AGBT04-18 Guide To Bridge Technology Part 4 Design Procurement and Concept Design

Guide to Bridge Technology Part 4:
Design Procurement and Concept Design
Sydney 2018
Guide to Bridge Technology Part 4: Design Procurement and Concept Design
Second edition prepared by: Hanson Ngo Publisher

Austroads Ltd.
Level 9, 287 Elizabeth Street
Second edition project manager: Henry Luczak Sydney NSW 2000 Australia
Phone: +61 2 8265 3300
Abstract
austroads@austroads.com.au
Part 4 of the Guide to Bridge Technology provides guidance about effectively www.austroads.com.au
specifying and scoping contractual requirements for bridge design
parameters, particularly for design/construct and similar contracts for bridge
procurement. This guidance is important where the design standards require About Austroads
resolution by the agency/owner of many matters about design assumptions or Austroads is the peak organisation of Australasian
dimensional/detailing information prior to the commencement of design. An road transport and traffic agencies.
action checklist identifying all the issues in AS 5100 is provided.
Austroads’ purpose is to support our member
It is essential that the design process be error free and result in durable, organisations to deliver an improved Australasian
robust, reliable and aesthetically pleasing bridges, provided at a reasonable road transport network. To succeed in this task, we
cost. It is also essential that the agency/owner and user costs associated with undertake leading-edge road and transport
maintaining the bridge over its full life be minimised. No compromise of this research which underpins our input to policy
intention should be tolerated. development and published guidance on the
To ensure the required bridge performance, a significant effort must be put design, construction and management of the road
into comprehensively scoping the design and detailing requirements in the network and its associated infrastructure.
contract documents. As many issues as possible within the agency/owner’s Austroads provides a collective approach that
control need to be resolved before the contract is signed. delivers value for money, encourages shared
For those issues that must be resolved and negotiated during the contract, a knowledge and drives consistency for road users.
robust, formal process needs to be specified that ensures the agency/owner Austroads is governed by a Board consisting of
does not inherit costly and major maintenance difficulties during the full senior executive representatives from each of its
100-year life of the bridge. eleven member organisations:
The effective management of the design process has a significant bearing on
• Roads and Maritime Services New South Wales
the successful implementation and continuing performance of a bridge project
over the bridge’s 100-year life. • Roads Corporation Victoria
• Queensland Department of Transport and Main
Keywords Roads
Bridge, bridge design, design procurement, design brief, bridge ownership, • Main Roads Western Australia
bridge owner’s responsibility, design/construct, contractual claims, waterway,
• Department of Planning, Transport and
floodway design, scour, durability, geotechnical investigation, foundations, Infrastructure South Australia
construction methods, maintainability
• Department of State Growth Tasmania
Second edition published February 2018 • Department of Infrastructure, Planning and
Logistics Northern Territory
First edition published June 2009
• Transport Canberra and City Services
Directorate, Australian Capital Territory
ISBN 978-1-925451-97-9 Pages 85 • Australian Government Department of
Infrastructure and Regional Development
Austroads Project No. BT1830
• Australian Local Government Association
Austroads Publication No. AGBT04-18
• New Zealand Transport Agency.
© Austroads Ltd 2018

This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the
Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without
the prior written permission of Austroads.
Acknowledgements
The first edition was prepared by Don Carter and Ray Wedgwood and project managed by Geoff Boully.
This Guide is produced by Austroads as a general guide. Its application is discretionary. Road authorities may vary their practice
according to local circumstances and policies. Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not
accept responsibility for any consequences arising from the use of information herein. Readers should rely on their own skill and
judgement to apply information to particular issues.
The latest edition provides updated details and information on various sections, and removing overlapping information. Major
changes include:
• Section 2: Bridge Design Process Procurement Models | Updated information on project delivery modes and design procurement
models.
• Section 4: Considerations in the Design Process | Moved Section 5.1 to Section 4.1 Design Process.
• Section 5: General Considerations | Added Section 5.4.2 Construction Loads, Section 5.5 Safety in Design, Section 5.11 Forces
Resulting from Water Flow, and Section 5.15 Sustainability and Climate Change.
• Section 6: Design Requirements | Updated information in Section 6.2 Earthquake to incorporate the revised AS 5100.2 provisions.
Added Section 6.4 Collision Protection. Added Section 6.5 Special Studies to cover design methods and structural actions not
specified in AS 5100.
• Section 7: Environment | Added information on design considerations for debris in Section 7.1.1. Added Section 7.1.7 Urban
Debris.
• Section 10: Construction Considerations | Removed details overlapped with other parts.
• Section 12: Design for Maintainability | Added requirements for access for future instrumentation/monitoring system in
Section 12.2. Added requirements for access for maintenance works for different bridge components in Section 12.3. Added
requirements for bearing replacement in Section 12.4.
• Added Glossary.
Contents
1. Introduction and Guide Structure ......................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Scope ....................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Guide Structure ........................................................................................................................................ 1
2. Bridge Design Process Procurement Models ..................................................................................... 1

2.1 General ..................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Construct Only .......................................................................................................................................... 4
2.3 Design and Construct ............................................................................................................................... 5
2.4 Alliance Arrangements ............................................................................................................................. 5
2.5 Public Private Partnership (PPP) ............................................................................................................. 6
2.6 Further Information about Project Procurement ....................................................................................... 7
3. Specifying Requirements for Design ................................................................................................... 8

3.1 Bridge Design Code Issues ...................................................................................................................... 8
3.2 Specifying for Local Conditions ................................................................................................................ 8
3.3 Geometric Details, including Clearances ................................................................................................. 9
3.4 Gathering and Integrating Data for a Bridge Design ................................................................................ 9
3.5 Design Statement ..................................................................................................................................... 9
3.6 Requirements of AS 5100 ........................................................................................................................ 9
3.7 Application of Authority Requirements for Road Users, OH&S and Design Outcomes .........................10
3.7.1 Road Users’ Requirements ...................................................................................................... 10
3.7.2 OH&S Requirements ................................................................................................................ 10
3.7.3 Design Outcomes ..................................................................................................................... 11
3.8 Design Surveillance and Achievement of Design Intent ........................................................................ 11
4. Considerations in the Design Process .............................................................................................. 12

4.1 Design Process ...................................................................................................................................... 12
4.2 Design and Delivery Management ......................................................................................................... 12
4.2.1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 12
4.2.2 Delivery of Design/Construct and Alliance Bridge Projects ...................................................... 13
4.3 Checking and Review Concepts ............................................................................................................ 13
4.3.1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 13
4.3.2 Defining Process Terminology.................................................................................................. 14
4.3.3 Road Safety Audit ..................................................................................................................... 14
4.4 Standardised Components ..................................................................................................................... 14
4.4.1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 14
4.4.2 Proprietary Items ...................................................................................................................... 15
4.5 Aesthetics/Architectural Requirements .................................................................................................. 15
4.5.1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 15
4.5.2 References for Aesthetics ........................................................................................................ 15
4.6 Presentation of Drawings and Reports .................................................................................................. 16
4.6.1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 16
4.6.2 Interpretation of Site Data......................................................................................................... 16
4.7 Constructability and Maintenance Issues ............................................................................................... 16
5. General Considerations ....................................................................................................................... 17

5.1 Construction Method .............................................................................................................................. 17
5.2 Aesthetics ............................................................................................................................................... 17
5.3 Cost-effective Design ............................................................................................................................. 18
5.4 Live Loads .............................................................................................................................................. 18
5.4.1 Design Live Loads .................................................................................................................... 18
5.4.2 Construction Loads ................................................................................................................... 18
5.4.3 Dynamics .................................................................................................................................. 18
5.4.4 Fatigue Data ............................................................................................................................. 19
5.4.5 Pedestrian Bridges ................................................................................................................... 19
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5.5 Safety in Design ..................................................................................................................................... 19

5.6 Location .................................................................................................................................................. 20
5.7 Traffic and Traffic Considerations .......................................................................................................... 20
5.7.1 Road Geometry ........................................................................................................................ 20
5.8 Public Utilities ......................................................................................................................................... 21
5.9 Articulation .............................................................................................................................................. 21
5.9.1 Definition ................................................................................................................................... 21
5.9.2 Considerations .......................................................................................................................... 22
5.10 Skew ....................................................................................................................................................... 23
5.11 Forces Resulting from Water Flow ......................................................................................................... 23
5.12 Information from Existing Bridge ............................................................................................................ 24
5.13 Temporary Bridging ................................................................................................................................ 24
5.14 Provision of Access for the Disabled ...................................................................................................... 24
5.15 Sustainability and Climate Change ........................................................................................................ 24
5.16 Terrorist Activity ...................................................................................................................................... 25
5.17 Construction Safety and Structural Form ............................................................................................... 25
5.18 Serviceability Requirements ................................................................................................................... 25
5.18.1 Service Life of Bridge and Components ................................................................................... 25
5.18.2 Flood-free or Submersible ........................................................................................................ 26
5.18.3 Alignment and Design Speed ................................................................................................... 26
5.18.4 Number of Lanes, Wide Bridges and Thermal Movements ..................................................... 26
5.19 Computer Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 27
5.20 Review of Design Concept ..................................................................................................................... 27
5.21 Review of Drawings ................................................................................................................................ 28
6. Design Requirements .......................................................................................................................... 29

6.1 Mining Subsidence ................................................................................................................................. 29
6.2 Earthquake ............................................................................................................................................. 30
6.3 Dynamics – Stiffness, Deflection, Span/Depth ....................................................................................... 31
6.4 Collision Protection ................................................................................................................................. 31
6.5 Special Studies ....................................................................................................................................... 32
7. Environment.......................................................................................................................................... 33
7.1 Waterway ................................................................................................................................................ 33
7.1.1 Basic Considerations ................................................................................................................ 33
7.1.2 Floodway Design ...................................................................................................................... 35
7.1.3 Submergence ........................................................................................................................... 35
7.1.4 Piers .......................................................................................................................................... 35
7.1.5 Scour ........................................................................................................................................ 36
7.1.6 Minimum Energy Drainage Structures ..................................................................................... 38
7.1.7 Urban Debris............................................................................................................................. 38
7.2 Environmental Constraints ..................................................................................................................... 38
7.2.1 Noise ......................................................................................................................................... 38
7.2.2 Pollutants, Flora and Fauna ..................................................................................................... 38
7.2.3 Disturbance of Sediments ........................................................................................................ 39
7.2.4 Fisheries ................................................................................................................................... 39
7.3 Drainage ................................................................................................................................................. 39
7.4 Site Constraints and Access .................................................................................................................. 39
7.5 Durability................................................................................................................................................. 39
7.5.1 Marine and Salt-rich Environments .......................................................................................... 39
7.5.2 Piles .......................................................................................................................................... 40
7.5.3 Concrete and Concreting.......................................................................................................... 40
7.5.4 Concrete and concreting issues ............................................................................................... 41
7.6 Protection ............................................................................................................................................... 42
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8. Geotechnical ......................................................................................................................................... 43
8.1 Foundation Type and Geology ............................................................................................................... 43
8.2 Investigations .......................................................................................................................................... 43
8.2.1 Preliminary Geotechnical Investigations .................................................................................. 43
8.2.2 Geotechnical Strategy and Geology ......................................................................................... 43
8.3 Site Investigation Methods ..................................................................................................................... 45
8.3.1 Preliminary Techniques ............................................................................................................ 45
8.3.2 Direct Methods.......................................................................................................................... 45
8.3.3 Standard Penetration Test (SPT) ............................................................................................. 45
8.3.4 Cone Penetration Test (CPT) ................................................................................................... 46
8.4 Issues ..................................................................................................................................................... 46
8.4.1 Soft Soils................................................................................................................................... 46
8.4.2 Black Soils ................................................................................................................................ 47
8.4.3 Soil and Ground Water Aggressivity ........................................................................................ 47
8.4.4 Pile Relaxation in Fine Sands................................................................................................... 47
8.4.5 Height of Abutments ................................................................................................................. 47
8.4.6 Skew Abutments ....................................................................................................................... 47
8.4.7 Sensitivity of Design to Changes in Site Conditions................................................................. 47
8.5 Geotechnical Investigations ................................................................................................................... 48
8.5.1 Geotechnical Investigations – Design and Construct Contracts .............................................. 48
8.5.2 Presentation of Geotechnical Information ................................................................................ 48
9. Foundation Selection ........................................................................................................................... 49

9.1 Spread Footings ..................................................................................................................................... 49
9.2 Piles ........................................................................................................................................................ 49
9.2.1 Reinforced Concrete Piles ........................................................................................................ 50
9.2.2 Prestressed Concrete Piles ...................................................................................................... 50
9.2.3 Steel H Piles ............................................................................................................................. 50
9.2.4 Composite Steel and Prestressed Concrete Piles ................................................................... 50
9.2.5 Steel H Piles Corrosion ............................................................................................................ 51
9.2.6 Cast-in-place Piles .................................................................................................................... 51
9.2.7 Open-ended Tubular Piles in Dense Sands ............................................................................. 52
9.2.8 Proprietary Piling Systems ....................................................................................................... 52
9.3 Pile Driving ............................................................................................................................................. 52
9.3.1 Historical ................................................................................................................................... 53
9.3.2 Dynamic Pile Testing ................................................................................................................ 53
9.3.3 Pile-driving Issues .................................................................................................................... 54
9.4 Scour Susceptibility ................................................................................................................................ 54
9.5 Damage to Adjacent Properties ............................................................................................................. 55
10. Construction Considerations .............................................................................................................. 56

10.1 Construction Forms ................................................................................................................................ 56
10.1.1 Cast-in Situ Concrete ............................................................................................................... 56
10.1.2 Precast Prestressed Concrete Members ................................................................................. 57
10.1.3 Steel Members.......................................................................................................................... 57
10.1.4 Precast Prestressed Segmental Construction.......................................................................... 57
10.2 Construction Method .............................................................................................................................. 58
10.3 Concrete Construction in Marine Environments ..................................................................................... 58
10.3.1 Buried Corrugated Metal Structures ......................................................................................... 59
11. Design for Construction ...................................................................................................................... 60

11.1 Special Cases ......................................................................................................................................... 60
11.2 Site Constraints ...................................................................................................................................... 60
11.3 Location Issues ....................................................................................................................................... 60
11.4 Physical Location.................................................................................................................................... 61
11.5 Choice of Bridge Type ............................................................................................................................ 61
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12. Design for Maintainability .................................................................................................................... 62

12.1 Maintenance Schedule ........................................................................................................................... 62
12.2 Access for Inspection ............................................................................................................................. 62
12.3 Access for Maintenance Works .............................................................................................................. 62
12.4 Bearing Replacement ............................................................................................................................. 64
12.5 Fitment Materials .................................................................................................................................... 64
12.6 Provision for Prestressing Tendon Replacement ................................................................................... 64
12.7 Provision of Stay Cable Maintenance .................................................................................................... 64
References ...................................................................................................................................................... 65
Action Checklist for Resolution of Design Issues in AS 5100 ............................................67
Action Checklist for Ensuring Coverage of Details for the Preparation of a Bridge
Design Concept ....................................................................................................................... 78
Resources for Bridge Aesthetics ........................................................................................... 83
Tables
Table 1.1: Parts of the Guide to Bridge Technology ....................................................................................... 1
Table 4.1: Process of review and interaction ................................................................................................ 13
Table 10.1: Construction methods for superstructure types ........................................................................... 58
Figures
Figure 5.1: Typical bridge articulations ........................................................................................................... 22
Figure 5.2: Bridge built normal to the skew .................................................................................................... 27
Figure 6.1: Design consideration for mine subsidence .................................................................................. 29
Figure 7.1: Scoured abutment due to lack of waterway ................................................................................. 33
Figure 7.2: A 12-metre high abutment – abutment expansion joint jammed due to horizontal
abutment displacement ................................................................................................................ 34
Figure 7.3: Scour at a pile caused by horseshoe and wake vortices ............................................................. 36
Figure 7.4: Cut-back scour ............................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 7.5: Minimum energy drainage structure concept ............................................................................... 38
Figure 8.1: Weathering profile of granite ........................................................................................................ 44
Figure 9.1: Pile-driving with hydraulic hammer .............................................................................................. 49
Figure 9.2: Prestressed concrete pile with steel H pile section ...................................................................... 51
Figure 9.3: Prestressed concrete piles with steel stubs ................................................................................. 51
Figure 9.4: Cast-in-place pile ......................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 9.5: Pile-driving analyser equipment ................................................................................................... 53
Figure 9.6: Pile instrumented with strain reducer ........................................................................................... 53
Figure 9.7: Pile damage due to overdriving.................................................................................................... 54
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1. Introduction and Guide Structure
1.1 Scope
The purpose of the Austroads Guide to Bridge Technology (AGBT) Part 4: Design Procurement and Concept
Design, is two-fold. It provides guidance about effectively scoping and specifying contractual requirements
for bridge design parameters to enable efficient procurement of design. This part also looks at the design
process and how it necessitates a series of steps to ensure that the final design has addressed the design
requirements and various site constraints.
Guidance is particularly important where the design standards require the agency/owner to resolve matters
about design assumptions or dimensional/detailing information prior to the commencement of design. It also
discusses philosophical issues about how the bridge design procurement process should be managed and
where responsibilities should lie for various parts of the design input and process. For more specific
information about project procurement, reference is made to the companion Guide to Project Delivery Part 2:
Planning and Control (Austroads 2014b).
The bridge design process necessitates a number of steps to ensure the final design addresses all design
requirements and site constraints. This outcome is best achieved by preparing design concepts for a number
of options for the client. Depending on the size of the project the concept designs may require preliminary
calculations and should set out how each concept addresses the design issues. Included in this part are
issues of the environment, geotechnical and foundation issues, designing for construction and maintainability
considerations and other general construction issues.
1.2 Guide Structure
The Guide to Bridge Technology is published in eight parts and addresses a range of issues, each of which
is summarised below.
Table 1.1: Parts of the Guide to Bridge Technology
Part Title Content

Part 1 Introduction and • Scope of the Guide to Bridge Technology and its relationship to the bridge design
Bridge Performance standards.
• Factors affecting bridge performance and technical and non-technical design
influences.
• Evolution of bridges, bridge construction methods and equipment and bridge
loadings.
• Specifications and quality assurance in bridge construction.
Part 2 Materials • The full range of bridge building materials including concrete, steel, timber and non-
metallic components.
• Material characteristics including individual stress mechanisms.
Part 3 Typical Bridge • Superstructure and substructure components – namely timber, steel, wrought iron,
Superstructures, reinforced and pre-stressed concrete.
Substructures and • Typical bridge types such as suspension, cable stayed and arched types.
Components
• Bridge foundations.
Part 4 Design • Bridge design process procurement models, specification requirements, design and
Procurement and delivery management processes, design checking and review concepts, the use of
Concept Design standardised components, aesthetics/architectural requirements, standard
presentation of drawings and reports, designing for constructability and
maintenance.
• Service life of the structure and components, mining and subsidence, flood plains,
bridge loadings, and geotechnical and environmental considerations.
Austroads 2018 | page 1

Part Title Content

Part 5 Structural Drafting • Detailed drawing aspects required to clearly convey to the consultant/construction
contractor the specifics of the project.
• Standards including details required for cost estimating and material quantities.
• Reinforcement identification details.
Part 6 Bridge Construction • Guidance to the bridge owner's representative on site.
• Focuses on bridge technology, high-risk construction processes e.g. piling,
pre-stressing, and the relevant technical surveillance requirements during the
construction phase.
• Bridge geometry, the management of existing road traffic and temporary works.
Part 7 Maintenance and • Maintenance issues for timber, reinforced and pre-stressed concrete, steel,
Management of wrought and cast iron bridges.
Existing Bridges • Maintenance of bridge components including bridge bearings and deck joints.
• Monitoring, inspection and management of bridge conditions.
Part 8 Hydraulic Design of • Waterway design of bridge structures
Waterway • Design flood standards and estimation methods, general considerations in
Structures waterway design and design considerations of waterway structures.
• Design of new bridges for scour, as well as monitoring and evaluation of scour at
existing bridge sites.

