Abbott-TeachYourselfCalculus Text PDF

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INTRODUCTION
Some fifty years ago an excellent little book was
published bearing the title, "The Calculus Made Easy."
The author adopted as Ids motto, " What one fool can do
another can," intending thereby to encourage a diffident
student. As the author, however, disclosed the fact that
he was a " Fellow of the Royal Society " it is doubtful
whether the words would bring much comfort to those
who were proposing to study the subject.
In those days the calculus was looked upon by many as
abstruse and lying beyond the boundaries of elementary
mathematics. But the increasing use of the subject in
engineering and science, and consequently the desirability
of bringing such a powerful mathematical instrument
within the reach of a wider circle of students, led to the
gradual simplification of its presentation.
The present volume is in the line of this development.
It aims at making it easier for the private student, who is
unable to obtain the guidance ana help of a teacher, to
acquire a working knowledge of the calculus. Like other
books in the series, it attempts, within the inevitable
limitations of space, to provide something of the presenta-
tion and illustrations employed by a teacher of the subject,
especially in the earlier stages when the student is trying
to discover what it is all about.
Those who propose to use the book will naturally want
to know what previous knowledge of other branches of
mathematics are necessary. It is assumed that the readers
possess an elementary knowledge of algebra, trigonometry
and the fundamental principles of geometry such as is
contained, for example, in the companion books on these
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED subjects in the same series. To assist the student, cross
references to the relevant parts of these books are given
S.B.N. 34° 5536 7 wherever they may be of assistance to him.
Limited
Perhaps the greatest difficulty in writing a book of this
Printed in Great Britain for the English Universities Press
character is to determine what to include and what to
by Richard Clay (The Chaucer Press) Limited, Bungay, Suffolk
,! INTRODUCTION
ramifications
omit The calculus is so wide and deep in its
applications, that the temptation is contmuaUy present
and
imposed by the avail- CONTENTS
to include much that the limitations
able space, make impossible. The author, therefore, has
what seems to him ClIAf.
been guided by the policy of including I. Functions
and encourage the student to
to be necessary to enable
subject or to utilise it Variations Functions Limits
proceed further in his study of the II. in
It was only
ui its application to science and engineering Ill Rate of Changs of a Function Gradients
lengthened by he
after hesitation that the book was
much
inclusion of the last three chapters
They were inserted IV Differential Coefficient Differentia
in the hope that they
would convey to the student some tion
calculus and lead him to
idea of the possibilities of the V. Some Rules for Differentiation
continue his study of
As
it.
far as possible the

" proofs
have been simplified and curtailed.

simplification they may frequently
of many of the
In consequence of
be lacking the
theorems
m
VI.
VII.
Inflexion
Differentiation
.....
Maxima and Minima Values.
op the
Points
Trigonometric
of
this
mathematical rigidity and exactitude which a^ Possible Functions
It is hoped, how-
in a larger and more ambitious volume. VIII. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
they will supply the student with a sufficiently
ever, that
of the subject. Hyperbolic Functions
logical basis for an intelligentM study IX. . . .
number of routine exercises have been

A considerable X. Integration. Standard Integrals
student urged to omit very^ few-oi .
included, and the is

give him a working know- XI. Some Elementary Methods of Integration
them They are necessary to
calculus and facility in the manipulation of it
ledge of the XII. Integration of Algebraic Fractions
book are
The majority ol the tables at the end of and Form^cu
this
taken "dm Mr Abbott's Mathematical

.
by courtesy of the publishers, Messrs.

00 Lt<L
TabUs
Longmans. Green «
XIII.
XIV.
Areas by
Integrals
Integration as
.....
Integral
a
Calculus.
Summation. Areas
Definite
•
P. ABBOTT
XV. The Lengths of Curves .
XVI. Solids op Revolution. Volumes and

Areas of Surfaces . .
XVII. Uses op Integration in Mechanics .
XVIII. Partial Differentiation .
XIX. Series. Taylor's and Maclaurin's Theo

rems
XX. Elementary Differential Equations
Standard and Useful Integrals
CHAPTER I
FUNCTIONS
I. What Is the calculus?
The word " calculus " is the Latin name for a stone which
was employed by the Romans for reckoning i.e., for " cal-
culation ". When used as in the title of this book, it is an
abbreviation for " Infinitesimal Calculus ", which implies a
reckoning, or calculation, with numbers which are infinitesi-
mally small. This, in all probability, will not convey much
to the beginner, and the real meaning of it will in many cases
not be understood until the student has made some head-
way with his study of the subject. The following example
may help to throw a little light on it.
Consider the growth of a small plant. In the ordinary
way we know that it grows gradually and continuously. If
it be examined after an interval of a few days, the growth
will be obvious and readily measured. But if it be observed
after an interval of a few minutes, although growth has
taken place the amount is too small to be distinguished. If
observation takes place after a still smaller interval of
time, say a few seconds, although no change can be detected,
we know that there has been growth, which, to use a mathe-
matical term, can be regarded as infiniteslmally small, or
infinitesimal.
The process of gradual and continuous growth or increase
may be observed in innumerable other instances, of which
the case of a living organism referred to above is but one.
What is of real importance in most cases is not necessarily
the actual amount of growth or increase, but the rate of
growth or Increase. It is this problem, closely connected
as it is with infinitesimal increases, that is the basis of the
Infinitesimal Calculus, and more especially that part
of it which is called the Differential Calculus. The
meaning of differential will be apparent later.
Historical Note. The calculus is the most powerful
mathematical invention of modern times. The credit for
its discovery has been claimed for both Sir Isaac Newton
9
TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS FUNCTIONS it
,„
mathematician, and a Again, in the formula for a falling body, viz.i
and Leibnitz, the great German
controversy raged for years in England and Germany I = Igt*
to invent it. Leibnitz was the first
as to who was the first in which s represents the distance fallen in time t,
1684. though his notebooks
to publish an account of it. in
first time.hi,1675. and are variables.
showed that he used the method for the
s t
book on the subject in 1693 bu he \ and g are constants.

Newton published his
It is
communicated his discovery of it to friends ui lb69.
that the fundamental basis of the 4. Dependent and Independent variables.
Eenerallv agreed now
the two mathe-
Invention was reached independently by It will be seen that in each of the above examples the
maticians. variables are of two kinds.

Thus in V=
frrr* if the radius (r) be increased or
2. Functions. decreased, the volume (V) will increase or decrease in
knowledge of Algebra, consequence.
The student will realise, from his plant i.e.. the variation of V depends upon the variation of r.
example cited above of the growth of a
us
that the
an instance of a functional relation. It
may be afiected by Similarly in s =
Jgt*. the distance (s) fallen depends on
sunlight, etc.. but « the time (/)
variations in temperature, moisture,
function of time. So, generally, it will be found that in all such formulae
these remain constant the growth Is a
although we are not able to express it in mathematical form. and mathematical expressions there are two kinds of
It is desirable, therefore,
that we should begin the study variables : dependent and Independent.
our ideas about the meaning ol a value depends upon the value
(1) That variable whose
of calculus by clarifying
fundamental in understanding the assigned to the other is called a dependent variable, as V
function, since this is
with
subject. The student will have become acquainted and s above.
" Algebra (Algebra. Chaps.
(2) The variable in which changes in value produce
the meaning of function" in his
below tor tne
XIII and XVIII), but a brief revision is given corresponding changes in the other is called the Independent
those who may not be quite clear on this very variable, as r and t in the above formula.
benefit of
important matter. In a general form of an expression of the second degree
such as
3. Variables and constants. = ax* + bx +
quantities y c
Of the letters and symbols used to represent represent constants, and the value of y depends
and
an algebraical expression or formula, some a, b c
or numbers in on the value of x. Consequently x is an independent
constants.
represent variable quantities, others represent The constants a. b.
variable, and y a dependent variable.
Thus in the formula for the volume of a sphere,
viz.
and c are used' to indicate the relation which exists between
K = f*r> the two variables.
represents the radius
where V represents the volume and r
5. Functions.
of the sphere,
spheres and are This connection between two variables viz. that the —
(1) V and r vary with different
value of one is dependent upon the value of the other is —
called variables. ,
expressed by the statement that the dependent variable Is
size ot tne
(2) « and t are constants whatever the a function of the Independent variable. When the variables
sphere.
.
FUNCTIONS
„ TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS 13
quantity is a function Thus in the equation of the straight line in general form
represent quantities we say that one
of the other. Thus in the examples above y = mx + b,
(1) The volume of a
sphere is a function of its radius. x and m and b are constants.
y are variables,
(2) distance moved by a falling body is a function
The When expressing functions of angles, the Greek letters
of time. 6 (theta) or 4> (P™) as well as x are often employed to
Hote.— For the use of the word " quantity "see ^ &'*?"• 5 £• represent the angle.
functional relation
Innumerable examples might be given of the
between quantities. Here are a few common
examples
7. General notation for functions.
of the number.
The logarithm of a number is a function function
The volume of a fixed mass of gas is a of the tern- When it is necessary to denote a function of x in general,
oerature while the pressure remains constant. without specifying the form of the function, the notation
P functions of the
The sines, cosines and tangents of angles are f(x) is employed. In this notation the letter " f " is used
"
a function of the length of the pendulum as being the first letter of " function ", while the letter " x
"fte time of beat is
force, is a
The range of a gun. with a constant propelling or other letter which might be employed indicates the
function of the angle of projection. independent variables. Thus /(0) would be a general
method of indicating a function of " 8 ".
Definition of a function. Other forms of this notation are F(x), <f>(x), >]<(*).
variable quantities )
two Y are so
Generally If
relaSTSat. whVnVy° value U assigned to

there Is thus X A statement such as /(x) = x — Ix + 8
1
determineda corresponding value

of Y. then Y Is termed or /(0) = sin' — cos* 6
a function of X. defines the specific function of the variable concerned.
This convenient notation is employed when it is desired
6. Expression of functions. to indicate that in a particular function, which has been
relations letters
When treating generally of functional defined, a numerical value Is to be substituted.
such as x and y are commonly employed to represent Thus if /(*) x1 =
4x — +
3, /(l) would stand for the
variable quantities. Thus, in the expression y = x + Jx numerical value of the function when " 1 " is substituted
if when any value be
assigned to x there is always a corre- for x.
expressed as a
sponding vllue of y, then y is said to be
function of*. Similar examples are; Thus /(I) =l*-(4 x 1) +3=0.
/(2) = 2* - (4 x 2) + 3 = — 1.
y = y/x* + 5 /(0) = - + 3 = 3.
y = log,** /(„) = a* - 4a + 3.
y = sin x + cos x. f(a + h) = (a + h)» - 4(a + h) + 3.
It is usual, when dealing
generally with functions in this
Again, if <^(0)=2sin8.
end of the alphabet to re-
way, to employ letters
present the variables;
Independent variable
at
when
the
x and
is
y are so employed
generally expressed
the
by x and the
0-= 2 sin s
2 sin = 0.
= 2.
de f
,4(0)
(0)
^r wnstLts, other than actual numbers letters at the :2sin^ = 2x^=V3.

usually selected.
beginning or middle of the alphabet are
—
FUNCTIONS
,4 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS *S
of f(x) is obtained. If these pairs of values of x and f(x)

8. Notation for Increases In functions. are plotted as shown in Algeora, § 108, a graphical repre-
If x be any variable, the
symbol 6x (sometimes Ax) is sentation of f{x) may be drawn.
increase in the value of x. A similar = =
used to denote an Consider the example of f(x) x*, or y x*.
variable. The symbol — — —
notation is employed for any other Assigning to x the values 0. 1, 2. 3, 0, 1, 2,
" 8 "
is the Greek small
*'
d ", and is pronounced delta — 3, ... we obtain the corresponding values of/(x*) ory.
Algebra, 6x does not
Contrary to the ordinary usage of =
general be Thus
mean ft x *). The letters should not in = l./(-l) =
Thus " «*" means " an Increment of x .
l
separated.
In accordance with the definition of a
function, if y be a i,
= 4./(-21=4
function of x. and if x be increased by 6x,
then y will be = 9./(-3)=9.
denoted
increased in consequence and its increment wdl be From these values we deduce the fact that /( a) has —
by6y. the same value as /(a). Hence the curve must be sym-
Accordingly, if y = /(*) metrical about the axis of y. It is a parabola (Algebra.
y+Sy=f(x+Sx) § 108), and is shown in Fig. 1. At the points on the

then
whence By = f(x + 6x) - f(x).
If for example y = x»
- 7x* + 8x
receive the increment
and x receives the increment 8*. y will
8y. Then
y + Sy = (x + 6x)» - 7(x + 8x)» + 8(X + fix).
Again, if s = ut + iff*
and I receive an increment St, then s will receive the incre-

ment 8s.
Then s 6s o(t +
8t) -
if(t M)». + + + •>< A.illlll (••IMIII > •, MIHtMllW 1
employed to denote incre- t HtfrH- W+* *.
Single letters are sometimes :::

