3.

4 STORAGE SUBSYSTEM DESIGN

(LIQUID COLLECTORS)

Unlike conventional heating systems, thermal energy generation of a

solar energy system does not always match energy demands when
considering time and rate of use. A thermal storage subsystem is
required to store the excess generated energy until it is needed. Ideally,
the storage capacity should be sufficient to store any excess energy at
temperatures most beneficial to both energy collection and energy
usage. Design considerations include the following:

Storage tank design

Storage subsystem piping design

Storage subsystem cornponent requirements

Design drawings and construction requirements

Design reviews. $
-%$

%&

3.4.1 Storage Tank Design Thermal storage subsystems provide interfaces between collector
subsystems that generate thermal energy and energy-using systems,
whether service hot water or space heating. Thermal storage is required
for solar energy systems because time and rate of energy generation do
not always coincide with energy needs.

For liquid collector solar hot water heating systems, thermal storage is
solar-heated water contained in a tank of common material and configu-
ration. Sensible heat energy in the contained water is the storage heat
sink and usable energy source. Whether for sewice hot water or space
heating, storage tank size should just be sufficient to store excess
thermal energy that can be generated, without allowing the stored water
temperature to increase above 200°F (93.3OC).When energy use is
matched to energy generation, e.g., high daytime load 6 or 7 days per
week, minimal storage capacities may be adequate. Whenever the
match is poor, e.g., only high nighttime loads 5 days per week, greater
storage capacities are required. For a given system, a larger overall
storage capacity may improve thermal efficiency.

Studies of service hot water load profiles versus storage tank size of
large SFBP solar energy systems show that cost-effective storage siz
range from 0.5 to 2 gal/ft2(20.4 to 81-6VM) of gross collector array
area. Based on the results of these studies, Table 3-7 should be used t
estimate the minimum storage size required for three basic service hot
water load profiles. For load profiles that fall between or beyond these
examples, the A/E may interpolate to get the recommended minimum
storage. I the NE is not sure of the load profile, a value of 1.0 gal/ft2
(40.8 Urn2)or greater should be selected.
 -
Section 3 Detailed Design Storage Subsystem Design(L/C) - Page 3-61
I
Table 317. Service Hot Water Load Profile versus
Economic Storage Tank Size

Load Profile Minimum Storage Size

7 daysfweek constant daytime load 0.5 to 0.7 gaWt2of array area

(20.4 to 28.6 Urn2)

5 days/week constant daytime load, 1.0 gal/ft2of array area

no weekend load (40.8 Urn2)

constant nighttime load' 1.75 to 2.0 gal/ft2of array area

(71.4 to 81.6 Urn2)

* For 5 dayslweek use high end of range; for 7 dayslweek use low end
of range.

For space heating applications, 1 gal#ft2(40.8 Um2)of array area should

be adequate. When supplemental service water heating is added to a
solar space heating system, as illustrated by Figures 3-9,3-11, and 3-13,
a preheat tank is required. This preheat tank should be no larger than
the existing hot water tank.

Solar storage tanks should be designed for installation in mechanical

equipment rooms. Outdoor or underground locations are not recom-
mended.

The preferred solar storage vessel is a vertical cylindrical tank with

height-to-diameter ratio as large as practical. Hof water connections are
made at the top and cold water connections at or near the bottom. If the
space available cannot accommodate a single vertical cylindrical tank of
required volume, multiple vertical tanks connected in sehes or a single,
large horizontal cylindrical tank may be used.

Solar storage tanks must be designed for maximum system pressures

3.4.2 Piping Design
and temperatures. If storage tanks are connected directly or through
pressure-reducingvalves to facility supply water, the tanks must be
designed for the maximum pressure of the supply water source, which
may be as high as 150 psi. Most local codes require tanks that operate
above 15 psig (103 kPa) to be designed, built, and stamped per ASME
B&PV Code, Section VIII.
The guidelines provided in Section 3.3.2 for collector loop piping designs
are applicable to storage loop piping except as noted below.