2. Bridge Design Process Procurement Models
2.1 General
The processes for the procurement of bridge design by road agencies/owners are determined by their in-house
design capabilities, the capabilities of the available external design providers and the availability of both.
Emphasis is placed on the importance of the design process to the successful completion of the bridge project.
The effective management of risks associated with ensuring traffic-friendly, durable, robust and reliable bridge
performance over the required 100-year life is enhanced by being an informed purchaser of design.
It is essential that the design input information be closely researched and clearly specified to ensure
minimum change during the design and that the purchaser’s intent is delivered. This section does not seek to
endorse one procurement method over another, but simply to give an outline of the mechanics of each.
Choice of procurement method would depend on circumstances and the road agency’s policies and
objectives. The choice of the project delivery mode early in the project planning phase would also determine
the bridge design process. Options for the project delivery mode include (Austroads 2014a):
• Direct managed – This delivery model involves the project owner managing the full delivery of the project,
which includes directly providing the plant and resources or obtaining these by subcontracting activities.
This method is used where in-house agency resources have the capability to undertake particular types
of work e.g. small construction, rehabilitation.
• Construct only – A ‘traditional’ delivery model under which a designer develops the detailed design and
other documentation for the project owner. Once satisfied with the design and documentation, the owner
will separately call for competitive bids from construction contractors to construct the project works.
Following completion of the construction works, the project owner assumes responsibility for the ongoing
maintenance and/or operation of the asset. The project is funded by the client.
• Design and construct (D&C) – A delivery model (which includes variants such as novated design and
construct, and design development and construct) under which a project owner selects a single contractor
to deliver both the design services and construction works for a specific project. Following completion of
the construction works, the project owner assumes responsibility for the ongoing maintenance and/or
operation of the asset, except in cases where such responsibilities are appended to the D&C model under
such variants as design, construct and maintain; design, construct and operate; or design, construct,
maintain and operate.
• Design, construct and maintain (DCM) – A variant of D&C, with the inclusion of a set period of time
whereby the contractor will be responsible for the maintenance of the completed structure.
• Early contractor involvement (ECI) – This comprises a two-stage relationship-style delivery model,
generally structured to resemble a project alliance model during the first stage and a D&C model during
the second. This delivery model is specifically designed to achieve good relationship, cost and
constructability outcomes by fostering the involvement of construction contractors during the design and
development of the project works.
• Alliance contract –Tenders call for delivery of the project, including the design and construction, under an
arrangement where a public sector agency (the Owner) works collaboratively with private sector parties
(non-owner participants or NOPs). All participants are required to work together in good faith, acting with
integrity and making best-for-project decisions. Working as an integrated, collaborative team, they make
unanimous decisions on all key project delivery issues. The alliance structure capitalises on the
relationships between the participants, removes organisational barriers and encourages effective
integration with the owner.

• Public private partnership (PPP) – A delivery model under which the project owner selects a private
sector partner to finance, design and construct the project works, and assumes responsibility for
operations and/or maintenance over a long-term period. This model is used when there is private sector
funding for the project. A PPP typically involves a period of operation by the contractor, which includes
maintenance, where tolls may be collected. PPP variations include BOT (build, operate and transfer),
BOOT (build, own, operate and transfer), BOO (build, own and operate), BLT (build, lease and transfer),
DBFO (design, build, finance and operate), DBOT (design, build, operate and transfer), DBOOT (design,
build, own, operate and transfer) and DCMF (design, construct, manage and finance). These variations
differ in the role, responsibility and benefits of the involved private and public sectors.
In all of the above project delivery modes the concept of ‘project partnering’ needs to be fostered where the
client and contractor are to work together in good faith with open communication to optimise the project
outcomes.
An appropriate design procurement method should be selected based on the selected mode of project
delivery. Common current design procurement methods are discussed in the following sections.
2.2 Construct Only
Generally, up to the 1980s, the method of bridge design procurement commonly used was to acquire the
design separately, in advance of the bridge construction, with the design plans being part of the tender (or
briefing) documents for the construction of the bridge. Such designs are either prepared in-house or acquired
from an external provider by a procurement arrangement.
This process usually allows for the development of a concept design proposal, with detailed design not
commencing until the concept is ‘signed off’ by a hierarchy of agency/owner management.
Advantages
• It allows for the design to ‘gestate’ and be subject to wide-ranging review, both formal and informal, from
other contributors to the road/traffic environment in which the bridge is to be used.
• The project is enhanced by the incorporation of both technical and geometrical refinements, at minimal
cost penalty to the agency/owner.
• The design provision is managed by bridge design specialists, with access to a range of collegiate bridge
design and construction experience to inform the process and the designer owes allegiance to the
agency/owner.
• This procurement model is well established and understood by both industry and owners, which reduces
tendering costs leading to a competitive tendering pool.
• The owner retains full control of the project. This can ensure that all design issues (including innovation)
are appropriately considered and resolved prior to proceeding to construction, which can occur at a time
where market/weather/budgetary conditions are favourable.
Disadvantages
• The design may need to be revised if there is significant delay before going to a construction contract.
• The resources for contract administration may be high.
• The project owner retains the design’s constructability risk.

2.3 Design and Construct
Bridge designs are now more often procured as part of the design/construct model (or
design/construct/maintain, or design/construct/maintain/operate models). In such cases, the design
procurement phase is managed as part of the overall project procurement.
For this procurement arrangement, the owner is obliged to specify at the outset the requirements for the
design process. It is therefore essential for the project owner to carefully specify its requirements and design
outcomes in the project brief.
This process can also be used as part of a DBOOT project delivery mode.
Advantages
• The advantage of this process is that responsibility for all co-ordination of the separate activities is
assigned to the contractor. This creates a single point of accountability for the design and construction,
potentially lowering the number of disputes, promoting the effective management of design issues and
minimising design/construction interface risk.
• The suitability of the construction/erection processes may be tailored to suit each contractor’s experience
and equipment.
• This process allows for better integration of the design with construction and innovation by the contractor.
There is a higher potential for innovation in design, due to the contractors input into constructability in the
preliminary designs, and therefore flexibility in identifying optimal materials and construction processes.
Disadvantages
• This process often allows minimal input from bridge design specialists and is generally managed under
severe time and cost constraints, which can disadvantage the project by limiting the input of other
road/traffic specialists.
• If potential issues are not adequately considered in the preliminary design, any variations required will
likely occur during construction, due to the typically short period from contract award to the
commencement of construction. Such variations are likely to be complex and expensive.
• Some contractors may lack design management skills and therefore rely on the design consultant, thus
negating some of the benefits of the model, such as any potential innovation in construction to be gained
by working collaboratively.
• Due to the preliminary design being completed during the tendering period, this may result in a higher
degree of cost certainty at award, and a shorter program following award. This model, therefore, requires a
longer tender period, which increases costs to tenderers, leading to a smaller pool tendering for a project.
• It allows a relatively short time to be specified for maintenance (e.g. up to 10 years). As defects do not
become obvious for a number of years, the warranty period may be expired before a defect occurs. By
strictly managing the performance standards on the contractor during the delivery of the project, which
may be linked to back-end payments for the construction, this disadvantage may be alleviated.
2.4 Alliance Arrangements
A recent development for project procurement is the alliance arrangement where the contractor, designer
and owner/authority form a management team to manage the project. This model has largely been used for
complex projects where it is difficult to effectively determine the scope, risk, price and delivery under other
models. This process happens under the separate oversight review of the owner, but involves the owner in
ensuring that financial aspects of delays are recognised and minimised, by involvement of the owner in a
profit sharing arrangement.

The important aspect of the alliance process is the assessment by the owner of the competency and
potential performance of the ‘alliance team’ to produce the desired outcomes and the specific scoping of the
works. This is important to establishing one of the key features and advantages of the alliance model, a ‘no
blame, no disputes’ philosophy.
Once again, as for the design/construct procedure, it is necessary to specify design requirements before the
letting of the tender.
Advantages
• All players (contractor, designer and owner) have an interest in the financial and technical outcome. In
addition, the alliance team takes on an ownership of the project, which can develop a synergy in dealing
with planning, design and construction.
• This can lead to improved efficiency and innovation, as well as allow fast-tracking where necessary to
meet time constraints.
• The participants commit to looking for ‘best for project’ solutions and there is a record of strong design
and quality outcomes on past alliance projects.
Disadvantages
• While the risks are shared, the project owner will likely be exposed to uncapped open-ended risks in
some areas, whereas the risks of the other partners are generally capped.
• There is a risk that quality outcomes may be compromised in order to meet cost targets and time
demands. Additionally, re-work must be paid for, which compounds the ‘pain’ for all participants.
2.5 Public Private Partnership (PPP)

• PPP is used when there is commercial, private sector funding. There are a number of different variants of
PPP, but they typically include a period of operation (including maintenance) by the consortium, and tolls
may be collected (or paid by government as shadow tolls). The project would then be handed back to
government at the end of the concession period, if this applies. This type of delivery model is used for
large projects where government does not wish to (or cannot) finance the projects.
• In this model, risks are generally transferred from the owner to a private sector partner for the period. These
can include design, fit-for-purpose, construction, schedule, and financing as well as long-term asset
management (including operation, maintenance and rehabilitation). They can also be structured to assume
commercial risk with respect to any tolls or revenue streams associated with the operation of the project.
Advantages
• Full integration of design, construction, financing, operational, maintenance and refurbishment
responsibilities.
• Opportunity to develop innovative solutions.
• Transfer of lifecycle cost risk encourages efficient design and quality construction and finishes, therefore,
certainty of maintenance standards as agreed and cost certainty as approved for a long-term, e.g. 25
years.
• Overall design and fit-for-purpose risk lies with the private partner.
Disadvantages
• Where there are multiple concept designs being developed simultaneously during the bid phase, this can
require significant stakeholder resources.
• Changes to design may require contract negotiations.
• The ability to make a variation needs to be addressed in the contract.

2.6 Further Information about Project Procurement
A more detailed discussion about methods of project procurement generally, including advantages and
disadvantages, is provided in the Guide to Project Delivery Part 2: Planning and Control (Austroads 2014b),
Building and Construction Procurement Guide: Principles and Options (Austroads & Australasian
Procurement and Construction Council 2014). Refer also to the National Guidelines for Infrastructure Project
Delivery (Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development 2017) for further guidance on the main
project delivery models, including traditional contracting, alliance contracting and public private partnerships.

3. Specifying Requirements for Design
In order to ensure that the required outcomes are achieved, specific design requirements must be
incorporated into the tender process no matter what the project delivery mode is. For an effective process,
there are many important design and design detail decisions to be made by the agency/owner’s
representatives prior to the signing of the contract. Appropriate design requirements should be specified for
the following areas:
• bridge design code issues
• local conditions
• geometric details
• gathering and integrating data
• design statement
• road users’ needs
• occupational safety and health (OS&H)
• design outcomes
• surveillance and design intent.
3.1 Bridge Design Code Issues
AS 5100 Bridge Design applies to all Australian bridge design. Each part of AS 5100 lists all the issues
where design input is required or where the approval of the agency/owner is required. These issues are set
out in Appendix A.
The NZ Transport Agency (NZTA) Bridge Manual (NZ Transport Agency 2016) is applicable to all bridges. In
the case of design/construct contracts, an interactive tendering and consultation process is used based on
the proforma tender documents set out in the State Highway Construction Contract Proforma Manual (NZ
Transport Agency 2015). The tender documents include a section entitled principal’s requirements, which
sets out the requirements for the contractor’s design, construction, completion and correction of defects of
the contract works. It describes the relevant standards, design criteria, technical and other requirements and
provides information that applies to the contract, and also includes a specimen design that demonstrates that
the principal’s requirements can be met. During the tender period, tenderers develop a preliminary
conceptual design. These are discussed in formalised individual consultation meetings between each
tenderer and NZTA, with the aim of resolving issues relating to the tenderer’s preliminary concept design,
tender preparation and submission. The processes will also address any identified anomalies, ambiguities,
errors or omissions in the tender documents, and may result in amendment of the principal requirements. A
formal submission of the preliminary concept design is then made to NZTA. NZTA will then issue to
tenderers a schedule of supplementary requirements for their conceptual design proposal, to be taken into
account in the tender submission. Final tender submissions include drawings of the developed conceptual
design together with a corresponding design statement.
3.2 Specifying for Local Conditions
If the bridge site is in a remote area where the quality of work and supervision is a concern, precasting or
prefabrication should be included as a requirement.

3.3 Geometric Details, including Clearances
As a bridge is part of a road network and must operate effectively to carry traffic over an obstacle (waterway,
transport corridor), the geometric layout and details of the bridge must be appropriate to its use. Changes to
bridge drawings to amend geometric details may extend over many of the drawings and present the
possibility of errors in the drawings when changes are made.
The minimum clear width for the passage of traffic shall be in accordance with the Guide to Road Design
(AGRD) Part 3: Geometric Design (Austroads 2016). It is important that crossing clearances and road/traffic
geometry for a bridge is confirmed by the road agency/owner and, in the case of a bridge over a railway, by
the railway authority. Navigation clearances will require confirmation by the waterway authority. Flood and
debris clearances will require confirmation by the local authority or catchment management authority.
3.4 Gathering and Integrating Data for a Bridge Design
A formalised process is the most effective way to ensure that all relevant issues are considered, integrated
and resolved. Most road agencies have adopted such a process. The following checklists to inform and
assist this process should be assembled:
Checklist 1 A bridge site information summary that contains the basic data needed for the start of
design. It should be completed prior to the commencement of design, as described in
Appendix B.
Checklist 2 Action checklist for comments and/or concurrences to the design concept proposal.
Checklist 3 Action checklist for comments and/or concurrences and approval to various stages of design
and drawing preparation, including final design and drawings.
3.5 Design Statement
Authorities should require the preparation of a design statement which sets out all the factors affecting the
design (including those as listed in the bridge design code/manual) and present design options and a
recommended solution, with a recommended construction procedure. Design codes and standards, and any
proposed departures from these and/or alternative methods of design are to be stated. The design
statement, once endorsed by the agency, describes the structure to be designed.
3.6 Requirements of AS 5100
AS 5100, the Australian Standard for Bridge Design, recognises that it will be used as the design standard
by the authorities/owners for all forms of bridge design procurement. An increasing number of bridges are
being procured under the design/construct/maintain/operate process, with the completed bridge being
handed back to the agency/owner to maintain after some years of operation. Contract administration for
these methods of procurement of bridges, which rely on references to AS 5100, could be compromised by
the failure of the agency/owner to determine a number of matters in AS 5100 that require resolution by the
agency/owner before commencing the design process.
Typical issues include:

• bridge deck geometry, including deck width (with any allowances for curve widening), superelevation and
footway requirements and layouts (including provision for cyclists)
• traffic barrier category and geometry and pedestrian barrier details
• additional design live traffic loads (including provision for road construction vehicles) and pedestrian loads
• extent and comprehensiveness of geotechnical investigations
• location and type of deck expansion joint, including width, type and performance parameters.

While AS 5100 has not been adopted by NZTA for use in New Zealand (except for the joint part –
AS/NZS 5100.6), a similar need exists to minimise the need for variations because of incomplete resolution
of issues prior to the signing of the contract. In the case of design and construct contracts, the practice is that
the principal’s requirements set out the criteria to be met, and a specimen design illustrates how they can be
met. Tenderers are required to submit a conceptual design and corresponding design statement with their
tender submission.
Even more variations can occur when construction is allowed to proceed before these issues are resolved,
thus potentially placing the owner’s representative under pressure to accept a lower standard of work.
3.7 Application of Authority Requirements for Road Users, OH&S and Design
Outcomes
3.7.1 Road Users’ Requirements
The road agency/owner has specific design requirements for the following bridge details to ensure
consistency and conformity of the bridge deck appearance for use by road users:
• traffic barriers
• pedestrian barriers
• transitions to approach barriers
• deck, traffic lane, shoulder and footway widths and geometry
• deck drainage
• expansion joints
• light standards
• noise walls
• safety screens.
3.7.2 OH&S Requirements
To ensure consistency of OH&S requirements for constructability, replaceability and accessibility during both
construction and maintenance of the bridge, specific design requirements must be specified for a number of
bridge details, including:
• access gantries, including methods of attachment to the structure
• bearings
• deck joints, particularly expansion joints
• traffic and pedestrian rails
• drainage details
• access to internal cells of box girders (confined spaces)
• maintenance of attached services.

3.7.3 Design Outcomes
Requirements must also be specified for the following design parameters to ensure consistency of design
outcomes:
• acceptance of relevant geotechnical strength reduction factors for design of retaining walls, abutments,
piers, footings and cast-in-place and driven piles, as related to the level of geotechnical investigation
outlined in AS 5100
• fatigue design
• earthquake resistance requirements.
It is essential that the agency/owner provides its specific requirements for these details before the bridge
design tender is let.
3.8 Design Surveillance and Achievement of Design Intent
The design surveillance process should be based on the quality management system of the agency/owner or
as otherwise agreed by the parties. The achievement of the design intent in construction must be certified by
the designer.
For the handover of the bridge to the agency/owner, a process of inspection and rehabilitation needs to be
negotiated and implemented.

4. Considerations in the Design Process
4.1 Design Process
requirements and site constraints.
This outcome is best achieved by preparing design concepts for a number of options for the client.
Depending on the size of the project the concept designs may require preliminary calculations and should set
out how each concept addresses the design issues.
In the case of small streams, design options should consider either a bridge or a culvert.
The design process generally may include the following:

• concept design – possible options, global design considerations
• preliminary design – sufficient calculations carried out to assess the structural and economic feasibility of
each concept
• design proposal – physical details and dimensions, design basis, loads, cost estimate
• client review and feedback
• approval to proceed or amend proposal
• detailed design
• design review – this may involve review of the design at stages nominated by the client
• final design and preparation of contract documentation – drawings and specifications. The specifications
may include project-specific as well as standard documents.
It should be noted that the design process may vary between jurisdictions. For example, VicRoads does not
necessarily require ‘client review and feedback’ and ‘approval to proceed or amend proposal’. Refer to the
relevant road agency’s policy for the specific requirements.
4.2 Design and Delivery Management
4.2.1 General
The action checklist in Appendix A covers the many aspects related to a bridge design that must be
considered, reviewed and acted on.
The design process requires continual review in order to ensure that the requirements for safety, durability,
robustness, reliability and aesthetics are each achieved. For significant and/or complex bridges it may be
appropriate for the owner to conduct a value engineering study to review risks to the project.
Value engineering is defined by the Federal Highway Administration (2017) as a systematic process of
review and analysis (of bridge drawings and design calculations), during the concept and design phases, by
a multidisciplinary team of persons not involved in the project, to make recommendations for:
• providing the needed functions safely, reliably, efficiently, and at the lowest overall cost
• improving the value and quality of the project
• reducing the time to complete the project.
Value engineering should not, however, result in a reduction in the design standards but rather an enhanced
project outcome.

4.2.2 Delivery of Design/Construct and Alliance Bridge Projects
In a design/construct or alliance project the requirements stated in the contract documents must reflect the
interaction between the agency/owner and the contractor’s designers. The design for a bridge is developed
to satisfy not only the contractor’s focus on efficiency and economy, but also the agency/owner’s
requirements for safety, durability, robustness, reliability and aesthetic values, for the 100 year-life of the
bridge.
Successful management of the design process has been achieved by a multi-stage process of review and
interaction (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1: Process of review and interaction
Stage of process Contractor Agency/owner
Preliminary investigations and design brief Prepare and submit Review, comment and/or accept
Concept/preliminary design proposal, including

Prepare and submit Review, comment and/or accept
verification for 100-year durability and aesthetics
Final investigations and final design to 20% Prepare and submit Review, comment and/or accept
Final design to 80% Prepare and submit Review, comment and/or accept
Final design to 100% and related construction

Prepare and submit Review, comment and/or accept
documentation
Each of these stages needs to be identified in the contract documents, with an associated hold point and
related time limit for review, comment and/or acceptance for each stage.
It should be noted that the process of review and interaction may vary between jurisdictions, for example,
VicRoads does not use a staged design process, and the designers do not control the process, while
Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads (TMR) requires a four-stage design process,
including 15%, 50%, 85% and final design reports.
4.3 Checking and Review Concepts
4.3.1 General
The requirement for an independent design check/proof engineering is an important part of the quality
assurance process for bridge design. The risk management processes for avoiding design and drawing
errors, particularly gross errors, must be foolproof and failsafe and must be at a level to ensure the
confidence of the agency/owner.
Various procedures have been implemented on different projects, such as design checking, proof
engineering, design verification and peer review. These terms are not well defined and have different
meanings for different organisations in terms of the level of comprehensiveness of the design check and the
level of confidence that any design and drawing errors have been identified.
The agency/owner must define precisely the level and quantum of design checking required or the
competency level, as related to the risk consequences for the project, and also the competency required for
both designer and checker, the level of independence of the checker from the designer, and the
responsibility for payment of the checker.
For particularly significant or complex bridges, it may be appropriate to nominate a third level of independent
checking or verification, particularly to ensure the structural modelling is consistent.
In addition, the agency/owner needs to ensure the checking outcomes are critically reviewed and that an
arbitration process is in place to resolve technical disputes between the designer and the checker or
independent verifier.

