Food Sec.
(2012) 4:219–234
DOI 10.1007/s12571-012-0186-z
ORIGINAL PAPER
Wild edible fruit diversity and its significance
in the livelihood of indigenous tribals: Evidence
from eastern India
Ajay K. Mahapatra & Pratap C. Panda
Received: 9 February 2011 / Accepted: 27 March 2012 / Published online: 17 May 2012
# Springer Science+Business Media B.V. & International Society for Plant Pathology 2012
Abstract A number of wild plants, used by rural and tribal
populations and contributing significantly to their livelihood
and food security have escaped recognition and scientific
inquiry. Their distribution, conservation, mode of harvest by
locals and optimal use require region-specific assessment in
order to integrate them into developmental interventions.
This study analyzed the collection, consumption, sale and
income from edible forest fruits in 49 tribal villages spread
over five districts of Orissa State in eastern India. Density,
dominance and diversity of species yielding wild fruit were
measured by studying ecological parameters in the sample
plots. We estimated an average of 48 fruit plants per hectare
of deciduous forests. Fifty-six wild edible fruit species be-
longing to 40 genera in 26 families were recorded in the
study region, many of which have multiple uses. Indigenous
fruits formed part of the family diet with average annual
consumption of 73 kg per household. Sale of wild fruits
contributed 15 % of income for tribal households. Despite
their good knowledge of indigenous fruits, the tribal pop-
ulations have not adopted fruit tree farming which would
enhance their nutrition and income.
Keywords Forest food . Food security . Wild edible plant
species . Natural products . Tribal economy
A. K. Mahapatra (*) : P. C. Panda
Regional Plant Resource Center,
Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India
e-mail: otelp@rediffmail.com
P. C. Panda
e-mail: pcpanda2001@yahoo.co.in
Introduction
Food and nutritional security are key concerns the world
over as low food intake and poor access to food in under-
developed countries remain unresolved issues (Andersen et al.
2003; Adebooye and Phillips 2006). Feeding in excess of
800 million undernourished people depends not only on
increased productivity of the limited number of domesti-
cated crops of the modern world but also the use of
underutilized wild species (Farooq and Azam 2002). The
latter and their natural products make significant contribu-
tions to the human and animal food web and are often a
means of survival for millions of poor rural households
(Belcher et al. 2005; Fisher 2004; Narendran et al. 2001;
Scherr et al. 2004). Uses of non cultivated foods, of
which wild fruits form a part, as a diet supplement, or
as a coping mechanism in times of food shortage, pro-
vides an important safety net for the rural poor
(McSweeny 2004; Takasaki et al. 2004) especially in
Africa (Mojeremane and Tshwenyane 2004; Getachew et
al. 2005; Redzic 2007). There is now greater recognition that
products from the wild may support household subsistence
and also that income may be generated from their sale, either
in raw or processed forms. This recognition has prompted
investigation of the diversity of species that are used and their
relation to the socio-economic status of those who use them
(Mahapatra et al. 2005; Bharucha and Pretty 2010).
Some wild plants and edible fruits are important con-
stituents of biodiversity and their exploitation has become a
valuable livelihood strategy and fall back option for rural
households during periods of nutritional stress (Bell 1995).
In semiarid zones in particular, reliance upon wild food
plants during famine, or by those affected by AIDS is
common (Guinand and Dechassa 2000; Kebu and Fassil
2006; Dovie et al. 2002). As Mojeremane and Tshwenyane
220
(2004) noted, when arable agriculture fails in poor rainfall
years, indigenous fruits help to reduce the deficit of food
availability to rural households. Hunter et al. (2009) have
empirically established that food insecurity in rural Lebanese
communities is a driving force for increased use of wild edible
plants. In Zimbabwe, vulnerability to poverty was found to be
determined, among other factors, by the degree to which
indigenous fruits are used or are available to overcome lean
times (Mithöfer and Waibel 2004). Wild fruits contribute to
diet diversity and flavour as well as providing essential micro-
nutrients in an otherwise bland and nutritionally poor diet
(Bell 1995; FAO 2005).
The majority of the tribal communities of India live close
to or within forests and depend on wild products and bio-
mass for food and energy needs (Mohapatra and Sahoo
2010; Bahuguna 2000; Mahapatra and Mitchell 1997). Such
communities have distinct socio-cultural traditions and food
habits. These are informed by knowledge of the varied flora
found between the Himalayan foothills and the Central
plateau (Pandey et al. 2007; Sundriyal and Sundriyal 2001;
Maikhuri et. al. 2004). Historically, tribal and rural people
identified and collected plants for food and medicine from
forests and developed a range of processing methods in
accordance with their needs. With modernization and settled
agriculture, this knowledge is becoming lost, a trend that
may lead to decreased diversity of indigenous diets and
poorer nutrition (Dwebe and Mearns 2011). Site specific
studies have recorded consumption of wild edibles by tribals
and the rural poor in a few locations in India (Sundriyal et
al. 2004; Misra et al. 2008), but generally information on
edible indigenous fruits is scattered in botanical mono-
graphs, informal notes and tribal oral traditions. The useful
properties of non domesticated crops known in local com-
munities requires proper study and documentation in order
to validate, quantify and spread this useful knowledge
(Edison et al. 2006).
Information on wild foods and rural household uses has the
potential to address food insecurity and can act as a low cost
option in development programs for the poor. Population
profiling and standardizing protocols for propagation of these
plant groups could contribute to conserving the gene pool
which has suffered from the ‘tragedy of the commons’(Hardin
1968). The present study aims to fill this knowledge gap for
the eastern Indian state of Orissa, where tribal communities
exploit several natural products including wild fruits for both
subsistence and cash income. The objective of the study is to
(i) make an ethno botanical inventory of wild fruits, and their
uses and preferences by different tribal communities in the
region and (ii) to quantify their harvest, consumption and
trading. This is expected to emphasize the value of food
obtained from the wild, and the necessity of conserving the
plants that produce it. Further, the sustainable use of such
plants, their contribution to development and perhaps, in the
A.K. Mahapatra, P.C. Panda
long run, their domestication are discussed. (Asfaw and
Tadesse 2001).
Materials and methods
Characteristics of the study area
The study was conducted in the Mayurbhanj, Gajapati,
Kondhamal, Koraput and Sambalpur districts of Orissa state
(Fig. 1). Lying between 81° 24′ and 87° 29′ East longitudes
and 17° 48′ and 22° 34′ North latitudes, Orissa state is
situated on the eastern coast of the Indian Peninsula. The
state experiences high temperatures (mean maximum tem-
perature of 38.3°C and minimum temperature of 15°C) and
receives an annual average rainfall of 1400 mm spread over
4 months. The humidity level is high (74–84 %) for 4–
5 months, mainly during the rainy season (June to Septem-
ber). The other two seasons are winter (December to Febru-
ary) and summer (March to June).
Tribals constitute an important segment of the Indian
population. Orissa state has the second largest tribal popu-
lation (6.82 million) in the country with 62 different tribes.
The most common ones in the study areas are the Kondh,
Santal, Saora, Kolha, Munda and Juang. They are highly
represented in the study districts making up between 19 and
68 % of the population, with two or three groups dominating
a given area. The per-capita annual income of Orissa (INR
16,149) is low compared to the national average of about
75,000 INR (Planning Commission 2008). Food insecurity
(42 %), malnutrition and nutritional deficiency of children
(41 %) and high infant mortality (69 per 1000) characterize
the indigenous tribal communities of the region (Padhi et al.
2006; Anand Kumar 2003; Anonymous 2008). The
UNWFP study profiles the area as one of the most highly
food insecure pockets in India (MSSRF 2008) although
N
Fig. 1 Map of Orissa state showing location of districts surveyed
Significance of wild edible fruits for tribals of Eastern India
tackling food insecurity in tribal districts has been a major
thrust of state sponsored rural development in the region
(GoO 2004).
The diversified topography and variable climate of the
state contribute to its rich and varied flora. Forest vegetation
is typically dominated by Sal trees (Shorea robusta) but is
variously mixed with other deciduous trees. However, in the
eastern Ghat and northern plateau region Sal is absent and
the forest vegetation consists of mixed combinations of
deciduous trees. The coastal region of the state has low
forest cover (Cuttack 16 %, Baleswar 7 %, Puri 2 %),
whereas in the central upland and eastern Ghat hilly regions
the forest concentration is high and dense (Kandhamal
68 %, Raygada 44 %). About 58 % of the forests consist
of Tropical Dry Deciduous types, 40 % are Tropical Moist
Deciduous types and about 0.7 % comprise Semi-evergreen
patches in moist valleys (FSI 2009). The constituent tree
species of dry deciduous forest type, besides S. robusta
(Sal), are; Terminalia alata, T. bellirica, Bombax ceiba,
Anogeissus latifolia, Cochlospermum religiosum, Sterculia
spp., Dalbergia spp., Cleistanthus patulus and Hymeno-
dictyon orixene. Central Indian Subtropical Hill forests are
found on hill-tops at about 1200 m. The forests in the
districts studied are either Dry or Moist Deciduous, Sal
dominated or mixed forest types, constituting 68 % of the
geographical area in Kandhamal, 38 % in Mayurbhanj, 46 %
in Sambalpur, 57 % in Gajapati and 19 % in Koraput
districts.
Site selection and sampling
The study area comprised 49 villages and their forest col-
lection areas, which were distributed in seven forest divi-
sions in five districts of Orissa state with high representation
of tribals (Gajapati 47 %, Kandhamal 51 %, Koraput 50 %,
Mayurbhanj 57 %, Sambalpur 35 %). The sites were located
across 5 major physiographic zones, principally classified
on the basis of variation in altitude, annual rainfall and
temperature. Mayurbhanj, representing the Northern
Plateau, is an undulating upland, frequently intersected by
hill ranges which extend to the Chotanagpur plateau of
Jharkhand state. The Central River Basin is represented by
the Bamra forests of Sambalpur District. The Koraput and
Gajapti districts representing the Eastern Ghat Hills,
comprise a wide open upland plateau fringed by luxu-
riant forests. In Gajapti, dry deciduous Sal predominates
whereas in Koraput, the vegetation is of the Moist
Deciduous Mixed type (Champion and Seth 1968).
The Baliguda forest division of Kandhamal district
comes under the Central Uplands. Our study covered
an altitudinal range of 100 m in Sambalpur District to
900 m in Similipal in Mayurbhanj District. The Kondhs,
Sauras, Mundas, Santal and Kolha are the major ethnic
221
groups, constituting the forest dependent rural house-
holds of the studied region (Table 1).
Method of data collection and analysis
A review of forest working plans and past taxonomic sur-
veys of the region provided background information on the
occurrence of wild fruit plants of the region. Field work was
done in two phases. During the first phase, reserve forest
blocks, which had good forest cover (crown density above
0.4 ), were subjectively selected in each of the seven forest
divisions after consulting the local forest working plans. The
grids of the topographical maps (1:50,000 scale), prepared
by Survey of India and having at least 40 % crown cover,
was listed, from which 50 grids were randomly selected for
laying sample plots. Finally, 49 sample plots each of 0.05
hectare (100 m x 5 m transect) were laid over 46 forest
blocks in 5 districts within a 5 km radius of the villages
surveyed. All the edible fruit bearing species over 30 cm
girth at breast height (GBH) were enumerated by surveyors
recruited for the purpose and trained by the authors. The
parameters measured were Basal Area (BA), Relative
Density (RD), Relative Frequency (RF), Relative Abun-
dance and Importance Value Index (IVI). These are defined
as follows:
BA area occupied by stem of a given species (measured at
breast height).
RD number of trees of a given species /total number of
trees of all species x100.
RF number of times a species occurs /total number of
species x100
RA total basal area of a species/basal area of all species x
100
IVI sum of RD+RF+RA
The IVI value of a given species, expressed as a percentage
of the total IVI for all species in an area, was regarded as a
measure of its ecological significance (Curtis and Cottom
1956; Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg 1974).
In the second phase, villages from within 5 km of the
border of the sampled forest reserves were surveyed with
respect to picking of wild fruits and their use. Traditional
village rights over forests are usually limited to within a 4–
5 km radius of the village and are accessed by villagers for
gathering firewood and non-timber forest products (NTFPs)
including fruits. The fruit plant species were identified in
consultation with local floras and by matching with authen-
tic herbarium specimens. In addition, field trips to each
village were undertaken with some collectors in order to
locate wild fruit plants and to tally the local vernacular
names of plants with their botanical names. Voucher speci-
mens were housed in the herbarium of the Regional Plant
Resource Centre, Bhubaneswar. Primary data were collected
222 A.K. Mahapatra, P.C. Panda

