Minerals Engineering, Vol. 8, No. 10, pp.

1197-1208, 1995
Elsevier Science Ltd
Pergamon Printed in Great Britain
0892--6875(95)00084--4 0892-6875/95 $9.50+0.00

A STUDY OF PARTICLE SEPARATION IN A SPIRAL CONCENTRATOR

Y. ATASOY and D.J. SPOTTISWOOD*

WA School of Mines, Curtin University of Technology, Egan Street,

PO Box 597, Kalgoorlie, WA 6430, Australia
* Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed
(Received 10 November 1994; accepted 9 June 1995)

ABSTRACT

Modelling particle separation in a spiral trough is a complex process which requires

knowledge of particle transport behaviour under different flow regimes. With the
demonstration of the existence of secondary flow and utilizing knowledge of particle
behaviour in flowing fluid films, the hydrodynamic model of particle separation in a spiral
trough is, to some extent, capable of explaining the behaviour of fluid flow and that of
particles at low concentrations. The recent trend in research on spiral technology is to
the modelling particle behaviour in flowing films in spiral troughs. While this is essential
in terms of developing a fundamental model, a question arises as to how successful such
a model is in providing an adequate explanation for particle separation. Distribution of
the particles of different sizes and densities across the trough, under plant conditions, has
not been much reported in the literature. Therefore, a research project was undertaken
to determine the distribution of coal particles across the cross-section of a spiral in a
Reichert LD4 coal spiral. The results showed that using different length of spiral may be
beneficial for treating coal particles at different sizes.

Keywords
Spiral, gravity separation, performance curves, Reichert, coal

INTRODUCTION

Among the gravity separators, the spiral concentrator is, perhaps, one of the most efficient and simple. Its
relative simplicity and high efficiency compared to other gravity separators led to its widespread use under
a variety of circuit configurations. In addition to their common use in minerals processing and coal
preparation plants, one most interesting application, is in separating soil from its environmentally unwanted
constituents [5]. Despite their widespread acceptance in gravity concentration circuits, relatively little is
known about the fundamentals of particle separation in a spiral trough.

Research conducted on spirals has mostly investigated the effect of process variables such as feed pulp
density and flow rate on the recovery and grade. While this is necessary to optimize the process, it does not
help elucidate the behaviour of individual particles or that of the bulk of particles in a spiral trough.
Performance or partition curves [ 13] have been effectively used to assess efficiency and capacity of a spiral
concentrator. Reduced performance curves are used to model spirals, along with empirical equations which
relate response variables such as cut specific gravity, by-passing or water split ratio, to operating variables
such as feed pulp density, solids mass flow rate, and ore characteristics such as particle size distribution and
density [ 14,15]. However, the parameters used in these equations must be determined for a particular spiral
treating a particular ore. Therefore only when a better understanding of the characteristics of flow on spiral

1197
1198 Y. ATASOY and D. J. SPOTTISWOOD

conduits is available, is it possible to establish a fundamental model of particle separation in spiral troughs.
The hydrodynamic model coupled with performance curves would help researchers design better spirals for
specific ore types and optimize processes. This requires identification of flow regimes in a spiral trough, the
effective forces acting on the particles and how these affect the distribution of particles of different sizes
at different densities across the cross-section of spiral trough.

BACKGROUND

Because of the variety and complexity of ores to be processed, it is not uncommon for a specific type of
spiral to be designed for a specific type of ore to get maximum recovery and grade possible with minimal
losses. This has been made possible because of the developments in materials for construction. Manufacture
of spirals with different profiles, different pitches with a desired surface roughness to provide best flow
conditions, and stretchable spirals are now possible [5]. Among the design parameters that affect the flow
of fluid in a spiral trough are spiral profile, radius and pitch. With a change in the spiral profile and pitch,
fluid flow in different regions in the trough changes. This has been simulated using computational fluid
dynamic techniques [6]. Holland-Batt modelled the flow regimes of the fluids across the cross section of
the spiral and determined fluid streamlines at different flowrates for two different spirals having different
profiles [6]. It was shown, for example, that contours of flow streamlines in the Reichert LD9 coal spiral
were distributed across the cross section of the spiral more evenly with a relatively high concentration in
the outermost region. The flow streamlines were more concentrated for an FGL mineral spiral in the outer
region than for the LD9 spiral. This can be attributed to the flatter profile of the LD9 spiral.