4.3.2 Defining Process Terminology
For the purpose of achieving commonality of understanding, the following definitions of activities related to
the design review process are provided:
• Design checking – a comprehensive, separate, independent preparation of calculations for the whole of
the bridge design by a qualified bridge designer in another part of the organisation, with subsequent
comparison of results and either certified agreement between designer and checker or arbitration by an
experienced bridge design manager.
• Proof engineering – a review of the bridge design calculations and drawings by an experienced
independent bridge designer in another entity, not part of the original design organisation. Separate
calculations should be undertaken for critical aspects of the design (abutments, piers, main
superstructure members) and certified as either agreed with the bridge designer or arbitrated by an
experienced design manager and with investigation and correction of any other discrepancies raised.
• Design verification – a review of the bridge design calculations and drawings by an experienced
independent bridge designer. Investigation and correction of any discrepancies raised.
• Peer review – a review of the bridge drawings by an experienced independent bridge designer.
Investigation and correction of any discrepancies raised.
Where a design review process is applied to a significant road project with a number of similar bridges, the
design checking, proof engineering, design verification and peer review processes may be applied to a
selected few representative bridge designs or all bridges, depending on the risk analysis.
It should be noted that the process terminology may vary between jurisdictions, for example, within
VicRoads, the proof engineer signs the certificate, and a design verification may be carried out by a staff in
the design team.
4.3.3 Road Safety Audit
The final bridge design and any subsequent changes should be subject to a road safety audit, to confirm the
suitability of road safety issues associated with the bridge alignment and width.
For complicated urban interchange bridge geometry, with curved alignments, the safe design speed and
minimum radius of curvature should be determined by the owner as a functional requirement, and the final
design geometry should be reviewed to ensure it conforms. Whilst it may be tempting to reduce costs of
overbridges by shortening spans, reducing skew and reducing the radius of curvature at certain locations,
these actions can also lower the safe design speed.
Road safety audits should be certified and the requirements implemented.
It should be noted that for some road agencies, such as VicRoads, this requirement may not be relevant to
be included in the bridge design process.
4.4 Standardised Components
4.4.1 General
Most road agencies/owners have determined that for some aspects of bridge construction and maintenance,
the use of standardised components results in efficiencies for both themselves and also for the industry.
Typical examples are the use of a standardised range of mould sizes for laminated elastomeric bearings
(AS 5100.4, Appendix A) and the standardised formwork sizes for precast prestressed concrete bridge
girders, both I-girders and Super-T girders (AS 5100.5, Appendix D). Other local examples are for precast
concrete pile sections and joints and for barrier shapes and railing components.

Standard bridges have also been applied with standard superstructure and substructure types. Typically,
standard designs can be applied to the following types of small and medium span bridge superstructures:
• deck and kerb unit bridges
• T-girder and T-Roff girder bridges
• prestressed concrete (PSC) I-girder
• steel I-girder
• in situ reinforced concrete decks on deck units, prestressed concrete and steel girders
• medium span bridges such as box girders, or curved ramp bridges using box girders
• footbridges of conventional design.
For substructures, standard designs may include:

• prestressed concrete piles
• cast-in-place piles in liners
• spread footings
• reinforced concrete abutments and piers.
Where the agency/owner requires the adoption of such standardised components, this should be nominated
in the contract documents, with appropriate requirements for supply and testing.
4.4.2 Proprietary Items
The agency/owner should ensure that any proprietary products that are nominated for use by the designer
are noted ‘or approved equivalent’ to enable competition to be applied to the supply of proprietary items.
In addition, the agency/owner should ensure it specifies the required performance of proprietary items to
enable a judgement of equivalence.
Some road agencies, such as VicRoads, do not pre-approve materials.
4.5 Aesthetics/Architectural Requirements
4.5.1 General
Some road agencies/owners may nominate that the tender selection process will include consideration of
aesthetic/architectural requirements. The level of these requirements will depend on the visibility of the
project and issues such as the need for landmark bridges, overbridges or pedestrian bridges. Issues such as
span length, superstructure depth, pier shape, pile cap visibility and retaining wall configuration are important
for landmark or iconic structures. For structures of lesser visibility, the general requirement of attention to
simplicity of line and proportion is emphasised.
Bridge aesthetics last for the life of a bridge. Good aesthetics can be achieved at little or no extra cost.
4.5.2 References for Aesthetics
The designer shall give careful consideration to the aesthetics of the structure. Guidance on the principles
involved may be obtained from the following references, while additional resources are listed in Appendix C:
Fédération Internationale du Béton (2000); Highways Agency (1998); Highways Department Hong
Kong (2013); Roads and Maritime Services (2012); and Transportation Research Board (1991).

4.6 Presentation of Drawings and Reports
4.6.1 General
Error and ambiguity can arise from a poor standard of presentation of bridge drawings and reports. Such
errors and ambiguities can compromise not only the bridge construction process, but also future
maintenance and the management of the load capacity rating of the bridge. A standard form of presentation
for drawings and reports (e.g. foundation investigations, hydrology report, fatigue studies, etc.) similar to that
used by the agency/owner should be nominated in contract documents.
The drafting standards of the agency/owner should be specified for the production of drawings.
Refer to AGBT Part 5: Structural Drafting for further discussion on the presentation of structural drawings.
4.6.2 Interpretation of Site Data
While the interpretation of spatial geotechnical information is not included on the drawings for contractual
reasons, it may be that such interpretive information would be valuable for other interested parties. In such a
case, it may be appropriate to request this information with the ‘as-constructed’ drawings, with a suitable
disclaimer.
4.7 Constructability and Maintenance Issues
Authorities/owners must ensure that issues related to the constructability of the structure, replaceability of
components of shorter life than the design life of the structure and OH&S issues for construction and
maintenance are identified and resolved during the design process. The agency/owner has responsibility for
OH&S issues for the life of the bridge.
These issues usually, but not exclusively, relate to access to various components of the bridge, such as
bearings, deck joints and main load-carrying members. It is essential that these issues be included in the
design statement and in contract documentation.
Constructability and maintenance issues must be signed off by corporate and local asset managers of the
agency/owner at the relevant stages of the design process (Table 4.1).
Refer to Section 12 for further discussion on design for maintainability.
It should be noted that a design statement may not be required for some road agencies, such as VicRoads.

5. General Considerations
All ‘Matters for Resolution before Design Commences’ found in each part of AS 5100 are to be addressed by
the designer and the relevant agency or owner of a bridge (Appendix A).
The following sections deal with additional matters for design consideration.
5.1 Construction Method
Two fundamental concept design considerations are the structural form and the method of construction of
the bridge.
The structural form and the method of construction chosen for a particular site will be influenced by a number
of factors including:
• the height of the bridge above the natural surface or water – ease of access
• simply-supported or continuous spans – the need to reduce the number of deck joints and noise
generated by them – structural efficiency
• longitudinal profile of the site – ground slope and height may influence the number and location of piers
and hence span lengths
• proximity and extent of water – the location and number of piers on ground and over water to minimise
work over water
• the geographical location – haulage distances, proximity to concrete batching and precast concrete
plants, urban or rural location, prefabrication options
• traffic access requirement – provision of openings and maintaining traffic flow
• environmental constraints – minimising disturbance to existing conditions, risk of pollution
• site access – working area, equipment access
• site geology – addressing geological issues such as slope stability, settlement
• seismic areas – simply-supported or continuous spans
• mining subsidence areas – simply-supported or continuous spans and provision for anticipated
movements
• location of utilities – may influence position of piers and span lengths
• comparative costs of options.
The design considerations for each site will provide options for the form and construction method to be
adopted. Refer to AGBT Part 3: Typical Superstructures, Substructures and Components for detailed
discussions on the general bridge structural forms.
5.2 Aesthetics
Aesthetics are an important design consideration. A number of road agencies have produced guidelines on
the aesthetics of bridges. NSW has published Bridge Aesthetics (Roads and Maritime Services 2012).
Appendix C provides further information on bridge aesthetics.

5.3 Cost-effective Design
In preparing proposals a number of design options and their cost estimates should be considered as part of
the design process including:
• cost comparison between superstructure types and methods of erection, e.g. precast versus cast-in situ
or segmental construction (refer to AGBT Part 3: Typical Superstructures, Substructures and
Components)
• identifying site constraints for each method of construction and the cost implications
• the cost comparison between increasing the span lengths to reduce the number of piers and foundation
costs
• optimisation of girder spacing versus deck slab thickness
• minimisation of the number of piers constructed over water, e.g. minor changes in span lengths or bridge
position may result in piers that are marginally over water being on land
• designing members to allow repeated use of formwork, e.g. if a bridge is on a vertical curve it may be
possible to make all pier columns the same height by varying the pile cap levels allowing the use of the
same formwork throughout
• cost comparison of low-level versus high-level bridge
• overall project costs, which include the cost of approaches and road realignment, may be the determining
economic factor
• minimum whole-of-life cost, which caters for the costs in all stages of a life-cycle of a structure including
design, construction, operation, maintenance, repair, replacement and decommissioning.
5.4 Live Loads
Design considerations for live loads should include the issues discussed below.
5.4.1 Design Live Loads
Notwithstanding the requirements of AS 5100.2 Clause 7, it may be advantageous to the community and
industry to design for heavier loads where they are required for specific projects such as power stations and
dams. Payloads on these projects may include boiler components and heavy construction equipment.
5.4.2 Construction Loads
Relevant construction equipment must be taken into consideration in the design to cover any critical load
effects that may occur on the structure. For example, for pipe culverts backfill and compaction equipment
may cause large load effects when the top soil is not fully filled. These load effects may be more critical than
the load effects due to live loads on complete structures.
5.4.3 Dynamics
Notwithstanding the requirements of AS 5100.2 Clause 7.7, the dynamic characteristics of a bridge and/or its
components may be sensitive to interaction with the traffic using the bridge. Instances have occurred where
the dynamic amplification as a result of the interaction of the bridge with specific vehicle types has resulted in
an increase in the dynamic load in excess of the provisions in AS 5100.2. In addition, the possibility of stress
reversals occurring when the excitation force (traffic) is removed must be considered.

5.4.4 Fatigue Data
The following information should be obtained to enable a fatigue design to be carried out:
• fatigue criteria, including the number of fatigue stress cycles and route factor (AS 5100.2)
• fatigue load effects
• traffic volumes and make-up
• fatigue characteristics of materials, as stipulated in AS 5100.5 for concrete and AS/NZS 5100.6 for steel,
respectively.
5.4.5 Pedestrian Bridges
AS 5100.2 Clause 13.4 includes provisions for the dynamic behaviour of pedestrian bridges. A range is
stipulated for the resonant frequency for vertical vibrations for which the serviceability limit state must be
investigated. In addition, this clause sets a limit for the dynamic deflection at the first mode flexural
frequency. Horizontal excitation by pedestrian loads is also considered.
Notwithstanding the provisions in the code, in instances where the dynamic characteristics are close to the
limits set, there is a possibility of producing adverse dynamic behaviour. The provision of fitments to enable
installation of damping devices if required may be an appropriate contingency provision. These damping
devices may be in the form of hydraulic shock absorbers.
The design may need to consider the possibility of light vehicles being used on the bridge for maintenance
purposes.
Disabled access to pedestrian bridges needs to be addressed. There are legislative requirements in some
jurisdictions. Design considerations will include:
• maximum gradient on the bridge and ramps
• provision of level landings in the approach ramps
• provision of lifts where ramps are not practical because of site constraints.
5.5 Safety in Design
Safety in design is mandated by statutory requirements and must be incorporated into the design.
The safety in design process is intended to identify potential hazards and risks to persons during all the
phases of a bridge’s life-cycle, from construction to decommissioning. These hazards and risks should be
eliminated or minimised during the design phase.
The safety in design process and requirements are documented in Clause 9 of AS 5100.1. The following
information should be included as a minimum:
• identified hazards associated with a design that may occur in the construction, operation, maintenance
and decommissioning phases of the project life-cycle
• potential risks of injury or harm associated with any identified hazards
• risk controls the designer has introduced to mitigate any identified hazards
• any hazards that cannot be mitigated during the design phase and need to be managed during the
relevant life-cycle phase.

5.6 Location
The location of the bridge is a key factor that influences decisions made on a number of design
considerations including:
• type of bridge
• foundation details, e.g. steel piles vs concrete piles
• availability of materials, e.g. proximity of a concrete batching plant and precast concrete factories
• haul distance
• material type, e.g. steel or concrete, carbon steel or stainless steel components and fixtures
• availability of construction equipment, e.g. crane capacity
• durability considerations, e.g. marine environment, aggressive ground water
• method of construction, e.g. to address the need to protect or diminish the impact on the environment;
sensitive environments may require special consideration
• the need for staged construction
• proximity of existing bridge or other structures.
5.7 Traffic and Traffic Considerations
Each road agency records data on the make-up and volume of traffic on classified roads. The data provides
the percentage of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream. Terms used in traffic data include average daily traffic
(ADT) and average annual daily traffic (AADT). The volume and make-up of traffic on roads determines a
number of bridge design parameters including the width, the number and width of lanes and the type of
traffic barrier.
The use of weigh-in-motion systems to obtain traffic data is becoming widespread. These systems provide
valuable data on vehicle mass and number which are relevant to design issues such as fatigue. On existing
bridges they provide information on changes in traffic patterns and their cumulative effects.
See AS 5100 Part 2 Design Loads for further information.
5.7.1 Road Geometry
Clause 13 of AS 5100.1 and the Guide to Road Design Part 3 (Austroads 2016) sets out the geometric
requirements for all bridges. However, there are other traffic related issues that need to be considered
including the following:
• Future land use changes may have a significant impact on projected traffic growth figures. The design
should provide an adequate number of lanes and overall width.
• Every effort should be made to design the vertical and horizontal alignments of a bridge to simplify the
bridge geometry. A bridge on a constant curvature is preferable to having transition curves within its length.
• For a major incrementally launched bridge a minor redesign of the road alignment to use constant radius
of curvature resulted in significant cost savings and improved constructability.
• In another case the vertical and horizontal alignments were redesigned to shift the curve transitions off the
bridge. This avoided the need for the bridge planks to be placed on varying crossfalls across the deck.
• For incrementally launched bridges on vertical and horizontal curves a constant curvature simplifies the
segment formwork and the launching process.
It should be noted that a reversal of curvature on a bridge results in a transition from one superelevation to
the other. This situation results in a length of the deck being level transversely which can create a drainage
issue.

5.8 Public Utilities
The presence and location of public utilities at the site need to be determined early in the investigations. The
type and location may have a major impact on the design. For example, the presence of a fibre optic cable
may affect the bridge location because of the major cost to relocate it. Details need to be obtained of the
provision for utilities as constructed and for future needs. Provision for utilities may include:
• ducts in barriers
• attachments for water, sewer and gas mains
• in the case of pressure mains, dynamic loads to the bridge caused by any changes in the pipe alignment
must be considered
• provision of trenches below footways for electrical and gas services
Note: there are regulations governing the proximity of gas and electrical services.
• design and installation of fitments to support existing or future utilities
• the utilities must be designed to accommodate the thermal, deflection and rotation movements of the
bridge.
The location and method of attachment are usually at the discretion of the relevant authority. Any special
provisions required by the utility must be incorporated. In particular, the following requirements must be met:
• All attachments and utility services must be fabricated from durable materials to prevent any leakage into
or onto the structure.
• Utility services must be positioned outside of required clearance and also to minimise the potential for
damage from flood events, vehicle impact and vandalism.
• Where utility services are located inside closed cells, drainage must be provided in case of leaking or
bursting of the pipes.
• Water mains and utilities conveying flammable substances such as gas must not be located inside closed
cells.
The attachment of utilities must also be done in such a way as to allow access for future maintenance of the
bridge, e.g. providing clearance behind mains to allow access to concrete surfaces.
A standard format agreement has been used (e.g. by VicRoads) to ensure that the right of access is
maintained and to ensure that proper procedures are followed to prevent damage, for example, to
reinforcement and tendons.
5.9 Articulation
5.9.1 Definition
Articulation of a bridge refers to the way the components of a bridge are joined. For example, a bridge where
the girders are rigidly connected to the piers will behave differently to one where the girders are supported on
the piers. Similarly, a bridge that has an expansion joint at each pier will behave differently as it expands
under temperature changes to a bridge where the deck is continuous over its full length. The bridge designer
can make a bridge behave differently by changing the way it is articulated (Figure 5.1).
Refer to the Guide to Bridge Technology Part 3: Typical Superstructures, Substructures and Components for
further discussion on bridge articulation.

Figure 5.1: Typical bridge articulations
Source: Based on D Carter (c2009).
5.9.2 Considerations
Each of the considerations listed below may have an influence on the number and location of expansion
joints and type of bearings in the bridge, the connection of the substructure to the superstructure (pinned,
fixed or integral), the distribution of longitudinal and transverse loads to bearings, piers and abutments.
The articulation of a bridge will be governed by a number of factors including:

• type of superstructure (form and whether continuous or simply-supported)
• an alternative to fully continuous spans is to erect the members as simply-supported and then pour the
deck slab continuous over the piers
This is referred to as being ‘continuous under live load.’
• method of construction
• horizontal alignment

• length of bridge
• span lengths
• ride quality
• noise generated by deck joints
• relative heights and stiffness of piers
• type of bearings
• lateral restraints
• stiffness of bearings
• seismic constraints
• mining subsidence
• site geology
• skew angle.
Generally, a structural option with fewer number of spans is preferable since the number of deck joints and
number of piers are reduced. Refer to AGBT Part 3: Typical Superstructures, Substructures and
Components for a detailed discussion on typical bridge structural forms.
5.10 Skew
The adverse effects of skew need to be considered in the design particularly for skew angles in excess of
20°. The effects of large skew angles include:
• Non-uniform distribution of loads to bearings, particularly those at the acute corners of a deck. Instances
have occurred where the deck at the acute corner has lifted off the adjacent bearing under dead load
only.
• Implications for the deck in terms of flexural behaviour. In regard to bearings this situation results in
increased loads to adjacent bearings that will overload them.
• In the case of elastomeric bearings the reduced loads at bearings may lead to bearings ‘walking out’
because of the lack of friction at the rubber/concrete interface.
• On large skew bridges there is a tendency for decks to rotate due to the fact that any longitudinal deck
movement will cause the piers to deflect normal to their transverse axis.
Circular elastomeric bearings should be used on large skew bridges to provide the same stiffness in all
directions. This will better accommodate the complex movements that occur with large skew bridges.
Consideration should be given to the arrangement of diaphragms and possible modelling issues, since the
diaphragms may be installed perpendicular to the beam’s longitudinal axis, or form a skew angle with the
bridge longitudinal axis.
Highly skewed bridges may tend to rotate in plan as a result of the action of thermally-induced forces in the
superstructure which, in turn, mobilise passive resistance at the abutments in the form of a couple. This may
lead to proportional increases in the horizontal loads on piled foundations. Therefore, a skew of greater 30°
is generally not allowed for integral bridges (VicRoads 2012).
5.11 Forces Resulting from Water Flow
Forces from water flow should be considered when designing structures. These are covered in Clause 16 of
AS 5100.2.
The fluid forces on piers, which include drag forces and side lift forces, are dependent on the pier shape,
water velocity and direction.

Partially submerged superstructures are subject to:

• a drag force normal to the longitudinal axis
• a vertical lift force
• a moment about the girder soffit level.
Recent flooding in Queensland has demonstrated that flood debris forces can include significant items of
urban debris such as cars, pontoons or shipping containers, which will expose structures to greater debris
loads than experienced in rural areas. The extent of the urban area debris must be agreed with the relevant
road agency.
5.12 Information from Existing Bridge
Review of maintenance records of the existing bridge may highlight other design considerations. These may
include:
• foundation type and founding levels
• foundation performance
• stream characteristics
• evidence of durability problems that may have relevance to the new bridge, for example, evidence of the
presence of acid soils shown by deterioration of non-structural concrete or other deleterious agents in the
soil or ground water evidenced by deterioration of structural concrete.
5.13 Temporary Bridging
Depending on the site conditions and traffic requirements, temporary bridging may be required to provide
access while an existing bridge is demolished or partly demolished, to allow construction of a new bridge. A
number of road agencies have supplies of proprietary temporary bridging systems. Bridging systems are also
available from equipment hire companies.
5.14 Provision of Access for the Disabled
Statutory requirements exist in most jurisdictions for the provision of access for the disabled, particularly to
pedestrian bridges.
5.15 Sustainability and Climate Change
Sustainability and climate change considerations must reference relevant standards and guidelines, as well
as the approaches of the relevant jurisdictions.
Where guidance from the jurisdiction is not available, reference may be made to industry guidance.
Consideration should be given to the following aspects:
• whole-of-life impacts
• site-based considerations
• new technologies, materials and/or installation methodologies
• community benefits, functionality and accessibility of different modes of transportation.
The resilience and adaptability of bridge structures is an important consideration with regard to the potential
impacts of climate change (e.g. increased height/frequency of flood events) during the relatively long design
life of bridge structures. Further guidance on climate change and adaption can be found in AS 5334.