; I i«J ;
. ; I
method. For example

ments instead of the above !:::! :::::!!!:! in ::::
::::::::::::::: ::::
IS. it'l
Let >=/(*)• t:::: :::::::::: :::. tT tfl '
'
T
corresponding t X ;;•;
Let x receive the increment h and k be the
increment of y.
gMp &
1
::::
tJljZ^
Is
t:|| H
3
Then y + k = f(* + (0 144-*-
::::
whence k = f(x + h) - f(x). iiii m i i :ii: HjJ- n r.-i I
9. Graphic representation of functions. Fig. I. Curve of /(*) — *».
Let be a function of x.
fix)
Then by the definition of a function (§ 5). for every
value x-axis where x =
1, 2, 3 ... the corresponding ordinates
value of /(*). I hus are drawn, the lengths of these represent /(l),/(2),/(3) . . .
assigned to x there is a corresponding
by giving a series of values to x a corresponding set of values and the ordinate drawn where x a, represents /(a). =
. : — :
,6 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS FUNCTIONS 17
In Fig. 2, which represents part of the curve of f(x) function of x. In the second x expressed in terms of
is
x* or y = x\ y —
that is, as a function of y. The two functions i.e.,
y =
%*, and * = Vy—
are called Inverse functions.
Similar examples will occur to the student, as for example
y = a*, then x = log„ y.
If y = sm x, x — sur l
y
1 1. Implicit functions.
If an equation such as
x* — 2xy — 3y = 4
can be by values of x and y, but * and y are
satisfied
together on the same side of the equation, i.e., y is not denned
directly in terms of x, y Is said to be an Implicit function
of x. In this particular case it is possible to solve for y in
terms of x, giving y = — „4 — ,
x*
» which is an explicit
function of y. But the

solution is not always possible.
Further examples of implicit functions are
Xs - 3x^y + 5y» - 7 =
xlogy +y' =4xy.
Fig. 2.
12. Functions of more than one variable.
points L and N are taken on OX, so that We have been dealing with quantities which are functions
OL = a, ON = b. of a single variable, but there arc also quantities which are
Drawing the corresponding ordinates KL, MN, functions of two or more variables.
For example, the area of a triangle is a function of both
then KL=J(a),MN=ftb). base and height; the volume of a fixed mass of gas is a
In general, if L be any point on OX so that OL x, let x = function of both pressure and temperature; the volume of
be increased by whereLN 8x. LN = a rectangular-shaped room is a function of three variables,
MPrepresents the corresponding increase in f[x) or y. the length, breadth and height of the room the resistance ;
of a wire to electrical current is a function of both the

Since KL=fx length of the wire and its sectional area.
MN =/ * + Sx). In this book, however, we shall confine ourselves in the
MP=J x + tx)-f{x)
Sx) main to functions of a single variable.
or 6y =/ x+Sxj - fw-
Exercise I.
10. Inverse functions.
Let y = x* ; then * = Vy- 1. If f{x) = 2x» — 4x + 1, find the values of
In the first equation y is expressed in terms of x and is a /(I). /(0). /(2), /(- 2), /(«), f(x + Sx).
:
18 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS

2. If /(*) = (* -
+ 5), find the values of
1)(*
/(2),/(U./(0)./(a + !),/©./(- 5).

CHAPTER II
3. If /(8) = cos 6, find the values of VARIATIONS IN FUNCTIONS. LIMITS

/©./(oi. /©,/(=)./(«). 13. Variations In functions.
= x*. find the values of

From the definition of a function we learn that when the
4. If f(x)
independent variable changes in value the function changes
/(3),/(3-l),/(3-01),/(3-001). its value in consequence. We
now proceed to examine in
Also find the value ot^^M. a few examples now the function changes.
consider its variations as the independent variable changes
shall We
5. If <j>{x) = 2*, find the values of ^(0), ^(1), ^(3), <f>(0-5).
through a range of numerical values. The graph of a
6. If F(x) = x* — 5x* — 3* + 7, find the values of function provides a revealing way of observing these
changes.
F{0). F(l), F(2). F(- x).
As our first example we will consider the familiar function
7. If f(t) = 3/* + 51 — 1, find an expression for/(/ + St).
8. If /(*) = ** + 2x + find an expression for

1, J(x) =x* or y = x*
/(x+Sx) -/(*). and refer to the graph as shown in Fig. 1. It shows within
= **, find expressions fori the limits of the values plotted how the function changes
9. If f(x)
as x changes. In the conventional way * Is represented as
(1) /(* + to).
Increasing through the complete number scale which is
(2) /(* + Sx) -f(x) marked on the x axis OX
(see Algebra. §§ 35, 36. 67). The
m /(* + »*)-/(*)
W Sx
values of the function x* are similarly shown on another
complete number scale on the y axis (OY).
10. If f(x) = 2X 1
,
find expressions fori Remembering that the values of x are shown as con-
+ h). tinously Increasing from left to right, we see, from examina-
(1) /(*
tion of the curve, that
(2)f(x+h)-/M.
«» /(* +_*) -/(*) (1) As x Increases continuously through negative
values to zero, values of y are positive and decrease
to zero, at the origin.
(2) As x Increases through positive values, y also
Increases and Is positive.
(3) At the origin y ceases to decrease and begins
to Increase. Tins is called a turning point on the
curve.
(4) If x be Increased without limit, y will also
Increase without limit. For values of x which are
negative, but numerically very great, y is also very great
and positive.
19
— — —
TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS VARIATIONS IN FUNCTIONS. LIMITS ai
=
—
above function becomes $ then by the converse of the
14. Variations In the function y -,
above reasoning, the result will be infinitely large.
These conclusions can be expressed as follows, using the
In considering this function we recall the effect on a
notation employed in Algebra (Algebra, § 201).
fraction of changes in the value of the denominator. It is
seen that if the numerator of a fraction remains constant: When x —> co ,
x
>•
(1) When the denominator Increases, the fraction

decreases.
(2) When the denominator decreases, the fraction
Increases.
It may be noted that the same conclusions will be reached
=- if the numerator is any finite number e.g., -.

Thus in the function y :
The above conclusions can be illustrated by drawing the

(1) If x is very large, say, 10 10 y is a very small
number.
,
graph of y = -
(2) x =If (IO

10 10
) y - 10 io)i
an exceedingly
(
small number.
These numbers, both very large and very small,are
numbers which can be specified in arithmetical form. They
are finite numbers. ,
increased so that it is
A
If, however, we conceive of x being
expressed
greater than any number which can be specified or
m arithmetical form, then we speak of it as being Increased
and
without limit. It is said to approach Infinity, is
expressed by the symbol co .
This is not a number with which we can operate. Multi-

plication or division of it by any finite number leaves it
still infinite. . ,
It is evident from the above reasoning that when x

becomes infinitely large the function -, which can now be
represented by ^, becomes an infinitely small magnitude,
smaller than any finite number which can be specified or

represented in arithmetical terms.
This is denoted by zero i.e., 0.
We must therefore in this connection conceive of zero, Tic. 3.
not as a number, but as an infinitely small magnitude.

Plotting the curve from the usual table of values, A Igebra,
Multiplication or division by any finite number does not
remains zero. § 173, we obtain the curve shown in Fig. 3.
alter it; it
the The curve is known as a hyperbola, and consists of two
If, however, a finite number be divided by zero e.g.,
—
M TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS VARIATIONS IN FUNCTIONS. LIMITS *3
branches of the same shape, corresponding to positive and both numerator and denominator become infinite when x
negative values of x. becomes infinite. The question then arises can any
Considering the positive branch, we note the graphical meaning be given to the fraction when it assumes the form
expression of the conclusions reached above.
- ? In this case a meaning can be found as follows.
(1) As x decreases and the curve
increases, y
approaches the x-axis. Clearly as x approaches infinity, Dividing both numerator and denominator by x
the distance between the curve and becomes OX
infinitely small and the curve approaches coincidence
with X
at an infinite distance. In geometrical terms 2
the x-axis is tangential to the curve at infinity. ['
(2) For values between and it will be noted that
I
1 +
the curve is approaching coincidence with OY at an
infinite distance i.e., the y-axis is also tangential to
If now then -• 0.
the curve at infinity. x
A straight line which meets a curve at an infinite distance, Consequently in the limit the fraction approaches . .
and thus tangential to the curve, is called an asymptote
to tlie
is
curve.
or 2, but clearly it cannot exceed this number — i.e.,
Thus the two axes are asymptotes to the curve y « -. —2x_ | approaches the limiting value 2 as x approaches
* + '
Infinity.
The arguments employed above apply equally to the 2x

Thus 2 is said to be the limit which - -r— approaches
branch of the curve corresponding to negative values of x.
Both axes are asymptotes to the curve in negative directions. as * approaches infinity ; it is called the limiting value, or
We may further note the following characteristics of the
the limit of the function.
function y = -. The following notation is employed to denote a " limit "
of a function;
Throughout the whole range of numerical values of x,
from — oo to + oo. y Is always decreasing. The sudden
change from — oo to -f oo as x passes through zero is a
matter for consideration later. The same feature occurs
The value towards which x approaches when a limit is
in the curve of y = tan x (Trigonometry, p. 160).
approached is indicated by x —
> oo placed beneath Lt. ,
15. Limits. The idea of a limit is one of very great importance not
only in the Differential Calculus, but in all advanced forms
If in a fractional function of *, both numerator and
of mathematics.
denominator involve x, and if each approaches infinity as x
approaches infinity, then the fraction ultimately takes the 16. Limit of a function of the form %.
form Let us examine the function

CO
= x 2x V t, \
x* -4
For example, if f{x)
+
: —
TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS VARIATIONS IN FUNCTIONS. LIMITS *3

*4
value of this function for any value of x is readily

The
**-4
thus be seen that the function has a limiting
found. But if the value assigned to x is 2, both numerator
It will
x — s&
and denominator become zero, and the fraction takes the value as x approaches 2, or with the notation for limits.
form of $. This form is said to be indeterminate, and it x'-4 = 4.
Lt
would be a mistake to suppose that its value is 0. • x-2
The form J is of great importance, and we must carefully
investigate it further. 17. Let us next investigate the problem in a more
Let us begin by assigning to x a number of values which general form, taking as our example the fraction —— —
^f*
Q*
are slightly greater or slightly less than that which produces

the indeterminate form viz., 2: — and find its value when x = a, for which value of x the
fraction takes the form {}•
(1) Let x=2l.
Following the method employed above, but in a general
X* -4 -4
4-41
=
041
=4-l. form:
Then —2
X 21—2 1
Let x = a +h.
(2) Let x — 241. i.e., h is the variable amount by which x differs from a for
40401 - 4
X*- - 4 any assigned value of x.
Then ""
201 -2
•
X - -2 001 Substituting in the fraction
Let x = 2-001. x *-a* (a + h)* - a*

—a "
(3)
X1 - -
4 4004001 -4 0004001 x (a + h) — a
4001.
Then
x -- 2 " 2-001 -2 0001 2ah + h*
~ h
"
Or, taking values less than 2

Dividing numerator and denominator by h which is not
(•») Letx= 1-9. zero,
X1— 4 _ 3-61 - 4 - 0-39 ,
x -2 1-9 - 2 -01 x —o
(5) Letx= 1-99. As h decreases, x approaches in value to a, or when x
x* — 4 3-9601 - 4 - 00309 = 3-99. approaches infinitely near in value to a, h approaches zero.
Then
x-2 ~ 1-99-2 -001 then la +h approaches la,
A comparison of these results leads to the conclusion that,
as the value of x approaches 2 the value of the fraction
i.e., as x approaches in value to a, ————
x* a* ,
approaches la.
.,
approaches 4, and that ultimately when the value of x differs