Bagnold forces, hindered settling , interstitial trickling and centrifugal /brces are identified as the major
mechanism effective in the separation of particles in a spiral trough [3]. Among these, the Bagnold forces,
being unique to spirals, have only been qualitatively applied to the particle separation in spirals. Data as to
their existence has recently been produced [11]. Holtham [11] measured pulp depth profiles in a Reichert
LD9 coal spiral and an FGL mineral spiral. Using quartz particles with a dso of 1000 ~tm at 15% pulp
density, an apparent bulge in the flow profile, compared to the flow profile with water alone, in the region
next to supporting column was detected, and this was attributed to the existence of Bagnold forces. It was
also stated that this is an additive effect due to an increase in the depth of moving particle bed and the
Bagnoid forces in this region. This is expected from Bagnold's original theory [3], which relates the
existence of the Bagnold forces to an increase in interparticle interaction at high pulp densities and high
shear rates. Pulp depth measurements made with the same feed material at the same flow rates in the FGL
mineral spiral did not show this bulge, where pulp density is found to be less than 50%. This was attributed
to the relative weakness of Bagnold forces at solids concentration below 50% by volume.

The major contribution to the fundamental understanding of particle separation in spiral troughs is due to
the developments in the theory of particle transport in the fields of sedimentary geology and civil
engineering [11]. Particle transport in a spiral trough occurs mainly in two ways: suspended-load motion,
where particles are kept suspended in the upper layers of the fluid, interrupted or uninterrupted. In this
mode, it could be said that interparticle interaction does not occur to a great extent, except when a particle' s
trajectory is intercepted by other particle. Particles are also transported in the bed-load motion where
interparticle interaction increases considerably. However, it is not desirable to have a bed-load as the depth
of the bed covers much of the depth of the flowing pulp and this may play an important role in bringing
additional forces into play [6]. This is not a desirable situation since it could disturb the cross-sectional
rotation [4] of the particle bed. The bed load motion includes simple rolling and sliding of particles as
proposed by Gaudin [9].

With real slurries both of these motions are considered to coexist. Particle transport in the regions next to
the supporting column is considered to be in bed-load motion whereas that in the outer region is suspended-
load motion. Holland-Batt defines this sort of particle transport as grade controlling for the inner region,
and recovery controlling for the outer region [8]. This motion is the result of rising currents which
preferentially lift light-coarse particles in the inner region and falling currents which prepare a suitable
condition for the particles to settle down in the outer region.
 Particle separation 1199

"Primary" or "down-trough" flow is responsible from the downward particle transport, whereas "secondary"
or "cross-trough" flow is responsible for the cross-sectional rotation of particles. The existence of secondary
flow is photographically proved in an FGL wash waterless spiral [10]. The direction of the secondary flow
is towards the centre column and its deviation from the direction of primary flow is measured to be 5° in
the outer region while 2 ° in the inner region. It was proposed that secondary flow may occur due to the
meeting of primary flow with the outer wall of the spiral and being reflected back [17], or it may occur
because of the friction that flowing pulp experiences on the surface of the trough and the lack of friction
on the free flowing surface [6]. The rising and falling currents at the two opposite ends and secondary flow
at the bottom of spiral completes the picture of fluid mass flow to establish the balance across the cross-
section of the spiral trough.

Bagnold Forces

The so-called "Bagnold effect" arises at high pulp densities. It is attributed to the existence of velocity
distribution along the depth of flowing film, giving rise to a distribution of shear rate along the depth of a
flowing film. As a result the Bagnold forces, acting on particles located at different depths and having
different sizes and densities, will be different in magnitude for each particle in the pulp [3]. This force acts
to disperse particles, to separate them from each other, and its magnitude is directly proportional to the shear
rate and the square of the particle diameter. Its theoretical magnitude is given by:

P=0.04*d* ( g * D) 2* (du/dy) (1)

where P is the Bagnold dispersive force exerted on a particle; d, the particle density; du/dy, the shear stress
applied; D, the particle diameter and g is the linear concentration of particles, which is given by:

g = 1 / ((Cmax/C) I/3 -1) (2)

where C is the volume concentration of solids and Cmax is the maximum possible concentration.