5.16 Terrorist Activity
With the increased awareness of potential terrorist activity design considerations may need to include the
following:
• ease of security access to the inside of box girders and hollow piers
• the redundancy of members
• installation of security cameras
• design assessment of worst-case scenarios
• physical barriers to prevent the close approach of vehicles to supports and other vulnerable components.
5.17 Construction Safety and Structural Form
The designer must ensure that the form of the bridge and the construction sequence specified will allow it to
be constructed in a safe manner. To achieve this, special provisions may be required including:
• purpose-built construction equipment
• purpose-built access provisions
• purpose-built safety equipment
• detailed documentation of construction procedures to ensure the safety issues are addressed.
The relevant OHS regulation is enforced in the design of buildings or structures. The Victorian Occupational
Health and Safety Act 2004 (Worksafe), for example, requires that ‘a person who designs a building or
structure or part of a building or structure who knows, or ought reasonably to know, that the building or
structure or the part of the building or structure is to be used as a workplace must ensure, so far as is
reasonably practicable, that it is designed to be safe and without risks to the health of persons using it as a
workplace for a purpose for which it was designed.’
Liaison between the designer and the construction contractor may be necessary where special provisions
are required. This requirement, however, may not be possible in some forms of construction, depending on
whether the designer is engaged for the construction phase.
Instances have occurred overseas where following a construction safety incident the courts have found the
designer liable for designing a structure that could not have been built safely.
5.18 Serviceability Requirements
5.18.1 Service Life of Bridge and Components
The specified design service life in AS 5100 is 100 years. However, the relevant road agency should give
consideration to the fact that a nominal 100-year design service life will result in some bridges having a
service life of less than 100 years due to statistical variation in the construction quality.
For bridges in aggressive environments this statistical variation will have more serious implications compared
to bridges in relatively benign environments. It may be more logical to increase the design service life to 150
years. This decision would result in additional considerations of the durability aspects in terms of construction
quality provisions and material types. For example, it may force the use of stainless steel fitments to ensure
the extended design service life is achieved.

5.18.2 Flood-free or Submersible
Waterway calculations are aimed at defining the minimum size opening to be able to pass a flood flow for a
specific return interval, e.g. 1 in 100 years, 1 in 50 years, 1 in 25 years.
The design waterway area must provide the desired level of service and must ensure that there are no
detrimental effects to the stream in regard to scour and bank erosion, the adjacent land and the structural
integrity of the bridge.
In addition, the structural integrity of the bridge and the effect on adjacent land under the ultimate design
flood (1 in 2000 years) event needs to be assessed.
In some instance the waterway area may be fixed by other considerations such as road grading, navigational
or other local requirements.
The bridge waterway will likely be smaller than in the natural stream under flood conditions and result in an
increased water velocity through the bridge. The acceptable restricted velocity through the bridge will depend
on the local conditions in terms of the type of material in the stream bed and its propensity to scour. The
implications of the restricted velocity on the stability of abutments and road embankments must also be
assessed. Scour protection of abutments and embankments may be required.
AGBT Part 8: Hydraulic Design of Waterway Structures provides further discussion on waterway design
requirements.
5.18.3 Alignment and Design Speed
The vertical and horizontal alignment and design speed will have an impact on the bridge design in terms of:
• bridge geometry such as gradient, vertical curvature, superelevation and horizontal curvature
For example, for incrementally launched bridges constant vertical and horizontal curvature is required.
• drainage of the deck in terms of collection and piping to stilling basins
• method used to accommodate the curvature on the bridge, e.g. bridge built as a series of chords with
curved traffic barrier or constructed on the curve
• width to allow for curve effects in terms of vehicle tracking
• traffic barrier containment level and type
• bridge approach barrier
• potential vehicular impacts
• longitudinal and transverse forces generated by traffic
• number of lanes, e.g. climbing lanes, turning movements
• transition curves.
5.18.4 Number of Lanes, Wide Bridges and Thermal Movements
The number of lanes and therefore the width of a bridge are generally governed by traffic requirements.
However other considerations may dictate that additional lanes are required including:
• future traffic growth
• gradient and the need for climbing lanes
• geometric requirements e.g. acceleration and deceleration lanes, overtaking lanes
• percentage of heavy vehicles
• provision of cycle lanes
• pedestrian footways.

In some instances the bridge may be wider than it is long. In the case of a wide bridge over a rail on a large
skew it may be more appropriate to construct a square bridge normal to the railway. There will be an excess
area of bridge deck at each end (Figure 5.2). However, the simplicity of the design and construction
outweighs the cost of the additional deck area.
Figure 5.2: Bridge built normal to the skew
Source: Based on D Carter (c2009).
Wide bridges
It should be noted that for bridge decks wider than their span the transverse thermal movements and
transverse shrinkage of concrete should be considered as well as those that occur longitudinally.
5.19 Computer Analysis
The use of computers in bridge design provides a powerful analysis and design tool. Care must be taken,
however, to review the results in order to ensure the answers make sense. The review may include:
• ensuring that zero and maximum moments occur at locations in the model where they would be expected
• plotting of results along a member to ensure no discontinuities exist
• using hand calculations and approximate methods of analysis to obtain a feel for the structural behaviour.
The results of any analysis may be either intuitive or counter-intuitive. The former may be wrong; the latter
may only be obvious after reviewing the computer output. It has been said that a model which runs smoothly
and produces nice-looking results may hide more errors than a model that fails to provide expected results at
the first try.
5.20 Review of Design Concept
requirements and site constraints. These requirements and constraints include:
• traffic
• live loads
• hydraulics and waterway
• environmental
• geotechnical
• economics
• disabled access.

The desired outcome is best achieved by preparing design concepts for a number of options for the client.
Depending on the size of the project the concept designs may require preliminary calculations and should set
out how each concept addresses the design issues.
In some situations consideration needs to be given as to whether a bridge is in fact required. This applies
particularly to small streams and design options should consider if a bridge or a culvert is required.
5.21 Review of Drawings
The final review of drawings is an important part of the design process. Generally, all drawings must be
reviewed as an error on an ancillary drawing detail could have a similar effect to an error affecting a major
component. Special attention, however, must be given to those areas/issues that are critical or fundamental
to the completeness of detailing and therefore constructability of the bridge.
These include:
• rechecking pile and spread footing contract levels in light of any additional geotechnical information to
identify any discrepancies in the capacity of the ground between what is assumed and reality to justify the
appropriateness of the contract level (refer to Section 7.3 of AGBT Part 6: Bridge Construction for a
detailed discussion)
• plotting the setting out details to check for any gross errors
• examining details in key areas e.g. prestressing anchorage zones
• anchorage lengths of reinforcing steel
• clashing of reinforcing steel
• correct skew hand on bridge layout and bridge girders
• construction sequence – logical and practical
• correct location of bearing types and locations
• contingency to allow the raising of the deck level if the vertical hog of prestressed concrete girders is
excessive e.g. abutment curtain wall constructed after the deck is poured to ensure level compatibility
• construction joints in marine environments being above high-tide water levels
• special durability measures, e.g. cathodic prevention, application of surface treatments (silanes) to
concrete to reduce the ingress of chlorides (see Section 4.2 of AGBT Part 2: Materials)
• freeboard of soffit at superstructure above flood levels
• potential for scour.
Refer to Section 4.3 for the design check and review procedures.

6. Design Requirements
6.1 Mining Subsidence
Mining is one of the most common activities that can have a considerable impact on the design of a bridge.
Assessment of the mining impacts requires close liaison with the relevant statutory authority and the mining
company, if mining is already in progress.
Maps of designated mine subsidence areas are produced by jurisdictions. Bridges constructed in these
areas must be designed for anticipated ground movements resulting from future mining activities. Suitable
structural forms may include structurally determinate structures such as simply-supported girder bridges.
Continuous girder or arch bridges should be avoided in these areas.
The design parameters for ground movements are usually prepared by the mine subsidence authority using
geotechnical models and include vertical displacement and the orientation and degree of the ground slope.
The ground slope results from the transition from the original ground levels to the subsided ground levels.
The ground slope moves as a ‘wave’ through an area as mining progresses and hence differential
movements and rotations may occur over the length of the bridge (Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1: Design consideration for mine subsidence
Source: D Carter (c2009).
The need to accommodate mine subsidence movements may require:

• the use of simply-supported spans as opposed to continuous spans to accommodate rotations
• the provision of measures to accommodate movements at abutments by using precast curtain walls to
facilitate movements
• the use of bearings that will allow free movement at piers and abutments, for example, the use of guided
slide pot bearing with side guides that can be removed will allow movements without damaging the
bearing
• the use of bedding material under spread footings that will allow rotations to occur without damaging the
substructure
• special considerations to remove part of a bridge to accommodate movements, for example, the provision
to remove a span on a pedestrian bridge when the ground movements cannot be accommodated by the
structure.
Detailed procedures of action required in the event of mine subsidence being imminent should be shown on
the drawings together with the design parameters used.
Confirmation should be obtained from the mine subsidence authority that parameters used in the design are
still appropriate for the actual movements being recorded.

6.2 Earthquake
The design considerations in relation to earthquake depend on the location of the bridge. All geographical
areas are designated by a zoning system that determines the specific earthquake design parameters (see
AS 5100.2) that must be complied with.
Requirements include:
• vertical and horizontal accelerations
• minimum overlap of superstructure and substructure to reduce the risk of collapse
• longitudinal and side restraints
• linking of adjacent spans
• tying down of the superstructure
• articulation e.g. continuous or simply-supported spans
• stability
• changes in properties of supporting soil conditions, e.g. soil liquefaction.
Two different approaches have been implemented in earthquake design, including force-based and
displacement-based, as follows:
• The force-based principles require that bridge members have sufficient flexural and shear capacity to
sustain the design action effects and avoid unintended plastic hinges and brittle (shear) failure.
• In the displacement-based design approach, bridges must have sufficient displacement capacity to
accommodate the displacement demand under the design earthquake level, while maintaining a strain
under the specified limit to avoid excessive damage under design earthquake events (AS 5100.2).
The recent trend in design approaches is to move towards performance-based criteria, whereby descriptive
performance criteria is matched with definitive descriptions e.g. displacements, crack width etc. This is
opposed to merely descriptive approaches (Sheikh et al. 2007). In seismic design, this has led to a move to
adopt displacement-based analysis, both in Australia and around the world. This is due to the fact that
conventional elastic analysis (force-based analysis) focuses largely on load and does not consider the
structure’s behaviour post-yield. As certain bridges can be critical to post-earthquake recovery efforts, it is
vital to ensure that bridges avoid collapse and provide a defined level of service after a major event. This has
been reflected in the adoption of a displacement-based method in Clause 15 of AS 5100.2. The force-based
method is still available to designers, but has been moved to Appendix B of AS 5100.2. New Zealand
currently retains a multi-modal elastic analysis as its highest form of analysis (Austroads 2012).
AS 5100.2 determines the earthquake design actions based on the bridge earthquake design categories
(BEDC) including:
• BEDC-4: Bridges and associated structures that are essential to post-earthquake recovery, as
determined by the relevant authority, and major bridges whose operation is essential to economic viability
at state or national levels.
• BECD-3: Bridges that are designed to carry large volumes of traffic or bridges over other roadways,
railways or buildings.
• BECD-2: Minor bridges of two or more spans, not covered by BECD-3 and BECD-4.
• BECD-1: Minor single span bridges carrying infrequent traffic, and not covered by Importance Levels 2, 3,
or 4, e.g. farm bridges.

Austroads (2012) reports that all major bridge codes around the world currently use a 500 year return period
as the baseline for the design earthquake. The performance-based criteria require a longer period. The USA
and Canada in particular have moved from a 500 to 1000-year return period. This has largely been driven by
concerns about the adequacy of the 500-year return period in preventing collapse during large events in
some areas of the USA. Further research undertaken in the USA has suggested that this may still be
inadequate, with AASHTO developing a probabilistic hazard map for a 2500-year return period to adopt as a
baseline design earthquake. This has yet to be incorporated into the AASHTO design code, but has been
adopted by the California and South Carolina state road authorities. AS 5100.2 specifies a varying annual
probability of exceedance based on the bridge BEDC, including 1/500 for BEDC-2, 1/1000 for BEDC-3 and
1/2000 for BEDC-4.
Refer to AS 5100.2 for detailed earthquake design provisions.
6.3 Dynamics – Stiffness, Deflection, Span/Depth
The allowance for the dynamic effect of moving loads on a bridge is set out in AS 5100 Part 2 Design Loads
termed the dynamic load allowance (DLA). The DLA is the factor applied to the static mass of a live load to
take into account the increased load effect caused by the moving load.
The dynamic behaviour of a bridge or its components is related to three main factors:
• mass
• stiffness as indicated by deflection
• damping – the diminishing of the dynamic effects over time.
The bridge designer controls the mass and stiffness by the size and depth of members. The width and depth
of members is usually controlled by strength requirements. For concrete bridges in most instances stiffness
is not an issue as guidelines exist for minimum span/depth ratios that from past experience have generally
resulted in bridges of acceptable stiffness and dynamic behaviour.
However, two recent cases, as described below, have highlighted the fact that the damping characteristic of
a bridge, or its components, has a major influence on the impacts of the dynamic behaviour:
• Fatigue cracking was found in a modular bridge deck joint on a major bridge after eight years in service
life as a result of the dynamic behaviour. Investigations showed that stresses being induced would have
resulted in a fatigue life of 13 years. The actual DLA exceeded that required by AS 5100 by an order of
magnitude. Stress reversals were occurring due to the dynamic behaviour of the joint after the traffic had
passed. Measures were taken to change the dynamic behaviour by altering the damping characteristics
to reduce the stress range to ensure a service life of at least 50 years.
• Cracking occurred in the web of a steel box girder after 10 years in service. Investigations showed that
the cracking was a result of fatigue due to poor detailing of internal bracing connections. The
investigations also highlighted that the stress reversals caused by vibrations that continue after the traffic
has passed need to be assessed by the designer as these have a major influence on fatigue life.
It should be noted that Clause 9.5.6 of AS 5100.2 requires that consideration be given to the load reversal
caused by vibrations that occur after the passing of traffic.
6.4 Collision Protection
An assessment is required of the risk of a vehicle impacting bridge members such as bridge piers,
abutments and superstructures located adjacent to road or railway traffic. Depending on the level of
exposure to vehicle impact, an appropriate level of protection must be determined and incorporated into the
design of these members as well as the protection members. Possible measures to mitigate the
consequences of vehicle impacts include the provision of an alternative load path, requirement of a minimum
design static load, protection beams, and redundant pier. The level of protection is determined at the
discretion of the road agency.

Refer to AS 5100.2 for particular requirements for the design of the bridge members as well as protection
barriers.
Some road agencies have issued guidance on the design of protection barriers at road-road and road-rail
interfaces, for example, QR Limited and Queensland Department of Main Roads (2007).
Bridge piers and superstructure in the waterway must be designed for impact from the waterway traffic. The
vessel impact loads are determined based on the design vessel with the type, weight and impact speed
approved by the relevant authority such as the Harbour Master or Port Authority.
The design of bridges under ship impact in Australia is in accordance with the AS 5100.2 provisions,
however, the AASHTO LRFD bridge design specification method (AASHTO 2014) is required for the
determination of the ultimate equivalent static vessel impact force.
6.5 Special Studies
Where any parts of the design fall outside of the design processes of AS 5100, they should be established
by special studies. AS 5100 was intended to cover most design situations, other actions and design
considerations specific to the structure, however, may require special studies to be carried out.
Special studies should be used for the following:

• to establish information or methods for design not given by AS 5100, or to define more accurately the
information or methods used, or where more accuracy is considered necessary e.g. design wind pressure
coefficient
• to evaluate loads for actions other than those specified in AS 5100
Where they are considered a possibility, special studies should be used to determine values for the
following actions
– foundation movements
– dynamic effects
– time-dependant movement of materials
– differential axial shortening
– shrinkage and expansion of materials
– temperature changes and gradients (including those caused by fire).
Where a study is used to establish design values for an action, the factors for appropriate combinations
should be determined as part of the study. The variability of the loads derived should be taken into account
when determining the factors used in the combinations.
A special study should include documentation to show the source of all data. Any documentation should
demonstrate that the study is appropriate in the context of the particular evaluation of structural performance
and should include the following, where relevant:
• a complete report, similar in scope to that set out in AS/NZS 1170.0
• reference to other national or international standards
• comparison with other data
• analytical methods used.

7. Environment
7.1 Waterway
The increase in the velocity through the restricted waterway occurs as a result of the increase in the energy
head. The restriction in the waterway results in water banking upstream to a level sufficient to develop the
additional head to increase the velocity to maintain equilibrium flow (Figure 7.1). The increase in height of the
water upstream is termed afflux.
The amount of afflux will determine the extent of flooding in adjacent land. The acceptable level of afflux for
design depends on the upstream land use, i.e. housing, agriculture or undeveloped natural land. The
implications for any possible change in the future land use will need to be considered.
Figure 7.1: Scoured abutment due to lack of waterway
Source: RTA NSW (n.d.).
Refer to AGBT Part 8: Hydraulic Design of Waterway Structures for further details.
7.1.1 Basic Considerations
The need to pass flood flows of a certain return interval will determine the details of the bridge discussed
below.
Length
In most cases it is not economical to bridge the full width of the flood flow and the problem reduces to what is
an acceptable length of the bridge.
As a consequence, the road embankment in the approaches to the bridge causes a restriction on the flow
occurring under natural conditions.
Consideration of the increase in velocity and hence scour potential and afflux would be the main determining
factors for the length of a bridge.

Height of abutments
The height of abutments should be considered in determining the length of a bridge. High abutments result in
large retaining structures and embankments with inherent stability issues both in terms of the surcharge load
to underlying material and the long-term structural issues including rotations and horizontal deflections.
Instances have occurred where vertical and horizontal displacements at high abutments in soft soils have
resulted in structural distress to the abutment and jamming of expansion joints (Figure 7.2).
Figure 7.2: A 12-metre high abutment – abutment expansion joint jammed due to horizontal abutment displacement
Bridge height
The bridge height will be influenced by a number of factors being flood height, navigation clearance and
span lengths.
Flood height
For high level bridges the deck level adopted will be above the design flood level. The clearance from the
underside of the superstructure to the flood level (freeboard) should be a minimum of
0.6–1.00 m. However the type, amount and size of debris likely may require an increased freeboard
depending on local conditions.
Navigation clearance
The height of a bridge may be fixed by the local waterway authority for navigational clearance requirements.
The requirements of the local waterway authority need to be established at the design concept stage.

Span lengths
In some cases the minimum span lengths may be determined by the size of the debris carried by the stream.
The potential exists for a debris dam to be built up by log lengths greater than the spans.
Debris
The amount, type and size of debris found in typical flooding shall be assessed for impact on the bridges
structure. The selection of the bridge waterway openings shall take into account the size and type of debris
and logs from upstream. Structures shall be checked for:
• hydrodynamic forces without debris
• forces due to debris mats
• forces due to log impact
• urban debris e.g. shipping container and vehicles.
7.1.2 Floodway Design
In some locations with a substantial flood plain, the bridge waterway calculations will have to assess the
need for supplementary openings such as additional bridges or culverts. In the case where the approaches
and the bridge will be submerged, the slopes of road approaches will have to be protected to prevent
scouring at the point of over-topping.
7.1.3 Submergence
If for economic or hydraulic reasons a bridge cannot be built above the ultimate design flood level then it
must be designed for submergence.
This requires design considerations in terms of the buoyancy effects on structural stability and restraint of
members. In addition, consideration needs to be given to traffic kerbs and barriers to minimise debris
accumulation.
For a submerged bridge the maximum velocity through the waterway occurs at the point of over-topping.
Voided superstructure members should be circumvented for submerged bridges because of the risk of voids
filling with water through drain holes. In the event of the drain hole becoming blocked the water would remain
in the void space after the flood has receded.
For further information see Roads and Traffic Authority (1990).
7.1.4 Piers
Piers should be designed to minimise the effect on stream flow in terms of constriction and scour. This can
be achieved by shaping the piers and pile caps to promote streamline flow to reduce the scour potential.
Wall-type piers promote streamline flow compared to a number of individual columns and hence reduce
scour effects. However, when variations in the direction of flow (angle of attack) occur they will cause an
increased restriction of the flow. Variations in flow direction will also generate longitudinal stream forces on
wall-type piers that need to be considered in the design.
Circular columns promote streamline flow compared to rectangular columns and therefore reduce the scour
potential. In addition, circular columns have the advantage of the stream flow effects being independent of
the angle of attack of the flow.

7.1.5 Scour
There are three types of scour that occur in streams that have implications for bridges.
Local scour
Local scour is caused by the turbulence that results when water flow is restricted by a pile or pier. Horseshoe
vortices occur at the bottom of the pile as a result of water flowing vertically down the pile resulting in the
development of a scour hole at the stream bed.
Scour occurs when the increased energy of the water flow is sufficient to remove stream-bed material. The
severity of scour is a function of the increased energy and the physical properties of the bed material.
Bridge foundations must ensure that structural integrity remains when the scour reaches its maximum depth.
In the case of driven friction piles, the depth of embedment must be sufficient to ensure that the load capacity
of the pile is not compromised by any future scour (Figure 7.3). If scour is possible down to the depth of rock,
driven piles should not be used.
Reinforced soil structures should be avoided in abutments adjacent to flood risk, i.e. where the abutment fill
could be washed away.
Figure 7.3: Scour at a pile caused by horseshoe and wake vortices
Contraction scour
Contraction scour occurs as a result of the reduction of the waterway area by a bridge or some other
constriction. The increase in energy of the restricted velocity is sufficient to remove stream-bed material at
abutments, piers and road embankments.