Mixed Deciduous
through both semi-structured and structured interviews ad-

(Northern Hills)

Honey, Tassar,
Santal, Kolha
Mayurbhanj ministered to key informants and random households, re-

Sal Leaf
spectively, in collaboration with local forest staff during the
period March 2009 to August 2010. Village meetings were

14.4
2.9

5.4
11
organized first in each village in order to list the wild fruits
used by tribals for food and other purposes. Village meet-
ings elicited valuable information on types of fruit, their
preparation, culinary practices and other matters, which
(Eastern Ghat Plain)

were subsequently authenticated in focus group discussions

Mahua Flower,
Hill Deciduous

with women and traders dealing in wild fruits. These took

Tree Oilseed,

the form of semi-structured interviews and were of value in

Gajapati

a number of ways: they helped to reconcile contradictory

Saura

13.5

information obtained from villagers, in estimating number

1.7

4.6
9

of households collecting wild fruits in different seasons and

in assessing the amount of each species of wild fruit col-
lected in a village by the resident villagers. From the list of
households who agreed to share knowledge of wild fruit and
Tamarind, Broomstick,

their uses, five households were randomly selected in each

(Eastern Ghat Hills)

Moist Mixed Forest

Tendu Leaf, Gum

village for in depth interviews in order to gather information

Desia Kondh

on frequency, season of collection, preference, attitude and

quantity of fruits collected, consumed or sold. The Jaccard
Koraput

Coefficient of similarity (Jaccard 1908) was measured and a

14.4
1.8
10

dendrogram based on similarity coefficients generated by

5

the unweighted pair group method (Sneath and Sokal 1973)

was made to compare similarity in fruit uses across districts.
Annual household income obtained from different sources
Tree Oilseed, Kendu Leaf

was recorded during the interview. A total of 245 informants

was interviewed for data collection and authentication dur-
Mahua, Char Seed,

ing the fieldwork. Data analysis was done using SPSS

(Western Plateau)

statistics software version 10.