Or, using the symbols previously employed,
from 2 by an infinitely small number, the value of the
fraction also differs from 4 by an infinitely small number. when x —> a, h — > 0,
This might be expressed in the form employed previously x*-a*

and -)-2fl.
viz.: x —a
as x—>2, *—— 4 **
f—>4. i.e., 2o Is the limiting value of the function.
26 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS VARIATIONS IN FUNCTIONS. LIMITS *7
With the notation employed above: Thus the limit of the series as n becomes
-r becomes
Lt £=4 -2a. I
infinitely great, and is called the sum to Infinity

numerically greater than unity, the magnitude of
If r is
be seen, therefore, that the expression 8. as used
It will
the terms increases as n increases; and if n approaches
in the above examples, can be regarded as representing the infinity, so also does the sum.
ratio of two infinitely small magnitudes. The value of this As the student extends his knowledge of Mathematics he
ratio approaches a finite limit as the numerator and will be concerned with many series of different kinds and
denominator approach zero. he will find that it is important to know the following about
18. Limit of a series. the sum of n terms, when n becomes infinitely great
In the foregoing Sections we have considered a simple (1) Does it approach a finite limit?
example of the limit of a function. But the student will or (2) Does it become infinite ?
have learned from Algebra that the term " limit " is also If the sum of the series approaches a finite limit il is
applied in certain cases to the sum of a series. In a
called Convergent, but if its sum becomes infinite it
Geometrical Progression, if the common ratio is a proper
is called Divergent.
fraction, the sum of the terms of the series, as the number
With a limited number of exceptions most series are
of them becomes great, approaches a finite number, which
either Convergent or Divergent, and we will return to the
iscalled the limit of the sum. A more detailed examination
In this matter in Chap XIX.
of this will be found in Algebra. §§201-205.
chapter, however, we will confine ourselves only to the 19. A trigonometrical
expression for this as deduced
limit from the general Sin e
limit. Lt
_
formula for the sum of n terms.
»—>o
a be the first term of the series,
If
n be the number of terms,
Note. —
Through-
out this volume it
r be the common ratio,
will be assumed,
S„ be the sum of n terms,
unless specified to
then ^- 1 -t
the contrary, that
angles are measured
ar* in radians i.e., in
- - \Z^r \- r ' •
(A)
circular measure.
be a proper fraction, the value of r" decreases as n
If r It is clear that as
increases. Using the notation employed above becomes very small, so
as
and
n — — »-oo,r"
ar* > 0.
> also does sin
ultimately when
0. so that
6 and Fig. 4.
consequently sin ap-
Hence Lt (-?^-)=0. sin 9
proach zero, the ratio —g- approaches the form %. The
Consequently it is evident from (A) that S, approaches
limit of this ratio can be found as follows. In Fig. 4 let
— — as a limit as n becomes infinitely great. be the centre of a circle of unit radius. Let BAC be
— —
28 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS VARIATIONS IN FUNCTIONS. LIMITS W

an arc of this circle and BC its chord. Let OA be
the 20. A geometrical illustration of a limit.
radius which bisects BC at right angles and consequently Let OA B be a circle.

bisects the arc BC. From B and C, draw BT, CT tangents LetOB be a chord intersecting the circumference at
to the circle. They will meet on OA produced. OandB.
Let LAOB be radians. Suppose the chord OB to rotate in a clockwise direction
about 0. The point of intersection B will move along the
Then TB + TC > arc BAC, circumference towards 0. Con-
also arc BAC > chord BC. sequently the arc OB and chord
Considering halves of these OB decrease.
Let the rotation continue
BT > are BA> BD (A) until B is infinitely close to
and the chord and arc become
Now, tan = BT = BT. since OB is
^ of unit length. infinitely small.
It can be conceived that in
arc BA — arc BA the limiting position when B
similarly = OB
,since OB is of unit
moves to coincidence with —
length.
i.e., the two points of inter-
and sin = ÛlS = BD, since OB of unit length.
l5
is —
section coincide the straight Fig. 5.
line does not cut the circum-
from (A), tan 6 > 6 > sin 8 ference in a second point. Therefore In the limiting
or
«£« > > sin e position the chord becomes a tangent to the circle at 0.
cos 6
21. Theorems on limits.
Dividing throughout by sin 0. We now without proofs, four theorems on limits,
state,
to which reference will be made later.
[This can be omitted, if desired, on a first reading.]
cos 6 sin
But, since when
A
0, cos l.and :.-—,.
cos 8
1
— >•! (1)
equal.
// two variables are always equal, their limits are
-,
n
- always
J lies between - and 1
Limit of a sum.
and as sin 8
—> 0, and -_—s
1
cos 8
—
cos
> 1
(2)
The limit of the sum of any number of functions is
equal to the sum of lite limits of the separate functions.
.'. when 8
sm
+1.
Let u and v be functions of the same variable
i.e., as 8 — 0,
sin 8
5_-
6
approaches unity as a limit, Then Lt(u + v ) Ll{u) = Lt{v).+
x.
or Li **-: (3) Limit of a product.

e—*-o 8 Tlie limit of the product of any number offunctions
is equal to the product of the limits of the separate
It is left as an exercise to the student to prove, using the functions.
above, that as 8 > 0, ~-- approaches unity as a limit. u and v standing for functions as above
Lt[u x v) =U{u) X Lt{v).
TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS VARIATIONS IN FUNCTIONS. LIMITS 31
Limit of a quotient.
But since x =a +- h
(4)
The limit of the quotient of the functions is equal when * —y a, h — > 0.

to the quotient of the limits of the functions provided .". Limit becomes
that the limit of the divisor is not zero.
u *L=l£
—a
= Lt S na ^ + ^-l) a^ + . .
.}
Thus Lt(f)=U(u)+Lt(v) *-*• * k-*.a\ [2 I
unless Lt(v) = 0. = na"- 1 .
since all other terms have a power of A as a factor

22. Worked examples. therefore vanish when h > 0. — and
Example Find when x becomes Example 3. Find the limit of -7- -

x ~ -
when
I. the limit of ^-, ~
U - ; 1
Vx— 2 - \/4 ?
- *
infinite.
x = 3.
>+§ = 3.
U *+\- Lt
Both numerator and denominator vanish when *
Then the function takes the form j}.
2- Rationalising the denominator (Algebra, p. 252),
?
*-3 _ ~ 3)(y*-2+V4-*}"
L '{ i+
"l}+ U
L*
{
2
-,HJ} <™.4] VTT2 - Vfirx (x-2)- (4 - *)
1+0 I
_ (x -3){Vi~"2+ VT^ji
2-0 r 2x -6
Example 2. Find the value of Lt

X"
_ V «~-r 2 + V*^x
,
,_>.,, x — a
When x = a, the function is of the form jj, and therefore
and limit when x =3 becomes
indeterminate.
= a + h, vi + vt
Let x where h is small. ,
Then
x" — a" _ (a + A)" — a '
x — a (a + h) — a' Exercise 2.
1
1. (a) What number does the function
~ 1 approach
Expanding (a + /»)" by the Binomial Theorem (Algebra
as x becomes infinitely large ?
x
p. 281) (b) For what values of x is the function negative ?
_^ " \a" + na^h + *&& $ «-*/,» + ...}_*- (c) What are values of the function when the values
of x are 2, 1-8,1-5, 1-2, 1-1. 0-5. 0, -1,-2?
% —a h (d) What limit is approached by the function as x
approaches unity?
(e) Using the values of the function found in (c)
draw its curve.
.
2. (a) Find the values of the function ——+

3x I
when x CHAPTER III
has the values 10, 100. 1000, 1,000,000. RATE OF CHANGE OF A FUNCTION. GRADIENTS
(6) What limit docs the function approach as x becomes
very great? 23. Rate of change of a function.
Find the limit of the function by using the method We have seen that a function changes in value when the
of §17. 5x+2 variable upon which it depends is changed. The important
3. {a) Find U ^-±_f. question which next arises is, how to determine the rate
of change ?
(b) Find the limit of the function as x approaches + 1. In the Calculus we are fundamentally concerned with the
4. (a) Find the values of the function
v> 1
y when x —— has rate of variation of a function with respect to the change in

the variable on which it depends.
the values 10, 4, 2, 1-5, M, 1-01.
We will illustrate the problems which arise by examining
(6) Find the limit of

x*
—
— — *1 as x approaches umty. a few simple cases, ana in doing so will make use of the
graph of a function, since the graph makes visible the
5. Find the limit of the function -j^t- as x approaches changes in the function.
infinity.
Lt
x* —4 24. Uniform motion.
Find
2 x* — 2x*
6.
.
When a body moves so that it covers equal distances In
equal Intervals of time it is said to move uniformly. The
7. Find the limit of
(* + *)* ~ **
^ ft. 0. distance is a function of the time, and from the above
definition the rateof change of the function must be constant.
8. Find the limit of the function as x ap- This will appear in what follows.
proaches oo
2x +l
Let s be the distance moved, and
4x» -f- x — 1
9. Find the limit Lt t be the time taken.
,-^3** + 2* + 1"
tan6
10. Show from the proof given in § 19 that Lt — —= I.
Then it is shown in books on Mechanics that
s = vt
where the velocity,
v, is a constant, and is the distance
moved in each second.
The ratio of the two variables — —
viz. - is constant for
II corresponding values of them.

Consider the following graphical example:
A motor-car travels distances in limes as shown in the
following table:
Time (() (in sees.) 1 2 3 4 S
Distance (s) (infi.) . • 20 40 60 80 100
B(CAL.) 33
j4
TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS RATE OF CHANGE OF A FUNCTION 33
These quantities are reckoned from a fixed point in the PQ

~= represents the gradient of the line (Algebra,
.". § 72).
motion.
Plotting these points and joining them, they are seen to Let PM
be drawn parallel to OX.
lie on a straight line. This is shown in Fig. 6, which Then, between the time intervals represented by OQ
represents the graph.
V
100
a
•aaaa
••
••a a
•
>
•
«
•
» •
a
•
a
a
aa
••••
» aaaaaaBBi
• aa—
-.
•
•a
a
.
and OS
PM represent
RM represent
the increase in time. Let this be 8t.
the increase in distance. Let this be 5s.
•••• ••
a
•
mi
••in in •
, aaa
a
aaa .
. a
•a ,
—increase—-—
increase in distance
= 8s
••• •aaaaaaa
•
a
a •»
.aa • .*, ratio of r-.-_ - »-;
a
a
a in time 8/
•«•• aa aa •in aa
••< aaaaaaa
aaaaaaa
.
•
= tan 6
a •a a.
«
••••••• .•
!•• a
••
= gradient of the line.
a!
mum
»•
aaaa •*
»
a
aaaaaaBBi aaaia i.aaaaa aaaa aa
•••«« a aaa
1
••••i
>•• a ...•*••- aa
••••»>• i«a
aaai* <•
a
Hence — for
any corresponding values of s and t the
- •••Ml a a A
•a •••••
•* a aa Increase of the distance with respect to the
a
•
ratio of
fl
60 *•• 1 «
•l a. ••mi ••aaaaaaa
aaa
••• >a
tsa * aaaaaa*
• aaaa*
W • aa
aa
BB
Increase In time Is constant and equal to the gradient of
•••••••aaaa••a
• ••a
.aa
aaai .aaaa aaai aaaaaaa aaa aaaa • a
a
the
In the
line.
example above of uniform motion, this gradient
in
••a •
a
aa
a
aa
aa
seen to be 20 ft. per sec. This is the velocity of the car.
is
a
aaa
1 •aaa 25. Gradient of a linear function.
aa •
•
::::::t %Si IIHIIIIIMHI f f a
•aaaa
•aaa
aa .a
•» a
a Generalising the above:
20
•
•
•• aa
aaaa
aa*
aa
Let y be a function of x. The straight line representing
a *•
>•>
•MB
:::
•tiiai
••••I aa
•••••
aaaaaaa viii
laaal iimmi
IIIIIMJIIIIIIIMIII
•I
•
a
the function may be of two forms:
.a i Ml
:\J ::::
•a II
aa (1) The function y = mx.
2 3 Q » X The graph is a straight line passing through the
Time (In seej. origin. Comparing with the above example, if By and
Fig. 6. 6x be increments of y and x, .' is a constant and
Let 0Q, OS, represent two intervals of time (/). Then represents the gradient of the line. But this is
PQ, RS represent the corresponding distances (s). From represented by m (Trigonometry, § 67).
the above general statement it follows that
PQ _RS
0Q~0S'
/. m represents the rate of Increase of y with
This is true for any positions of P and R, and therefore the
respect to x.
graph must be a straight line.
Let 8 be the angle made by this line with OX —i.e., LPQQ. (2) The function y = mx -f- b.
pQ RS » a
This straight line does not pass through the origin,
Then but has an intercept b on the y axis.
—
36 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS RATE OF CHANGE OF A FUNCTION 37
In Fig. 7 let CPQ be the line whose equation is It will be clear that the addition of the constant b
y = mx + b. to the right-hand side of the equation does not affect
the gradient. In both y mx and y mx =
b, the = +
gradient is m, and for any given value of the lines m
are parallel (Algebra, § 74).
26. Meaning of a negative gradient.
The angle which a straight line makes with the *-axis is

always measured in an anti-clockwise direction. When
this angle is greater than a right angle, as is the case of the
angle 6 made by the straight line CD in Fig. 8, Its tangent Is
negative (Trigonotnetry, § 69).
C\ Y
Fio. 7.
Let 6 be the angle made with OX.