Measures to control contraction scour include:

• installation of scour protection mats, gabions, reno mattresses
• increasing the waterway by adding additional spans to a bridge
• placing large gravel fill in the scour area to reduce the potential for the stream to continue scouring the
bed. It should be noted that this measure may provide only a temporary solution. There is the potential for
the scour location to shift elsewhere as the fill material will reduce the waterway area that will result in an
additional increase in the restricted velocity.
Cut-back scour
Cut-back scour occurs when the stream bed is lowered at one location by scour or dredging of the bed is
carried out. This situation results in a step in the stream-bed gradient. To return to a more uniform gradient
and energy head the stream will cut back the bed upstream and in so doing will lower the bed level from a
maximum at the scour hole or dredging location. If a bridge is located upstream of a scour hole or dredging
location there is a risk that the bed levels at the bridge will be lowered (Figure 7.4). The implications for a
bridge will depend on the depth of scour and the foundation levels or the pile embedment length.
Figure 7.4: Cut-back scour
Monitoring of scour
Monitoring of bed levels at each pier and abutment location should be a required maintenance activity.
The bed profile along the length of the bridge and the bed level upstream and downstream at each pier and
abutment should be recorded at the time of construction. This information will provide base data to monitor
long-term trends in the stream-bed profile (contraction scour) and detect any changes in bed depth at piers
and abutments (local scour).
In one instance the fact that serious scour had occurred was not detected because successive underwater
inspections were comparing the bed profile from the previous inspection and not comparing them to the as-
built bed profile. The changes in bed profile from one inspection to the next were not considered significant.
At scour-prone sites, monitoring can be carried out ‘in real time’ using various electronic devices. The use of
these devices enables long-term monitoring to determine long-term trends. They also provide information on
bed movements in flood. The change in bed levels in flood conditions is considered by some hydrologists to
be under-estimated.
AGBT Part 8: Hydraulic Design of Waterway Structures provides further discussion on typical scour
monitoring technologies such as sonar-type systems, channel bottom, and buried sensors.

7.1.6 Minimum Energy Drainage Structures
The principle of a minimum energy drainage structure is to accelerate the stream velocity by increasing the
approach gradient and therefore discharge a greater volume of water through a smaller opening. The
structures have been used for culverts but are not suitable for bridge openings because of the potential for
scour on the downstream side. As a result of the depressed invert level, siltation can occur which requires
maintenance (Figure 7.5).
Figure 7.5: Minimum energy drainage structure concept
7.1.7 Urban Debris
Urban debris includes bulky items such as cars, shipping containers and trees. The debris may cause significant
damage to bridges during a flooding event, as observed in recent floods in Queensland (Pritchard 2013).
7.2 Environmental Constraints
A number of environmental considerations should be considered as part of the design as discussed below.
7.2.1 Noise
Noise considerations, particularly in urban situations, may govern the type and details of bridge members
adopted including:
• cast-in-place piles instead of driven piles
• precast or fabricated steel superstructure members instead of cast-in-place members
• minimisation of deck joints to reduce noise emissions
• designing for the attachment of noise walls to the superstructure and in the bridge approaches.
7.2.2 Pollutants, Flora and Fauna
Design details to minimise the disturbance and the potential for pollutants to enter the environment may
include:
• minimisation or avoidance of piers in streams by using longer spans and/or strategic placement of piers
• precast or fabricated steel superstructure members instead of cast-in-place members
• construction methods that minimise superstructure construction over water and sensitive land such as
incrementally launched, push-out, balanced cantilever and segmental bridges.

7.2.3 Disturbance of Sediments
At some bridge sites in rivers and estuaries, heavy metals and other industrial pollutants may be present in the
bed sediments. Disturbance of these sediments must be avoided to prevent pollution of existing waterways.
Environmental protection agencies may apply conditions under which bridgeworks may be carried out at the
site. These may include:
• containment using coffer dams
• removal of contaminated water
• monitoring by testing water samples.
7.2.4 Fisheries
A number of state fishery authorities now have specific requirements that must be addressed as part of the
bridge design. These include the minimisation of the number of piers in streams and provision of fish runs to
allow upstream migration.
7.3 Drainage
With increased awareness of environmental issues the discharging of run-off from bridge decks into streams
is not acceptable in some jurisdictions. To address this, run-off may need to be piped from the bridge to
holding tanks or a settlement pond in the approaches. This can be a practical solution for small bridges or
those constructed on gradients greater than 2%. However, on long bridges and those on gradients less than
2% the issue becomes problematical and uneconomic.
The main issue to be addressed with this requirement is the need for maintenance crews to be able to clear
the pipes of debris and silt. Provision of a suitable number of access points to purge the drainage pipes is an
important issue.
7.4 Site Constraints and Access
Environmental constraints may require that the bridge construction causes minimal impact to the environment.
This may require the use of a construction method that would not normally be used for the site. For example
balanced cantilever construction may be adopted purely because it would minimise the disturbance to the
areas below the bridge. Instances have occurred where piers have been constructed from the top down to
avoid the necessity for access roads to be constructed through environmentally sensitive areas.
7.5 Durability
Bridges are a major community asset and the maximum economic benefit occurs when a bridge has a very
long maintenance-free life exceeding 100 years. On this basis bridge design is not just about calculations but
must be about ensuring the design service life is achieved.
Therefore bridge design considerations should include the durability aspects of the bridge. For concrete
bridges, these are covered below in Sections 7.5.1 to 7.5.4. For further discussion on bridge durability, refer
to AGBT Part 2: Materials.
7.5.1 Marine and Salt-rich Environments
For bridges in marine and salt-rich environments, special design considerations should include the following:
• the requirements in Clause 4.3 of AS 5100.5 in regard to exposure classification
• consideration of the selective use of stainless steel reinforcing steel in marine and salt-rich environments
• the use of corrosion inhibitors in the concrete

• the use of concrete mixes with supplementary cementitious materials such as fly ash and silica fume
The properties of these materials vary with the source of coal used in a particular power station. Each
source must undergo testing to establish compliance with relevant standards and specifications.
• special requirements to delay the exposure of new concrete surfaces to salt water or salt spray for as
long as possible to allow the pore structure to close up
• the installation of a cathodic prevention system at the time of construction
• the application of concrete surface treatments to reduce the ingress of moisture into concrete
• the use of stainless steel fitments for bearings, traffic barriers and attachments
• cathodic protection to exposed steel members
• the use of stainless steel in steel bearings
• the requirement to wash down carbon steel reinforcing steel and formwork with potable water immediately
prior to pouring concrete.
Refer to AGBT Part 2: Materials for detailed discussion of the above topics.
7.5.2 Piles
The durability considerations for piles should include:

• allowances for loss of section in steel piles over the service life
• application of protective coatings to steel piles
• encasement of steel piles in concrete in the upper areas of highest exposure
• the use of sulphate resisting cement and high strength impermeable concrete mixes in acid sulphate
soils.
7.5.3 Concrete and Concreting
The designer should consider special measures to increase the durability of concrete related to the material
and construction process.
Cold-weather concreting
According to the American Concrete Institute (ACI) standard 306R, cold-weather concreting is when for more
than three successive days the average daily air temperature drops below 4.5 oC (40 degrees Fahrenheit)
and stays below 10 oC (50 degrees Fahrenheit) for more than one-half of any 24-hour period. At a low
temperature, if concrete is still fresh or before it has developed sufficient strength (about 3.45 MPa within the
first day after pouring) to resist the expansive forces caused by the freezing water, the disruption of the
cement paste matrix due to ice formation may result in a loss in strength. Possible measures to mitigate the
adverse effects of cold weather concreting include:
• use of air entraining agents in concrete exposed to freeze-thaw conditions with appropriate compensation
in the mix design to offset the effects of air entrainment
• requirements for protecting new concrete from frost damage using techniques such as windbreaks or
heated enclosures
• heating one or more of the concrete materials (aggregate, sand, cement, water) to provide the proper
concrete temperature at delivery
• providing appropriate curing methods.
Further information is available from Portland Cement Association (2017a).

Hot-weather concreting
It is considered hot-weather concreting when the temperature of freshly mixed concrete approaches
approximately 25 oC (77 degrees Fahrenheit). The limitations placed on pouring concrete in hot weather include:
• reduced time in which concrete must be placed, consolidated and finished
As a rule of thumb an increase of 11 oC will reduce the setting time of a concrete mixture by as much as 50%.
• increased potential for plastic shrinkage cracking, thermal cracking and cold joints
• potential strength reduction due to high water demand and high curing temperatures
• difficulty in controlling air content
• increased urgency for applying appropriate curing method at an early age.
Possible measures can be taken to enhance the long-term durability including some or all of the following:
• cooling of aggregates by spraying stockpiles with water
• the use of chilled mixing water
• the use of a concrete mix that allows rapid placement and consolidation
• provision of shade to concrete surfaces
• provision of windbreaks to limit wind velocities
• cooling of formwork by water spray
• the use of aliphatic alcohol to reduce evaporation
• provision of appropriate curing methods as soon as possible after the concrete finishing process have
been completed.
For further information, see Portland Cement Association (2017b).
7.5.4 Concrete and concreting issues
Concreting must be done with great care. If not done properly this may limit the durability of the bridge and
will result in a reduction of structural strength and durability leading to increased maintenance costs and
reduced service life. Instances have occurred where bridge decks have had to be replaced after 10–15
years’ service due to poor construction practices.
In certain circumstances it may be appropriate to include the following in the contract documents:
• Placement and compaction of concrete training of the contractor’s staff is to be conducted by a suitably
qualified person nominated by the superintendent
• Requirement that the contractor’s construction staff carry out a trial slab pour on the ground to
demonstrate that they have the necessary skills to pour a bridge deck
• Insulating concrete decks for seven days to control cracking by limiting differential shrinkage and thermal
strains between the upper and lower surfaces
• Sealing of bridge decks with a waterproof membrane prior to the application of a flush seal or asphaltic
concrete
• Specific mix requirements to address the alkali aggregate reaction (aar) in available aggregates if not
covered by specifications
• Addressing the flotation of large voids on planks, trough and box girders and voided slabs. This may
dominate the design and detailing of the member as the voids cannot be restrained by the reinforcement or
formwork. The restraint against flotation must be provided by the falsework or a secondary support system.
AGBT Part 2: Materials provides detailed discussion on concrete and concreting issues.

7.6 Protection
The durability of a concrete bridge can be enhanced by measures to protect the concrete from the ingress of
chemical agents including:
• Proper curing measures
• The use of supplementary cementitious materials (scms) in the concrete mix
• Application of waterproof membranes
• The use of corrosion inhibiting admixtures in the concrete mix
• The installation of a cathodic protection system at the time of construction to protect the reinforcing steel.
Section 4.2 of AGBT Part 2: Materials provides details on these measures and materials.

8. Geotechnical
8.1 Foundation Type and Geology
The foundation type is determined by the geology of the bridge site, the type of structure and the associated
loads. Refer to Section 13.2 of AGBT Part 3: Typical Superstructures, Substructures and Components, for
typical bridge foundation types. The following factors will influence the foundation type adopted:
• depth to rock – spread footings or piled
• type and size of overburden material – gravel or boulders – whether driven piles or cast-in-place piles
required
• potential for settlement
• rock strength
• presence of thin hard layers that need to be penetrated – may require steel H piles
• whether the overburden material is scour prone.
A progressive review should be carried out as foundation information comes to hand to assess the need for
changes in methodology or extent, e.g. the need for additional bore holes.
AS 5100.3 includes a geotechnical strength reduction factor φg to account for the comprehensiveness of the
geotechnical investigation, the type and importance of the structure, implications of failure, construction-
related issues and possible load variations.
8.2 Investigations
8.2.1 Preliminary Geotechnical Investigations
The general geological classification of the area at the site should be obtained prior to finalising the details of
the geotechnical investigation. This will give an indication of the type of material likely to be encountered at
the site. The number and location of test bores may be influenced by the local geology. A site inspection is
recommended as part of the initial investigation to observe the following:
• type of soil in the overburden
• presence of rock outcrops in the bed
• presence of boulders in the banks and bed
• geological profile in adjacent road cuttings
• size of alluvium
• scour at the existing bridge
• signs of instability in rock faces at proposed pier footing locations
• presence of large logs in the stream that may indicate the risk of impediments to the construction
depending on the foundation type.
8.2.2 Geotechnical Strategy and Geology
Location of bores
Where only one test bore is planned at each pier and abutment, staggering the bore locations from upstream
to downstream will assist the determination of the dip of the stratum.

Test pits
The excavation of test pits at the bridge sites may provide additional information on the site geology
(Section 8.3.2).
Variable geology
The potential for variability in the geological profile must be considered when interpreting test bores.
For example, the construction of piled or spread footings in granite country has the potential to cause major
contractual issues because of the highly variable geological profile. The weathering pattern of granite often
results in the formation of large boulders surrounded by areas of highly weathered material that can extend
to considerable depth (Figure 8.1). As a consequence, test bores only 2–3 m apart may encounter
weathered granite in one and fresh granite in the other. Instances have occurred where piles in one pier
have obtained capacity at shallow depths while piles immediately adjacent have had to be extended to
obtain capacity at depth. The bedrock profile of granite can also be highly variable over relatively short
distances. Where this occurs and spread footings are used, extensive excavation of extremely strong rock
will be required.
When fresh granite is encountered the test bore needs to be taken to sufficient depth to determine if it is a
boulder and if so how large.
In sedimentary rocks the implications of the spacing and orientation of joints has to be considered. In
addition, if the joints contain clayey materials the structural implications may be significant. Instances have
been encountered in sedimentary rocks where in some areas the bedding planes have been rotated
vertically resulting in decomposition and a highly variable geological profile.
Figure 8.1: Weathering profile of granite
It is recommended that in granite country test bores be taken at the final position of each pile. In the case of
spread footings, it is recommended that bores be taken at each corner and at the centre of the footing.
These recommendations may mean that a second geotechnical investigation needs to be undertaken once
the design details of the foundations have been finalised. The additional cost involved in this strategy will be
small compared to the potential claims that may be made by the contractor in the event of dramatic
variations in the site geology compared to the information provided by the principal.

8.3 Site Investigation Methods
8.3.1 Preliminary Techniques
Sources of information include:

• aerial photographs – recognition of features such as landslips, fault zones, folds, old cut-off meanders
with different material
• geological maps – for information on troublesome sites such as basalt surface flows, granite areas
• geophysical methods – seismic refraction to provide estimates of subsurface profiles, resistivity to
delineate rocks and soils.
8.3.2 Direct Methods
Test pits
Test pits are generally used in materials that do not require support. They are generally up to 3 m deep but
may be deeper. The test pit provides a soil profile and shows any seepage zones and zones of weak rock
that would not be recovered by core sampling.
Borings
Borings refer to geotechnical investigations carried out by using a number of methods to provide information
on geotechnical profile for design and construction. Methods used to carry out borings include:
• Augers – these consist of lengths of spirally fluted steel tube that can be extended to the required length.
The soil sample obtained is classified as a ‘disturbed sample’ as material from different depths is likely to
be mixed together.
• Percussion drill – where the overburden includes rock fragments or cobblestones that would jam an auger
or coring bit, a percussion drill is used which has the ability to break up the rock material. Sampling of the
material is recovered using a sampling tube.
• Core drilling – this is the most common form of material sampling used in bridge construction. The
method involves the use of a casing tube and a sampling tube in which a 51 mm core sample is held. The
sample is classified as undisturbed.
• In weak seams or clay bands the sample may be lost due to the action of the circulation of water used to
lubricate the diamond cutting head. This is referred to as core loss and should be indicated in the core
sample box. In some instances the location of the core loss may be unknown.
8.3.3 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
SPT testing is the most common form of material testing used in bore holes.
It is usually applied to cohesionless soils but is also a valuable tool in cohesive soils for preliminary site
investigations.
The penetration tool is a thick-walled sampler with a 50 mm outside diameter and 34 mm inside diameter.
The sampler is attached to the bottom of driving rods of specified stiffness and driven 450 mm into the soil at
the bottom of the bore hole with a 63.5 kg mass free falling 750 mm.
The number of blows in the last 300 mm of driving is recorded as the standard penetration number (N) and
the first 150 mm is considered to be a seating drive.
After withdrawal from the bore hole the tube is split and the sample examined for laminations or other
structural features. The sample can be sealed in a plastic bag as a moisture content sample.

The relationship between SPT N value and the properties of cohesionless soils have been established and
include:
• relative density
• approximate angle of internal friction
• bearing capacity
• consistency.
The relationship between SPT N values and the properties of cohesive soils have also been established and
include:
• unconfined compressive strength (UCS)
• consistency.
Empirical relationships have also been developed for SPT N values and pile driving, namely:
• piles with a serviceability load capacity of up to approximately 300 kN can be driven through material with
an N value of 20
• piles with a serviceability load capacity of up to approximately 600 kN can be driven through material with
an N value > 30.
These figures are to give an indication only of the feasibility of driving through particular materials.
Note: It is very important to select a pile capacity, and hence the required driving energy, that can be driven
to the minimum pile penetration so that it can still carry the load in the event of future possible scour.
The decision on the type of pile to be driven will depend on specific geological features such as hard layers, the
presence of boulders, the possibility of reaching bedrock, potential for settlement and anticipated depth of scour.
8.3.4 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
In this test, a steel rod with a conical tip (apex angle 60° and 35.7 mm diameter (originally an imperial
dimension) is pushed into the soil at a rate of 2 cm/s. The steel rod has the same diameter as the cone. The
penetration resistance at the tip and along a section of the shaft (friction) is measured via transducers. The
friction sleeve is located immediately above the cone and has a surface area of 150 cm2. Different types of
mechanical and electrical cone penetrometers exist but the electrical cone is most widely used.
The CPT can be used to measure pore water pressure and vibrations. The CPT is less operator dependent
than the SPT thus giving more reproducible results. Geotechnical literature contains comprehensive
information about different types of cone penetration tests (Lunne, Robertson & Powell 1997).
8.4 Issues
8.4.1 Soft Soils
Soft soils present particular issues in terms of bridge design and include:
• draw-down loads (negative friction) to piles as a result of soil consolidation
• lateral loads to abutment piles and abutment rotations caused by horizontal soil movements as a result of
surcharge loads from road embankments
• the lengthening of the bridge to reduce the height of abutments and avoid potential instability problems
• degree of lateral stability provided to driven piles; instances have occurred where piles driven on a rake
have subsequently moved laterally in soft soils
• prediction of settlement
• down-hole soil testing.

8.4.2 Black Soils
Piles driven in dry black soil need to be driven to sufficient depth to ensure the required load capacity will be
available when the soil is in a saturated state.
To cover this situation a minimum pile penetration should be stated on the drawings. Instances have
occurred where piles driven in the dry that have obtained the required driving resistance have subsequently
settled in when the soil became saturated in flood conditions.
8.4.3 Soil and Ground Water Aggressivity
Samples of soil and ground water should be tested for the following:
• pH
• sulphates (the use of agricultural fertilisers can result in high concentrations within streams)
• chlorides (high concentrations can occur in non-marine environments).
The potential for deterioration of concrete depends on the level of concentration of any one of the above.
Refer to Roads and Traffic Authority (2005) for the detailed information on the impacts of acid sulfate
materials (acid sulfate soils, acid sulfate rock and monosulfidic black oozesoil) on structures.
Based on the results of testing, requirements may be needed under the exposure classification including:
• the use of sulphate-resisting cement
• the use of blended cements using supplementary cementitious materials such as fly ash and silica fume.
For additional information see Section 4 of AGBT Part 2: Materials.
8.4.4 Pile Relaxation in Fine Sands
In fine sands the potential exists for driven piles to undergo a significant relaxation of the driving resistance
over 12–24 hours. This relaxation phenomenon occurs as a result of the build-up of pore pressure that
results in a false driving resistance. The apparent driving resistance dissipates with time.
The problem of pile relaxation can be overcome by requiring that all piles be re-driven after 12–24 hours.
8.4.5 Height of Abutments
As mentioned in Section 8.4.1 the height of abutments is an issue in soft soils. The stability and implications
of possible long-term horizontal and vertical deflections of the abutment need to be assessed.
8.4.6 Skew Abutments
Skew abutments present particular problems in that deflections occur normal to the abutment. The stiffness
of a skewed abutment normal to its front face is significantly less than the stiffness along the centre-line of
the bridge. This situation can also result in rotation of the adjacent span around a vertical axis resulting in
distress to bearing fixtures and expansion joints. The performance of expansion joints can be compromised
by excessive abutment deflections. It is recommended that circular elastomeric bearings be used on skew
bridges to ensure the bearing has uniform characteristics in all directions (see also Section 5.10).
8.4.7 Sensitivity of Design to Changes in Site Conditions
The designer should assess the impact on the design of changes in site conditions.