Degraded Sal
Sambalpur

Munda

16.1

Results
1.9

5.2
9

Harvesting of wild fruit, their uses and tribal knowledge

Fifty-six fruiting plant species belonging to 40 genera and

Gum, Myrobalans
(Central Uplands)

Mango, Jackfruit,

26 families were harvested from natural stands and their

Moist Deciduous

habit, local names, parts used and mode of consumption

Kutia Kondh
Kandhamal
Table 1 Socioeconomic features of the study area

are presented in Table 1. The Moraceae (10.7 %) and

Rhamnaceae (8.9 %) were the families with the highest
2.15

15.4

5.9

numbers of edible fruit species. Among the genera, Ziziphus

10

and Ficus were the most highly represented with five spe-
cies each followed by Grewia with four species. Trees and
shrubs made up the highest proportion of edible wild fruit
Number of villages sampled

Average distance of villages

Average distance of villages

Average distance of villages

species—70 % tree, 19 % shrub and 11 % climbers. The

Name of major tribal group

majority of species (94.6 %) have only edible fruits, while

from forests (in km)
Major NTFPs traded

from town (in km)

both flower and fruits of Madhuca indica and Olax psitta-

from local weekly
Major Forest types

market (in km)

corum and leaves and fruits of Aegle marmelos, Antidesma

acidum, Cordia dichotoma, Ericybe paniculata are eaten by
locals. Many of the species have other uses, satisfying the
communities’ needs for timber (Bridelia retusa, Protium
serratum, Syzigium cumini), fuelwood (Neonauclea
Significance of wild edible fruits for tribals of Eastern India
cadamba), medicine (Aegle marmelos, Gardenia gummi-
fera, S. cumini, Allophylus serratus, Solanum torvum) and
cooking oil (Schleichera oleosa, Madhuca indica).
Indigenous tribal communities had 12 different uses for
the 56 wild edible fruit species, the average being 3.4
(Table 2). Major uses were as food, food adjuncts, vegeta-
bles, beverages, cooking oils (from seed), spices and condi-
ments, medicine and industrial products. The principal
multipurpose species of the region are: Aegle marmelos,
Citrus spp., Cordia dichotoma, Limonia acidissima, Phyl-
lanthus emblica, Semecarpus acacardium, Spondias pin-
nata, Artocarpus lacucha. Fruits of 41 species (73.2 %)
are used in traditional medicine in addition to being used
as food. Mature or immature fruits of 16 species are used as
vegetables in the preparation of curries. Twelve species such
as Aegle marmelos, Allophylus serratus, Ficus spp. and
Madhuca indica are used in religious ceremonies and tribal
rituals and fruits of seven species, such as Grewia spp.,
Lepisanthes tetraphylla, Phoenix acaulis, Uvaria hamiltonii
are used only as food supplements. Diospyros melanoxylon
(Tendu) fruits are very sweet, palatable and rich in minor
minerals and nutrients whereas Jamun is known for its
antioxidant and medicinal properties (Chopra et al. 1986).
Limonia acidissima—the elephant apple—is widely con-
sumed and made into chutneys and pickles. Such multifunc-
tional values of natural products of the region demonstrate a
rich indigenous knowledge of natural resources.
Use of many species is localized and restricted to casual
encounters (Allophylus serratus, Capparis spp., Lepisanthes
tetraphylla, Syzigium cerasoides, Ziziphus rugosa, Uvaria
hamiltonii), whereas species such as as Phyllanthus embl-
ica, Aegle marmelos, Artocarpus lacucha, Buchanania lan-
zan, Diospyros melanoxylon, Limonia acidissima, Phoenix
sylvestris and Syzigium cumini are frequently found and
consumed all over the region and beyond. A number of
species such as Aegle marmelos, Gardenia gummifera, Lit-
sea glutinosa, Phyllanthus emblica, Solanum torvum and
Semecarpus anacardium are widely used in traditional herb-
al medicine in rural areas of the state.
Some fruits are eaten raw, either ripe or unripe, while others
are cooked and consumed as curries (e.g. tender figs of Ficus
hispida, F. racemosa and F. semicordata) or are pickled or
made into ‘curry paste’ or ‘chutney’. Olax psittacorum, Ficus
racemosa, Tamilnadia uliginosa, Capparia zeylanica and
Ficus hispida are used as vegetables. Seeds of Xylia xylocarpa,
and Bauhinia vahlii are roasted and eaten by the Kohla and
Juang tribes. Dried seeds of Buchanania lanzan, Semecarpus
anacardium and Madhuca indica are eaten directly or in semi-
processed form by tribals. Santals and Juangs of the study area
consume the tender and immature seeds of Diospyros melanox-
ylon and Diospyros malabarica as famine foods. Insipid fruits
of Ficus religiosa and F. benghalensis are also considered to be
distress foods and are eaten in times of food scarcity. Ripe fruits
223
of Aegle marmelos, Artocarpus lacucha, Flacourtia indica,
Eugenia rothii, Carissa spinarum, Uvaria hamiltonii, Ericybe
paniculata, Diospyros melanoxylon, Phoenix acaulis and P.
sylvestris are used in most localities as they have a sweet taste
and pleasant flavor. Ziziphus mauritiana, Artocarpus lacucha,
Antidesma spp. and Phyllanthus emblica, are eaten raw or sun
dried and preserved in mustard oil after mixing with salt.
Seasonality of wild fruit collection
Fruits of Aegle marmelos, Buchanania lanzan, Diospyros mel-
anoxylon, Madhuca indica, Phoenix acaulis, P. sylvestris,
Schleichera oleosa and Semecarpus anacardium ripen be-
tween March and June, coinciding with a number of tribal
festivals when the ripe fruits are offered to deities before being
consumed (Fig. 2). Besides wild mango and jackfruit, which
are available in plenty during the summer, ripe fruits of Aegle
marmelos (Bael), Buchanania lanzan (Char), D. melanoxylon
(Kendu), Flacourtia indica, Manilkara hexandra, wild date
palms (Phoenix spp.) and fleshy hypocarps of Semecarpus
anacardium are commonly consumed by tribal women, chil-
dren, firewood collectors and graziers in the forest to tide them
over harsh summers. Tribals of Mayurbhanj, Kandhamal and
Sambalpur extract seeds of Madhuca indica and Schleichera
oleosa in the summer and during subsequent months for
cooking oils. Syzigium cumini, Cordia dichotoma, Eugenia
rothii, Gardenia gummifera, Uvaria hamiltonii, Grewia spp.,
Artocarpus lacucha, Protium serratum and Olax psittacorum
produce fruits that are usually consumed by forest dwellers
during the rainy season (June to September). From mid Oc-
tober, as the winter sets in, several wild fruits with acidic
taste are available to local inhabitants of the forests. These
are fruits of wild Citrus spp., Antidesma acidum, Limonia
acidissima, Phyllanthus emblica, Spondias pinnata, Tam-
arindus indica and Ziziphus spp. They are either consumed
raw or after being made into chutneys, drinks, pickles or
curries (Table 3). This is the period when many species of
Ziziphus (Z. mauritiana, Z. funiculosa, Z. nummularia, Z.
oenoplia) and Carissa spinarum bear ripe fruits in village
thickets and scrub forests, which are frequented by tribal
children and women. More generally, local climatic and
edaphic conditions contribute to variation in inter-site fruit-
ing season in a number of species. Consequently, there is
considerable overlap in ripening among different species,
both within and among localities, resulting in year-round
availability of wild fruits (Fig. 2).
Wild fruit plant diversity in Orissa forests
On average, 48±10 types of edible fruit plants (trees and
shrubs) occur per hectare of deciduous forests in Orissa out
of a total of 568 trees per hectare (i.e. ~ 8.5 %; Reddy et al.
2007a,b). Kandhamal, a biodiversity rich locality of the state
Table 2 List of edible wild fruit plants and their uses in Orissa state, India
224

Scientific Name Vernacular name Family Lifeform Edible part Mode of consumption and use