Flow rates and pipe sizes for storage loops are determined based on the
interfaces with collectors and load loops. If heat exchangers are used
between collectors and storage loops, storage side flow rates are deter-
mined as follows:

Solar Design Manual


3.4.3 Storage Subsystem
Component Requirements
3.4.3.1 Storage Tank
Piping Connections
Solar Design Manual
(F)(PI
@,,J, - 2 (135)(F)@)(cJmlldo, ,,
where F - flow rate, gallons per minute (Us)
P,
- fluid density
- fluid specific heat
?05 = factor ensures that heat transfer through
exchanger will not be limited by storage I
heat removal rate.
als, dielectric insulators are required at the interfaces to prevent galva
corrosion.
If piping and storage tank materials are different, dielectric insulators a
required at these interfaces also. 2%
This section discusses the basis for selecting various components of
storage subsystems. After the A/E has selected the significant featur
and capabilities of a component and used these factors in the physic
design and performance analyses, these features and capabilities mu
be defined and conveyed as requirements to the installer. The recom
mended method for specifying these requirements is to prepare a
component specification sheet. Sample component specification sheet
are included in Section 4.3.3 of this manual.
Sizing of storage tanks was discussed in Section 3.4.1.
Solar storage tank drawings are normally required in order to specify th
detailed storage tank requirements. These drawings must show overal
configuration with dimensions, size, and locations of piping nozzles,
manholes, details of mounting or supporting bases or structures, and
sire and location of nozzles for controls and instrumentation sensors.
Provisions for installing visual indicators of tank water level (sight g
must be included on combined drainbacklstorage tanks. Spare pip
nozzles and sensor attachments/ mountings should be provided for
future piping and instrumentation modifications.
Tanks filled with untreated water or containing air space above the
waterline must be coated or lined to prevent corrosion. Because of lar
sizes required, glass lining of solar storage tanks is usually not possibl
Epoxy-type coatings are generally less expensive than stone (cement
coatings, but stone coatings have a better service life. Both epoxy a
stone coatings must be applied by qualified personnel in a shop in
accordance with procedures provided by material suppliers. Efforts to
apply these coatings in the field are generally unsuccessful and shou
not be attempted. Tanks completely filled with corrosion-inhibitedwa
do not require protective coatings.
Piping connections to a vertical tank should have both hot inlet and ou
at the top, and both cold inlet and outlet at the bottom. This arrangem
promotes thermal stratification within the tank and delivers the hottest
available water to the load and coldest available water to the collectors
 -
Section 3 ~ e t a i l e dDesign
3.4.3.2 Heat Exchangers
Storage Subsystem Design(L/C) - Page 3-63
increase collector efficiency. A horizontal diffuser may be installed on
the hot inlet to help stratification.
With a horizontal tank, the hot connections should be at either end of the
top, as widely separated as possible, and the cold connections similarly
separated at the bottom. The hot inlet and cold outlet must be at oppo-
site ends of the tank (See Figures 3.1 and 3.2). This arrangement
provides crossflow within the tank and uses all of the tank's volume for
storing solar energy (Other pipe nozzle locations will short-circuit part of
the tank volume at the ends and reduce the tank's effective storage
volume). Thermal stratification is not as pronounced in a horizontal tank
as in a vertical tank although some stratification will develop when both
collector and load loops are operating as the hot return water from the
collectors moves across the top of the tank to the outlet.
An alternative tank connection arrangement may be considered that
involves the use of a single hot inlet/outlet at the top and a single cold
inletloutlet at the bottom that are located at opposite ends of a horizontal
tank. This arrangement is effective with a daytime load and increases
collector efficiency when cold makeup water is drawn directly to the
collectors without mixing in the storage tank. At the top of the tank, the
collector outlet goes directly to the load. The thermal averaging effect of
flowing through the storage tank is limited. However, in a horizontal tank,
tank ends are short-circuited and the subsequent loss of storage effi-
ciency must be considered with nighttime loads where storage is impor-
tant. b
Specification requirements for thermal storage tanks include, but are not
limited to, those listed in Section 4.3.3. Engineering judgment should be
used to determine any inputs or parameters not discussed. Specification
requirements should be shown on tank drawings.
Most service water heating systems require heat exchangers to transfer
thermal energy from collector subsystem loops to solar storage loops.
The exceptions are direct water recirculation systems and drainback
systems with combined drainbackkolar storage tanks used onfy for
space heating. All heat exchangers impose some penalty on solar
energy system performance.
Heat exchangers can be classified as single-loop or two-loop. Single-
loop (in-tank) heat exchangers have coils or tube bundles immersed
within tanks. Heat transfer from fluid in the in-tank coils to the water
within the tanks is highly dependent on the flow of water across the coils
within the tanks. Single-loop (in-tank) heat exchangers are not recom-
mended. For a discussion of in-tank heat exchangers, see Appendix 3A.
There are two basic types of two-loop heat exchangers available for
large solar energy system applications: multiplate (plate and frame) and
shell-and-tube. The first type can be piped to achieve true counterfiow
between hot and cold fluids. Partial counterflow can be achieved with
shell-and-tube heat exchangers. Very high effectiveness values of 0.80
or higher, defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer to the theoretical
maximum, as illustrated by Figure 3-27, can be achieved with multiplate
heat exchangers. The practical effectiveness limit of most shell-and-tube
type heat exchangers is 0.60; 0.80 effectivenessvalues can be achieved
Section Detailed
with a given shell-and-tube heat exchanger only by a 3-factor increas
cold side flow rate compared to the hot side flow rate (C,,,
as illustrated by Figure 3-28, which significantly increases a L V l ~ y ,wv
-