These may include:

• differential settlement of supports
• changes in soil or rock stiffness e.g. in the case of soil interaction structures (arches), high foundation
stiffness may result in changes to the soil pressure distribution if active pressure is not activated by small
movements of the arch supports
• piles driven out of position
• changes in spread footing contract levels
• changes in pile toe contract levels
• differential backfill heights at abutments.
In a number of the above examples the designer should determine, as part of the design, the limits to
changes that can be tolerated without the need for a redesign.
8.5 Geotechnical Investigations
8.5.1 Geotechnical Investigations – Design and Construct Contracts
Geotechnical investigation is primarily conducted for design purposes. This information is then passed on to
contractors to use in the construction phase. The geotechnical information, however, should be interpreted
for two separate purposes, design and construction. On completion of the design, the geotechnical
information available needs to be thoroughly reviewed in light of the final design from a contractor’s viewpoint
and may include consideration of:
• proximity of bores to final pile and footing positions
• additional geotechnical information on the material overlying rock for excavation method or pile driving
issues
• sufficiency of the number of bore holes
• soil properties of overburden material.
In some instances, the geotechnical information obtained for design may be considered sufficient for
construction. However, additional information may reduce the contractor’s risk and hence the contract price
and the potential for contractual claims.
8.5.2 Presentation of Geotechnical Information
The usual procedure adopted by most road jurisdictions is to compile a geotechnical report and issue it to
tenderers.
Geotechnical information forms part of the contract, but is information that the principal has used during the
design process that is passed on to the contractor for use in the construction phase of the project.
The geotechnical report may include historical information from previous geotechnical investigations and as
much interpretive information as possible. It may also draw attention to particular matters e.g. limitations on
the investigation.
The report may also have conclusions gained through the investigation that may be of significance to
tenderers. It is in the principal’s best interest, from a contractual point of view, to reveal relevant information,
conclusions and important site issues.
Refer to the relevant road agency for requirements for the presentation of geotechnical reports.

9. Foundation Selection
As discussed in Section 8.1, various factors should be considered to select an appropriate foundation type.
Typical types of foundation include spread footing and pile foundations with various pile materials and
construction methods. The selection of an appropriate foundation type is discussed in the subsequent
sections.
9.1 Spread Footings
Provided rock or other suitable material is within a reasonable depth and permanent water is not a problem,
spread footings are the simplest and most satisfactory foundations. With the cost of temporary support,
pumping, access and removal of material, increasing with depth, it is necessary to make a cost comparison
between spread footings and bored piles when the depth to rock exceeds 3 m.
9.2 Piles
At sites where rock is at a considerable depth and the material above is reasonably free of boulders the
usual solution is friction piles (Figure 9.1). The types of piles to be used include:
• reinforced concrete
• prestressed concrete
• steel H
• composite steel and prestressed concrete
• cast-in-place
• tubular
• proprietary systems.
Figure 9.1: Pile-driving with hydraulic hammer

9.2.1 Reinforced Concrete Piles
These can be friction or end-bearing piles depending on the soil conditions. Splicing can be carried out using
in-house designs or proprietary systems. The use of a proprietary pile splicing system should only occur after
the manufacturer provides research and testing information to demonstrate that the system meets all design
requirements and driving loads (Figure 9.1). This includes the moment capacity of the splice compared to the
reinforced concrete section. Instances have occurred where testing carried out on a splice for a particular
sized pile was erroneously extrapolated to larger sizes. Splices may need to be located below the point of
pile fixity i.e. not subjected to bending moments.
9.2.2 Prestressed Concrete Piles
These can be friction or end bearing piles depending on the soil conditions. In soft soils caution must be
exercised to limit the initial driving energy to avoid cracking due to reflected tension waves running back up
the pile. Splicing can be carried out using in-house designs. The use of proprietary splicing systems with
prestressed concrete piles is not practical. However, a steel collar has been used to couple a lower
reinforced concrete pile to an upper section of prestressed concrete pile using epoxy adhesives.
It should be noted that in some road agencies such as VicRoads, prestressed concrete piles are no longer in
use.
9.2.3 Steel H Piles
These piles are normally driven to rock which work as end-bearing piles. The toe of the pile is stiffened to
avoid buckling under driving loads. Care must be taken to avoid overdriving as considerable damage can
result both at the toe and the head. Steel H piles can be easily spliced by welding or bolting.
Steel H piles are also ideal for penetrating thin hard layers in the stratum to enable the piles to be founded
on rock or other suitable material.
9.2.4 Composite Steel and Prestressed Concrete Piles
Composite steel and prestressed concrete piles (steel H pile in the lower section and prestressed concrete in
the upper section) are ideally suited to the situation where the founding level is below a thin hard stratum.
The steel H section (Figure 9.2) and (Figure 9.3) is able to punch through the hard stratum whereas a
prestressed concrete pile may be damaged by the driving stresses under the same conditions. The
prestressed concrete pile section provides a higher moment capacity in the upper part of the pile to resist
lateral loads compared to a steel H pile.
The steel H pile is driven first and then spliced via welding to a section of H pile cast into the lower end of the
concrete pile. The concrete pile must be designed to withstand the driving and resulting bursting stress
forces from the embedment of the steel section. The splice must be located below the point of maximum
bending. The aggressivity of the ground water and soil must be assessed in regard to corrosion of the steel
pile.
It should be noted that in some road agencies such as VicRoads, this type of pile is no longer in use.

Figure 9.2: Prestressed concrete Figure 9.3: Prestressed concrete piles with steel stubs
pile with steel H pile section
Source: RTA NSW (n.d.). Source: RTA NSW (n.d.).
9.2.5 Steel H Piles Corrosion
In situations where corrosion of the pile is likely to occur, allowance for loss of section over the design life is
taken into account. In situations of higher corrosion risk, protective coatings can be applied or alternatively
the steel pile can be spliced to a concrete pile in the upper region of the pile. Instances have occurred where
steel H piles have been severely corroded by sulphur-producing bacteria after a relatively short service life.
The encasement of the upper region of the pile in reinforced concrete is also an option for corrosion
protection especially where piles are driven through disturbed fill that may permit the flow of oxygenated
water.
9.2.6 Cast-in-place Piles
Cast-in-place piles (bored piles) are normally drilled to rock level or socketed into rock to increase their
capacity (Figure 9.4). Diameters range up to 2.0 m. The smaller sizes are commonly used where rock is
below the depth where spread footings would be economical but there is insufficient material above the rock
for driven piles.
Cast-in-place piles provide a suitable solution to foundations where boulders prevent the use of driven piles.
Suitable percussion drilling equipment can be used down the pile line to break up the boulders.
The pile construction method can be uncased, or temporarily or permanently cased.
The pile can be uncased if the material is suitable. Uncased piles should be used with caution as the
potential for increased project costs and contractual disputes is high in the event of the material being found
unsuitable for the method. This situation may lead to the need to revert to the use of casing requiring
additional materials and plant.
When the material requires support the options available are to temporarily case or permanently case the
pile. The casing is driven to rock and the pile constructed. The casing can then either be removed or remain
in place.

The experience of some road agencies has led to generally specifying permanent casing because of the
increased project costs from contractual variations and disputes where the option for either temporary or
permanent casing has been included in the contract documents. Where the option for temporary casing or
permanent casing has been included, the direction to use one or the other has been given by the
superintendent. Variations in material properties over a site can lead to issues in installing and removing
temporary casing and claims for additional costs by the contractor.
The use of permanent casing is generally preferred for integrity and durability reasons. There is also a
significant risk that extracting the temporary casing will disturb the cover concrete and allow soil and
corrosive salts to come in contact with the reinforcing steel.
Figure 9.4: Cast-in-place pile
It should be noted that in some road agencies such as VicRoads, continuous flight auger piles are no longer
in use.
9.2.7 Open-ended Tubular Piles in Dense Sands
In dense sands the option of using open-ended tubular piles should be considered. Open-ended tubular piles
provide a low displacement friction pile with a relatively high surface area. The formation of a sand plug at
the toe of the pile also provides additional bearing capacity. Where open tubular piles are used the top
section to the point of fixity is designed as a reinforced concrete pile. The steel tube is not considered as
contributing to the structural capacity and is classified as sacrificial material.
9.2.8 Proprietary Piling Systems
A number of proprietary pile systems have been used for bridge construction and include:
• bulbed toe type piles
• vibratory methods of installation
• grouted injected piles
• barrettes.
9.3 Pile Driving
Where the use of driven piles is indicated, the geotechnical information should be carefully assessed to
ensure that driven piles are a feasible option. Where large cobbles and boulders are present the use of
driven piles may be problematic and the use of cast-in-place piles is considered more suitable. In such
instances steel casings can be driven to refusal and then suitable equipment used to break up the boulders
or cobbles to allow the driving of the casing to continue.

In a black soil area preboring is required to ensure the minimum pile penetration is achieved. In the dry
condition, black soils produce high load resistance which diminishes dramatically when saturated.
Driven piles are driven with a nominated maximum driving energy using a pile driver to develop sufficient
resistance to sustain the applied loads with an adequate factor of safety. The designer must specify the
ultimate axial loads and moments in the piles on the drawings.
Refer to Section 7.5.5, AGBT Part 6: Bridge Construction for further discussion on driving methods.
9.3.1 Historical
In the past the ultimate pile resistance was estimated using the Hiley pile driving formula, based on the
extent that the pile penetrates into the ground under the last few hammer blows. This pile penetration or ‘set’
is governed by the driving energy (hammer mass and drop height) and the physical features of the pile.
This method has now been surpassed by dynamic pile testing which is a more accurate method that
measures energy, using wave equation analysis (WAE).
9.3.2 Dynamic Pile Testing
Dynamic pile testing is a method to assess a pile’s bearing capacity by applying a dynamic load to the pile
head while recording acceleration and strain on the pile head. This method can be used for all pile types,
regardless of the installation method.
Actual pile strains and accelerations are measured which are then processed by a pile driving
analyser (PDA) to obtain an estimate of pile capacity (Figure 9.5 and Figure 9.6). Test data can be used to
calibrate a computer model (CAPWAP – Case Pile Wave Analysis Program) of the pile to replicate the field
data to provide an accurate relationship between ultimate load, driving energy and pile set (the pile
penetration that indicates the required ultimate pile resistance has been achieved).
The results of the dynamic testing are used to inform the design and installation of working piles provided the
site geology is uniform. The same equipment and driving energy and set must be used on all other piles.
Dynamic pile testing can also predict long-term settlement, provide information on resistance distribution and
evaluate the shape and integrity of the foundation.
Figure 9.5: Pile-driving analyser equipment Figure 9.6: Pile instrumented with strain reducer
Source: RTA NSW (n.d.). Source: RTA NSW (n.d.).

9.3.3 Pile-driving Issues
There are a number of issues that need to be considered in driving piles including:
• the use of packing on the top of the pile to ensure the efficient transfer of the energy of the hammer into
the pile
• the risk of damage to the head of the pile if the packing becomes ineffective (Figure 9.7)
• the need to ensure the required height of drop of the hammer is consistently achieved
Decreased drop height will result in lower driving energy and false set readings.
• the high risk of damage to the toe and head of the pile as a result of continuing to drive to achieve the
required depth even though the specified set has been achieved
• in soft soils the driving energy must be gradually increased as the pile resistance is developed. Driving
with the full energy from the start has the potential to cause cracking in the pile due to the compression
wave being reflecting as a tension wave.
Figure 9.7: Pile damage due to overdriving
9.4 Scour Susceptibility
Where either piled or spread footings are selected the site needs to be assessed for scour susceptibility.
Factors to consider include:
• evidence of local scour around the foundations of an existing bridge
• evidence of bank scour as a result of turbulent flow adjacent to abutments
• examination of bore logs to assess the alluvium particle sizes in terms of the anticipated restricted
velocity through the bridge

• examination of bore logs to determine changes in the alluvium size that may indicate scour depths
• examination of bore logs to determine marked change in SPT values that may indicate scour depths
• assessment of the situation downstream of the bridge for cutback scour
• depth to rock and potential scour depth in alluvium if driven piles are to be used
• historic changes in position of channels. Instances have occurred where piles away from an existing
channel have been driven to a higher level than those in the channel. Subsequent channel movements
have compromised the integrity of the piles necessitating major additional underpinning works.
For additional information on scour see Section 7.1.5.
9.5 Damage to Adjacent Properties
There is a potential for damage to adjacent structures from ground vibrations caused by piling operations. It
is necessary to conduct a dilapidation survey before piling and to repeat this after piling is completed in order
to determine if damage is due to piling-induced vibration.
For further information, see New (1986).

10. Construction Considerations
Depending on the material, various structural forms have been used for bridges including:
• timber bridges, including timber girders and timber trusses
• steel bridges, including steel trusses and beams and girders with various cross-section types such as
wrought iron, rolled section, trough girder, box girder and composite section
• reinforced concrete structures, including cast-in situ and precast slabs, T-beams, inverted U-beams and
box culverts
• prestresses concrete bridges, including various types such as plank/deck units, I-girders, trough girders,
super-T, voided slabs and box girders
• cable-stayed bridges, including prestressed concrete, steel
• suspension bridges, including various structural forms
• arch bridges.
AGBT Part 3: Typical Superstructures, Substructures and Components provides detailed discussion on
these bridge structural forms. Construction considerations for these structural types in the design stage are
discussed below.
10.1 Construction Forms
Various construction forms have been used, including:

• cast-in situ concrete
• precast prestressed concrete members
• steel members
• precast prestressed segmental construction.
10.1.1 Cast-in Situ Concrete
The option to use cast-in situ construction depends on the bridge type involved and the site-specific
conditions. For a single short-span bridge it may be more economical to use cast-in situ construction
compared to precasting a small number of members. A prestressed concrete voided slab bridge, however,
can only be constructed as cast-in situ. A prestressed concrete box girder can be constructed precast or
cast-in situ. The decision on the construction method to adopt will depend on site-specific
requirements/constraints including:
• access
• construction area
• location
• height of construction
• haulage distance
• availability of concrete supply
• construction over water or land.

The types of bridges suitable for cast-in situ construction include:

• reinforced and prestressed concrete slab
• reinforced concrete T-beam (not commonly used now)
• prestressed concrete box girder (segmental or span-by-span with internal or external tendons)
• prestressed concrete voided slab.
10.1.2 Precast Prestressed Concrete Members
Prestressed concrete members are ideally suited to precasting. The advantages of precasting include:
• the production of members can occur concurrently with other site works to reduce the construction time
compared to cast-in situ construction
• the members are produced under factory conditions which is based on a daily cycle with 80% of the
28-day strength achieved overnight by steam curing
• the large number of members typically produced leads to economies of scale and increased production
efficiencies
• standardisation of cross-sections allows the cost of the formwork to be written off over a number of
projects.
The types of precast prestressed concrete members suitable for precasting include:
• planks
• I-girders
• trough girders.
10.1.3 Steel Members
The type of steel members used is related to the type and span of the bridge. For short-span road and
pedestrian bridges, rolled sections such as universal beams can be used.
For longer spans, welded plate girders that are fabricated from individual web and flange plates are used.
Steel box girders can be used for pedestrian bridges through to major long-span bridges. Long-span steel
box girders may be in the form of beams or as part of a cable-stayed or suspension bridge system.
Refer to Section 16 of AGBT Part 6: Bridge Construction for further discussion on steel bridge construction.
10.1.4 Precast Prestressed Segmental Construction
Precast prestressed segmental construction is used for a number of bridge types. The segments can either
be precast in a factory remote from the site or in a purpose-built on-site facility. The segments are usually
match-cast to the adjacent segment to ensure full contact at the interface between the segments.
The advantages of precast construction are set out in Section 10.1.2.
The types of bridges suitable for precast prestressed segmental construction include:
• balanced cantilever
• cable-stayed
• span-by-span construction (segments placed in position by supporting them from above or below).
Refer to AGBT Part 6: Bridge Construction for further discussion on precast prestressed segmental
construction.

10.2 Construction Method
Section 18 of AGBT Part 6: Bridge Construction provides detailed discussion on the available methods for
bridge construction. The following construction methods can be selected depending on the bridge
construction form and site-specific conditions:
• erection using cranes
• erection using launching girder or truss
• erection on falsework/shoring
• balanced cantilever erection
• incremental launching
• other methods such as push-out and span-by-span construction.
Table 10.1 sets out the construction methods possible for various superstructures.
Table 10.1: Construction methods for superstructure types
Construction method
Superstructure Cast-in situ/on-site fabrication Precast/prefabricated
type
False- Balanced Push- Incrementally Crane- Launching False- Balanced Push- Incrementally
work cantilever out launched age truss work cantilever out launched
Concrete slabs  
Prestressed

concrete planks
Prestressed
concrete I &  
trough girders
Prestressed
concrete voided 
slab
Prestressed
concrete         
box girder
Steel beams
& welded
      
girders with
concrete deck
Steel box girder
with concrete      
deck
Steel box girder
pedestrian  
bridge
10.3 Concrete Construction in Marine Environments
Concrete construction in marine environments must be focused on protecting the concrete from ingress of
chloride ions. Measures to protect the concrete include:
• Exposing the concrete to salt water should be delayed as long as possible. The longer the delay the more
mature the concrete becomes and as a result develops a greater resistance to the diffusion of chlorides.
• The use of precast concrete permanent formwork on pile cap construction is recommended. It reduces
the construction issues in tidal areas by providing formwork that can be sealed to prevent ingress of salt
water. It also protects the immature concrete on the external faces from exposure to salt water.

• The level of construction joints in piers should be above high tide level.
• Information on tide levels from tide charts should be corrected for the location of the bridge site. Instances
have occurred where immature concrete has been exposed to salt water as the tide level at the site
differed from the tide chart at a different location.
10.3.1 Buried Corrugated Metal Structures
Buried corrugated metal structures (BCMS) are an economical form of construction under deep
embankments. The use of BCMS, however, raises durability issues in terms of corrosion of the steel. The
aggressivity of the ground water and soil must be assessed to determine the effect on the service life of the
structure. In certain circumstances BCMS may only have a service life of less than 20 years.
The other durability issue with BCMS is that water can lie in the culvert for extensive periods of time. This will
lead to the breakdown of the protective coating resulting in corrosion of the pipe invert.
Any proposal to use BCMS should include a careful assessment of the long-term maintenance implications
and risks.
Generally, BCMS are not used in maritime zones or in circumstances where standing water may occur.
Concrete lining of the invert is possible.

11. Design for Construction
11.1 Special Cases
The design considerations may be influenced by unique constraints of the site including:
• location
• environment
• presence and location of public utilities
• height restrictions on the bridge
• height restrictions on equipment
• navigational clearances
• matching pier locations with those of an existing bridge
• superstructure depth restrictions to match an existing bridge.
Any one constraint may force the designer to choose the preferred construction method and type of bridge to
be adopted.
11.2 Site Constraints
Site constraints may include:

• the size of the working area
• site access for plant and materials to the working area
• the proximity of adjacent structures and potential to disturb existing foundations
• the potential for damage of adjacent structures from ground vibrations caused by piling operations
(Section 9.5).
11.3 Location Issues
Location issues may include:

• condition and standard of access roads leading to the site
The horizontal alignment of roads may limit the maximum length of precast elements.
• haul distance for transport of materials, especially concrete
Remoteness of the site may lead to the use of precast elements in the substructure and superstructure.
• the existence and location and the cost of possible relocation of public utilities
Material availability such as location of concrete plants may have adverse effects on the selection of the
construction method.
• considerations in terms of special materials suitable for the environmental exposure conditions e.g. the
use of stainless steel reinforcement and stainless steel fitments
• the effect of geographical location in terms of special requirements to address likely weather conditions
e.g. cold or hot weather
• availability of skilled labour
• flood risks.

11.4 Physical Location
The physical location and physical details will have a major impact on the type of bridge, foundation type and
method of construction. These include:
• deep water – may force the use of cast-in-place piles or the need to splice precast concrete piles
• presence of shipping lanes – may require consideration of impact loads, protection measures, clearances
• height of piers – may force the adoption of balanced cantilever or incrementally launched construction or
the use of trusses for the temporary support of the superstructure
• wave action in sites close to the coastline – may lead to the use of appropriate protection measures for
concrete.
11.5 Choice of Bridge Type
The decision on the bridge type to be adopted for a site will be influenced by all the design considerations
set out above. Refer to AGBT Part 3: Typical Superstructures, Substructures and Components for
information on bridge types.
The designer must achieve a balance in the choice of bridge type and arrive at the optimum solution that
takes into account all the design considerations while at the same time addressing the client’s requirements.
The designer may have limited choices of the bridge type because of the constraints that exist for a particular
site. The overall design considerations include:
• structural form and method of construction
• aesthetics
• cost
• loads
• location
• traffic
• serviceability requirements
• site requirements and constraints
• environmental features
• geotechnical conditions
• replacement of bearings.
Refer to Section 5 for detailed discussion on the above issues.