Let P be any point on the line, its co-ordinates being p
(*. y)-
Then OA = x,PA = y. R
N
Let x be increased by 6x from OA to OB.
Let y be increased correspondingly by 8y, from AP X 1 rfx
to BQ. A B DN.
Drawing PR parallel to OX, QR = By.
.'. co-ordinates of Q are Y'
(x + 6x,y + 8y).
i.e., OB = x + Sx, QB=y + 8y. Fig. 8.
Substituting their values in the equation, .*. the gradient of the line Is negative.
y = mx + b .... Let P be the point (x, y), so that OA x and PA =y. =
y -f- Sy = m(x 8*) -f- -f- b . . (2) Let x be increased by Sx to OB.
Subtracting from The value of the corresponding ordinate is represented
(1) (2)
by QB. Draw QR parallel to OX, i.e., the ordinate PA is
Sy m m{Sx) decreased by Sy to QB.
.-. m m S m tan QPR - tan 6 Thus while x is increased by 8x, y Is decreased by 6y, or,
as we might express it, there is negative increase.
6v
».«., ^ represents the gradient of the line.
8v
the ratio of the Increase of y to the Increase of x
.".
.'.
g Is negatlve^ i.e., tan 6 Is negative.
Is equal to the gradient of the line and is constant for

.'. the rate of Increase of y with respect to x Is now
all points on the line. negative.
— —
,8 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS RATE OF CHANGE OF A FUNCTION 59
Summarising this result with the foregoing we conclude :

Fig. 9. Clearly the curve slopes more and more steeply as
(1) When y Increases as x Increases, the gradient Is time increases i.e., the ratio of distance to time, or
positive.
(2) When y decreases as x Increases, the gradient Is y ;• ;
(
::::: ::: :
tt 'llillHUInT
negative. •
# liitmiiha
:r :: ::
:::::::::: :
:
;::::
:::::
:::
;; BtmBSm
27. Gradient of a curve. ::; ::::
:::: ::::: ::! ;;
t: :::
:::::::: 55B9Hm
Thestraight line, representing the graph of a function of
the first degree, is the only graph in which the gradient is
constant i.e., the same at all points on the line.
If the graph is a curve, the gradient is different at
different points on the curve. It is not obvious, therefore,
what is meant by the gradient of a curve, since it is con-
tinuously changing, or what is the meaning of the gradient
at a point on a curve. It is necessary, therefore, to spend
some little time in investigating these difficulties. -
::::*::::::::::: ::--.:u: :: :•••:;":•:•:::::::::::::: ::::::::::
28. Graph of the motion of a body moving with uniformly :::::: mi :::: :: ::::: '.'.
:: '. *.::: :: ":: :::: t'. :: ::: :* 1; ,'.
Increasing velocity. :." :i:- :

: —««« ::
"
HI!:: ::
HH ill in-inn!
In § 24 we said that if a body is moving with uniform—
i.e., constant —
velocity, the graph which connects distance
iijj
iili ::::
;:; ;r
m ::
;:
1 ::•:'
ii:i • •
•Hi :: ::: :: :::

»••••« jj
x
and time is a straight line. We will now consider a body Tim* flu «•
1
moving with uniformly Increasing velocity— i.e., in equal Fig 9.

intervals of time its velocity is increased by equal amounts.
In such a case it is clear that in equal intervals of time the velocity, Is Increasing. The smooth curve indicates that
distances passed over are not equal. As the velocity this increase of velocity Let us consider the is uniform.
increases, tne distances passed over will also increase. The ratio of increase of distance to increase of time over three
greater the velocity, the greater the distance moved. As successive intervals, as shown in the following table:
an example we will consider the case of a falling body, in
Distance
which it is clear that the velocity increases with tune. The Time interval Distance
following table gives the distances passed over in successive (in sees.). (ft.). Time
intervals of time from rest by a body falling freely.
Time (fl (in

0-26 0-6 0-75 1-25 1-5 1-76 2
0-6 to 1 12
a—
sees)
Distance
.
(s)
1
1 to 1-8 20 *-•
49 84
(in
When
ft.) o 1 4 9
the corresponding values of distance and time are

16 28 36
1-5 to 2 28
s—
plotted, the graph is seen to be a smooth curve, as shown in These ratios represent the average velocities for the
. ——
4" TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS RATE OF CHANGE OF A FUNCTION 4*
corresponding intervals. They are the distances which In Fig. 9 draw PQ, tangent to the curve, at P.
would be passed over during the intervals, If the body were Draw PR of unit length parallel to OX, and from R draw
moving with uniform velocities equal to these average RQ perpendicular to PR.
velocities. It is evident that the average velocity over = =
LQPR 8 angle made by PQ with OX.
equal successive intervals is increasing uniformly.
It should be noted, as shown in § 24, that the gradients of
Gradient of PQ = ^ =y = 32.
the chords joining the appropriate points on the curve will .'.velocity at the point P=
32 ft. per sec.
be equal to these average velocities. the velocity at the end of one second is 32 ft. per sec.
i.e.,
To generalise these conclusions, take any point P on the Students of mechanics will be able to verify this.
curve and through it draw a chord cutting the curve again
in another point A
29. Gradients of the curve of y = x*.
Draw the ordinate AB meeting at B the straight line PB The methods employed above for obtaining the gradient
at any point on a curve will now be employed to solve the
drawn parallel to the time axis.
Let increase in time between the two positions be 8t i.e., problem more generally in the case of an algberaical
PB = 6t.
function. The curve of y =
x* has been chosen as a simple
Let increase in distance between the two positions be 6s example, and one which is familiar to the student. A more
i.e., AB = 6s. general form of this function would be y ox', but for =
Then average velocity over the Interval = 8s -r-.
simplicity we will take the case where a 1. The methods =
adopted can be readily adapted for any value of a.
equal to the gradient of the chord PA. =
•>*
This Is Fig. 10 represents the curve of y x*.
Now suppose thatthe interval of time, represented by 8t,
•
>' a 1!NI!ll*f! a""*"""
continually diminishes. Then the distance 8s will also
diminish, but their ratio continues to represent the average ••••*••«••••••••••••••a*
•>*••>••>•••••• *••
..........••.•• !.
l«lllllllUIIIIII«<il<>»lllll«ll'M>"
"
**
!
-••••!
*••«•••«••••"••••••'
••Illll>f><iii-i1l>
velocity during the interval and also the gradient of the
chord PA, which also diminishes. •i ••••***>••••••••••••' •••••••* •
;::::',:::::::::::::::::::;:::::::;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::• •
Imagine now the interval of time to become infinitely

small. The interval of distance will also become infinitely
small. In the limit, when A is infinitely close to P i.e., —
«••
IMIIIIIIIMIO
'•••••••••IIIIIIIIMIMH
•_>•
••
:
ii::i::^!:;n:::::;:H:ii::::i:::i:::::i::::i::!:i!::::::::: ^!:!
•••• •52' '
•••I.'
MH'MIIU /'• !
<
I!
coincides
The limit
— the ratio of
the chord becomes a tangent at P (see

which st
jr. approaches a
approaches will
finite
§ 20).
limit,
be the gradient of
and
•••->
••>>
•- .*••
••**••*•*••
•-..•..•--•••••--••...•••••••>••••'•'••••• F— -•
(.-••••••*••«»••••«
•*•*«••»*•*• .••••••'la*.
ffrHfHIIIIIIIHiSffl 1
'••. ««
4f ttit fftjn
«•••
1 1
•**•
II
•••••-
ii ii l h
this tangent, and also the velocity at P.
ilj: •
-^
DC
Hence
when
the term velocity at a point Is the limit of the ratio
these each become Infinitely small.
gradient of the curve at the point P.

It is also the •••••Itl......
'»." »•••»-'*
IIIUIIHIIIIIIIIIUH -....' r.,
II
.
•*!
...J
Thus the gradient of the curve at any point on the curve
Is equal to the gradient of the tangent to the curve drawn
at that point. Fic. 10.

Let P
be the point (1, 1). These results exhibit the gradient of the chord PQ when
Draw a chord PQ cutting the curve again in Q. 6x diminishes and Q moves nearer to P. Then it is evident
Draw Pi? parallel to OX to meet the ordinate from Q at R. that the gradient of the chord approaches 2. We can
Let PR, the increase in x between P and Q, be 6x. therefore conclude that when Q moves to coincidence with
Let QR, the corresponding increase in y, be 6y. P and the chord becomes the tangent to the curve at P.
Then gradient of the chord PQ tan QPR. = the gradient of the tangent Is 2.
' We may also say that

Sx The rate of Increase of y per unit Increase of x at the
By
Also, ^ Is equal to the average rate of Increase of y per
point P Is 2.
unit Increase of x between P and Q. Similar conclusions follow for any point on the curve, but
the gradient of each tangent will dep*nd on the value of x at
The algebraical expression for <- can be obtained as the point; the gradient Is therefore a function of x.
follows:
5 -*
Thus at the point on the curve where x —
3, the gradient
In the function y x* = (1) of the tangent will be 6.
when x is increased by 5x and y correspondingly increased It is evident that the conclusions reached hold for any
by Sy we get curve whose equation is known. In general, therefore, we
y + Sy « (, + 8*)« .... (2) arrive at the following important conclusion
Subtracting (1) from (2)

The gradient at any point on a curve representing
a function is equal to that of the tangent drawn to
Sy= (* + 8*) 1 - x* It is also the rate of increase
By = 2x8x + (Sx)*. the curve at the point.
of the function for the value of x at the point.
Dividing by Sx ?=2x+8x.
8x
T
30. Negative gradient.
to
From the value of ^- can be calculated for any
this In Fig. 10 let a point S be taken on the curve, correspond-
OX
ing to a negative value of x. Draw the tangent to the
value of Sx at any point on the curve where the value of
curve and produce it to meet the axis. The angle made
x is known.
with the ajas is greater than a right angle. Consequently the
Thus when x = I, as in the case of the point P on the
gradient Is negative. As was shown in § 26, thus indicates
curve above,
that the rate of increase of the function is negative i.e.,
If 6x = 0-3. g = 2 + 0-3 - 2-3. the function decreases. An examination of the curve shows
that as x increases through negative values from -co to 0,
If 6x = 0-2, g-l+W = 2-2. the function as represented by the curve is decreasing from
+ 00 to at the origin. At this point OX is tangential to
If 6x = 01. &
8*
= 2+0-1 =2-1. the curve and the gradient of the curve is zero.
Exercise 3.
If 6x = 001, |? = 2 + 001 = 201.
SX 1. Draw straight line 3x
the 2y — =
6 and find its
If 8x = 0001, |^ = 2 + 0001 = 2001. gradient. If P
and Q are two points on the line such that
the value of x at Q is greater by 0-8 than the value of x at P,
by how much is the value of y at Q greater than the value point where x 2. =
Check by drawing the tangent to the
atP? curve at this point.
2. Find the gradients of the straight lines 7. For the function y = j
- (see Fig. 3) find an expression
for By in terms of x and 6x. Hence find an expression for
(6) ix+5y = 16. Sx

Taking the values x = 1-1, 1-01, 1-001, 1-0001, find the
3. The gradient of a straight line is 1 -2. It passes through

limit which ^ is approaching as x approaches unity. Hence
a point whose co-ordinates are 10). What is the find the gradient and angle of slope of the curve at the point
equation of the line ?
(5,
where * = 1. Check your result by drawing the curve and
4. The distance passed over by a body falling from rest
constructing the tangent at this point.
is given by the formula s 6t'. =
Representing an increase 8. Find the gradient of the tangent drawn at the point
1
in time by 6t and the corresponding increase in distance by where x =

lon each of the curves
6s, find by the method used in § 29 an expression for 6s in (1) y = x* + 2
Hence (2) y = x* - 3 (see Algebra, § 112)
terms of 6t for any value of t. find the value of =-.
Find the gradient of the tangent drawn
9. at the point
Using this result find the average velocity for the following where x =
2 on each of the following curves;
intervals:
(1) y = 3*«
(1) 2 sees, to 2-2 sees. (2) 2 sees, to 2-1 sees. (2) y = 2x* - 1.
(3) 2 sees, to 2-01 sees. (4) 2 sees, to 2-001 sees.
From these results, deduce what the velocity at the end of
2 sees, appears to be ?
6. In the curve of y =
x\ using the notation employed
in § 29, find the value of £- as the value of x is increased
from 3 to 3-1, 301, 3001 and 30001 respectively. Deduce

the gradient of the tangent to the curve at the point where
x = 3.
6. Draw the curve of y =x 3 for values of x between
and 2.
Find an expression for 6y in terms of x and 6x.
6y
Hence find an expression for =p.
Taking the values of x as 2-1, 2-01, 2001, and 20001, find

the limit which ^- approaches as the value of x approaches 2.
Hence find the gradient of the tangent to the curve at the

DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENT. DIFFERENTIATION 47
The determination by algebraic methods in the case of

the function y = x* has in effect been indicated in § 29,
CHAPTER IV when, by means of arithmetic calculations, the values of
DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENT. DIFFERENTIATION ~ were shown to be approaching nearer to a limit, as *

ox
31. Algebraical aspect of the rate of change of a function. approached an assigned value. For convenience the
working is repeated.
In this chapter we take a very important step forward
in the development of our subject. It follows logically Let y =x %.
from the work of the preceding chapter. To make this Then y + Sy = + Sx)\
(x
clear we will briefly summarise the steps by which the Subtracting Sy = (x + Sx)* — x*
subject has advanced. They are as follows: = 2x[Sx) + (Sx)*.
(1) The value of a function changes as the variable
changes upon which it depends. Dividing by Sx, ^
6x
= 2x + 8x . . (A)
(2) The rate at which the function changes is of
great practical importance and it is necessary to We can now carry this a step further.
be able to calculate it. has been shown geometrically that when 6x approaches
It
(3) The rate of change (whether of Increase or zero, the gradient of the chord, which represents the
decrease) can be found geometrically as follows: average rate of increase of the function over the interval
(a) When the function Is of the first degree. represented by 6x, gradually approaches the gradient of
Such a function can be represented by a straight- the tangent at a point corresponding to any assigned value
line graph, and the gradient of this straight line is of x.
equal to the rale of change of the function. Thus the gradient of the tangent, represented by the
If y is a function of x, and 8x and By are limit of ^-, Is equal to the rate of Increase of the function
corresponding increases of x and y, the gradient
for the assigned value of x.
Is equal to J. This is constant throughout the Since from (A) above, for any value of 8x
line, i.e.. the rate of change Is uniform.

(b) When
the function Is not of the first degree
its graph will be a curve, and the rate of change
when Sx 0, £ approaches a limit and the limit of
of the function will differ in different parts of the S*
curve. Its value at any point is equal to the
(B)
gradient of the tangent at the point on the curve 8*
corresponding to any assigned value of x.
The geometrical method has many important applica-
i.e., when 8x — >- the limit of
Sy
-' represents the rate of
tions, and is suggestive as an illustration, but in practice Increase of y with respect to x, for any assigned value of x.
the gradient is not easily found by this method. For 8v
practical purposes, and for accuracy, an algebraic method
For example, when x = I, limit of ^ — 2, i.e., the rate
is necessary. of increase of y, or x* with respect to x is 2. (Cf. § 29.)

46
4» TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENT. DIFFERENTIATION 49
Similarly, a finite limit, and this limit is called the differential

coefficient of y with respect to x. It is represented by
when x = 2, limit of g = 4. (Cf. Ex. 3, No. 8.)
lite symbol /-,
when x = 3, limit of ^ = 6. (Cf. Ex. 3, No. 5.)
Sx
i.e.,
Using the notation of § 15, we may write (B) above as, 1,-t.o Sx dx
S The Differential Calculus is fundamentally concerned
Lt J-=2x.
t.-t-oSx with the variation of functions, and we can regard a
differential coefficient as a rate-measurer in such variations.
A still more convenient notation is employed to represent
this limit.
It measures the rate at which a function is changing its
value compared with that of the variable upon which it
Sy dy
Lt -*- is represented by . depends. ^y
Thus for the function y x*. since
f-
=
Ix, when x 4, = =
inwhich the English letter d is used instead of the Greek
and the condition Sx
Thus (B) becomes
>- —
is understood.
8
x is
%
y, or x , is
changing.
changing its value at 8 times the rate at which
j„
The differential coefficient / is also called a derivative of
dx y with respect to x, or the derived function.

Exceptin the case of a linear function, the differential
This limit is called the differential coefficient of
coefficient of y with respect to x Is itself a function of x.
the function with respect to x, the independent
variable. Notation for the differential coefficient.
Thus, when y =
x*. Ix is the differential coefficient of y,
or x*. with respect to x. Besides the form the differential coefficient of y with
J-,
A similar procedure will enable us to find the differential respect to x may also be denoted by y'.
coefficient of any other function.
Thus if y =x*
32. The Differential Coefficient. y' = Ix.
Summarising the foregoing section we may conclude:
In general, the differential coefficient of y =/(*) may be
(1) If y be a continuous function of x, and 6x be any denoted by f'(x).
increase \n tlte value of x, there will be a corresponding The same forms are used for other letters representing
increase (or decrease) in the value, denoted by Sy. functions. Thus if s is a function of t, the differential
? ds
(2) The ratio represents the average rate of increase coefficient of s with respect to t is written j .
of y with respect to x, when x increased to x 6x. +

33. Differentiation. Differentials.
(3) Since y is a continuous function of x, i/8x becomes
infinitely small, so also does Sy. The process of finding the differential coefficient or
When 6x derivative of a function is called Differentiation.

(4) 0, the ratio =p in general lends to
The operation may be expressed by using the operating
5° TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENT. DIFFERENTIATION ji
Thus the differentiation of x 2 with respect to point on the curve which represents the function. It was
svmbol -, •
dx d(x %
d also shown in § 26 that this gradient may be positive or
x can be written in the form -^—)' or •,- {x*). negative. Consequently the differential coefficient may
also be positive or negative. This will be examined further
In general, the differentiation of f(x) with respect to x
in a later chapter. For the moment the student is reminded
can be expressed by —^ or j- (/(*))• It may also be of the conclusions stated in § 26 as to the sign of the gradient
and the increase or decrease of the function. These con-
denoted by the form Dzy or Dy when there is no doubt as
clusions apply also to the differential coefficient.
to what is the independent variable.
35. Differential coefficient of a constant.
Differentials.
The infinitely small increments of x and y which are Since a differential coefficient measures the rate of change
of a variable, and a constant has no change whatever, the
implied in the form 2. are called differentials. Thus h! differential coefficient of a constant must be zero.
represents the ratio of the differential of y to the differential

of x.
36. Differentiation of y = mx + b.
In the example y = x* As the student has learnt previously, this is the general
form of a function of the first degree. Its graph is a straight
we have -g = 2*. line (§25), and therefore of constant gradient. This can
be shown algebraically from first principles as tollows:
This might be described by the statement that the ratio
of the differential of y to the differential of x is equal to 2x, Let 8* be an increment of x.
or the differential of y is 2x times the differential of x. This I,et Sy be the corresponding increment of y.
could be expressed by the equation Substituting in y =
mx b +
dy = 2x . dx. y + Sy = m(x + &x) + b
In this form 2x is shown as a coefficient of the differential

subtracting Sv = m[Sx).
of x, hence the term " differential coefficient ". •- g-m.

The student should not at present regard ^ as a fraction
This is true for any value of 8x with the corresponding
inwhich the numerator and denominator can be separated, value of By, since m is a constant.
but as a limit, as shown above. dy
General definition of a differential coefficient.
.
" dx
=m -
It will now be seen, from what has been stated above, It will be noticed that the value of -4 is independent of
that the general expression for the differential coefficient
of any function, /(*) is given by 6. For different values of b the equation represents a
series of parallel lines, having the gradient " m." See § 25.
Lt
fix + Sx) - f(x)
li-»-0 B*
37. Differentiation of y = Xs .
34. The sign of the Differential Coefficient. The following proof will provide another example of the
It has been shown above that the differential coefficient general method which may be adopted for finding the
of a function is equal to the gradient of the tangent at a differential coefficient of a function by first principles.
5* TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENT. DIFFERENTIATION j3
Let Sx be an increment of x. Generally when x is a positive integer it may be deduced

Let 8y be the corresponding increment of y. that if
Substituting in y =Xn
y =* -
dY
(1) = nx* 1- 1
y + Sy = (x + 8x) s dx
= x» + 3x»(8x) + 3x(8x)» + (8x)
8
. (2)
A general proof of this follows.
Subtracting (1) from (2) Let y =
x".
Sy = 3x»(8x) -f- 3x(Sx)» + (Sx) 8 . Let Sx be an increment of x.

Let Sy be the corresponding increment of y.
Dividing by 6x, which is not equal to zero, since it represents
any increase of x Substituting y + Sy = (x + 8x)\
Expanding the right-hand side by the Binomial Theorem
g = 3x« + 3x(8x) + (8x)».
{Algebra, p. 279).
8y
Proceeding to the limiting value of ^, when 8x
both 3x(8x) and (8x)* approach zero.

—> y + Sy = x- + nx-» (8x) + "&, ^ *-» (8x)»
K ^
j,_,.o\8x/
=3x» but y =
x".
Subtracting
3x».
».«.
3* Sy = nx»-» (8x) + 22tjJi*M (8x)»
38. Differentiation of y = x*.
the method of the foregoing section be applied toy =**,

If
this would involve the expansion of (x -f 8*)*, which is:
Dividing throughout by 8x.
x« + 4x»(8x) + 6xf (8x)« + 4x(8x) + 8
(8x)«.
After subtraction of x* and division by Sx, tliere is left:
On
4x» + 6x«(8x) + 4x(8x)» +
proceeding to the limit when Sx > 0, every term —
(8x) 8 .
Let 8x — y then each term on the right-hand side after
;
the first tends to zero.

after Ax3 vanishes, and we are left with Ax3 as the differential
coefficient. Lt
Any function of the form y = x" is dealt with in the same
in the expansion of (x + 8x)
B
way, and it is evident that , or
the second term provides the differential coefficient.
For example, with y =x s

, j- = 5x* The question now arises as to the values of n for which
this result is true. Does it apply only to those cases when
v = x«. £„
dx
= 6x«.
n is a positive integer? Evidently the validity of it
depends on that of the Binomial Theorem. Does this hold
J4 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENT. DIFFERENTIATION 35
when negative, or fractional ?

n is The question is briefly Let By be the corresponding increment of y.
discussed in Algebra, p. 282. There it will be learned that,
subject to certain numerical restrictions, which do not Then y + Sy x + Sx
affect the above, the Theorem holds for all values of n.
= y =
1
The differential coefficient of y x" can, however, be but
-x
found by other methods, not involving the Binomial
.
1 i
Theorem. If the student desires to study them, he should Subtracting
consult a larger treatise on the subject.
The conclusion therefore is that for all values of n _ x - (x+ 8s)
x(x + Sx)
dx — to
39. Differentiation of y = ax", where a is any constant.
Compressing the proof given in § 38 we get the following:
Dividing by 8x,
8y
= -1
=
y = ax" Sx x* + x8x
y + 8y = a(x + Sx)"
~
Proceeding to the limit when Sx —y 0.
= a\x» + nx"-*8x + W(W 1)

s"-«(8s)' . .
.} U g- *
»,_*.o8x x'
Subtracting
or
Sy = <i{n*-i(8-*) + 5£L~i)x«-*(8x)» + . .
.}
3x ?•
Example 2. Write down the differential coefficients of

...
J—{^ + î^-»+...} 8*
the following functions.
(i)y = x«; = 8x» = 8x » 7.

Let 0. dx
Then
t £i.ffl-*-^ {2)y E »- **-» = I
I-*'" ly/x
The constant factor a thus is a factor of right-hand side
throughout and remains as a factor of the differential (3)y=x-»;
ax x*
coefficient.
(4) y = **»J | = l-5x = *»«*• ISx06 .
dx = x-«;
(5)y % = (- x ="
1)
(*-*-')
i*"*-
40. Worked examples.
Example I. Find from first principles the differential (6) y = x; ^
ax
= x»-i=x«»=l.
coefficient of
Example 3. Differentiate the following functions:
Y
= or y=x-K
x
(1) y = 6x«; |=6x4x»'- 1 = 24x\
Let 8x be an increment of x.
:
36 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENT. DIFFERENTIATION 57
(2) y = ti/x or y = ix* 6. If = u + where

v at, and are constants, find -jj.
,'f
rfs
6. If s = $/2 where /a
, is a constant, find j when / = 20.
\ 7. If ^ = nr\ find ^.
-**f*-**»
3fi
= px *; d 8. If V = frrr3 find ^.
Jx =
,
**«-i.
(3) y t
/> x 2q x
= 2p(jx*»-». 9. Differentiate the following functions of x\
(4) s = 16/*; =
j 2 x 16 x
t
^= 32t. (Cf. § 28.)
5 ^; h fy **\ <m.
10. Differentiate with respect to x:
Example 4. Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve
y = - at the point where x — 1.

