SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

When you think about and plan the data collection methods that you may adopt, you will need to
balance their use against typical constraints such as:
 Subject availability.
 Population size.
 Time.
 Cost.
 Access.

This means that you will need to reduce the amount of data but without losing the impact of
what you are investigating or trying to prove. The way in which this can be done is called
sampling. This is done by selecting a sample of the population upon which the research is
intended to be conducted.

Types of Samples
There are essentially two types of sampling categories that can be applied in relation to the
research approach. They are known as probability or non-probability samples, each containing
differing sampling techniques as shown below.

A) Non-probability samples
Non-probability samples are based largely upon subjective assessment and as a result sample
bias (the sample not being representative from the whole) may result. There are varieties of
non-probability sampling techniques, the most common methods being:

 Convenience samples – this relates to those subjects who are the most readily
available to take part in the study. In other words, the most ‘convenient’.
 Judgement samples – otherwise known as purposive samples they are subjects who
have been selected for a specific purpose in mind. They are not selected to provide
statistical representation of the population but because their experience and knowledge
is valuable to the research. This approach is used primarily in pilot or exploratory
studies.
 Snowball samples – as the name suggests, this method is reliant upon the subject
introducing the researcher to other like minded individuals who would be useful to the
study.

B) Probability samples
The assumption with this approach is that the subjects chosen are representative of the
population as a whole (thereby attempting to minimise sample bias), being selected more by
objective rather than subjective means. This type of approach allows the researcher to make
inferences by applying statistical tests to the data to determine its value of significance in
relation to the hypothesis that is being tested. Typical examples include:

 Random sampling – this enables the researcher to infer the findings back to the
larger population. It is based on the premise of each member of the population
having an equal chance of selection. To do this, you need to apply some form of
random technique either manually or by using a specific computer programme. Say,
for example, that a multinational organisation that you wish to study had 5,000
employees and you wished to select 200 for your study. You would assign each
 employer with a number name. The first name would be 0000, the second 0001, the
third 0002 and so on and so forth until you go to the 5,000th which would be 4999.
You would then use a random number table. You can then simply enter the table at
any stage (even close your eyes and put your finger onto the page), the subject that
has that number is then selected for the study.

 Systematic sampling – This is a technique which is based on numbers also and is

used when the potential population is very large. For example, say that you wanted
to sample 5,000 employees about some new working conditions. One approach may
be to call a sample of 200 employees for telephone interviews by using the internal
telephone directory. To do this, you would select every 25th name in the directory.

 Stratified sampling – involves the population being divided (stratified) on some

characteristic before random selection of the sample. If you take the previous
example of 200 employees from 5,000 and suppose that the employee structure was
made up of 30% Senior Managers, 30% Middle Managers, 20% Supervisors and
20% team members, if you stratified on employee status, you would randomly select
60 from the 1,500 senior managers, 60 from the 1,500 middle managers, 40 from the
1,000 supervisors and 40 from the 1,000 team leaders.

 Cluster sampling – this relates to the population being made up of groups, usually
denoted by clusters such as companies or locational units or various departments. In
this case, a random sample of clusters could be chosen and then all individuals in
that cluster sampled.

 Multistage sampling – this is an extension of cluster sampling which is used when

there is a large geographical dispersement.

Sample Size
The most obvious questions which arise when designing your investigation should be ‘how
many people do I need in my sample’? The answer to this is dependant upon the type of
sampling that you adopt in relation to your research design and ultimately the time available to
carry out the investigation. If they are non-probability methods you can afford to be relatively
vague, working on the principle of who is available and if you are involved in a probability
sample, then the sample size should be statistically determined.