12. Design for Maintainability
In order to minimise repairs and rehabilitation work during the service life of an asset, it is essential to
consider improving the durability and maintainability in the design stage. The design should address safety
and maintenance issues in the construction, inspection, maintenance and operation phases. The following
sections discuss typical maintenance requirements.
12.1 Maintenance Schedule
A maintenance schedule should be prepared for each bridge to highlight the maintenance requirements and
should be listed on the front sheet of the drawings.
Refer to AGBT Part 7: Maintenance and Management of Existing Bridges for further discussion on bridge
maintenance schedules and methods.
12.2 Access for Inspection
Generally, access requirements for inspection include:

• platforms at abutments to allow safe inspection of bearings
• stairways to access locations and on batter slopes
• ladders, fixed where this is appropriate, or attachments to stabilise temporary ladders
• hatchways to provide access and prevent unauthorised entry
• anchorage points for an inspection scaffold.
Eyelets should be cast into the sides of abutment headstocks for attachment of safety lines for inspections
and maintenance. Eyelets should be hot-dipped galvanised, however stainless steel eyelets should be used
in marine or corrosive environments.
Access for future instrumentation/monitoring systems should also be taken into consideration during the
design phase.
12.3 Access for Maintenance Works
The design should consider the future requirements for safe access for inspection and maintenance,
including areas adjacent to the bridge where staff can safely park and load/unload equipment. This will
require the designers of the adjacent roadway to include safe pull-off areas for vehicles.
On major bridges, the design should include the provision of access gantries for the future maintenance. On
smaller bridges, the installation of support points to support future maintenance activities should be
considered.
Special access requirements for different structural components include:

• It is essential that proper access be provided to inspect and carry out maintenance of bearings. At
abutments, benching of the batter at the front face and provision of access steps will address OH&S
issues for maintenance staff. Provision of hollow abutments on major bridges to allow full access to
bearings should be considered.

• For reinforced soil structure (RSS) walled abutments, a walkway should be provided between the
abutment headstock and the RSS wall for bridge inspections and maintenance. The RSS wall should
extend a minimum distance (e.g. 1.1 m) above the top of the walkway surface to provide protection for
users of the walkway. Alternatively, a balustrade with a required minimum height should be provided. The
walkway should provide the required clear width between the front of the headstock and the back face of
the RSS wall panel or the balustrade, as well as the vertical head clearance between the soffit of the
girders or deck units and the top of the walkway. Access limitations and the method of providing materials
and equipment for bridge maintenance and bridge jacking should also be considered in the design.
• Main superstructure elements
– Any steel box girder over a road, rail or shopping corridor should be provided with a maintenance
gantry attached to the structure. The design of the maintenance gantry should be such that when the
maintenance gantry is in use, it will not intrude into the clearance envelope of all surrounding
corridors. The boxes should be large enough to allow easy internal inspection, maintenance and
painting. For example, a minimum size of 1.6 m internal depth x 1.2 m width is required.
– There must be sufficient clearance beneath the bridge to allow inspection and painting without
interruption to the traffic underneath.
– Rails for an access gantry must be included in the design, and drawings of a fully detailed access
gantry must be supplied.
– All steel box girders must have access holes suitable for inspection and maintenance access. Access
holes must be located in the bottom flange in areas of low stress, and must be fitted with hinged doors
and provided with locks.
– Access holes must be provided in all diaphragms.
– Access holes must be large enough to permit maintenance personnel access.
– Access provisions must comply with the Workplace Health and Safety Act and the Workplace Health
and Safety Regulations which include, but are not limited to, the provisions for the design of confined
spaces.
• Drainage structures: all drainage structures must be readily accessible for cleaning and maintenance
purposes.
• Bridge deck joints: access for safe maintenance of the expansion joint system is a part of the design
development process. This requirement needs to be addressed at the concept design stage and reviewed
through the detailed design. The principle adopted by the design to address safe maintenance should be
to reduce or eliminate maintenance requirements. For bridges with modular joints, the design should
provide adequate space in the void beneath the joint to permit easy access for inspection, maintenance,
and replacement of critical wearing components of the joint.
• Paint systems: any painted steelwork (for example gantry or bridge) over a road, rail or shopping corridor
should be provided with a maintenance gantry attached to the structure. The design of the maintenance
gantry should be such that when the maintenance gantry is in use, it does not intrude into the clearance
envelope of all surrounding corridors.
• Pedestrian and bicycle path on a bridge: consideration should be given to how inspection and
maintenance will be undertaken. If the inspection and maintenance is required to be undertaken on the
bridge, the minimum inspection and maintenance truck loading and the truck live loading should conform
to AS 5100. All other footbridges/footpaths and/or bicycle paths should be designed in accordance with
the live loads specified in AS 5100. The balustrade for the maintenance truck should be designed for
panic crowd loads of 3.0 kN/m and the deflection requirements of AS 5100.2.

12.4 Bearing Replacement
To facilitate replacement of bearings, a jacking procedure, jacking points and jacking loads should also be
included on the drawings.
The designer needs to ensure that the bearings can be removed with the minimum possible lift of the
superstructure and sufficient access is allowed on the substructure for jacking up during bearing
replacement. The bearing anchor plate bolts need to be positioned to clear the bearing for this to be
achieved. The following access requirements should be met (Queensland Department of Transport and Main
Roads 2014):
• Diaphragms should be provided at each end of every span for all girder bridges. End diaphragms should
be designed to carry the self-weight of the span and emergency vehicles through jacking devices
positioned on headstocks. The gaps between the bottom of the end diaphragms and the top of the
headstock should be a minimum of 200 mm (nominal). The location points and the associated maximum
jacking loads must be addressed and detailed in the design documentation. A comprehensive
maintenance procedure detailing the equipment and the methods to replace the bearings should also be
included. The jack capacity should be twice the design working load.
• Girder bearings should be on continuous or on discrete pedestals 150 mm deep (nominal). The width of
headstocks should be sufficient to accommodate jacking devices for direct jacking of girders or deck
units.
12.5 Fitment Materials
The durability of the materials used for fitments including anchor bolts, traffic barrier connections, anchorage
points, bearing bolts, machine screws etc. need to be considered in light of the exposure conditions. In
marine conditions the use of stainless steel fitments will reduce the long-term maintenance costs and offset
the initial higher cost. The cost of replacement may be disproportionally high compared to the extra cost of a
higher durability material.
12.6 Provision for Prestressing Tendon Replacement
In post-tensioned prestressed concrete members, provision for the replacement of an existing tendon should
be considered by the inclusion of spare ducts in a member. This applies particularly to external prestressing
but is also sound practice for internal prestressing.
In the case of internal prestressing this provides a contingency for the situation where a duct becomes
blocked due to cross leakage from one duct to another.
In both cases, room for jacking is needed for the new tendon to be implemented/installed.
12.7 Provision of Stay Cable Maintenance
For cable-stayed bridges provision must be made for the replacement of the stay cables in the long-term. To
facilitate this requirement the bridge must be designed to allow a cable to be removed without compromising
the structural integrity of the bridge.
A detailed procedure for the replacement of stay cables should be included on the drawings noting any live
load restrictions required.

References
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American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, USA.
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Action Checklist for Resolution of Design

Issues in AS 5100
In AS 5100 matters requiring resolution by the agency/owner are listed in the relevant parts to assist
authorities/owners to identify all relevant matters related to the design of a bridge and to enable their
resolution and determination prior to acceptance of a tender.
The information in each part of AS 5100 is presented here in the form of an action checklist. In addition, the
relative importance of the matters requiring resolution is noted in the list as follows: HH = extreme, H = high,
M = medium, L = low. This checklist must be confirmed as accepted by the relevant authority or owner of a
bridge or associated structure before commencing the design process.
Relative Applicable Resolution

No Issue Reviewed Implemented
importance to project by owner
AS 5100.1 Scope and general principles

Requirements for assessment of a
1.1 bridge due to change in use (Clause H
2).
Acceptance of the bridge
1.2 experience of a Professional H
Engineer (Clause 4.6).
Specification of a rail track as
1.3 H
underground rail (Clause 4.10).
Approval of the use of alternative
1.4 design methods and materials L
(Clause 7).
Specification of a shorter design life
1.5 L
for ancillary elements (Clause 8.2).
Approval of non-linear methods of
1.6 M
analysis (Clause 8.4).
Approval to use post-installed
1.7 fasteners in new construction H
(Clause 8.8).
Specification of special conditions
1.8 and requirements for design M
(Clause 8.9).
Approval of the process for risk
1.9 ranking and risk reduction (Clause H
9).
Specification of bridge waterway
1.10 H
requirements (Clause 11.1).
Specification of span and vertical
1.11 clearances for watercraft (Clause H
11.1).
Specification of alternative average
recurrence intervals (ARIs) for flood
1.12 immunity and serviceability limit H
states (SLSs) (Clause 11.1 and
Table 11.1).
Specification of soffit level of the
1.13 bridge relative to the flood immunity H
level (Clause 11.1).


Specification of the afflux and

1.14 H
corresponding ARI (Clause 11.1).
Determination of the environmental
1.15 H
requirements (Clause 12).
Specification of geometric
1.16 requirements (see Clause 13.1 and H
13.2).
Specification of minimum
dimensional clearances for bridges
1.17 H
over navigable waterways (Clause
13.3).
Specification of road bridge
1.18 H
carriageway widths (Clause 13.4).
Determination of horizontal
clearances to substructure
1.19 H
components (Clause 13.6
and 13.8).
Specification of minimum vertical
1.20 clearance (see Clause 13.7, 13.8 H
and Table 13.7).
Superelevation and widening of the
1.21 deck surface of a bridge on a H
horizontal curve (Clause 13.9).
Specification of the clear walkway
1.22 width on road bridges M
(Clause 13.10).
Additional requirements for
1.23 stairways (Clause 13.11 and M
Table 13.11).
Specification of ramp gradient for
1.24 pedestrian only subways (Clause M
13.12).
Approval of cyclist path width and
1.25 M
ramp gradients (Clause 13.13).
Requirement for traffic barrier where
the posted speed is 60 kph or less
1.26 HH
with a 300 mm min. height
non-mountable kerb (Clause 14.2).
Approval of a bridge traffic barrier
1.27 based on performance evaluation of H
an existing barrier [Clause 14.4(d)].
Criteria for special performance
1.28 M
barriers (Clause 14.4).
Alternative crash testing standards
1.29 H
(Clause 14.4).
Approval or nomination of traffic
1.30 barrier performance levels [Clause HH
14.5.1, Items (b) and (c)].
Necessity or appropriateness of
1.31 upgrading of barriers for bridge HH
rehabilitation (Clause 14.5.1).


Specification of the provision of

1.32 special performance barriers HH
(Clause 14.5.6).
Approval of alternative barrier
1.33 H
profiles (Clause 14.6.1).
Determination of the maximum
1.34 height of the top of the sloping H
barrier face (Clause 14.6.1).
Approval of alternative barrier post
1.35 H
setback [Clause 14.6.2(c)].
Approval of crashworthy traffic
1.36 barrier or impact attenuation device H
(Clause 14.6.4).
Assessment of risk and
1.37 determination of the level and form H
of collision protection (Clause 15.1).
Determination of the minimum
clearance of a pier or column from
1.38 the roadway beyond which road H
traffic barrier protection will not be
required (Clause 15.2).
Approval for other than clear span
1.39 between abutments for structures H
over rail (Clause 15.3.2).
Approval of a risk assessment and
1.40 risk assessment methodology H
(Clause 15.3.2).
Approval of the failure mode of
1.41 frangible piers and the maximum H
deflection (Clause 15.3.3).
Approval to not protect piers using
1.42 H
deflection walls (Clause 15.3.4).
Requirement to design abutments
beyond 20 m from the centre-line of
1.43 H
the nearest track for derailment
collision protection (Clause 15.3.5).
Approval of risk assessment for
abutments located beyond 10 m
1.44 H
and within 20 m from the centre-line
of the nearest track (Clause 15.3.5).
Approval of alternative thickness for
abutments located within 10 m from
1.45 H
the centre-line of the nearest track
(Clause 15.3.5).
Approval not to use deflection walls
1.46 in the specified locations (Clause H
15.3.6).
Specification of the length of a
1.47 H
deflection wall (Clause 15.3.6).
Determination of the requirements
1.48 for concrete wall support in rail H
tunnels (Clause 15.3.7).


Required level of protection for

1.49 structures on platforms (Clause H
15.3.7).
Determination of the watercraft to
be used for the pier collision forces,
1.50 H
pier protection, or pier-redundant
superstructures (Clause 15.4).
Alternative barrier arrangements for
1.51 the outside edge of a pedestrian or H
cyclist path (Clause 16.2.2).
Requirements for pedestrian
1.52 protection barriers over electrified H
rail (Clause 16.3).
Requirement for protection screens
1.53 H
(Clause 16.4).
Minimum height of a protection
1.54 H
screen [Clause 16.4(c)(i)].
Alternative vertical clearances for a
1.55 protection screen [Clause H
16.4(c)(iv)].
Requirement for noise barriers
1.56 L
(Clause 17).
Requirements for drainage of road
1.57 H
and rail bridges (Clause 18.1).
Permission for water to run onto the
1.58 H
bridge (Clause 18.1).
Waterproofing of rail bridges
1.59 H
(Clause 18.3).
Permission to attach utility services
1.60 H
(Clause 20).
Approval and provisions for method
1.61 of attachment of utility services H
[Clause 20(a)].
Determination that a bridge shall be
1.62 designed for the effects of fire H
(Clause 22).
Determination of the fire time-
1.63 H
temperature curve [Clause 22(a)].
Approval of the design life for a sign
1.64 H
or light structure (Clause 23.2).
AS 5100.2 Design loads
Approval to vary any of the loads
set out in this Standard, provided
2.1 M
the provisions of AS 5100.1 are
complied with (Clause 1.2).
Design loads and factors for road
2.2 bridges carrying rail traffic (Clause M
7.4).
Load factors for centrifugal and
braking loads from heavy load
2.3 M
platforms, when applicable
(Clause 7.10).


Approval of an analytical procedure

2.4 for the distribution of road traffic H
loads through fill (Clause 7.12).
Design load for a pedestrian or
cyclist path bridge that is also used
2.5 for maintenance, inspection or H
emergency vehicle access (Clause
8.1).
Design loads for rail bridges
2.6 carrying cane rail traffic and/or other H
special applications (Clause 9.1).
Approval to use the rational method
2.7 for braking and traction forces M
(Clause 9.7.2 and 9.7.2.3).
Bridge-specific design parameters
to be used in applying the rational
2.8 M
method for braking and traction
forces (Clause 9.7.2.3).
Approval of a risk analysis for road
bridges designed with an alternative
2.9 H
load path under collision load
(Clause 11.1).
Approval of a risk analysis for
bridge supports located between 10
2.10 H
m and 20 m from the centre-line of
a rail track (Clause 11.4.2.4).
Approval of a dynamic collision
2.11 H
analysis (Clause 11.4.4.2).
Recommendation of the type of
vessel, weight of vessel and speed
of impact on a bridge for collision
2.12 H
from waterway traffic, and approval
of the proposed design vessel and
speed (Clause 11.6).
Approval of the minimum equivalent
static ship impact force applicable to
2.13 H
piers in navigable waterways
(Clause 11.6).
Specification of the ultimate design
load, load distribution length and
2.14 minimum effective height for special H
barrier performance levels (Clause
12.2.2 and 12.2.3).
Approval of a load transfer
mechanism across a movement
2.15 H
joint in a rigid barrier (Clause
12.4.2).
Approval of a detailed dynamic
2.16 H
analysis (Clause 13.2.3).
Approval of a vibration assessment
2.17 of a rail bridge, when required H
(Clause 13.3).
Bridge earthquake design category
2.18 H
classification (Clause 15.4.1).


Approval of large items for flood

2.19 H
impact (Clause 16.7.3).
Construction design load criteria for
2.20 other types of bridge construction M
(Table 22.2.2).
Approval of the average recurrence
interval for wind load on noise
2.21 M
barriers and protection screens
(Clause 25.3.2).
AS 5100.3 Foundations and soil-supporting structures
Design requirements for
3.1 foundations for overhead wiring L
structures (Clause 1.2).
Detailed method and formulae to be
3.2 used for the design of geotechnical M
or structural elements (Clause 1.2).
Supervision of site investigation
3.3 H
(Clause 1.6).
Extent and coverage of preliminary
3.4 and design investigation (Clause H
1.6).
Minimum number of bore holes
3.5 H
(Clause 1.6.2).
Selection of the geotechnical
3.6 strength reduction factors (Clause M
2.3.5).
Testing requirements if design by
3.7 M
prototype testing (Clause 2.6)
Requirements for consideration of
3.8 M
future development (Clause 2.8).
3.9 Other durability criteria (Clause 4.1). M
Use of treated and untreated timber
3.10 M
(Clause 4.2).
Requirements for prevention of
3.11 corrosion of reinforcement (Clause H
4.3).
Acceptance of rates of corrosion for
3.12 H
steel surface (Clause 4.4).
Requirements to minimise corrosion
3.13 effects on stray currents M
(Clause 4.4).
Durability requirements of other
3.14 M
materials (see Clause 4.5).
Design requirements for durability of
3.15 materials used in shallow H
foundations (Clause 5.3.6).
Requirements for structural design
3.16 and detailing for shallow footings H
(Clause 5.4).


Requirements for materials and

3.17 construction for shallow foundations M
(Clause 5.5).
Bridges essential for post-disaster
3.18 H
recovery (Clause 6.3.2).
3.19 Use of timber piles (Clause 6.3.2). M
Requirements for durability of
3.20 H
materials used (Clause 6.3.4).
3.21 and detailing for construction of H
piles (Clause 6.4).
3.22 M
construction for piles (Clause 6.5.1).
Requirements for testing of piles
3.23 H
(Clause 11.6).
3.24 anchorages and anchorage H
components (Clause 7.3.6).
3.25 construction for anchorages H
(Clause 7.4).
Requirements for method of
3.26 installation and on-site assessment H
tests for anchorages (Clause 7.6.1).
Proof load test for anchors (Clause
3.27 H
7.6.2).
Requirements for anchorage
3.28 H
suitability tests (Clause 7.6.3).
Requirements for anchorage
3.29 H
acceptance tests (Clause 7.6.4).
Requirements for design of
3.30 retaining walls and abutments H
(Clause 8.1).
Acceptance of geotechnical
strength reduction factor for
3.31 H
retaining walls and abutments
(Clause 8.3.1).
(Clause 8.3.5).
3.33 and detailing for retaining walls and M
abutments (Clause 8.4).
3.34 construction for retaining walls and M
abutments (Clause 8.5).
Approval of drainage system for
(Clause 8.6).
Requirements for the design of
3.36 M
buried structures (Clause 9.1).


Design requirements for the

3.37 M
durability of materials (Clause 9.4).
3.38 and detailing for buried structures M
(Clause 9.4).
3.39 construction for buried structures M
(Clause 9.5).
AS 5100.4 Bearings and deck joints
No entries from AS 5100.4
AS 5100.5 Concrete
AS/NZS 5100.6 Steel and composite construction
Requirements for bridges, members
and materials specified in Items (a)
6.1 M
to (d) of Clause 1.2, and for new
and unusual bridges.
Design requirements for structural
6.2 elements using non-ferrous metals M
(Clause 1.3).
Requirements for steels for
machined parts and for uses in
6.3 M
other than structural member or
elements (Clause 2.2.4).
Requirements for structures,
6.4 members and materials (see M
Clause 1.2).
Requirements for the fatigue design
6.5 assessment method (see H
Clause 13.6).
AS 5100.7 Bridge assessment
Strategies for management of
7.1 capacity deficient bridges (see H
Clause 1.2).
Design load rating of 1.0 for a
bridge designed in accordance with
7.2 the relevant Standard at the time, H
subject to the bridge being in good
working order (see Clause 1.2).
Use of factors and methods from
7.3 previous editions of the Standard H
(see Clause 1.2).
Use of other bridge Standards for
7.4 assessment [see Clause 6 and H
Clause 9(h)].
Use of other than ULS for
7.5 calculation of the load rating factor H
(see Clause 8.1.2).
Use of an alternative method for
7.6 determining material properties [see H
Clause 10.2.2.1(iv)].