** 4 : 8r«; ^; 6;H; sr*.

The gradient is given by the value of the differential I!
6*H; ir"; 29x 07 T
coefficient at the point. ;
v? m
Now (Example 12.1!^-?;. find?.

Si©" i ."" - 1.)
when x=1 13. Find the gradient of the curve of y \x* at the =
d point on the curve where x 3. =
For what value of x is the
/ =-
rfx
I or tan 135°. gradient of the curve equal to zero?
(Cf. Ex. 3, No. 7.)
14. Find the gradient of the curve of y 2x?, at the =
point where x 2. = 2
Exercise 4.
15. Find the gradients of the curve of y - at the points
*
=
1. Write down the differential coefficients of the follow- where x =
10, 2, 1, J.
ing functions with respect to x 16. Find from first principles the differential coefficient
*'; 5*; ?; 006*; i*»; 15*«; ~j-; l-5x»; (4x)». of y

J = —1 ,.
x*
17. At what point on the curve of x* is the gradient of the
curve equal to 2 ?
bx*;^-;axf;x^; &*«; 4m«. 18. At what point on the curve of y #* docs the tangent =
to the curve make an angle of 45° with theje-axis ?
3. Differentiate with respect to x: 19. At what point on the curve of y Vx is the gradient =
6x + 4; 0-54* - 6; -3* + 2; />* + q. equal to 2 ?
=
20. It is required to draw a tangent to the curve y
4. Of what functions of x are the following the differential 0-5*' which shall be parallel to the straight line 2x—4y 3. =
coefficients: At what point on the curve must it be drawn ?
x; 3x; x*; J*»; **; *"; x*>; J*3 ; 4«*»?
SOME RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATION 39
Replacing these forms by the corresponding symbols for

CHAPTER V differential coefficients
SOME RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATION dy _du dy
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION dx~dx + dx

clearly the theorem will hold for any number of functions.
41. Sum.
Differentiation of a Hence the Rule for differentiation of a sum.
The functions which were differentiated in the preceding The differential coefficient of the sum of a number offunctions
chapter were expressions of one term only, with the excep- is equal to the sum of the differential coefficients of these
tion of y = mx + b (§ 30). This was found from first functions.
principles.
We now proceed to consider in general the differentia- 42. Worked examples.
tion of a function which is itself the sum of two or more Example I. Differentiate with respect to x.
functions of the same variable, such as y 5x* -f- 14** — = y = 3x» + 7x« - 9x + 20.
Ix. The proof given below is a general one for the sum Using the above rule
of any number of functions of the same variable.
Let u and v be functions of x. dY _
= 9x» + | 4x _9 .
Let y be their sum, so that dx

y mu+ v. Example 2. the gradient at that point on
Find the curve
Let x receive the increment Sx. of y = x% — ix + 3 where x = 3.

Then u, v and y. being functions of x, will receive corre- What is the point of zero gradient on this curve i
sponding increments. If = x* — ix -+ 3.
Let 8u, 6v and 6y be these increments, so that 4 = 2* - 4.
u becomes u -f- 8u dx
„ v + By d
£= - 4.
v
» +6 When x = 3, (2 x 3)
y y y-
.*. From y = u + v = 2.
we have y + Sy — (u + Su) + (v + Sv). When the gradient is zero
Subtracting ty = Su -f Sv. 2* - 4 = 0.
Dividing by 8*
8y _
— 8m + Sv. •
x = 2.
Sx Sx Sx' ds
This is true for all values of 6x and the corresponding
Example 3. // s = 80t - 16/*, find if
When $
at
= 16.
findt.
increments Su, Sv, Sy.
s = 80/ - 161*
Also their limits are equal. (Th. I, Limits, § 21.)
.-. If 8* — >-0
ds
dt
= 80 - 32/.
Lt j*- Lt {£+£} Then
ds
i.e. 80 - 32/ = 16
,—^.qSx j,_>.ol8a: Sx) £'
t (Z\+j«-Lt (Th.2. § 21.)
32/ =64
.o\8x/ (g). t=2.
58
:
6o TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOME RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATION 6i
Exercise 5. The differential coefficient of a product is not equal to

the product of the differential coefficients of the factors,
Differentiate the following functions of xi
as will be apparent on testing such an example as
1. 6** + 5*. 5. ; + 4*. Zx(x 2). +
x 4 2 A general rule for use in all cases is found as follows i
2. 3*» + x - 1. °- 7 +;-*'• Let u and v be functions of x.
3. 4** + 3*» - *. 7. x(5- x + 3**). Let y u x v, =
4. i*» + * + i. 8. 8VT + VlO. consequently y is also a function of x.
Let 6x be an increment of x.
Find ^ when Let Sm, Su and 8y be the corresponding increments of «,
9. s = ut + \fP. v andy.
10. s=5i + 16P. 11. s = 3*» - U + 7. Substituting the new values of u, v and y in
12. Find -/ when y = ax* + bx* + ex + d. y =u X V (1)

dx jvi , = [u + 8«)(w + Sv)
y -f 8y
13. Differentiate with respect to x, ( * +- J
.
or y + 8y = uv + u(iv) + v (Su) + (8w)(8v) .
Subtracting (i) 8y = h(8i;) -f «/(8«) + (S«)(8i;).

14. Differentiate with respect to x, Vx + -/-> 8v 8« 8m 8»
Dividing by 8x, g = U g + « ^ +
t^- l
-j- «, „ ,
&
,
ft*
(1 + x)
. .
3 .
15. Differentiate with respect to x,
16. If = x*> - nx* + 5», find dZ.

y
.
Lets* —
>-0.
A O Then 8m, 8z», Sy all approach zero.

17. Find ¥ when y = Vx + Vx + -. .*. by Limits Th. 2.
ax x
y
18. Find the gradient at that point
«= 2x* Zx — +
1 where * 1-5. For =
on the curve of
what value of * ii
".£ L<
lt-*-0 ,(-S+.il.(-S+A.(--&
will the curve have zero gradient ?
the last term —
8ff
19. For what values of x will the curve of y =» x(x* — 12) In the limit, since 8m 0,8»Xr-
sx
viz.
have zero gradient ? —also approaches zero.

20. What are the gradients of the curve .". with the usual notation
y=x a
-6x* + llx-6
when x has the values 1, 2, 3 ?
dx dx
T dx
21. What are the points of zero gradient on the curve of
This important rule may
be expressed as follows
y =x+ i 7 (1) Differentiate each factor In turn and multiply
43. Differentiation of a Product. by the other factor. j
(2) The sum of the products Is
-J-.
The some products such as
differential coefficient of
(x + 2)*
or 3x{x +
2) can be found by multiplying out and This rule may be extended to more than two factors.
using the rule for the differentiation of a sum. In most = uvw
Thus if y
cas es, how ever, that cannot be done, as, for example,
x'Vl — * and x* sin x. where m, v, w are factors of x
62 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOME RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATION 63
Then 45. Differentiation of a quotient.
dy (du \ ,
/dv \ ,
(dw In § 40 the differential coefficient of a simple example of
)•
a quotient, viz. -, was found by first principles. This
- 5x + 2)(2x» + 7). method, however, is apt to become very tedious in more
Example I. Differentiate (x*
complicated examples. The general rule which is explained
Let below is that which is usually employed.
y = (*» -5x 4-2)(2*« + 7). Let u and v be functions of x.
Then
d{Xl +2) x (2**4-7)}
Let '-%
Tx { ~dx* y then a function of x.
is
+ {^_W) x(x ,_ 5x+2 )

Using the notation employed in the preceding section for
increments of these
«= (2x - 5)(2x» + 7) 4- 4x(x* - Sx + 2). «
+ 8m
= +
y Sy v Sv +
This result can be simplified, if necessary.
= +
t* Su u
Example 2. Differentiate (x* - l){2x + l)(x> + 2x« + 1).
subtracting S
> 7. 4- Sv
v v
v( u 8m) u(v Sv) + — +
v(v + Sv)
vSu —
u Sv
vjv 4- Sv)'
+ ft*+j*+il x(i ,_ 1)(8 , + 1) } v

8u _U Sv
8v Sx •
Sx
= 2x(2x + sl)(x» + 2x» + + 2(x* - I) I) Dividing by
" J
Sx,
Sx
m
v(v 4- Sv)
(X + 2x* + 4- (3x» + 4x)(x» - l)(2x 4-
This can be further simplified.

I) I).
Let Sx
Then
—> ; in consequence 8m, Sv, and By tend to zero.
Exercise 6.
Differentiate the following by means of the rule foi It (*2\ ~ _
i»-»oV Sx) fa_».oV Sx)
(Th. 4, Limits).
products.
,_».<A**/ Lt v(v + Sv)
1. 3* 4-1) (2* 4-1). 10. (x»-*4-l)(*»+*-l). Tlie limits in thenumerator can be expressed by
2. *» 4-1) (J* 4-1). 11. (x-2)(x» + 2x+4). du _ dv
3. 3*-5)(x*+2x). 12. (2**-3)(3x»+x- 1).
dx
(x - l)lx + l)(x* +
'dx "
4.
5.
*»4-3)(2**-l).
x» + 4*)(3x -*).
1
13.
14. (* + l)(2* + l)(3*+2).
I).
and the limit of the denominator is v % since 8t/ > , — 0.
6. *»+x + l)(*-l). 15. (ax* + bx + c) (px + q).

7. x»-x + l)(x + l). 16. Vx(2x_-l)(x* + x + l).
dy dx dx
8. x*+ix + 5){x* — 2). 17. 2x*(Vx+2)(Vx~-l).
.
"
9. *»-5)(*»4-6). dx 7
64 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOME RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATION 6j
This can be written: Using the above rule
dy
dx
= (den. x d.c. o f num.)
W — (num. x d.c. of den.)
'
dy
dx
{(*» - Zx + 2) (2*
=
~
+ 1)} - {(*' + *)(2x - 3))
- Zx + 2)»
(*»
(2x» - 5s1 + x + 2) - (2x» - x* — Zx)
~i*» - Zx + 2)*
Zx _ - 4s' + 4* + 2
= 1? - 3x + 2)»
Example I. Differentiate ^—^. *
du dv Exercise 7.
dy _ dx ax
Using
dx
~ v*
Differentiate the following functions of x.
where u = Zx and v = x — 1. -i. 2.

1 - 3x»'
Zx-l
dy {(*-l)(3)}-{3*(!)) B,
2x~ (x - l)
1
2x + 3'
= Zx — -3 —
8.
Zx *-4'
1
(* l)
11.
* + l
-3 Vx-l'
(x - !)•• *' +x+ 1
15.
-x +
2x* 1
14.
**-* + r +x - r
3*»
2x* 2x-3
= x^ +
8 1 17. 18.
Example 2. y _| . a* - xr 2-3*
i^, 1
).
s»+2
19. 20.
x —2
'
Using the formula quoted above x\
dy ((*»-!) x (Zx*))-{ (x* + l) x fls

1
)} 47. Function of a function.
dx Wî)* To understand the meaning of "function of a function
"
Zx* - 3* - 3*« — 3x»
1
consider the trigonometrical function sin* x, i.e. (sin x)*.
This function, being the square of sin x. Is a function of
sin x, just as x* is a function of x, or u* is a function of u.
But sin x Is Itself a function of x.
.*. sin* x Is a function of sin x, which Is a function of x,
i.e., sin* x Is a function, of a function of x.
Example 3. Differentiate -,- _ - _^ g
.
Similarly Vx* +4* is a function of x* +
4x, just as Vx
is a function of x.
We have v- *' +* But x* +4x is itself a function of x.

.*. Vx* + 4x is a function of x* + 4x, which is a function
C(CAL.)
of x.
extended.
The idea of a "function of a function" may be
For example, we have seen that sin *x is a
... u |y = u
i«-».o
W**\
lW 8xJ
i,_>.o8*
function of a function of x. But
(Vx) sin* is a function of
sin Vx. which is a function of y/x, which in its turn is a
= U (g) x Ll (Jf)
" j,_ > o\8»/ t,-fii^x/
function of x. of " a function of a function
The idea
by the third law of limits, § 21.
often puzzles the beginner, and there is a tendency to over-
look it and to omit application of the rule for differentiating dy du
it which we shall discover later. For example, it may be "
.
= dy
dx du dx
overlooked that such a familiar function as sin 2x is a
function of a function, since 2x is a function of x. Applying this result to the above we have:
We cannot proceed further with the example above of
sin* x, since the rules for differentiating trigonometrical
functions are dealt with in a subsequent chapter. and as u = x* — 5
t~
An algebraic function, say y (** =
6)*, will be used — du
= 2x
as an example in discovering the rule for differentiating a dx
function of a function.
—
Now (x* 5)* is a function the fourth power of — — since
dx du dx'
x* —5. which is itself a function of x.
d
If u - (z» - 5) .". ? = 4m»
dx
x 2*
we can write y = u*.
nde
i.e., U = 4(x» - 5)» x 2x = 8x(x» - 5)*.
Differentiating y with respect to u, according to
Worked Examples.
t
du
= «*• Example = vT— x*
I. Differentiate y
dv
But we require , , therefore the following method is vr^x* = (i- *»)».
adopted to find it. Let u = — x%
1 ; then .
dx
= — 2x and y = «'.
Let 6x be an increment of x. dy
„ 6u be the corresponding increment of o.
•
'•
du
= *«-
4"
6y „
,. „ ., y.
= J(l - *v.
These being finite increments, it is obvious that by the dy _ dy du
dx ~ du
law of fractions Since
dx
By 6o
= Su 8jf
6x 6x" :. substituting / =- H»
J(l — *
x«)-» x / - a, (-
y— 2x)
Let 8* —> ; in consequence 6u and By will proceed = -X(l - *«)-»

to zero. Then each of the ratios /, £. approaches a
—X
„
ix Su Sx
limit.
'
Example 2. Differentiate y = (** — 3* + 5) a .