capital costs and pumping power requirements.

Muhiplate heat exchangers are ideal for commercial-sized solar energ

systems because of their high effectiveness. They are also very com-
pact for the heat transfer rate required and require no thermal insulati
Heat loss areas are essentially limited to the thin exposed edges of
multiple plates. For solar application, these plates are manufactured
from stainless steel. If necessary, heat transfer areas can be easily
increased by adding plates to existing frames at n,. ,.. rw. wwl..

For heat exchangers between the collector and storage bops, the
, ;.:;
following must be specified for the manufacturer to a d e q ~ ~ k ;&I
heat exchanger:

Storage side flow rate

Temperature of storage side inlet to heat exchanger

w Collector side flow rate

Temperature of collector side inlet to heat exchanger

Collector side fluid parameters (p and cJ

0
Storage side fluid parameters (p and 3
Required heat transfer rate

I 0 Fouling factor.

The following procedure should be used to determine the heat exchang

requirements in collector loops:

1. Select desired effectiveness. Use a value of 0.5 to 0.6

for shell-and-tube exchangen and a minimum value of
0.7 for multiplate exchangers.

2. Determine density, viscosity, and thermal conductivity o

both fluids at average operating fluid temperatures.

3. Determine average inlet temperature, T , ,, to the heat

exchanger. This is the temperature of the water from t
storage tank. If no value is available from either simula
tions or the basic design of the system, 110°F (43.3%)
may be used. This is not a critical value; it only affects
actual operating temperatures specified, not heat
exchanger temperature differences.

4. Calculate peak rate of thermal energy generated by

collector loop, Q, [Btulhr (W)]. If this is not known fro
simulations, it may be estimated by the following
I eauation:
/Heat ~ranefer
Surface

No. of Transfer Units, NTU,,, = AU/Ch

Figure 3-27. Counterllow Exchanger Performance

No. of Transfer Units, NTU,,, = AUK*

Figure 3-28. Parallel Counterfiow Exchanger Performance

1
Q,=I,xA,x~,
where:

,I
- maximum insolation in the plan
collectors, Btulh~ft2 (W/m2)
A,
- collector array area, ft2 (m2)
%
- collector array efficiency at th
operating- point
- (from collecto

5. Calculate collector loop capacitance rate, C, [B

(kWt0C)]. This may be calculated by:

I-P Units: r -.

8.021 = conversion factor

v.n - collector loop flow rate (gpm)
ph =
density of the collector loop fluid (Iblft3):
c, = specif~cheat of the collector loop fluid q1

SI Units:
Ch= 0.001 X VhX Ph Cph
where:

0.001 = conversion factor

v, - collector loop flaw rate (Us)
density of the collector loop fluid
specifc heat of the collector loop

All fluid properties should be evaluated at the ave

collector loop operating temperature.