Approval of a method for the

conversion of material test results to
7.7 H
nominal material strengths (see
Clause 10.2.2.3).
Approval of testing method for
7.8 prestressing steel (see H
Clause 10.2.2.4).
Use of working stress to AS
1720.1-1998 or other alternative
methods, for the capacity
7.9 H
assessment of timber members
[see Clause 10.6.4, Items (b) and
(c)].
Use of permissible stress methods
7.10 for the assessment of masonry H
arches (see Clause 10.6.5.3).
Recording of assumptions and
7.11 methodology in an assessment H
report (see Clause 10.8).
Approval of loads for load rating
7.12 other than in accordance with H
Clause 11 (see Clause 11.1).
Co-existing vehicle loads [see
7.13 H
Clause 11.3.2(c)].
Consideration of co-existing
vehicles where the bridge is greater
than 40 m in length or where
7.14 geometry dictates that two drivers M
may not see each other before
travelling onto the bridge [see
Clause 11.3.3(b)].
Use of a reduced dynamic load
7.15 allowance [see Clause 11.3.3(b) H
Note 2].
Compliance and conformity
7.16 requirement on permit vehicles (see H
Clause 11.3.4).
Acceptance of supervision
requirements for use of a reduced
7.17 H
dynamic load allowance [see
Clause 11.3.6(c)].
Specification of a braking load and
centrifugal load for special bridges
7.18 H
or specific bridges (see
Clause 11.3.7).
Approval of alternative rating
7.19 vehicles for rail bridges (see H
Clause 11.4.1).
Proportion of 300LA to be used as a
7.20 rating vehicles for rail bridges [see H
Clause 11.4.1(a)].
Train to be used as a rating vehicles
7.21 for rail bridges [see H
Clause 11.4.1(b)].


Nomination and application of wind

7.22 loads for rail bridge assessments L
(see Clause 11.6.1).
Approval of assessment for
7.23 exceptional loads (see H
Clause 11.6.3).
Approval of modified load factors for
the serviceability limit state (see
7.24 H
Clause 12.1) or ultimate limit state
(see Clause 12.2).
Approval of a load test (see Clause
7.25 H
15.1).
Approval of the use of destructive
testing results in the load rating of
7.26 H
other in-service structures (see
Clause 15.3.2).
Approval of the use of one vehicle
7.27 only for proof load testing [see H
Clause 15.4.1 (d)].
Approval of a procedure for the
site-specific assessment of
7.28 H
continuous bridges (see
Clause 15.4.1).
Approval of any reduction of the
analytical assessments of the traffic
7.29 load design effects based upon the H
results of static load testing (see
Clause 15.4.2).
Approval to use superposition of
7.30 test results for determining the rated H
load (see Clause 15.4.3 Note).
Approval for the use of structural
health monitoring to determine the
7.31 H
load rating factor of a bridge (see
Clause 16.3).
Approval for the use of structural
health monitoring for damage and
deterioration detection, and
7.32 H
nomination of the required stages of
detection and assessment (see
Clause 16.4.1).
Approval to use the results of a
static performance load test to
7.33 extend proof loading tests from H
other similar bridges (see Clause
16.5.2).
Approval of other test methods to
7.34 determine the load rating factor of a H
bridge (see Clause 17).
AS 5100.8 Rehabilitation and strengthening of existing bridges
Life expectancy of the particular
rehabilitation or strengthening
8.1 M
method and materials (see
Clause 2.1).


Design live loading including the

use of bridge specific assessment
8.2 live loading (see Clauses 2.3.1, H
2.3.2 and Paragraph E1, Appendix
E).
Procedure to measure distribution
of carbonation depths using
8.3 H
aqueous phenolphthalein solution
(see Clause 3.2.5).
Suitability of a structure for CP
8.4 H
system installation (see Clause 3.3).
Depth and extent of concrete
8.5 removal for repair (see H
Clause 3.5.3.4.2).
Use of encapsulation paints (see
8.6 H
Clause 4.5.1).
Use of non-metallic materials for
8.7 bolted anchorages of deck joints H
[see Clause 8.4.1(i)].
The need to upgrade or replace
8.8 HH
traffic barriers (see Clause 9.5).
Design standard and return
8.9 intervals for the modification of an H
existing culvert (see Clause 10.2.3).
Pull off test results where mean
8.10 bond strengths are less than 1.5 H
MPa (see Paragraph A4.3.4).
Assessment of material
performance data and design
8.11 values for fibre fabric, laminates and H
adhesive resins (see Paragraph
A4.3.5.1, Appendix A).
Alternative design methods for
8.12 assessment of the capacity of an H
FRP strengthened beam.
Power source for the operation and
maintenance of cathodic protection
8.13 H
systems (see Paragraph B11,
Appendix B).
AS 5100.9 Timber

Action Checklist for Ensuring Coverage of

Details for the Preparation of a Bridge Design
Concept
To inform and enable full consideration of a bridge design by designers, reviewers and approvers, it is
essential to collect and summarise comprehensive background information related to the bridge. By this
means, late amendments to the design drawings, as a result of unconsidered issues, can be minimised.
An effective design process includes the development of a detailed design concept, or proposal, which is
fully reviewed and signed off by all major proponents with responsibility for the design, construction, contract
administration, maintenance and management of the bridge. The action checklist below covers the many
aspects related to a bridge design that must be considered, reviewed and acted on.
Applicable to Resolution by
Item no. Bridge site information Reviewed
project owner
1.0 PROJECT IDENTIFICATION
1.1 Project no.
1.2 Sketch no.
1.3 Region
1.4 Road no.
1.5 Local government area
1.6 Project description
2.0 DETAILS OF BRIDGE CONCEPT PROPOSAL
2.1 Reason for new bridge
2.2 Number and length of spans
2.3 Overall length
2.4 Bridge width between traffic barriers
2.5 Bridge width overall
2.6 Number of footways
2.7 Width of footways
2.8 Footway locations
2.9 Type of wearing surface
2.10 Superstructure description
2.11 Substructure description
2.12 Clearances
2.13 Special features and requirements
3.0 ROAD ALIGNMENT
3.1 Horizontal alignment
3.2 Vertical alignment
3.3 Datum
3.4 Chainages at end of deck
3.5 Levels at end of deck
Source of horizontal and vertical
3.6
alignment information
4.0 ESTIMATED COST AND PROGRAM
4.1 Estimated construction cost

project owner
Allowances for design, supervision or
4.2
cost variations
5.0 EXISTING BRIDGE
5.1 Structure no. and drawing no.
5.2 General file no.
5.3 Year constructed
5.4 Type of substructure
5.5 Type of superstructure
5.6 Width between parapets or kerbs
5.7 Footways
5.8 Length
5.9 Number of spans
5.10 Deck level (reduced level-RL)
5.11 Above (high flood level-HFL)
5.12 Navigation clearance
5.13 Condition (incl. any load rating)
5.14 Proposed future use of existing bridge
Public utility services: (number, size and
5.15
type)
6.0 CLEARANCES FOR PROPOSED BRIDGE
6.1 Horizontal: actual/required
6.2 Vertical: actual/required
7.0 APPROACHES
7.1 Road plans no. (or file no.)
7.2 Design speed
7.3 No. of lanes
7.4 Median width
7.5 Shoulder widths
7.6 Verge width
7.7 Formation width
8.0 WATERWAY
8.1 Waterway report identification
8.2 General comments on waterway
8.3 Catchment area
8.4 Calculated discharge
8.5 Calculated flow velocity
8.6 Calculated HFL including afflux of….
8.7 Observed HFL (Date: )
8.8 Normal water level
Tidal Yes/No Mean high water springs
8.9
Mean low water springs
8.10 Is stream navigable? Yes/No
8.11 Estimated depth of scour

project owner
Proposed clearance (above
8.12
observed/calculated HFL)
9.0 SUBSTRUCTURE
9.1 Geotechnical report identification
General comments on geotechnical
9.2
characteristics of site
9.3 Geotechnical investigation completed
Further geotechnical investigation
9.4
required
9.5 Founding material
9.6 Type of foundations: abutments
9.7 Type of foundations: piers
9.8 Allowable bearing pressure
9.9 Maximum pile working loads
9.10 Pile cap levels
9.11 Pile contract levels
Basis for determination of contract levels
9.12
and type of foundations
OHS factors considered in selecting type
9.13
of foundation
10.0 SUPERSTRUCTURE
10.1 Type of superstructure
10.2 No. of spans
10.3 Reason for selection
OHS factors considered in selection of
10.4 superstructure type
(construction/maintenance)
DESIGN LOADINGS
11.0
(Assume Standards Australia Bridge Design AS 5100 unless stated otherwise)
Live loading: number of 3.2 m design
11.1
lanes
11.2 Live loading: standard loading Yes/No
11.3 Live loading: SM1600 loading
Live loading: heavy load platform:
11.4
HLP320/HLP400
11.5 Live loading: footway loading
11.6 Live loading: construction loading
Live loading: other loading e.g.,
11.7
B-double, road trains
11.8 Superimposed dead load
11.9 Temperature range
11.10 Temperature gradient
11.11 Design wind speed
11.12 Differential settlement
11.13 Mining subsidence parameters
11.14 Stream flow effects

project owner
11.15 Impact loads
Earthquake loading acceleration
11.16
coefficient
11.17 Other loadings
12.0 ARTICULATION
12.1 Method of resisting longitudinal forces
12.2 Method of resisting transverse forces
Longitudinal temperature movements
12.3
(mm) (+ive opening, -ive closing)
12.4 Longitudinal shrinkage movements
12.5 Longitudinal creep movements
12.6 Mine subsidence
12.7 Expansion joints: number
12.8 Expansion joints: location
12.9 Expansion joints: type
12.10 Bearings: number
12.11 Bearings: location
12.12 Bearings: type
13.0 PROVISIONS FOR PUBLIC UTILITY SERVICES ON THE PROPOSED BRIDGE
Utility: water, sewer, gas, electricity,
13.1
Telstra, other
Number, size, type, expansion
13.2
arrangements
14.0 DRAINAGE
14.1 Scuppers: number, location
14.2 Piped stormwater under deck?
15.0 LIGHTING
15.1 Details of lighting requirements
16.0 BARRIER TYPES
16.1 Traffic barriers
16.2 Pedestrian barriers
16.3 Median barriers
Barriers between carriageway and
16.4
footway
16.5 Safety screens
16.6 Noise walls
17.0 DURABILITY
17.1 Exposure classification
17.2 Soil/water aggressivity
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS
18.0
(add attachments summarising requirements if yes)
Environmental (e.g. environmental impact
18.1 statement-EIS, review of environmental
factors-REF):
18.2 Fisheries

project owner
18.3 Heritage
18.4 Navigation
18.5 Planning
18.6 Other
19.0 SITE ACCESSIBILITY
19.1 Have abutment positions been pegged?
19.2 Is more pegging required?
Proximity of overhead and underground
19.3
power lines?
20.0 TRAFFIC DATA
Annual average daily traffic-AADT
20.1
(fatigue loads)
20.2 % commercial vehicles (fatigue loads)
20.3 Traffic data (barrier performance level)
20.4 Site risks (barrier performance level)

Resources for Bridge Aesthetics
Bennett, D 1997, The architecture of bridge design, Thomas Telford, London, UK.
Burke, MP 1998, ‘Aesthetically notorious bridges’, Proceedings of the Institute of Engineers: Civil
Engineering, vol. 126, no. 1, pp. 39-47.
Department of Transportation Minnesota 1995, Aesthetic guidelines for bridge design, Minnesota DoT, Saint
Paul, MN, USA.
Fédération Internationale du Béton 2000, Guidance for good bridge design, bulletin no. 9, FIB, Lausanne,
Switzerland.
Ford, CR, Johnston, GC, Douglas, HR, Henderson, JR & Valentine, WH 1997, ‘Skye Crossing: a design,
build, finance and operate project’, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers: Civil Engineering, no.
120, no. 2, pp. 46-58.
Gottemoeller, F 2004, Bridgescape: the art of designing bridges, 2nd Edn, John Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, USA.
Gottemoeller, F & Buchwalter, A 1995, ‘Innovation and aesthetics’, International bridge engineering
conference, 4th, 1995, San Francisco, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, conference
proceedings no. 7, pp. 47-56.
Highways Agency 1998, The design and appearance of bridges, advice note BA 41/98, Stationery Office,
London, UK.
Highways Department Hong Kong 2013, Structures design manual for highways and railways, 4th edn,
Highways Department, Hong Kong, viewed 6 April 2017,
<https://www.hyd.gov.hk/en/publications_and_publicity/publications/technical_document/structures_desig
n_manual_2013/doc/SDM2013.pdf>.
Leonhardt, F 1982, Bridges, aesthetics and design, Architectural Press, London, UK.
Lyall, S 1994, ‘Visual engineering’, World Highways, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 65-8.
MacLennan, BJ 1997, Who cares about elegance? The role of aesthetics in programming language design,
technical report UT-CS-97-344, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA, viewed 18 April 2017,
<http://web.eecs.utk.edu/~mclennan/papers/Elegance.html>.
Maestro, MB, Hernandez, DFO & Sanchez, CO 1995, ‘Aesthetics in the design of precast prestressed
bridges’, Concrete International, vol. 17, no. 8, pp. 39-44.
O’Connor, C 1985, Spanning two centuries: historic bridges of Australia, University of Queensland Press, St.
Lucia, Qld.
Petzold, EH & Carlson, BE 1996, ‘Objectivity and the aesthetic design process’, Transportation Research
Record, no. 1549, pp. 48-53.
Roads and Maritime Services 2012, Bridge aesthetics: design guideline to improve the appearance of
bridges in NSW, RMS, Sydney, NSW.
Rosales, M & Gottemoeller, F 2000, ‘Contextual and urban design considerations in design of major bridges’,
Transportation Research Record, no.1696, vol. 1, pp. 17-24.
Transportation Research Board 1991, Bridge aesthetics around the world, TRB, Washington, DC, USA.
Wallsgrove, J 1996, ‘British methods for improving sensitivity of bridge designers to good bridge
appearance’, Transportation Research Record, no. 1549, pp. 103-7.
Wells, M 2002, 30 bridges, Watson-Guptill, New York, USA.

Glossary
The following definitions have been used throughout Part 4 of the Guide.
Term Definition
Alliance contracting Alliance contracting is delivering major capital assets, where a public sector agency (the
owner) works collaboratively with private sector parties (non-owner participants or NOPs).
All participants are required to work together in good faith, acting with integrity and making
best-for-project decisions. Working as an integrated, collaborative team, they make
unanimous decisions on all key project delivery issues. The alliance structure capitalises on
the relationships between the participants, removes organisational barriers and encourages
effective integration with the owner.
Concept design A phase of project delivery that generally takes place after any necessary feasibility studies
or options appraisals, where the broad concepts of the design of the structure are
developed, taking into account any global design considerations.
Construct only A ‘traditional’ delivery model under which a designer develops the detailed design and other
documentation for the project owner. Once the project owner is satisfied with the design
and documentation, it will separately call for competitive bids from construction contractors
to construct the project works. Following completion of the construction works, the project
owner assumes responsibility for the ongoing maintenance and/or operation of the asset.
Construction A delivery model that involves the appointment of a construction manager to oversee and
management coordinate the work of a range of individual trade contractors and designers engaged
directly by the project owner to deliver a specific construction project.
Delivery model An approach to the delivery of a construction works or services project.
Design and construct A delivery model (which includes variants such as novated design and construct, and
(D&C) design development and construct) under which a project owner selects a single contractor
to deliver both the design services and construction works for a specific project. Following
completion of the construction works, the project owner assumes responsibility for the
ongoing maintenance and/or operation of the asset, except in cases where such
responsibilities are appended to the D&C model under such variants as design, construct
and maintain; design, construct and operate; or design, construct, maintain and operate.
Design proposal A proposal containing the physical details and dimensions, design basis, loads and cost
estimate for a preliminary design selected by the bridge designers that will be sent to the
client for approval.
Design review Reviews of the design, either by the client or an independent party, at various stages
nominated by the client.
Detailed design The design phase where a concept/preliminary design is fully detailed and specified for
construction.
Direct managed This delivery model involves the project owner managing the full delivery of the project,
which includes directly providing the plant and resources or obtaining these by
subcontracting activities.
Early contractor A two-stage relationship-style delivery model, generally structured to resemble a project
involvement (ECI) alliance model during the first stage and a D&C model during the second. This delivery
model is specifically designed to achieve good relationship, cost and constructability
outcomes by fostering the involvement of construction contractors during the preliminary
(design and development) stages of project delivery.
Fatigue The process of initiation and propagation of cracks through a structural part due to action of
fluctuating stress.
Final design The final version of design that is approved for construction.
Integral bridge A bridge features a fully continuous moment connection between the superstructure and
substructure at the abutments eliminating the need for joints or bearings to accommodate
rotations and cyclical thermally-induced displacements at the ends of the deck.
Managing contractor A delivery model which involves a head or ‘managing’ contractor being appointed by the
project owner to provide advisory and management services; create work packages; source
and enter into contracts with designers and subcontractors; and coordinate, supervise and
potentially directly undertake some elements of the work pertaining to a specific
construction project.

Term Definition
Match-cast The match-casting process involves casting of precast concrete segments for use in a
balanced cantilever bridge construction. In this method, all typical segments in a cantilever
(casting run) are cast in the same mould, using stationary moulds and the previously cast
segment (the match cast segment) in order to obtain a match cast joint. The initial segment
within a casting run is cast within the mould between a fixed and removable bulkhead.
Novated The substitution of a new contract for a previous contract, or the substitution of a new party
for a previous party in a contact, so that the previous obligation is considered discharged or
the previous obligor released.
Preliminary design Concept designs that have been developed enough to assess the structural and economic
feasibility of each concept.
Procurement method The form of contract and procurement process to be used with respect to the selected
delivery model, as documented in the procurement strategy.
Project partnering A concept covering a variety of contract models where the intention is foster an
environment where the client and contractor work together in good faith with open
communication to optimise the project outcomes.
Public private A delivery model under which the project owner selects a private sector partner to finance,
partnership (PPP) design and construct the project works, and assume responsibility for operations and/or
maintenance over a long-term period.
Semi-integral bridge A bridge has no deck joints but incorporates bearings at the supports. This form may be
adopted when ground conditions are not suitable for a fully integral bridge.
Value engineering A systematic process of review and analysis (of bridge drawings and design calculations),
during the concept and design phases, by a multidisciplinary team of persons not involved
in the project and provide recommendations to improving the design

AGBT04-18 Guide To Bridge Technology Part 4 Design Procurement and Concept Design

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Guide to Bridge Technology Part 4:

Design Procurement and Concept Design

Second edition prepared by: Hanson Ngo Publisher

© Austroads Ltd 2018

1. Introduction and Guide Structure ......................................................................................................... 1

2. Bridge Design Process Procurement Models ..................................................................................... 1

3. Specifying Requirements for Design ................................................................................................... 8

4. Considerations in the Design Process .............................................................................................. 12

5. General Considerations ....................................................................................................................... 17

Austroads 2018 | page i

5.5 Safety in Design ..................................................................................................................................... 19

6. Design Requirements .......................................................................................................................... 29

Austroads 2018 | page ii

9. Foundation Selection ........................................................................................................................... 49

10. Construction Considerations .............................................................................................................. 56

11. Design for Construction ...................................................................................................................... 60

Austroads 2018 | page iii

12. Design for Maintainability .................................................................................................................... 62

Austroads 2018 | page iv

1. Introduction and Guide Structure

1.2 Guide Structure

Table 1.1: Parts of the Guide to Bridge Technology

Part Title Content

Austroads 2018 | page 1

Part Title Content

Austroads 2018 | page 2

2. Bridge Design Process Procurement Models

Austroads 2018 | page 3

2.2 Construct Only

Austroads 2018 | page 4

2.3 Design and Construct

2.4 Alliance Arrangements

Austroads 2018 | page 5

2.5 Public Private Partnership (PPP)

Austroads 2018 | page 6

2.6 Further Information about Project Procurement

Austroads 2018 | page 7

3. Specifying Requirements for Design

3.1 Bridge Design Code Issues

3.2 Specifying for Local Conditions

Austroads 2018 | page 8

3.3 Geometric Details, including Clearances

3.4 Gathering and Integrating Data for a Bridge Design

3.5 Design Statement

3.6 Requirements of AS 5100

Typical issues include:

Austroads 2018 | page 9

3.7.1 Road Users’ Requirements

3.7.2 OH&S Requirements

Austroads 2018 | page 10

3.7.3 Design Outcomes

3.8 Design Surveillance and Achievement of Design Intent

Austroads 2018 | page 11

4. Considerations in the Design Process

4.1 Design Process

The design process generally may include the following:

4.2 Design and Delivery Management

Austroads 2018 | page 12

4.2.2 Delivery of Design/Construct and Alliance Bridge Projects

Table 4.1: Process of review and interaction

Stage of process Contractor Agency/owner

Concept/preliminary design proposal, including

Final design to 100% and related construction