Aegle marmelos Bael Rutaceae Tree Fruits pulp and unripe fruits Mucilaginous pulp eaten as sherbet; dried slices of immature fruits
as Ayurvedic medicine
Alangium salvifolium Ankula Alangiaceae Tree Fleshy aril of ripe fruit Arils of ripe fruits are eaten by tribals
Allophylus serratus Khandakoli Sapindaceae Shrub Ripe fruits Ripe fruits edible; used in religious ceremonies.
Antidesma acidum Luniari Euphorbiaceae Tree Ripe fruits Fully ripe acidic fruits are taken by tribals; also made into pickles.
Artocarpus lacucha Jeuta Moraceae Tree Ripe fruits Ripe fruits eaten; used as vegetable, pickles and jams; sun-dried
and preserved for rainy season.
Bauhinia vahlii Siali Caesalpiniaceae Climber Seed Roasted seed taken raw or after boiling.
Bridelia retusa Kasi Euphorbiaceae Tree Ripe fruits Fully ripe fruits are taken by tribals; immature fruits are too tarty.
Buchanania lanzan Chara Anacardiaceae Tree Ripe fruit & seed kernel Ripe fruits edible; seed kernels used as confectionary and sold in market.
Capparis sepiaria Kantikapali Capparaceae Shrub Ripe fruits Ripe fruits are eaten by tribal children
Capparis zeylanica Asadhua Capparaceae Climber Ripe and unripe fruit Mature fruits made to slices, sun-dried and used in preparation
of curries; ripe fruits are edible.
Carissa spinarum Dudhakoli Apocynaceae Shrub Ripe fruits Fully ripe fruits are tasty, eaten as such or made into pickles; mature
fruits are with milky latex.
Citrus medica Jambira Rutaceae Tree Ripe and unripe fruit Unripe fruits used as a food additive or vegetable; ripe acidic fruits
are edible.
Citrus sinensis Naranga Rutaceae Tree Ripe and unripe fruit Ripe fruits are eaten as such and immature fruits are made into pickles
Coccinia grandis Kainchikakudi Cucurbitaceae Climber Ripe and unripe fruit Immature fruits eaten by children, mature fruits as vegetable and ripe
fruits taken occasionally by tribals.
Cordia dichotoma Gual Koli Boraginaceae Tree Ripe fruits Though mucilagineous, ripe fruits are commonly eaten; mucilage from
mature fruits used as a gum.
Dillenia pentagyna Rai Dilleniaceae Tree Ripe and unripe fruit Unripe fruits used as vegetable and ripe fruits eaten raw.
Diospyros malabarica Mankada Kendu Ebenaceae Tree Ripe fruits Ripe fruits, though emit a bad smell, are occasionally eaten by tribals
during food shortage.
Diospyros melanoxylon Kendu Ebenaceae Tree Ripe fruits Ripe fruits are tasty and relished by all tribal communities; seeds of young
fruits used as vegetable; fruits offered in religious ceremonies.
Erycibe paniculata Durkoli Convolvulaceae Climber Ripe fruits Sweet and tasty ripe fruits are commonly consumed by forest dwellers.
Eugenia rothii Sagadabatua Myrtaceae Ripe fruits Completely ripe fruits are edible.
Ficus benghalensis Bara Moraceae Tree Ripe fruits Ripe fruits consumed in a limited scale at the time of adversity; birds
eat the fruits in plenty.
Ficus hispida Dimbiri Moraceae Tree Ripe and unripe fruit Young figs used as vegetable and ripe fruits occasionally eaten.
Ficus racemosa Pani Dimbiri Moraceae Tree Ripe and unripe fruit Young figs commonly used as vegetable and ripe fruits as a fruit; tribals
avoid fruits with wasps and maggots.
Ficus religiosa Aswastha Moraceae Tree Ripe fruit Ripe and insipid fruits are consumed as a famine food and extreme
food shortage.
Ficus semicordata Podia Moraceae Tree Ripe and unripe fruit Immature fruits are commonly cooked as a vegetable and ripe fruits
are sometimes eaten raw.
A.K. Mahapatra, P.C. Panda
Table 2 (continued)

Scientific Name Vernacular name Family Lifeform Edible part Mode of consumption and use

Flacourtia indica Bhaincha Flacourtiaceae Shrub Ripe fruit Tasty and acidic ripe fruits are favourite for children and adult tribals.
Gardenia gummifera Bhurdu Rubiaceae Tree Pulp of ripe fruit Pinkish pulp of ripe and mature fruits are edible.
Grewia asiatica Pharsakoli Tiliaceae Tree Ripe fruit Ripe acidic fruits are taken as such or as a refreshing drink.
Grewia hirsuta Sunaregoda Tiliaceae Tree Ripe fruit Ripe fruits are occasionally eaten by tribal communitis.
Grewia rothii Phulari Tiliaceae Shrub Ripe fruit Fully ripe fruits contain inadequate pulp but occasionally consumed
by children.
Grewia tiliifolia Dhaman Tiliaceae Tree Ripe fruit Ripe fruits are sometimes taken by tribal communities.
Lepisanthes tetraphylla Panikusuma Sapindaceae Tree Fleshy aril of ripe fruit White coloured arils of ripe fruits, though emit a disagreeable smell,
are often consumed.
Limonia acidissima Kaitha Rutaceae Tree Pulp of ripe fruits Fruit pulp is widely used by tribals as such or as chutney, drink,
medicine and tribal rituals.
Litsea glutinosa Baghoari Lauraceae Tree Ripe fruit Fruits, when fully ripe, are sometimes eaten.
Madhuca indica Mahua Sapotaceae Tree Mature fruit, flower Berries are eaten raw or cooked, oil from seeds is used in cooking and
Significance of wild edible fruits for tribals of Eastern India

as medicine; flowers eaten raw, after frying/ baking, used for preparation
of a country liquor.
Manilkara hexandra Khirakoli Sapotaceae Tree Fruit Ripe fruits are very tasty and liked by all tribal communities; plants
are worshiped.
Neonauclea cadamba Kadamba Rubiaceae Tree Inflorescence head Ripe flower heads waten in period of food scarcity.
Olax psittacorum Bhadabhadalia Olacaceae Climber Ripe fruit Ripe fruits are edible
Phoenix acaulis Bhuin Khajuri Arecaceae Shrub Ripe fruit Ripe fruit with scanty flesh is tasty and edible.
Phoenix sylvestris Khajuri Arecaceae Tree Ripe fruit Very common eaten as a summer fruit by all thibes.
Phylanthus emblica Amla Euphorbiaceae Tree Mature fruit Ripe and mature fruits are edible, very commonly used as a medicine
(a constituent of the Ayurvedic drug “Triphala”; made into pickles,
jam/ jellies, drinks; dried and preserved as masticatory.
Protium serratum Kathakusuma Burseraceae Tree Ripe fuit Ripe sour fruits are edible and also made into pickles by some tribes.
Schleichera oleosa Kusuma Sapindaceae Tree Ripe fruit, seed Ripe fruits edible, also pickled; seeds eaten raw or roasted, seed-oil used
for cooking and other domestic purposes.
Semecarpus anacardium Bhalia Solanaceae Tree Fleshy thalamus, seed Hypocarp is eaten when ripe; kernel also edible; tribals use kernel
oil as wood preservative against white-ant and lubricant
for wooden axles of carts.
Solanum torvum Dengabheji Solanaceae Shrub Tender fruits Young fruits fried with ghee or oil is eaten as a vegetable.
Spondias pinnata Ambada Anacardiaceae Tree Mature fruits Ripe fruit is directly edible; green fruits as vegetable; also made
into pickles and chutney.
Syzygium cerasoides Panijamu Myrtaceae Tree Ripe fruits Mildly acidic ripe fruits with scanty pulp are eaten; also medicinally
important
Syzygium cumini Jamun Myrtaceae Tree Ripe fruits Ripe fruits are widely used by all communities; often after treating in salt
water; possess medicinal properties especially against diabetes.
Tamilnadia uliginosa Tolaka Rubiaceae Tree Ripe and immature fruit Ripe fruits are eaten as such or after being boiled, roasted or made in
to curries.
225
226 A.K. Mahapatra, P.C. Panda

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Aegle marmelos
Artocarpus lacucha
Bauhinia purpurea
Buchanania lanzan
Dillennia pentagyna

Very common fruit collected and consumed by children; fruit

Diospyros malabarica
Fully ripe fruits are quite tasty and eaten by tribal people.
Seeds are removed by breaking the fruit cover and eaten
Diospyros melanoxylon
Ficus hispida
Flacourtia indica
Gardenia gummifera
Limonia acidissima
Mangifera indica

Ripe fruits, being sweet in taste, are eaten.

used by Munda tribe for stomach pain. Phoenix acaulis
Ripe fruits are eaten largely by children

Phyllanthus emblica
Schleichera oleosa
Semecarpus anacardium
Mode of consumption and use

Fruits after maturity are eaten.

