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The Principles
John Hutchings
6 Queens Road, Colmworth, Bedford MK44 2LA, United Kingdom
Contributions were invited via notices and letters to folklore DRIVING FORCES FOR THE USE OF
journals, newsletters and selected local press, as well as COLOUR IN FOLKLORE
from interested individuals living in the British Isles and
Ireland. In support of the study I searched the oral tradition The Economic Driving Force
libraries of the Folklore Society, the Warburg Institute Lon- There is nothing inevitable about the way a colour is used
don, the Center for English Cultural Tradition and Lan- for a specific purpose. For example, there is no feeling
guage at the University of Sheffield, the School of Scottish across cultures that a particular colour is the most suitable
Studies at the University of Edinburgh, University College for a bride. However, a custom widely accepted across
Dublin, the Welsh Folk Museum, Cardiff and the Ulster many international boundaries is the use of achromatic
Folk and Transport Museum, Belfast. These archives were colours black, gray and off-white for mourning. These are
commenced mainly around 1960. Approximately 1200 colours of cheap, readily obtained, easily cleaned materials
items of folklore from all sources have been analyzed. that are available for wearing for work and for all such
For the international survey questionnaires were used. occasions of respect. They provide suitable dress for indi-
These contained sections on colours for rites of passage, viduals unable to afford to spend money on something that
calendar associations of colours, colours of traditional foods would be worn rarely. This is the Principle of Adaptation of
and lucky colours. Responses were patchy. From Japan 97 Physical Resources—they use what is available. The diver-
completed questionnaires were received, from other Asian gence of Chinese white and European black for mourning is
countries 21, Britain 29, other countries in Europe 13, sometimes said to exhibit how these cultures are totally
Africa 7 and the Americas 6. A logical method of analysis different. This need not be so. Both cultures use achromatic
was to compare Japan and Britain and include contributions colours optimized in different directions, one to white the
from other countries where relevant.3 other to black. In fact in Britain at a time of death both black
Colour and appearance have various functions in oral and white are traditionally used. Although the colour of
tradition. For example, they are used to identify the central mourning is black the traditional laying out room is white
character, perhaps a bride, and the occasion, such as a and the body is normally given a white covering. From the
seasonal decoration. In traditional stories and activities middle of the nineteenth century dyes became less costly
white and black may be used to portray good and evil, and, for example, deep purple came into fashion in Britain
sometimes red symbolizes the colour of blood or is used to as a second-degree mourning colour.5
frighten. In amulets and charms, colour and appearance act Note, the use of achromatics for funerals is not world-
as visible and tangible declarations of belief and no doubt wide. Bright colours are worn during funeral ceremonies in
act as a psychological reinforcement of purpose. In some Bali and Mexico. Highly colored coffins shaped according
traditional activities, for example in Britain the decoration to the occupation of the dead person are common in Ghana.
of the bride before her wedding day, use of specific colours Another exception is the use of red in West Africa and its
is irrelevant; it is appearance that is important. transportation with slavery to the West Indies and southern
Fourteen colour and colour related words have varying states of the USA. In these places red is associated with
degrees of significance within the general area of folklore of protection from evil spirits.
Britain and Ireland. They are, with frequency of use, white
(219), black (176), red (161), green (83), blue (48), silver
(24), yellow (17), brown (15), gray (12), dark (11), pink “De women all heard dat Ella Speed was dead,
(11), gold (8), purple (5), fair (4). There were also single They all went home an’ they re-ragged in red.”6
references to cream, khaki and orange. Also occurring were
materials possessing dominant colours such as salt (14), Hence, around the world colour appropriately echoes
soot or coal (10) and red rowan berries (4). Colours were three principles of approach to death. These are sadness of
applied to omens (312), clothes and dressing up (192), death, the celebration and happiness for the dead or for the
flowers (188), rites of passage (161), calendar customs (19), life of the deceased, and fear of the dead and protection
cures and amulets (59), food (29), weather lore (26), fishing from the spirits of the dead.
(26) and animals (18).4 The observations on achromatics may be extended to the
A detailed analysis revels that there are three types of colour of the groom’s dress at the conventional ‘western’