The Bagnold force is counteracted by the downward force exerted on the projected area of each particle due
to its excess weight, Pa, given by:

Pa = (2/3) * D * (g-gf) (3)

where gf is the specific gravity of the fluid.

Therefore:

P/Pa = [(k D (du/dy) 2] / [1-(df/d)] (4)

where df is the fluid density and k is a constant.

P/Pa varies with the depth of the flowing pulp, reaching its maximum somewhere along the depth of the
pulp. This means that the Bagnold force is more effective at that point than at other points along the depth
of the pulp. Therefore, depending on the magnitude of this ratio particles move upwards or downwards.
Bagnold described a dimensionless number, called the Bagnold number (B), to define two limiting flow
regimes based on the magnitude of the number. One of these is "the grain-inertial" regime where B > 450,
the other one is "the viscous flow" regime where B < 40. They are separated by a transitional region where
40 < B < 450. The Bagnold number is given by:

B = (d * C 0"5 * D 2 / rl) (du/dy) (5)

where rl is the fluid viscosity.

 1200 Y. ATASOYand D. J. SPOTTISWOOD

Recent studies with spirals have shown that the Bagnold forces are in operation in the inner region of a
spiral, where particles are transported mainly in the bed-load and the pulp density is over 50 percent.

EXPERIMENTAL

Sample preparation

A 250 kg sample of high-ash coal was obtained for the experiments. The whole material was passed through
a jaw crusher followed by screening at 3350 pm. Oversize was stage-crushed in a roll crusher to 100%
-3350 larn. The final product was blended thoroughly in a V-blender from which samples were taken to
determine feed size distribution. Suitable amounts of samples were split using a rotary splitter, for further
experiments.

Test rig

A Mineral Deposits Reichert LD4 coal spiral was chosen for the experiments. This spiral has a large
diameter and flatter profile with a shallow pitch and six turns. The spiral was run in closed circuit with an
automatic sampler to achieve accurate sampling. It was fitted with two splitters. The three streams were
connected via hoses of suitable diameter to the automatic sampler from which they were returned to the
slurry sump. To take samples, these streams were diverted to the sampling buckets via an electronically
actuated valve.

In order to study the distribution of particles across the cross-section of the spiral splitters were positioned
to two different positions. In this way it was possible to obtain a total of six samples representing different
regions in the trough. This is best illustrated in Figure 1. By mathematically combining appropriate streams
it was possible to obtain performance curves for the streams of A, (A+B), (A+B+C), (A+B+C+D). Also,
from these streams sampled size distributions of individual streams were determined.

In order to study the effect of residence time the feed was fed to the spiral at different turns, namely at turns
2, 4 and 5. This allowed study of a 5 turn, a 2 turn and a 1 turn spiral, respectively.

[I

1 6 . 5 cm

10.2 em
20.3 em
25.4 em

Fig. 1 The schematic of arrangement of the splitters positions.

The final products were screened through a set of screens, consisting of 3350, 1700, 850, 300 and 106 lam
sieves. Each size fraction obtained in this way was further subjected to sink-float analysis at the densities
of 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2 and 2.4 g/cm 3. Sink-float tests were not carried out on the -106 pm
fraction, as previous researches with spirals and cyclones showed that this size fraction shows very little
separation with respect to gravity [12,15]. Particles of -38 pm are said to simply follow the flow of water
[15], therefore that size fraction was not analyzed in heavy media as well.
 Particle separation 1201

The experimental conditions are presented in Table 1.

TABLE 1 S u m m a r y of experimental conditions.

Pulp density ( % solids) 23+2

Volumetric flow rate ( calculated, I/min) 83+2
Volumetric flow rate ( measured, l/min) 87
Sampling time (seconds) 5

RESULTS

Feed size and density distributions were back calculated from the analyses of the products as the coal is
fragile and it breaks down producing some fines during the course of testing. In order to maintain
consistency throughout testing, it was important to keep feed size distributions the same. The results of the
three sets of tests showed that back calculated-feed size distributions are in excellent agreement with each
other thus eliminating variation that might arise from size distribution. Experimental results were examined
in terms of size distribution, density distribution, and performance curves.