Spondias pinnata
Syzigium cumini
Xylia xylocarpa
Ziziphus oenoplia

Fig. 2 Fruiting calendar of 20 common wild fruit species (Shaded

after roasting.

segments show period of fruiting)

in the Central Uplands shows the highest density of fruit

plants (57 plants ±14/ ha) and Gajapati District, the lowest
(38 plants±11/ha) (Table 4). Koraput has moist mixed de-
ciduous vegetation and the incidence of edible fruit trees
was not significantly different from Kandhamal. There was
Ripe and mature fruit

Ripe and mature fruit

no distinct difference in wild fruit density between the

deciduous non-Sal mixed forest zone (Mayurbhanj) and
Mature fruit
Edible part

the deciduous Sal dominated zone (Sambalpur). The tree

Ripe fruit

Ripe fruit

diameter of the 20 most prevalent species indicated good

Seed

health and maturity and there was no discernible difference

between sampled districts in the percentage of mature fruit
trees (>60 cm GBH class) in forests.
Lifeform

Climber

Climber

Climber

Five species, Diospyros melanoxylon, Buchanania lan-

Shrub
Shrub
Tree

zan, Madhuca indica, Schleichera oleosa and Phyllanthus

emblica had the highest combined density with 2.22 trees
ha−1 in a range of 1.98–2.71. Both in terms of frequency and
Rhamnaceae
Rhamnaceae
Rhamnaceae

Rhamnaceae
Mimosaceae
Annonaceae
Family

Table 3 Use pattern of wild fruits in Orissa state, India

Mode/ category of use Number of genera Number of species

Vernacular name

1. Raw ripe fruits 38 53

Tangan/Kongra

Jangli Barakoli

2. Vegetable 13 18
Lakhankoli

Chun Koli

Kanteikoli

3. Processed pickles 13 14
Tinkoli

4. Chutney (grind pulp) 4 4

5. Jam, Jelly 10 13
6. Dry preserve 12 12
7. Drinks 8 10
Ziziphus nummularia
Table 2 (continued)

Ziziphus funiculosa

8. Medicine 30 41
Uvaria hamiltonii

Ziziphus oenoplia
Scientific Name

Ziziphus rugosa
Xylia xylocarpa

9. Seed Oil 6 6
10. Spice, condiment 2 2
11. Religious ritual 10 12
Other use 6 7
Significance of wild edible fruits for tribals of Eastern India 227

Table 4 Distribution and abun-

dance of the 20 most prevalent Sl. No. Species Relative Relative Relative IVI
wild species in forests bearing Abundance Density Frequency
wild edible fruit
1 Aegle marmelos 2.20 4.88 5.11 12.19
2 Alangium salvifolium 1.38 1.11 1.86 4.35
3 Bauhinia vahlii 1.76 2.49 3.25 7.49
4 Bridelia retusa 2.15 1.89 2.01 6.05
5 Buchanania lanzan 3.69 9.68 6.04 19.41
6 Dillenia pentagyna 2.15 1.89 2.01 6.05
7 Diospyros melanoxylon 3.45 11.40 7.59 22.43
8 Ficus hispida 1.48 3.08 4.80 9.36
9 Flacourtia indica 1.38 1.11 1.86 4.35
10 Gardenia gummifera 1.65 2.23 3.10 6.98
11 Madhuca indica 2.85 8.65 6.97 18.48
Relative Abundance 0 Abun- 12 Phoenix acaulis 2.08 3.08 3.41 8.57
dance of a species/ Sum of abun- 13 Phyllanthus emblica 2.68 8.31 7.12 18.11
dance values of all species *100 14 Protium serratum 2.08 1.54 1.70 5.33
Relative Density 0 Density of the 15 Schleichera oleosa 2.77 8.57 7.12 18.45
individual species/ Sum of densi-
16 Semecarpus anacardium 3.01 8.31 6.35 17.67
ty values of all species *100
17 Spondias pinnata 1.65 1.11 1.55 4.32
Relative Frequency 0 Frequency
of individual species/ Sum of fre- 18 Syzigium cumini 2.07 5.57 6.19 13.83
quency values of all species *100 19 Xylia xylocarpa 3.31 2.23 1.55 7.08
IVI 0 Relative Abundance 20 Ziziphus oenoplia 1.49 2.31 3.56 7.37
+ Relative Density + Relative 21 Other 36 species 54.72 10.54 16.87 82.13
Frequency