Substituting in (A)
Let u = x* — Zx + 5; then *£ = 2x — 3 and >- = uK g = ^ + 5){3i,îp}+^-nn-x2, }
2—
= 3(*» - 3* + 5}«.
This might be further simplified.
Substituting in % = %*%
g = 3(*» - 3* + 5)» X (2* - 3) Example 5. Differentiate — j-
= 3(2x-3)(x»-3*4-5)». Employing the formula for a quotient, viz. ]
After some practice the student will probably find that du dv

usually he will be able to dispense with the use of " U " and v ' u '
can write down the result. The above example is a con- L (tt\ -
™ ix dx
venient one for trying this procedure.
du\v) v*
and substituting
Example 3. Differentiate y = (3** — 5x + 4)».
dy 4* x {d.c.of-y/l +3*} - {Vl + 3* X d.c.of 4*} ...
Working
written down
this
in
without introducing
two stages, as follows
u,
«
the solution can be & (4*)*
(A)
Of these VI +
3x or (1 3x) J + a function of a function.
^ = f (3*» -5x+ 4)H x d.c. of (3*» - 5x + 4)
is
Applying the method above

= f(3x* - 5x + 4)» x (6x - 5).
Example 4. Differentiate y = (** + 5)^? + I.
^(l + 3,)» = i(l+3x)-'x3=^=.
This being a product of two functions, we employ the rule Substituting in (A)
^*2VT+Tx- Wr+ Tx
dluv) dv ,
du
dx dx dy
Hence dx 16x*
d 6x
£-=(x'+ 5){d.c. Vi*~TT\
VTTTx- Wl + Sx
of
v *T Tl + 5)}
/
4- {- x d.c. of (** (A)
16**
Of these /
•v x* + 1 is a function of a function.
- 4(1 + 3x)
It is better to work this separately and substitute after- 6*
wards: 16xVl + 3*
d{{xt 1}>
= !(*' + 6x - 4 - 12* _ -4-6*
£ - > I) 4
"1
X {(d.c.) of (x* + 1)}
16xVT+"3* 1QxWT+3x
= *(** + I)" 1 x 2*
2+3x
2*
" 3(x» 4- l)r
7° TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOME RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATION 7>
48. Differentiation of Implicit functions. Example 2. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve
It was pointed out in § 11 that it frequently happens, x* 4- xy + y* = 4 at the point (2, 2). -
when y is a function of x, that the relation between x and y Differentiating x* + xy + y* = 4 as shown above, and
is not explicitly stated, but the two variables occur in the remembering that xy is a product
form of an equation from which y can be obtained in terms d
of x, though sometimes this is not possible. Even when y 2x+y + x.
£ + 2y% =0. i
can be found in terms of x. it is in such a form that differ- d
entiation may be tedious or difficult. This is apparent • £(x+2y) = -(2x+y)
from the examples of Implicit functions given in § 11.
dy 2x +y
In such cases the method adopted is to differentiate and
term by term throughout the equation, remembering that dx x + 2y
in differentiating functions of y we are differentiating a .*. when x = 2,y = -2
function of a function. dy 4-2
dx ~ 2-4
Example I. Find } from the following equation.
= 1.
.'. the gradient of the tangent to the curve at this point
x* -y* + 3x = 5y. is 1 and the angle of slope Is 45°.
Differentiating 2x — 2y 2 + 3 = 5 /.
.
Exercise 8.
Differentiate the following:

dv
The differential coefficient -* remains, as
ax
we have not 1. (2x+6)»; (1 -5*)«; + 7)».
(3*
yet determined it. It will be seen, however, that the 2. irrs J f1

- 2*) 1
; vr=s.
equation can be solved for -¥. 3. (*»-4)»; (1 -*•)!; Vs*" - 7.
Thus collecting terms involving it

ft,•
r^2? VT=Ti*; xVT^r?.
:
l l . I
dx 5.
4-x' Vi~' (* -*)"r
= 2x + 3 I *
or % (2> + 5) fi
. 1 .
• dl _ ** + 3
•
•
dx 2y~+T5' 7
dy .
-
vr^?'" Vvr=T5^ v(r+i)'
It will be observed that the solution gives / in terms of
the two variables x and y. When corresponding values of

x andy are known, the numerical value of -? can be deter- 9. v^T^y~-
mined. An example of this follows. 10. y/l -*+*»; (1 -2x*)\
the numerator and denominator x is not an index, but

signifies that y, the original function, has been twice
differentiated and each time with respect to x.
1 Vl + 2i
12.
Thus, r t
measures the rate at which ^- is changing with
13.
. Vl+x* respect to x, just as -3- measures the rate at which y is
changing with respect to x.

14.
l
*Vl - x. The second differential coefficient is also a function of x,
V2*» - 3* + 4
;
dv
unless J- is a linear function or a constant. Consequently
15 -
*?£?: *V2T+T j4 can a l so De differentiated with respect, and the result
Find v^ from the following implicit functions I

is the third differential coefficient of y with respect to x.
+ Ixy + 9y* = 6.
16. 3** It Is represented by , \.
- -y») = 0.
17. (x* 4-y»)» (*«
Thus in the above example in which
+y»
18. *» =Zxy.
=
19. x« 4-y" an .
20. Find the gradient, at the point (1, 1), of the tangent
3-"*
to the curve x* +y* — 3* + Ay — 3 = 0.
49. Successive differentiation.

Thus it is possible to have a succession of differential
It was pointed out
in § 32 that the differential coefficient coefficients. This process of successive differentiation can
of a function of x, unless it be a linear function, is itself a be continued indefinitely or until one of the differential
function of x. coefficients is a constant. This can be illustrated by the
For example, if y = 3x* example of y = x", as follows:
&
dx
= 12**. Successive differential coefficients of x\
Since 12** is a function of *, it can be differentiated with y = xn
respect to * and
d
&-***
dx
(I2*3) =36x».
dx
This expression Is called the second differential coefficient
of the original function, and the operation can be indicated
g = n(n-l)(»-2)*-».
If n is a positive integer this process can be continued
The symbol employed to represent the second

until ultimately n —
n is reached as the index of x and the
-,-', Is
differential coefficient becomes n(n 1) (n —
2) . . . 3, 2, 1 —
differential coefficient. In this symbol the figure "2" in — »'.«., factorial n or [n. The next and subsequent
differential coefficients are zero. If n is not a positive Consider the function

integer the process can be continued indefinitely. The y= x*— 4* 4-3
following example will serve as an illustration. then y l= 2*-4
Find the successive differential coefficients of and y, =
2.
y = x? - Ix* + 6% + 3. Fig. 11 shows the graph of y

(1) x* = -
4* 4-3, (2) the
graph of y, =2x —4, and (31 y, =
2, the graphs of the
Then ~?
dx
= 3%» - 14* +6 two derived functions. The following connections between
3— 14
the curve of the original function and of its two derivatives
will be obvious.
S-«
£-*
dx*
50. Alternative notation for differential coefficients.

The successive differential coefficients are also called the
derivatives or derived functions of the original function.
They may conveniently be denoted by the following
alternative symbols:
(1) When the functional notation is employed:
If /(*) or x)
<{>( denotes a function of x.
/'(*) or^'(x) denotes the 1st cliff, coefficient.
/"(*) or*"(*) .. 2nd
/"'(*) or f" (*) „ 3rd
f(x) or^(x) .. 4th „ etc.
(2) Or y may be retained with a suffix or an accent:

Thus if y denotes the function.
1st diff. coefficient. Fig. II.
y, „
y* .. 2nd (1) Since y l( the function.givestherateof
first derived
y% „ 3rd „ ,etc. increase of y with respect to *, Its value for any assigned
or sometimes the terms y' y", y'" . . are used.
,
.
value of x equals the gradient at the corresponding
point on the curve.
51. Derived curves. Take any point A on OX where x =
3-6. Drawing
has been shown above that successive differentiation
If the ordinate at A, P is the corresponding point on the
of a function of x produces a set of derivatives each of which curve, and Q the point on the straight liney, =2* —
4,
is also a function of x. These derivatives can be represented the first derived function.
by their graphs. Consequently the derived functions give Then, the value of the ordinate QA Is equal to the
rise to a series of derived curves, between which definite gradient of the curve at P. This value is seen to be
relations exist. 3-2 units. By calculation, substituting x =3-6 in
; —

y, = 2x —
4, the differential coefficient, this is equal
to (2 x 3-6) 4 3-2.- = CHAPTER VI
(2) The graph of the second derived function, viz.
y, =2, being parallel to OX
and having a constant MAXIMA AND MINIMA VALUES. POINTS OF
value for any ordinate, shows that the gradient of INFLEXION
yi = 2x —
4 is constant, viz. 2.
(3) At the lowest point B on the curve of y x* = — 52. Sign of the differential coefficient.
Ax +3 the value of the ordinate at the corresponding The sign of the differential coefficient, to which brief
point on the first derived curve, y, 2x =
4 is zero — references were made in §§ 34 and 51, must now be examined
it cuts OX
at this point. Thus the gradient of the in more detail.
original function Is zero, when x 2. =
A tangent If y is a continuous function of x, and if x receives an
drawn to the curve at B will be parallel to OX. increment 6x, then y will be increased or decreased by a
(4) For values of x less than 2, the function x*
— finite quantity 6y.
Ax +3 Is decreasing while the derived function values If y Increased, then Sy must be positive, and 8x being
Is
are negative. For values greater than 2, x* 4x 3 — + always positive, the rate of change as expressed by the
Is increasing and the derived function 2x —
A Is positive.
limit of ^~ .«.,
J-
— must be positive.
Exercise 9.
If, however, y Is decreased, 6y must be regarded as
Write down the first, second and third derivatives of
negative. Hence the rate of change as expressed by the
the following functions of x:
I. x*(x- 1). 2. *». limit of ¥ must also be negative i.e.,
J must be negative.
3. Sx* - 3x» + 2x* - x + 1.
More concisely:
4. 10* — 4x* + 5* — 2.
8
(1) If y Increases as x Increases, ;- is positive.

i* 6. Vx.
y decreases as x Increases. negative.
7. \/2iTT. 8.
i (2) If ,' is
Similar conclusions were reached in connection with the

1 gradient of a curve at a point. Since algebraical functions
9. Find the nth differential coefficient of can be represented graphically, the form of the curve, as
^
shown below, will indicate whether the function is increasing
[Hint, -r
L a*
—
— x* = i
1
(- L- + -Ml.
,
2a \a + x a — xll
or decreasing, and consequently whether the differential
coefficient is positive or negative.
10. If /(*) = Gx* - 5x + 3, find /'(0). For what value A. Functions which are Increasing are shown by portions
of * is /'(*) =0? To what point on the curve of/(*) does of their curves in Figs. 12(a) and 12(6). where P is a point
this correspond ?
on the curve and Q the point corresponding to an increase
11. If /(*) =x*-5x* +
7, find /'(l) and /"(2). For of 6x in the value of x.
what values of x does /'(a:) vanish?
12. Find the values of x for which the curve of f(x) = (1) Curves may be concave upwards and rising, as in
^x3 — fx* + 6x + has zero gradient.