Particle size effects

Particle size distribution curves of the three streams for 5, 2, and 1 tum spirals are presented in Figures 2a,
2b, 2c. This shows that while coarse particles are concentrated in the outer regions of the spiral, more finer
particles are placed in the inner regions, regardless of residence time. This is similar to the findings of
Holtham [ 11 ], who measured an increase in the ds0 of the particles being placed towards outer streams.
However, in that work, the material used was quartz which has a higher density than coal used in this
research. The profile of the spiral was also different. There is no explanation for this discrepancy, as in the
same research [ 11], it was also noted that the ds0 of quartz particles increased towards the inner regions in
a Reichert LD9 coal spiral. Another feature of these curves is that particles are more evenly distributed, with
regard to size, for a 5 turn spiral than for a 1 turn spiral. This is expected as the particles are assumed to
be equally distributed along the cross-section of the trough at the feed point, provided that there is no
segregation with respect to cross-section of the spiral. Size distribution of the intermediate stream does not
seem to be affected by the residence time. Based on the size distribution curves the existence of three
distinct regions on a spiral trough is suggested:

the outermost stream (A) where mostly coarse and light particles are placed

the innermost stream (D+E) where mostly small and heavy particles are placed

the transition region (B+C) where mostly medium size and density particles are placed.

Holland-Batt [6] defined these regions with respect to flow regimes and mode of particle transport that
prevails in these regions. Results also show that the transition region extends throughout most of the spiral
trough.

From the results, it can also be said that as the residence time increases coarse coal particles move towards
the outer regions whereas finer particles move towards the inner regions. However, the argument followed
so far does not take the effect of density into account. Even so, these data provide information as to how
the particles of different sizes move in the spiral conduit both across its cross-section and along its length.
 1202 Y. ATASOY and D. J. SPOTTISWOOD

100 100 ~ .....

t~
S
t2t.
10 10
>
N b
S '5
E
BC
-D-E- 0
7EiD-

1
1O0 1000 10000 I100 I~0 10000
Panicle size (micron) Particle size (micron)

100

t-
"5
cn
S
10
>
Q.)

t~ C

E "i.A
"11. BC
(.9

1 O0 1000 10000
Panicle size (micron)

Fig.2 The particle size distributions for the streams A, (B+C), (D+E)
a. 5 turn spiral, b. 2 turn spiral, c. 1 turn spiral.

Separation with respect to density

Sink-float tests provide valuable information for the performance analysis of gravity separators. In order
to determine density effects of different sized particles, the three products were separately subjected to
sink-float tests. In this way it was possible to define the distribution of particles in a certain size group,
having different densities with respect to cross-section. The results of the tests, with the splitters positioned
to separate streams A, (B+C), and (D+E) , are presented in Tables 2 to 5.
 Particle separation 1203

TABLE 2 Distribution of -3350+ 1700 Inn size particles

to individual streams with respect to density.

Density 5 turn 2 turn I turn

A B+C D+E A B+C D+E A B+C D+E
1.25 98.6 1.2 0.3 98.7 l.l 0.3 93.6 5.5 1.0
1.45 93.4 6.0 0.6 94.6 4.7 0.7 87.4 10.6 1.9
1.70 66.8 30.1 3.1 81.8 17.5 0.6 49.4 50.4 0.1
2.10 67.2 26.8 6.1 54.7 41.5 3.8 13.5 82.3 3.9
2.55 2.34 68.5 29.2 0.00 85.8 14.2 0.00 94.4 5.6

TABLE 3 Distribution of -1700+ 850 lam size particles

to individual streams with respect to density.