6. Calculate the storage loop capacitance rate,

C, [Btu/hrm°F (kWIoC)]. The storage loop capacitan
rate should be 5 to 1OoA higher than collector loop
capacitance rate (C,) for properly designed system

This may be calculated by:

I-P Units:
cc= 8.021 x V, x p, x c,
where:

8.021 = conversion factor

vc
- storage loop flow rate (gpm)
- density of the storage loop fluid (ib/
PC

cPc
- specific heat of the storage loop flu
(Btu/lbe°F)
S1 Units:
C, = 0.001 x v, x p, x ,c
where:

0.001 = conversion factor

vc - storage loop flow rate (Us)
PC = density of the storage loop fluid (kg/m3)
C~ = specif~cheat of the storage loop fluid
fkJ/(kg*"C)]

All fluid properties should be evaluated at the average

storage loop operating temperature.

Calculate hot inlet temperature to the heat exchanger,

T,,. This is computed from:

where: e = the heat exchanger effectiveness.

Calculate remaining temperatures, T , and Th,o. These

are calculated from the definition of effectiveness.

Determine fouling factors. A fouling factor should be

specified to account for increased resistance to heat
transfer caused by deposits from working fluids. Care
should be taken not to specify too large a fouling factor
since this will result in an oversized heat exchanger.
Plate heat exchangers normally require lower fouling
factors because of highly turbulent fluid flows. The fluid
that causes the most fouling, usually the storage side
fluid, should be placed on the tube side of the shell-and-
tube heat exchanger since this side is most easily
cleaned. Typical touling factor values for rnultiplate and
tube-and-shell heat exchangers are listed in Tables 3-8
and 3-9.
 -
Table 3-9. Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger Fouling Factors (I-P Units h fC2 FIBtu)

Temperature of Heating Medium Up to 240°F 240 to 400°F

Temperature of Water 125OF or less Over 125°F'

Water Veloclty (ftlsec) Water Velocity (Wsec)

Types of Water

3 and Less Over 3

Cooling tower and artificial spray pond:

Treated makeup
Untreated
City or well water (such as Great Lakes)**.OOl
Distilled or closed cycle condensate
Treated boiler feedwater

be modified accordingly.
-
'* 50 100 ppm TDS
 -
Section 3 Detailed Design Storage Subsystem Design(L/C) - Page 3-69

Table 3-QA. Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger Foulhg Factors (SI Unlts - m2 OCNV)

Temperature of Heating Medium Up to 115% 115 to 204OC

Temperature of Water 52°C or less Over 52OC*

Water Velocity (mk) Water Veloclty (mls)

Types of Water

0.9 and Less Over 0.9 0.9 and Less Over 0.9

Cooling tower and artificial spray pond:

Treated makeup .OOO 176 .000176 .000352 .000352
Untreated ,000528 .000528 .000088 .000704
City or well water (such as Great Lakes)** .QOO176 ,000176 ,000352 .000352
Distilled or closed cycle condensate .000088 .000088 .000088 .000088
Treated boiler feedwater ,000176 ,000088 .000176 .000176
Boiler blowdown .(I00352 ,000352 ,000352 ,000352

'Ratings in columns 3 and 4 are based on a temperature of the heating medium of 115 to 204°C. If the
heating medium temperature is over 20CC and the cooling medium is known to scale,these ratings should
be modified accordingly.
-
** 50 100 ppm TDS

Additional parameters that must be specified include:

Insulation requirements (for shell-and-tube heat

exchangers)

Allowable pressure drops and maximum pressure of

both sides
. Maximum fluid temperatures

Types of fluids used, including pH

Maintenance required

Overall space limitations for the heat exchanger and its

servicing (including tube cleaning)

Heat exchanger material, including gasket material.

Heat exchanger manufacturers may provide computer programs that will

help size the heat exchanger, given these input parameters.