abundance, the above 5 species topped the list, as may be
seen from the IVI values (Importance Value Index) (Table 4).
In quantitative ecological terms, the IVI of Diospyros mel-
anoxylon (22.43 %) is the highest followed by Buchnania
lanzan (19.41 %) and Madhuca indica (18.48 %) which
demonstrates their wide distribution and abundance in de-
ciduous forests in Orissa. They are closely followed by two
other multipurpose fruit species, Schleichera oleosa
(18.45 %) and Semecarpus anacardium (17.67 %).
The study revealed that both frequency and density of
useful species, such as Alangium salvifolium, Flacourtia
indica and Spondias pinnata are quite low. The regeneration
study (data not shown) indicated that out of 56 species
studied, the recruitment status of Uvaria hamiltonii, Euge-
nia rothii, Capparis sepiaria, Litsea glutinosa, Limonia
acidissima, Syzigium cerasoides and Tamilnadia uliginosa
is very low, making the population unviable as the new
recruit to adult ratio is below the threshold level for survival
(author’s survey data).
Regional and gender differences in wild fruit collection
and use
Thirteen species (viz. Aegle marmelos, Buchanania lanzan,
Diospyros melanoxylon, Ficus hispida, Flacourtia indica,
Gardenia gummifera, Madhuca indica, Phoenix acaulis, Phyl-
lanthus emblica, Semecarpus anacardium, Syzigium cumini
and Ziziphus oenoplia are used by a wide section of rural
ethnic communities to varying extents according to their abun-
dance in nearby forests. The maximum number of species (41)
was collected in the Kondhmal district by the local Kondh
tribe. In contrast only 23 species were collected and used in the
drier western plateau of Sambalpur. About 68 % of the total
geographical area of Kandhmal district is under hilly mixed
forests, so it is to be expected that a greater number of varieties
of fruit would be collected. There were no distinct differences
among tribal communities in the use of any particular species,
but there were marked differences in the total number of species
used by communities living in Kandhamal and Koraput com-
pared with those living in Sambalpur and Gajapati.
Consumption of wild fruit among different communities
depends on their availability and knowledge of their edibil-
ity. There were no distinct difference in diversity of fruit
species among the forest plots studied but there were differ-
ences in type and number of species used by households
among the localities. The homogeneity of species use was
further probed by drawing a dendrogram of the use of fruit
plants, based on the frequency of use reported by different
tribal communities across the five districts (Fig. 3). This
reflected the domain knowledge of the dominant tribes of
the area. Coefficient of similarity indicated 74 % similarity
between Kandhamal and Koraput forests. Mayurbhanj and
Gajapati have 62 % similarity with strong affinity to
Sambalpur. This could be due to sharing of similar
228
Sambalpur
Mayurbhanj
Gajapati
Koraput
Kandhamal
0.42 0.50 0.58 0.66 0.74
Coefficient
Fig. 3 Fruit use Similarity index
ecological niches; dominance of moist mixed deciduous
vegetation in the former and Sal dominated dry deciduous
vegetation in the latter. Further, similarity of knowledge in
Koraput and Kandhmal could be on account of common
kinship, culture and ancestry of two groups of Kondhs
(Desia kondh, Kutia kondh) living in these districts.
Along with the regional differences in use, gender prefer-
ence in collection and consumption was investigated. This
revealed that, in general, women and children consume more
fruit than men but this could be due to their more frequent
visits to the forest. Women are firewood gatherers and chil-
dren frequent forests to gather fungi, fruits and seeds. In
consequence a higher proportion of female (46 %) and chil-
dren (33 %) than males (21 %) collect fruit. While 42 % of
households stated that female members consumed more fruit
than males, in 36 % of households children consumed the bulk
of collected fruits. Only about a quarter of households collect
regularly, while for a large majority, fruit gathering is occa-
sional and mostly for food supplements or medicinal purpo-
ses. Healing attributes of indigenous fruits was the reason for
their use by 22 % of respondents. The incidence of fruit use
was also related to adversity. Forty-nine percent believed fruit
helped them survive until government aid reached them but
fruit could not replace staple foods. Nevertheless, 45 % of
tribal households did not consider it imperative to domesticate
Table 5 Difference in distribution in forests and uses of wild fruit plants across districts
Wild fruit species (mean value) Kandhamal
(n010)
Stems/hectare 57 a (± 14.48)
Species/hectare 15.5 a (± 1.77)
Number of species collected per village 17 a (± 1.73)
Total number of wild fruits used by villagers 41 a
% of mature fruit bearing plants 64
SD in parenthesis
Dissimilar superscript indicate significance at p<0.5 (Mann Whitney U Test)
A.K. Mahapatra, P.C. Panda
fruit plants on small holdings, citing shortage of farm land and
unprofitability as the primary reasons.
Wild fruit and tribal livelihood
On average, tribal households gather 242 kg of wild fruits
per annum from different sources, i.e. forests, fallow land,
farm bunds and village commons. Variation in amounts
depended on socio-economic parameters, such as food in-
security, family income, sources of income and the amount
of family labour that could be spared for foraging in the
forest. A. marmelos, M. indica, D. melanoxylon, S. oleosa,
and P. emblica were the principal species gathered, the
harvest including mature flowers and fruits. These were
used both for consumption and local sale. The bulk of
household collection (63 % by volume) consisted of fruits
of Mahua (M. indica) followed by those of Kusuma (S.
oleosa) and Tendu (D. melanoxylon) which have multiple
utilities. Greater collections of Mahua fruit were recorded
for Gajapati and Sambalpur districts where the plant is a
major constituent of dry, deciduous Sal (S. robusta) forests.
Bael (A. marmelos), comprising 5 % of fruit gathered by
tribal households, is much sought after as its leaves, fruits,
gum and wood are used for a host of purposes. Low quan-
tities of figs (Ficus hispida; 1–2 Kg) were harvested as they
are considered to be famine food and are therefore con-
sumed only occasionally. On the other hand, the small
harvests of tasty fruits, such as those of Flacourtia india,
could be due to low fruit-setting of the species in the wild.
Only 21 % of households collected F. indica and the mean
household collection was 2.3 kg. Berries of species such as
P. emblica and S. cumini are collected in the wild in the
tribal hinterlands although they are domesticated to a limited
extent in semi-urban areas. Average household collection
varied from 9.8 kg±6.6 for S. cumini (Jamu) to 18.1 kg±
14.5 for P.emblica (Amla; Table 6). Although diversity and
density of wild fruits is higher in Kandhamal district, tribals
of Mayurbhanj collected more fruit to meet their household
needs (compare Tables 5 and 6).
Sambalpur Koraput Mayurbhanj Gajapati (n09)
(n09) (n010) (n011)
48.6 abc (± 9.89) 53.7 a (±10.97) 45.3 abc (±9.97) 38.2 c (±11.89)
12.8 b (± 0.92) 15 a (± 2.1) 10.1 b (± 1.7) 12.6 b (± 1.9)
15 ab (± 1.74) 15.5 a (± 1.90) 13.5 b (± 2.42) 16 a (± 1.87)
23 b 37 a 34 ac 29 bc
78 73 86 76
Significance of wild edible fruits for tribals of Eastern India 229

Table 6 Average household collection, consumption and sale of wild fruits (1USD045 Rs.)

Botanical % Household Annual Annual Annual sale Sale price Total Annual
Name/ District collecting collection Consumption (kgn) (Rs./kg) Value of Fruit
Name (kg/Yr) (kg/Yr) fruits (Rs.) Income
(Rs.)

Collection and use M. indica 95 90.2 (±69.7) 8.7 (±8.4) 81.5 (±66.1) 8 721.6 652
(Top 10 species) S. oleosa 95 34.6 (±27.6) 25.2 (±21.5) 9.4 (±14.4) 4 138.4 37.6
D. melanoxylon 100 28.0 (±18.9) 15.3 (±9.9) 12.7 (±12.4) 10 280.0 127
S. pinnata 59 19.3 (±16.0) 2.3 (±2.6) 17.0 (±14.6) 4 77.2 68
P .emblica 95 18.1 (±14.5) 1.5 (±1.9) 16.6 (±13.5) 3 54.3 49.8
A . marmelos(nos) 18.0 (±16.2) 5.0 (±4.6) 13.0 (±13.5) 2 36.0 26
B. lanzan 86 16.0 (±12.0) 2.5 (±2.1) 13.5 (±10.9) 21 336.0 283.5
S. cumini 91 9.8 (±6.6) 4.0 (±2.3) 5.8 (±5.3) 7 68.6 40.6
L. acidissima 9.0 (±5.3) 1.7 (±1.2) 7.3 (±4.7) 7 63.0 51.1
B. vahlii 70 8.1 (±6.1) 4.3 (±3.5) 3.8 (±3.6) 19 153.9 72.2
Average household Mayurbhanj 378 a (±145.2) 112 b (±40.8) 265 b (±18.7)
collection and use Sambalpur 209 b (±56.9) 62 a (±17.4) 147 a (±49.4)
by district
Gajapati 182 b (±35.4) 62 a (±13.7) 120 a (±28.2)
Koraput 141 c (±51.9) 48 a (±14.2) 93 c (±42.1)
Kandhamal 298 a (±31.4) 130 b (±17.2) 158 a (±38.2)

SD in parenthesis
Dissimilar superscript indicate significance p<0.5 (Mann Whitney U Test)