Density 5 turn 2 turn 1 turn

A B+C D+E A B+C D+E A B+C D+E
1.25 89.2 10.6 0.2 90.6 8.9 0.5 71.7 26.1 2.2
1.45 57.4 42.4 0.2 69.2 27.4 3.7 60.6 35.5 3.9
1.70 16.9 62.8 20.3 39.9 53.9 6.2 33.8 54.7 11.5
2.10 14.0 47.0 39.0 24.8 56.9 18.3 14.0 75.3 10.8
2.55 10.8 33.1 56.1 30.7 48.6 20.7 6.0 43.6 50.4

TABLE 4 Distribution o f - 8 5 0 + 300 ~tm size particles

to individual streams with respect to density.

Density 5 turn 2 turn 1 turn

A B+C D+E A B+C D+E A B+C D+E
1.25 52.3 38.6 9.1 69.8 24.1 6.1 68.0 27.5 4.5
1.45 26.3 44.7 29.0 46.5 38.4 15.1 46.7 43.5 9.8
1.70 12.9 35.5 51.6 28.2 36.2 35.6 29.8 60.7 9.5
2.10 9.1 19.5 71.4 12.4 51.6 36.1 6.2 59.8 34.0
2.55 6.8 46.6 46.7 4.9 75.3 19.8 3.9 33.0 63.1

The main points to be noted are:

Nearly all particles in the size fraction -3350+1700 [am and density 1.25 g/cm 3 report almost
instantaneously to the stream A, the outermost stream. That is residence time does not play a
significant role in their separation (Table 2).
 1204 Y. ATASOY and D. J. SPOTTISWOOD

The above observation is also true for the same sized particles of density 1.45 g/cm 3. However,
residence time has a more pronounced impact on their placement into the correct stream. It also
seems that instead of a 5 turn spiral, a 2 turn spiral might be sufficient for the separation of these
particles.

Residence time has a detrimental effect on the separation of higher density particles in the size
fraction -3350+1000 gin, as more dense particles, > 1.45 g/cm 3, move towards the clean coal
stream.

The particles in the size range, -300+106 ~m and density of 1.25 g/cm 3, move towards the centre
column as the residence time increases. This is more apparent for the particles of the same size
but density of 1.45 g/cm 3, as they are almost evenly spread across the cross-section of a 5 turn
spiral. Their proportions in the streams A, (B+C) and (D+E) are 31.3, 32.7, and 36.0 respectively
for a 5 turn spiral. Residence time is more effective on the separation of particles in this size range
having densities higher than 1.7 g/cm 3, as they move towards the innermost stream as the residence
time increases.

The separation behaviour of particles with respect to density in the size range -850+300 grn is
similar to those in the -300+106 IJm size fraction, but with more displaced particles into the
various streams.

The separation behaviour of particles with respect to density in the size range -1700+850 tam is
similar to those in the -3350+1700 pm size fraction, but again with more displaced particles into
the various streams.

T A B L E 5 Distribution of - 3 0 0 + 106 p m size particles

to individual streams with respect to density.

Density 5 turn 2 turn ! turn

A B+C D+E A B+C D+E A B+C D+E
1.25 59.2 29.0 11.7 71.3 18.5 10.2 80.2 15.9 3.8
1.45 31.3 32.7 36.0 54.3 31.2 14.5 56.5 35.2 8.3
1.70 21.2 31.4 47.4 39.6 33.4 27.0 40.5 42.9 16.6
2.10 5.1 17.7 77.2 15.7 41.0 43.3 11.7 52.7 35.6
2.55 8.6 11.5 79.9 18.8 33.4 47.7 20.5 41.0 38.5
P e r f o r m a n c e curves

Performance curves have been widely used in assessing the effectiveness of separation in a gravity
separator. A performance curve describes the cut specific gravity of separation, SGs0, and by-passing ratios
to either concentrate or tailings stream. The SGs0 or Ep, probable error, should not be used on their own
to assess performance as they do not give any indication of the extent of by-passing. Although the existence
of by-passing in a spiral was questioned the concept provides valuable input and it should be continued to
be included in performance analyses [12]. In this case, performance curves were obtained by plotting the
percentage of particles in a certain density fraction that report to the clean coal product, against the medium
density within that density fraction [2,14]. In this way it was possible to obtain cumulative performance
curves for each stream sampled across the cross-section of a spiral trough. The change in the shape of these
curves could be followed for different number of turns. These curves, reported in detail elsewhere [1],
confirmed the findings reported in the previous section.
 Particle separation 1205

Cut specific gravity and by-passing ratios are most readily understood from the performance curves,
presented in Figures 3a and 3b for all size fractions at the splitter positions of A and (A+B) for a 5 turn
spiral. The splitter position A, being the outermost stream, can be accepted as the clean coal stream. The
stream (A+B) is spread out more towards the inner region. Considering the performance of this region it
can also be accepted as the clean coal product in some circumstances, for example for roughing purposes.