Specification requirements for heat exchangers include, but are not

limited to, those listed in Section 4.3.3.Engineering judgment should be
used to detemine values or inputs for parameters not discussed.
 -
Section 3 Detailed Design Storage Subsystem Design(L/C) -Page 3-70
3.4.3.3 Pumps Solar storage subsystems require a pump in each separate circuit to
circulate heat transfer fluid. Pumps are typically required for each of the
iollowing circuits: (1) heat exchanger to storage, (2) storage to space
heating system, and (3) storage to service hot water preheat tank or heat
exchanger. Pumps are selected for their specific task in the circulation
system, according to required flow rate, system pressure head, and
power consumption. The head will depend on whether the pump is to
operate in an open or closed fluid circuit, on the type of liquid (either
water or antifreeze solution), on pipe lengths and diameter, and on heat
exchangers and other resistances in the piping circuit. Pumps should be
selected using the same criteria discussed in Section 3.3.3.4. Selection
of pump materials, as discussed in Section 3.3.3.4, should be based on
water treatment and whether the storage water must be potable. All
other considerations are the same as collector subsystem pumps.

3.4.3.4 Piping Specialties
Special attention must be paid to proper selection and location of valves
in solar storage subsystems. Careful selection is required because not
only are system efficiency and performance affected, but safety to equip-
ment and personnel is essential. Valves on each piping loop should fulfill
the requirements shown on the P&ID for that loop.

Specification requirements for various types of valves used in storage

subsystem designs and for pressureftemperature ports include, but are
not limited to, those shown in Section 4.3.3. Engineering judgment
should be used to determine any inputs or parameters not discussed.

Isolation Valves (See Section 3.3.3.7 on isolation valves.)

(Shutoff Valves)

Pressure Relief Valves Pressure relief valves are required on all pressurized tanks operating
above 15 psig (103 kPa). The set pressure should be -1 25% of operat-
ing pressure but must not exceed the tank design pressure. Refer to
Section 3.3.3.7on pressure relief valves for additional requirements.

Combination Temperature
and Pressure Relief Valves
Temperature and pressure relief valves are similar to pressure relief
valves, but contain a temperature-sensing element at the valve inlet that
extends into the pipe fitting or top of storage tank. Valve limits are
usually set at 125 psig (862 kPa gauge) and 210°F (98.g°C); ratings
should be listed on the valve. Discharge from temperature and pressure
relief valves should be connected to a drain to prevent unexpected
discharge from scalding occupants or service personnel. Other require-
ments are the same as those for pressure relief valves listed in Section
3.3.3.7.

Check Valves (See Section 3.3.3.7on check valves.)

Drain Valves (See Section 3.3.3.7 on drain valves.)

Backflow Preventers Backflow preventers are a special type of check valve to prevent con-
tamination of supply water. They must be used to separate nonpotable
water from the water supply source.

Pressure-Reducing Valves Pressure-reducingvalves are used to reduce incoming city water pres-
(Pressure Regulators) sure and prevent damage to system components. These valves are
usually installed when incoming pressure is greater than working pres-
 -
Section 3 ~ e t d l e Desian
d Storage Subsystem Design(L/C) -Page 3-71
sure of any component. A pressure-reducing valve should be preceded
by a strainer assembly and followed by a pressure relief valve.

Tempering Valves Tempering valves automatically regulate temperatures of delivered water

if source water is hotter than set temperatures. To do this, tempering
valves mix colder water with hot water. Valves should be installed at hot
water outlets from water heater tanks at point of distributionto loads.

3.4.3.5lnsulation On solar space heating and service hot water systems, insulation must
be provided on preheat tanks, storage tanks, and heat exchangers and
piping that interconnect components where heat loss may occur. Insula-
tion must be suitable for the particular application and location, including
protection from environmental degradation, ultraviolet radiation, and
weather on outdoor insulation. The physical stability of insulation is also
important in avoiding sagging, pulling away from components, and
opening up at seams.

Note: The manufacturer's nameplate must be visible or readily acces-

sible after the component has been insulated.

lnsulation Materials and (See Section 3.3.3.8.)

