣ All descendants of that ancestor are in the same genus relationships - Polyphyletic Group ‣ Unnatural Levels of Taxonomic Categories ‣ Members evolve from different ancestors ‣ Resemble each other due to convergent evolution - Varying degrees of relatedness ‣ Convergent Evolution - Taxonomic Ranks • Same traits, different ancestor 1. Species - Binomial System of Nomenclature ‣ Most fundamental ‣ Scientific name composed of the genus name and species ‣ Most closely related by descent epithet ‣ Can interbreed successfully ‣ Typewritten: Zea mays ‣ Do not have standard suffixes ‣ Handwritten: Zea mays ‣ Subspecies ‣ Other examples: Lycopersicon esculentulum (Tomato), • Extremely closely related, similar genetically Fagopyrum esculentulum (Buckwheat), Colocasia • Chromosomes can function in the same nucleus esculenta (Taro) and spore mother cells can undergo meiosis when ‣ Carolus Linnaeus mature • Professor of natural history at University of Uppsala in • Organisms have undergone divergent evolution Sweden from common ancestor recently so that few • Adopted genus system of Bauhin mutations* accumulate since the diversion • Created genera and placed species into one genus or • As mutations accumulate, when the two another subspecies are crossed the offspring becomes • Created the Binomial System of Classification sterile ‣ J.B.P. de Lamarck - Ex. Horses and Donkeys are not the same • Inheritance of required characteristics species but can reproduce (Offspring: Mule). • “All cells of the body produced fluids that diffuesd into Mules are sterile. genitalia” * Mutations - Change in genetic sequence, ‣ Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace nitrogenous bases change (Adenine, Guanine, • Theory of evolution by natural selection Cyanine, Thymine) • Species are descendants of a common ancestor and 2. Genera (Genus, singular) are related by evolution ‣ Closely related species • “Survival of the fittest”: most adapted to the current ‣ Grouping of a genus is subjective and causes environment dispute 3. Family Cladistics ‣ Usually well-derived, enough characteristucs are unique to each family (cacti, daisies, orchids, etc.) - Study of phylogeny ‣ –acea - Examining the similarity of on species to others - Method of analyzing phylogenetic, evolutionary relationships advantageous, spines deter animals from eating - Involves construction of a Cladogram/Phylogenetic Tree plants to get water. Cactus spines are modified - Species > Two Separate Species leaves, Euphorbia spines are modified shoots in ‣ Accumulate distinct alleles the axil of leaves ‣ Acquire own mutations - Paraphyletic Group ‣ Cannot breed, cannot share new alleles ‣ Does not contain all descendants of - Reasons plants resemble each other: - Uninformative Character ‣ Descended from a common ancestor ‣ Trait that does not help understand phylogeny ‣ Undergone convergent evolution ‣ Plesiomorphy, Symplesiomorphy, Autapomorphy, - Mutations that affect early stages of development can cause Homoplasy closely related species to look deceptively similar - Informative Character - DNA Sequencing ‣ Helps understand phylogeny ‣ Most effective tool for analyzing evolutionary relationships ‣ Apomorphy and Synapomorphy ‣ Sequence of nucleotides in the DNA of a species must - Principle of Parsimony differ from other species ‣ Prefer the simplest hypothesis ‣ Do not make it more complicated than it needs to be I. Understanding Cladograms ‣ Move on to more complicated hypothesis only when - Cladogram data indicates that the simplest is false ‣ Diagram that shows evolutionary patterns by means of - Equally Parsimonious a series of branches ‣ Equally simple cladorgams with the taxa arranged - Cladogram Parts differently ‣ Node - Unresolved Polychotomy • Points at which cladogram branches ‣ Not enough data to form an accurate depiction of the • Divergence of one taxon into two phylogeny • Branches that extend from a node represent descendants of original group II. Cladograms and Taxonomic Categories • Represents a detectable change that forms a new - Originally it was believed that Angiosperms were divided group; after divergence, one taxa differs form the into two: Monocots and Dicots, and that this convergence other due to mutations/accumulation of mutations occurred very early that causes one taxa to be unable to breed with - However, there is strong evidence that early the other taxa angiosperms diverged into several clades before this ‣ Polytomy happened • Various groups come from the same node - Living descendants of these early clades are called Basal ‣ Common Ancestor Angiosperms (no formal taxonomic name) • Represented by the point where descendants - The rest are called Eudicots, which have pollen tricolpate branch out (Node) ‣ Clade Other Types of Classification Systems • Any ancestor and all the branches that lead from it ‣ Plesiomorphy I. Artificial Systems of Classification • Ancestral Condition - Uses several, easy to observe characters ‣ Symplesiomorphy - Ex. Picture guides, white and red flowers, trees shurbs • Shared ancestral characters herbs and vines • Shared primitive traits • Not helpful in analyzing relationships II. Classification Systems for Fossils ‣ Apomorphy - Form Genera • Derived condition not present in ancestors ‣ Artificial classification is used before natural ‣ Synapomorphy/Homologous Features classification • Similar phenotype, descended from common ‣ Compare to living species ancestral feature • Share derived character Taxonomic Studies • Important characters to search for - International Code of Botanical Nomenclature • Forms a natural/monophyletic group ‣ Describes steps needed for naming a species • Ex. Anthurium Family: have spathe and spadix - Type Specimen inflorescence ‣ Single preserved plant that truly carries the name ‣ Autapomorphies ‣ Contains all characteristics of new species • Unique derived characters - Isotypes • Occurs in only one group ‣ Other specimens as similar as possible to type specimen • Does not help understand relationships • Ex. Large ears of Zea mays The Major Lines of Evolution ‣ Homoplasy/Analogous Features - Bacteria • Different genotypes ‣ Cyanobacteria (blue green algae) • Result of convergent evolution - Archaea • Characters appear the same - Eukarya • Similar phenotype, different ancestors ‣ Animals and Fungi • Two distinct evolutionary lines respond to similar ‣ Plants environments and selection pressures ‣ Protists • Mistaking homoplasies for synapomorphies - Grade Classification creates unnatural/polyphyletic groups ‣ Protistans were placed together because they had a lpw • Ex. Cacti and Euphorbias (Succulent): Do not level of evolutionary development share common ancestry but occur in deserts - Kingdom Plantae where succulent water storing bodies are ‣ Algae adapted to living on land