100 100
~ e [ "lk. 3 3 5 0 b
90 \ ~ o /~ _,z0o 90
33 ol
\ \ ~ /4 85o 1700 I
80
\ a
80
L850
300
70 70

60

50

9. 4o 40
[] C]
3o 30

20 20

10 10

0
1.2 1,4 16 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 1.2 1,4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
Density (g/cm3) Density (g/cm3)

Fig.3 Density performance curves for a 5 turn spiral at different splitter positions:
a. stream (A+B), b. stream A.

For the stream A, the cut specific gravity (SG50) increases as the particle size increases with the exception
that the smallest size fraction has a slightly higher SG50 than that of the next size fraction. This is somewhat
different from that found in previous research, where as the particle size increases, SG50 increases, with the
exception at the coarsest size fraction. By-passing to the tailings stream of light coal particles in the coarsest
size fraction does not occur, whereas dense particles in the same size fraction by-pass to the clean coal
product to a small extent. Particles in the size fraction -1700 + 850 lam, by-pass to the clean coal and
tailings streams at around 10%. The performance curves of the finest two size fractions are separated
laterally, and they by-pass to the clean coal stream (A) almost in the same ratio, whereas by-passing to the
tailings stream of -300 + 106 pm particle size is larger than that of -850 + 300 pm size fraction.

The cut specific gravities of each size fraction for the stream (A+B) increases as expected. However, a
notable feature of these curves for this stream is that separation at the two finer size fractions becomes
sharper whereas most of the particles in the coarsest size fraction seem to report to the clean coal product.
Considering the fact that streams A and (A+B) are separated from each other by 5 cm (Figure 1), much of
the coarsest-dense particles are placed in this strip of the stream. As Figure 3a and 3b show, separation of
finer fractions improved as the curves have become sharper and show less by-pass to either of the streams.

As the experiments may not necessarily have been carried out under optimum conditions by-passing ratios
and SG50 values of the various streams could be expected to be different under optimum conditions.
However, the trends in terms of size and density distribution, found in this research, provide an insight into
the particle separation mechanism in spiral troughs.

The effect of spiral length on the separation of particles

Figures 4a and 4b show changes in the performance curves at the splitter position of A for the two size
fractions: -1700 + 850 larn and -850 + 300 pm. These curves indicate that spiral length has mixed effects
HE 8-10-I
1206 Y. ATASOY and D. J. SPOTrlSWOOD

on the separation of these two size fractions as they reveal that there is no direct correlation with the spiral
length and efficiency of the separation. Other similar plots, reported elsewhere [1] gave similar results as
to the effect of spiral length. For example: performance curves for the size fraction -1700 + 850 ~tm show
less by-passing to tailings with a 2 turn spiral than with a 5 turn spiral. On the other hand, SGs0 is lower
for a 5 turn spiral than for a 2 or 1 turn spiral. The efficiency of the separation at the splitter position A,
for the size fraction -850 + 300 ~tm, is reduced by an increase in the spiral length (Figure 4b). The SGs0
decreases with an increase in spiral length along with less by-passing to the clean coal product and more
by-passing to the tailings stream.

100 100

9O 9O
r'°" 5_TORN 1 5TO.N I
80 i~L _2_TURN/ 8O -2-TURN
_1_TURN]
212TURN
70 7O

o
(.~ 60 6O
c-
¢0 50 5O
Q)
-O
o 40 4O

3O 3O O

20 2O

10 10
• ~
0 .... 0
12 14 16 18 2 2.2 2.4 26 2.8 1.2 14 16 1.8 2 2.2 24 26 2.8

Density (g/cm3) Density (g/cm3)

Fig.4 The effect of spiral length on the performance curves (splitter position - - A).
a. particle size: -1700 + 850 pin, b. particle size: -850 + 300 ~rn.