Indigenous tribal families living within 5–7 km radius of
forests consume on average 82 kg yr−1 household−1 of wild
fruits (Table 6). Diospyros melanoxylon (tendu) fruit is
consumed by 53 %, Schleichera oleosa (73 %), Semecarpus
anacardium (52 %), Syzigium cumini by 41 % and M. indica
by 63 % of households. The mean amounts of the top 10
species consumed by locals is shown in Table 6. Although
collection of fruits of M. indica (Mahua) scores higher,
maximum consumption is for S. oleosa (Kusum) fruit and
seed. Of particular interests are fruits of Gardenia gummi-
fera (Bhurudu), Phoenix acaulis (Bhuin Khajuri) which are
mainly collected as livestock feed but are also consumed by
tribal as hunger food. In contrast, berries of Capparis
sepiaria (Kantikapali), or Flacourtia indica (Bhaincha) al-
though tasty and palatable are consumed in less quantity,
(1.1 kg yr−1 household−1) because of their scarcity. The
stand density of C. sepiaria for instance is a meager 2 per
ha in forests. Significant differences (p<0.05) in quantity
collected and sold were noticed among districts (Table 6).
Maximum quantities were gathered and sold in Mayurbhanj,
followed by Kandhamal. Lesser but similar amounts were
recorded for Sampbalpur and Gajapti and least for Koraput,
districts which have less forest cover.
Although need for consumption is the primary reason for
wild fruit collection, a large majority of tribals gather fruits
of Buchanania lanzan (96 %), Madhuca indica (96 %), and

Table 7 Household Income

sources (annual) in Rupees Household income in Rupees (value of total production and cash income)

Sources of income Kandhamal Koraput Sambalpur Mayurbhanj Gajapati Average %Total income