Selection Criteria

Piping lnsulation (See Section 3.3.3.8.)

Requirements

Heat Exchanger and Storage Multiplate heat exchangers used for solar energy systems normally do
Tank lnsulation Requirements not require any insulation because heat losses are minimal. If desired,
only end frames need insulation.

Shell-and-tube heat exchangers and solar storage tanks require insula-

tion on shell surfaces and also on the tank support structures. Shell
sections should be insulated to provide an equivalent of R-12 to R-16
ft2ahmoF/Btu(2.1 to 2.8 m2m0C/W). This is 3 to 4 in. (76 to 102 mm) of
insulation having a k = 0.25 Btumin./h.ft2.OF [0.036W/(rne°C)]. The sim-
plest method is to spray tanks with rigid closed-cell-typeinsulation, coat
surfaces with sealing cement, and add weather protection. Storage tank
manhole covers and nameplate should have removable insulation. The
difficult areas to insulate are the shell structural supports. The best
method is to place rigid insulation between the tank shells and saddles of
the support structures. Approximately 4-in.-thick (102-mm-thick) hard-
wood blocks between the shell and saddle can provide an adequate
thermal break. In most cases, however, saddles are firmly attached to
the shells when the tanks are fabricated. If this occurs, the best solution
is to insert 1 to 2 in. (25 to 51 mm) of high-density insulation board be-
tween the support feet and foundation. Also, surfaces of all support
structures should be insulated the same as the shell.

Defining the lnsulatior Final piping loop and component installation drawings must clearly show
Requirements intended methods for achievement of insulation requirements. Graphic
details must be included on insulation drawings to illustrate recom-
mended methods to use to fulfill insulation requirements. Supplemental
information required by the installer to procure and apply proper insula-
tion materials to the piping and tanks must be included in the specifics-

Solar Design Manual

--

tions. Any requirements and procedures that differ from ordina

tices of insulation application must also be clearly defined in the s
cation.

Specification requirements for insulation include, but are not limi

those shown in Section 4.3.3. Engineering judgment should be
determine any inputs or parameters not discussed.

3.4.4 Design Drawings and Design drawings and construction requirements generated during t
Construction Requirements phase must physically define and indicate detail design, constructi
and installation requirements of storage subsystems. Require
applicable standards, codes, and practices should be cited wh
possible. The minimum information and details to be included in
documents are as follows:
Storage Tanks

- Overall configuration, details of nozzles, and

installation supports

- Operating pressure and temperature

- Tank material and lining

- Installation details

- Insulation requirements.
. Heat Exchangers

- Type and overall configuration

- Porting details

- Support details

- Performance requirements

- Design operational conditions

- lnstallation details

- Insulation requirements (if applicable).

Piping, Piping Materials, and Construction; Piping

Penetrations, Piping and Component Insulation;
Piping and Specialty ldentif ication

See Section 3.3.4 for requirements.

0
Pump Installation

See Section 3.3.4 for pump installation requirement

I s Storage Loop Checkout Procedures

See Section 3.3.4 for checkout procedure requirements.

Construction and installation requirements should be shown on the

various drawings, as applicable. Balance of requirements must be
included in appropriate sections of construction specifications described
in Section 4.3.2. Requirements for components to be procured must be
included in the specification worksheets in Section 4.3.3.

Preliminary design review should be conducted in accordance with

arocedures in Section 3.10 and using the appropriate checklists when
/ ihe following efforts have been completed:

I Thermal storage capacly calculation

I 0
Storage tank configuration

Heat exchanger type and selection requirements

l 0
Storage tank, pump, and heat exchanger location

Storage loop pipe routing

0
Preliminary selection of storage loop component
requirements
0
Sizing of storage loop piping and loop head loss
calculations
. Selection of required specialties and routing of storage-
to-load interface piping.

Any changes resultingfrom the preliminary design review should be

addressed and incorporated, as necessary, during completion of storage
subsystem design efforts.

Final system design reviews described in Section 3.10 should be per-

formed when all activities, including all analyses, are completed. This
review should be conducted in conjunction with the final design review of
collector subsystem and instrumentation and control subsystem.