DISCUSSION

Bagnold forces, so far, have only been applied qualitatively to gravity concentrators such as pinched sluices,
spirals and cones. There is yet to be conclusive experimental evidence of their existence. Their identification
and effect on particle separation under different operating conditions would help better optimize circuits
utilizing spirals as separator. Sivamohan and Forssberg [16] apply Eq. 4. to explain the behaviour of
different size and density particles. Under grain-inertial conditions, P/Pa, for a coarse particle will be larger
than that for a smaller particle, causing it to stay up in the fast flowing layers of the flowing film. In this
study, it has been demonstrated that particles of density 1.25 g/cm 3 in the coarsest size fraction always stay
in the outermost stream from the first turn and stay there for the rest of the time they spend in the trough.
Statistically, a certain percentage of those particles are already in the clean coal stream at the feed point to
the spiral. It is considered the rest of the particles are lifted with the rising currents in the region and
transported by the fast flowing upper layers of the film to the clean coal stream. While this occurs, it is also
apparent that such particles are not transported back to the inner streams. Natural hydrophobicity and very
slow settling rates for these particles might have also played and important role in their transport behaviour.

The proportion of coarse and medium density particles reporting to the outer streams increases with
increasing residence time. Although pulp densities across the spiral were not measured, trends in the change
of particle size and density with respect to cross-section suggest that the Bagnold forces may have played
a greater role in the separation of these particles. It is also seen from Table 2 that dense coarse particles
move towards the inner streams with an increase in residence time. It is considered that the probable causes
of this are hindered settling and secondary currents, with the help of roiling and sliding which seems to play
a role in transporting these particles. However, what is more interesting is the behaviour of dense particles
 Particle separation 1207

in the smallest size fraction. They are concentrated in the inner streams in greater proportions than their
larger counterparts. Small and dense particles in the outer streams undergo hindered settling due to falling
currents in this region. It then takes 5 turns for them to reach the inner stream. While this occurs, small-
medium density particles move towards the inner stream as well. Obviously this is detrimental to separation
efficiency of these particles, as by-passing increases.

The behaviour of medium size and density particles suggests that particles of this size and density are
affected to a great extent by flow conditions, as they become more distributed across the cross-section with
time. These particles may be transported in suspension-load mode.

In general, as the particle size decreases particles in the lightest density fraction report to the clean coal
stream in decreasing ratios. As the residence time increases their separation is further affected. This cannot
be explained by either natural hydrophobicity or the Bagnold forces.

The results also show that requirements for the separation of particles in different size and density fractions
are different. It is apparent that even a 1 turn spiral is enough for the coarse-light particles to get into the
clean coal stream, whereas it is necessary to have a 5 turn spiral to separate small-dense particles.
Performance curves reveal that although the cut specific gravity decreases with decreasing size, by-passing
to the tailings stream of these latter particles reaches an unacceptable level. While no attempt was made to
run the spiral under optimum operating conditions, the splitters were positioned to collect most of the clean
coal product into stream A. Unreported results of the second tests at each feed point confirm the
observations that have been made so far [ 1].

CONCLUSIONS

From the results of this work it is concluded that:

A 1 turn spiral provides sufficient time for the separation of coarse particles.

It is essential that a full 6 or 5 turn spiral be employed for the removal of dense minerals from
small coal particles at small sizes.

Medium sized particles are distributed along the cross-section of the trough in close ratios.

Residence time has mixed effects on the separation of particles in different size fractions. It can
also be said that the effect of splitter positions on the efficiency of separation is more pronounced
than that of spiral length.

Shorter length spirals are more effective in the separation of coarse particles while longer spirals
are necessary for the concentration of smaller particles. Therefore different length spirals should
be utilized with respect to size distribution of coal in order to achieve a more effective separation.

The conclusions reached here are valid for a high-ash containing coal being treated in a Reichert
LD4 coal spiral. Differences from these observations should be expected for a spiral with a
different profile treating a different material.

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