Agriculture income 3645 5358 5913 3497 4535 4590 42.6

Horticulture income 0 69 998 265 240 314 2.9
Livestock income 1745 57 650 680 220 670 6.2
Wage income 2950 375 2674 1335 1050 1677 15.6
Trade income 0 0 558 630 25 243 2.3
Service income 0 98 332 1739 102 454 4.2
Other NTFP income 2200 1256 1250 287 820 1163 10.8
Wild fruit income 2540 1058 1230 2322 1133 1657 15.4
Total income 13080 8271 13605 10755 8125 10767
1USD 0 45 Indian Rupees
230
Spondias pinnata (89 %) and a few others for sale in the
local hat (village market) to earn income. Tribals housholds
in the study areas, which are forest dependent, have a mean
annual income of Rs.10,767 (Table 7). Sale of wild edible
fruit and flowers contributes 15 % to this,, agriculture 42 %
and waged work 15 %. A number of non timber forest
products (NTFP) are also harvested by tribals. These pro-
vide 10 % of household income, the dominant species being
M. indica, B. lanzan, D. melanoxylon and S.oleosa which
contribute 39 %, 17 %, 12 %, and 7 % of this sector of
income, respectively. Income received from a particular fruit
related more to the local sale price than to the amount
collected or sold. Tribals of Mayurbhanj (Santal, Kolha)
earned significantly higher income from fruit than the other
indigenous communities studied.
Discussion
Orissa state, although located in the drier north eastern Ghat
region of India, boasts around 2,800 species of trees, shrubs,
climbers and herbs (Saxena and Brahmam 1994–96). No
wonder therefore that an array of fruit plants is available
from forests in the districts surveyed. In fact, the authors
have recorded ethno-botanical information relating to wild
fruit edibility in respect of 150 plants (mainly trees and
shrubs) from Orissa and adjoining states (Mahapatra and
Panda 2009). This brings to the fore the wealth of bio-
resources in the dry-deciduous vegetation of eastern India,
which is comparable to the evergreen and moist deciduous
zone of the Himalayan and Western Ghat region, areas
considered rich in indigenous fruits (Sundriyal and
Sundriyal 2001; Rashid et al. 2008; Rawat et al. 1994).
Evidence has mounted as to the diversity of wild foods
and varieties of uses of vegetation by indigenous communi-
ties worldwide (Kuhnlein et al. 2009; Rathore 2009). This
investigation has proved to be no exception in which forest
fruits of 56 species belonging to 40 genera and 26 families
were found to be consumed by local tribals. This is a
substantial number and comparable to those documented
from other Indian states, e.g. Tripura (Sankaran et al.
2006), Maharashtra (Deshmukh and Shinde 2010), Western
Himalayas (Parmar and Kaushal 1982), Western Ghat of
Tamil Nadu (Arinathan et al. 2007), Andhra Pradesh (Reddy
et al. 2007a,b) and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands (Singh
et al. 2001). The fact that such varieties of woodland fruits
are used for consumption and sale indicates the extent of
traditional ecological knowledge of the tribal communities
living in the region. Further, a number of fruit plants in
Orissa have many uses as is the case with many wild edible
plants (Shrestha and Dhillon 2006; Pastor and Gustavo
2007). Surprisingly, there is no evidence that many of the
wild fruits considered edible in the study area are consumed
A.K. Mahapatra, P.C. Panda
by inhabitants of other deciduous forest regions in India.
Thus this knowledge could be exclusive to Orissa tribals
who are ethnically different from communities inhabiting
other parts of India. Forest fringe dwellers, in particular,
possess good knowledge of wild fruit species, including
their time of fruiting and ripening, which varies across
localities and species. Moreover, the spread of indigenous
knowledge is influenced by gender, social role and age
(Bharucha and Pretty 2010). In conformity with results of
other studies (Shrestha and Dhillon 2006) women in Orissa
have a stronger association with the use wild fruit than men.
A number of fruits have similar uses across communities
in Orissa, probably as the result of knowledge transfer
between communities through trade and increased mobility.
However, 16 species were identified as being district spe-
cific as far as household uses are concerned. For instance,
mature inflorescence of Neonauclea cadamba and figs of
Ficus benghalensis are eaten only by people of Sambalpur
district, whereas gathering of seed of Xylia xylocarpa is
restricted to tribals of Koraput District.
Uses of wild plants significantly contribute to the food and
nutritional security of the poor whether it is in India (Singh
and Arora 1978), the Bolivian Amazon (Victoria et al. 2006)
or Africa (Lockett et al. 2000). The importance of understand-
ing current trends for wild foods is underscored by the recog-
nition that food insecurity is a problem among indigenous
populations of some areas (Ford and Berrang-Ford 2009).
Tribals of Orissa are either landless or own rain-fed marginal
land, which is unproductive and produces insufficient grain
for family needs. As a result, indigenous communities and
rural poor depend on wild plants to supplement their diet
(Sundriyal and Sundriyal 2001). Poor tribal households in
Orissa consume several wild tubers e.g. those of Dioscorea
spp., Amorphophalus spp., Arisaema tortuosum, Costus
specious, Pueraria tuberosa, Alocasia spp., Asparagus race-
mosus and other species (Mishra et al. 2009; Sinha and Lakra
2005) and leafy vegetables such as Bauhinia spp., Tamarindus
indica, Commelina spp., Ipomoea spp., Amaranthus spp.,
Eclipta prostrata, Antidesma acidum, Polygonum spp., Leu-
cas spp., Celosia argentea, Mollugo spp., Diplazium esculen-
tum, Marsilea quadrifida and Alternanthera spp. (Pal and
Banerjee 1971; Sinha and Lakra 2005). These are gathered
from fallows and forest fringe wastelands in order to tide them
over lean periods.
The results of this study support the significance of wild
edibles in the food security of poor rural communities by listing
the gathering, processing and uses of 56 wild edible fruits in
different parts of Orissa state. While a range of species are
palatable and liked by all, several others are acidic (Antidesma
acidum, Grewia asiatica, Limonia acidissima, Protium serra-
tum) or mucilaginous or gummy (Cordia dichotoma, Dillenia
pentagyna) or have a bitter taste (Bridelia retusa, Syzigium
cerasoides). They are, nevertheless, consumed in times of
Significance of wild edible fruits for tribals of Eastern India
distress. Dried mango kernel has become a staple famine food
in many tribal households, although it is devoid of dietary
value, highlighting the significance of wild edibles for tribal
households.
Contrary to the findings of Harris and Mohammed (2003)
there is a clear distinction between fruits that are common
and popular e.g. those of Aegle marmelos, Diospyros mela-
noxylon, Buchanania lanzan, Syzigium cumini) and those
regarded as distress or famine fruits e.g. those of Ficus spp.,
Neonauclea cadamba and Xylia xylocarpa. M. indica is the
most widely and frequently collected species and has many
uses. While the flowers are used for making cake and liquor
(Mahuli), oil is extracted from ripe fruits and ground seed.
A. marmelos and P. emblica are important natural resources
for forest dependent tribals as their fruits are both nutrition-
ally rich and have medicinal properties. Several wild fruits,
such as those from Diospyros melanoxylon (Tendu), Arto-
carpus lacucha (Jeuta), Manilkara hexandra, Flacourtia
indica, Ericybe paniculata, and Eugenia rothii are very
nutritious but the amount collected from forests is small
and villagers make no effort to domesticate them. Respond-
ents cited the small size of farm holdings, the unprofitability
of perennials and lack of their silvicultural knowledge as the
main impediments. One measure of the affinity of tribals
with fruit trees is that some, such as Mangifera indica (wild
mango), M. indica (mahua) and S. oleosa (kusum) are
spared the axe when woodlands are converted to farms or
slash and burn cropping is practised.
The majority of households stated that fruit consumption
was sporadic, and except for the four or five most prized
fruits or seed, most are collected as a result of chance
encounter by people in the forests for other purposes such
as graziers and collectors of firewood and NTFP.
Despite their diversity, the proportion of wild fruits in the
family diet is low and mostly used to tide people over crises.
Annual household consumption of Orissan tribals is estimated
to be 73 kg per households (14 kg per capita per year) com-
pared with 37.4 kg per capita per year for sub-Saharan Africa
(Ruel et al. 2005) and 104 kg per household in South Africa
(Shackleton and Shackleton 2004). Although wild fruits and
berries are by no means alternatives to domesticated food
crops, they are often the only source of fruits for the tribals
as they have neither the tradition nor the financial ability to buy
cultivated fruits such as apples, oranges or grapes.
On account of low returns from agriculture and lack of
other economic opportunities, households engage idle fam-
ily members, mostly women, in the extraction of natural
products from wild fruits for sustenance. Sale of wild fruits
in tribal eastern India takes place on a small scale and
supports livelihoods by way of income diversification. In
the study region, non timber products, including fruits from
forests and village commons realizes a quarter of family
income. Trading of wild fruits is mainly to meet the local
231
requirements, but some such as Annacardium occidentale
(cashew), Buchanania lanzan (char), M. indica (mahua) and
S. oleosa (kusum) have extended marketing chains and are
exported out of the district to other markets in India. On
average, tribal households of Orissa who trade in indigenous
fruits receive 15 % of gross family income by selling fruits.
Similar findings were reported from a South African village
by Dovie et al. (2002).
Collection and diversity of uses are higher in Koraput and
Kondhamal than the other three districts, but the tribals of
Mayurbhanj and Sambalpur sell more fruit. This is because
better road accessibility allows development of markets
where forest products in these districts can be sold. As
expected, variation in household income is apparent be-
tween villages and districts.
The contribution of natural products to household income
varies across landscapes and localities ranging from as low as
12 % (Kamnga et al. 2009) to as high as 50 % (Narendran et
al. 2001). On the basis of household information, we made a
conservative estimate on production of 20 common forest
fruits and calculated its gross value to be INR 98 million
(USD 1.9 m) annually for Orissa state alone. This could be
lower than the actual value as the total volume of trade could
be more correctly assessed through state wide market surveys
for supplementing the farm gate information obtained by the
authors’ survey. Substantial income coming from sale of nat-
ural products including wild fruits demonstrate the importance
of biodiversity to livelihoods of tribals in the study area.
As indigenous fruit species are components of the mixed
deciduous ecosystem, their distribution is scattered and their
density is low, varying from 10 to 15 species ha−1. The per
capita fruit consumption in absolute term may be low, but it
makes the tribal food basket diverse and nutritious. Limited
spread of indigenous knowledge, high dependence on cere-
als, modern agriculture and low incidence of palatable spe-
cies contribute to low consumption of wild food plants by
rural communities (Asfaw and Tadesse 2001; Pauline and
Linus 2004). Short storage life and pest infestation are the
common impediments to more intense use cited by respond-
ents. Although there are no taboos for gathering wild fruits
in the study area, apart from spurning some as famine foods,
it is the upper caste and better-off farmers who gather
firewood and NTFPs, and usually the poorer sections of
the communities and tribals who consume wild fruits.
Improving farm productivity on marginal land by using
high-yielding hybrid seeds, farm machinery or other inputs,
obtained through massive subsidies, has achieved limited
success in tribal dominated districts of India. In subsistence
farming regions, wild fruit cultivation in farm-forestry or
agro-forestry systems could be a cheaper option for dry
lands. However, limited production from natural sources
does not make forest fruits a suitable agricultural commod-
ity for commercialization. Moreover, the mere knowledge of
232
fruit uses would not necessarily lead to domestication. The
economic viability of planting fruit species would need to be
demonstrated and sources of planting material ensured by
agriculture and forestry extension activities. Domestication
has the attractive possibility of integrating both resource
conservation and development. For example, domesticated
wild fruit species could be grown on village wasteland and
degraded forest areas, or community land promoted under
the community forestry program in India. With increased
areas under indigenous fruit plantations, collection in a
given locality could attain the commercially tradable vol-
umes essential for marketing the products A strategy to
promote commercial production in order to boost the local
economy would depend not only on increasing the volume
of production, but with initiating processing and value ad-
dition for raw fruits—imperative for creating market niches for
selected species. A database on availability of different species
of wild fruiting species and their uses should be compiled to
aid such developments of poor tribal areas. Wild food sources
have significant potential for supporting livelihood and sur-
vival strategies for millions of tribals and forest dwellers
inhabiting the central, eastern forested regions of India.
Acknowledgement We are grateful to the respondents for sharing
their wisdom to enrich our understanding of nature. Our thanks to Sri P.
K. Acharya, Research Associate, Regional Plant Resource Centre for
assistance in data analysis and Sri S. P. Panda and Sri P. K. Nayak,
Research Fellows for data collection.
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234
Ajay Kumar Mahapatra re-
ceived his M.Sc from Utkal Uni-
versity and AIFC Diploma in
Forestry from the Indian Forest
College, Dehradun and his PhD
in natural resources economics
from the University of Aber-
deen, UK in 1997 as a Common-
wealth Scholar. He has taught
forestry and environmental sci-
ence in the UK and at Universi-
ties in Orissa as a guest member
of faculty. His research interests
include biodiversity conserva-
tion, ecological analysis and pro-
specting. He has authored 23 research papers and 2 books and was the
recipient of the ICFRE research excellence award in 1999 for outstand-
ing research in forest extension. In 2007, he received India Endeavour
Executive Award from the Department of Science and Education of the
Australian Government. Currently, he works as Director of the Re-
gional Plant Resource Center at Bhubaneswar, India.
A.K. Mahapatra, P.C. Panda
Pratap Chandra Panda
obtained his M. Sc. and Ph.
D. degrees in Botany from
Utkal University, with speciali-
sation in plant taxonomy. He is
working on flora and quantita-
tive assessment of plant resour-
ces of Eastern Ghats,
conservation biology, ex situ
conservation of rare and endan-
gered plants, molecular taxono-
my, systematics of legumes and
cacti, ethnobotany, medicinal
plants of Orissa and under-
utilised wild plant species. He
has described 72 new cultivars of cacti, made many new combina-
tions and reported occurrences of several species as new distribu-
tional records for India, Eastern India and Orissa. To his credit, he
has over 75 research publications in scientific journals of repute. At
present, he is working as a Senior Scientist in the Regional Plant
Resource Centre, Bhubaneswar.