1 For what value of
Fig. 12(a). Examples are y = x* (for positive values of
x is the gradient of f'(x) equal to zero ? To what value of x), y = 10*, y = tan x (between and
|J.
f'[x) does this correspond?
77
78 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS MAXIMA AND MINIMA VALUES 79
(2) Or they may be concave downwards and rising, to the curve at P makes an acute angle with OX. Hence
as in Fig. 12(6). Examples are, y = V*. y = log •». the gradient, given by tan 8, is positive. It is also evident
y = sin x ( between and g)- that in Fig. 12(a)

J Is Increasing, in Fig. 12(6) decreasing.
B. Functions which are decreasing can be similarly repre-

sented by portions of their curves in Figs. 13(a) and 13(6).
V
Fig. 12(a).
Fio. U(« •
Y
Y
/
f
P.
*»
o
J. Ox Ns\
O dx
Fio. 12(6).
Fio. 13(6).
In both kinds the curve rises upwards to the right as x
Using the same letters and notation as in Figs. 12(a) and
increases.
As evident from the figures, as x
is is increased by 6x, 12(6), it is evident that in each case, as x at the point P
increased by 6y, receives an increment 6x, the new value of the function at x
y is
Thus J and Its limit are positive.

is less. Hence Sy must be regarded as negative and ^, with
Its limit ',
are negative.
Geometrically it is evident that in each case the tangent J
8o TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS MAXIMA AND MINIMA VALUES 8i
As before, there axe two types: to Increase. Thus when x = 2, the value of y is
The curve concave upwards falling, as in Fig. momentarily not changing, but is stationary. There
(1)
13(a). Examples are: Is therefore no rate of change, and zero. The
y = x* (for negative values of *), y = j
- , y = -J
Is
straight line AB
thus cuts OX at this point.
cot x ( between and gj, etc. Hence when x =
2, the function is said to have a
The curve concave downwards falling, as in stationary value, and C is called a stationary point on
(2)
Examples are: the curve.
Fig. 13(6).
y = sin x (between £ and *\ y = — x* (positive
values of x), etc.
The tangents drawn to both of these curves make obtuse

angles with OX. Consequently tan 6, the gradient of the
line, is negative. j„
It is also clear that ,' Is Itself Increasing In 13(a) but
decreasing In Fig. 13(6).
53. Stationary values.
Two of the cases illustrated above — viz., Figs. 12(a) and

13(a) —occur in the graph of y x* 4x =
3 which was— +
shown in Fig. 11. This is repeated in Fig. 14, and we will
examine it further.
Since y = x* — 4x + 3
dx
This latter is represented in Fig. 14 by the straight line
AB. Fig. 14.
The following changes in the curve and function can be
seen from the graph:
These important conclusions may be summarised as
follows:
(1) While x Increases from — oo to + 2, y Is
decreasing. Values of ?- —represented by the line

(1) 1/ x < + 2, y is decreasing and £ is negative.
AB —are negative (see Fig. 13(a)). (2) If x > + 2, y is increasing and -2- is positive.
(2) While x Increases from +2 to + oo , y Is
(3) When x = 2, at C y is momentarily neither in-
Increasing (see Fig. 12(a)). Hence values of
**
r are creasing nor decreasing — i.e., the function has a stationary
positive.
At C the curve ceases to decrease and begins
value and <~
dx
= o.
(3)
8i TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS MAXIMA AND MINIMA VALUES 83
Next we will consider the function: 54. Turning points.

Comparing the stationary points in Figs. 14 and 15 ol
y = 3 + 2x — x*. the curves of
:. £-2-2*. y = x — 4x + 3
*
dx and y=Z+2x-x*
The graphs of these are shown in Fig. 15, in which the we note the following important differences.
In y = x* — 4x + 3, at the stationary point,
(1) The curve Is changing from concave upwards

falling to concave upwards rising (Figs. 13(a) and 12(a).
The slope, 0, changes from an obtuse angle, through
zero, to an acute angle.
(2) The values of the function are decreasing before
and Increasing after.
i
Xr (3) Consequently -,- is negative before and positive

-2 after.
ax
iiilililii
-2
s In y = 3 + 2x - x»
I
(1) Is changing from concave downwards
The curve
rising, to concave downwards falling; but 9 is
changing from an acute angle before the point to an
obtuse after (cf. Figs. 12(6) and 13(6)).
(2) The values of the function are Increasing before
and decreasing after.
-Y Consequently ?- is positive before and negative
(3)
after.
Fig. IS. Thus at both points:
(1) The function decreases before and increases

straight line AB
represents the derived function 2 — 2x. after, or vice versa.
Examining these, as was done above, we see:
(2) J- — and changes sign.
(1) When x < + 1, y is increasing and -? is positive.

Such points on a curve are called "turning points"
We shallsee later that not all stationary points are turning
(2) When x > + 1, y is decreasing and -? is negative.
points.
When = and It should be noted that for both stationary and turning
(3) x 1 (at C) y has ceased to increase
begins to decrease. points an essential condition is that 7 = 0. It is the
.'. the value of the function at C is stationary and
the curve has a stationary point. behaviour of the function before and after, and conse-
quently that of the differential coefficient, which deter- /. the stationary point Is also a turning point when
mines the difference. x =— I.
Note. —
The student is recommended to draw the
55. Worked examples. curves of the above two functions.
Example I. For what valve of x is there a turning point
on the curve of y = 2x* —
6* + 9 ? 56. Maximum and minimum values.
y = 2x* - 6* + 9
If
There a very important difference between the turning
is
points of the curves of the functions examined in § 53, viz.
%-*-* y = x* - 4* + 3
dv and y = 3 + 2x — x*.
For a stationary point -f = 0. as the student will have observed by an examination of
4x -6= Figs. 14 and 15.
and x = 1-5.
(1) In y = x1 4x — +
3 (Fig. 14) the turning point
C, is the lowest point on the curve i.e., at that point
For values of x < 1-5, % is negative.
y has its least value. If points are taken on the curve
.". function is decreasing. close to and on either side of C, the value of the function
at each of them greater than at C, the turning point.
is
For values of x > 1-5, -j- is positive. Such a point called a minimum point, and the
Is
function function is said to have a minimum value for the

.'. is Increasing.
corresponding value of x.
As the function is decreasing before the stationary point
and increasing after, It should be observed that values of the function
there is a turning point when x = 1-5.
decrease to the minimum point and increase after it.
,\
(2) In y = 3 -4- 2x -
x1 (Fig. 15) the turning point,
Example 2. Examine y = 1 — 2x — x* for turning C, is the highest point on the curve i.e., at that point
points. y has its greatest value. If, again, points are taken
If y = 1 - 2x — x* on the curve, close to and on either side of C, the
value of the function at each of them is less than at C.
£=-2-2*.
dx Such a point is called a maximum point, and the
dv function is said to have a maximum value for the
For stationary values f- = 0. corresponding value of x.
.'. — 2x - 2 = and x =- 1.
Values of the function increase to the
and decrease after
maximum value
,*, there is a stationary point where x =— 1.
it.
The values of the function at the maximum and minimum
If < — 1,
x -? is positive ; .'. y is increasing. points, while greater or less than values at points close to
them on the curve, are not necessarily the greatest and
If x > — 1, -j- is negative; .". y is decreasing. least values respectively which some functions may have.
This will be apparent in a function such as that which is
.".
y Is Increasing before and decreasing after the examined in the next section. Examples of both maximum
stationary point. and rninimum values may be found in the same graph.
— :
57. The curve of y = (x - l)(x - 2)(x - 3). Solving the equation, the two roots are * 1-42 and =
This function will vanish when * 1 =0, * 2=0, — — *= 2-58 (both approx.).
and * 3 — = —
i.e., when x 1, x 2 and * 3. = = = For these values of *, therefore (marked P and Q on
Fig. 16), there are turning points on the curve.
Consequently the curve will cut the x axis for these
values of *. If the function is a continuous one i.e.,
small changes in x always produce correspondingly small
—
changes in v then, between two consecutive values for I
which the curve cuts the axis there must be a turning point.
Consequently for the curve of the above function there
must be two turning points.
(1) Between the points x = 1 and x =2.
(2) Between the points x = 2 and * = 3.
We note further by examination of the function:
(1) If * < l.yis always negative. -
(2) If * > and < 2 y is positive.

1 >\
(3) If x > 2 and < 3 y negative. is
(4) If x > 3, y is always positive. $ ^

These last two sets of results lead us to the conclusion
(1) That there is a maximum point (positive)

between x = 1 and x= 2.
(2) That there isa minimum point (negative)
between x = 2 and x = 3.
Making the usual table of corresponding values of x and y
and making use of the above conclusions, the curve can
be drawn as shown in Fig. 16. It would need, however,
much tedious calculation to obtain with any high degree of
accuracy either the value of the maximum or minimum
points, or the corresponding values of x.
We therefore proceed to the algebraical treatment of the Fig. 18.
problem. Multiplying out the function, we have:

Substituting the values in the function, we get for the
y =*»-6** + 11* -8. values of the turning points
7
ax
= 3*» - 12* + 11. y = + 0-385 (P on Fig. 16)
and y = - 0-385 \Q on Fig. 16).
It is a necessary condition for turning points that
The conclusion therefore is that:
(1) y has a maximum value of 0-385 when * 1-42. =
-12* +
dx
(2) y has a minimum value of — 0-385 when * =
.-. 3*» 11 =0. 2-58.
i
58. To distinguish between maximum and minimum values. To discover this, substitute in the differential coefficient
In the preceding example it was possible to decide which values of x a little greater and a little less than the value at
was a maximum and which a minimum value by reference the point.
to the curve of the function. This method, though valuable If it is changing sign from positive to negative through
as an illustration, is not satisfactory for practical purposes. the zero value the point is a maximum. >
Accordingly, we proceed to examine algebraical methods, (2) Minimum point. Similarly, since f- must be
which are general in their application and can be employed negative before and positive after, if on substitution as
with certainty and ease. before it is changing sign from negative to positive, the
Three methods can be used; they all follow from the point is a minimum.
conclusions previously reached.
Examination of changes the function near the
Test III. Sign of the second differential coefficient.
Test I. in
turning points. This method is based upon the fact that r\ is the
A maximum point was denned as one at which the value
of the function is greater than for values of x, a little greater
differential coefficient of -p, and indicates, therefore, the
or a little less than that at the turning point. variations of that function.
A minimum point was similarly defined as one at which
the value of the function is less than for values of x slightly (1) Maximum point.
greater or less than at the turning point. (a) The function is Increasing before and decreasing
Test consists in the application of these definitions.
I after. A .
Values of x slightly greater and less than that at the (*) :. r is positive before and negative after.
••X
turning point are substituted in the function. From a fly
(c) .'. at a maximum point J- Is decreasing.
comparison of the results we can decide which of the above
definitions is satisfied. (d) .*. -^ must be negative.
This might be expressed in general terms as follows
Let/(x) be a function of x.
(2) Minimum point.
Let o be the value of x at a turning point.
Then /(a) is the value of the function at the point. (a) The function is decreasing before and Increasing
Let A be a small number. after. i
Then /(a +
h) is a value of the function slightly greater (b) ;. -f is negative before and positive after.
iX
than at the turning point and /(a —
h) is a value of the
(c) .: at a minimum point -*
fjy
In Increasing.
function slightly less.
<Pv
Then for a maximum /(a) is greater than both /(a + h) .".
-r52 must be
.
positive.
and /(a — h). dx
Test Changes In the value of the differential
II. 59. Graphical Illustrations.
coefficient before and after the turning point. All these conclusions can be exemplified by further
(1) Maximum point. We have seen above that: consideration of the curve of
The function is Increasing before and decreasing = {x-l)(x-2)(x-3)
after. y
or y=x*-Qx* + 11* -6
,", * must be positive before and negative after.
which was examined for turning points in § 57.
go TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS MAXIMA AND MINIMA VALUES fi
Since /(*) = x* - 6*" + 11* - 6 Accordingly we substitute in §3j or /" (*) those values of *
/'(*) = 3*» - 12% + 11
/"(*) = 6* - 12. which produce turning points.
shown
All three curves are
Testing for turning points
in Fig. 17.
From above 5a = 6* — 12
3x* - 12* + 11 =0 (1) When * = 1-42, 6* - 12 = 8-52 - 12
whence x = 1-42 and 2-58 (as above). . d*y = ~ 3-48,
••«• Is negative
jjt
.*, P must be a maximum point.
(2) When x = 2-58, 6* - 12 =
15-48 - 12
d*v =+ 348.
i.e., t-4, Is positive.
,*, Q must be a minimum point.

Turning to Fig. 17, we will now examine these turning
points, comparing for the maximum and minimum values
the corresponding curves, viz., /(*),/'(*) or -¥,f"{x) or p^.
A. At the maximum point P.
(1 (' (x) = 0, the essential condition of a turning point.

(2 f(x) is Increasing before P, decreasing after.
(3 / (%) is positive before P, negative after.
(4 ,', f'(x) Is decreasing.
(5) .'. f"(x) or \ \ Is negative.
B. At the minimum point Q.

(1) /'(*) = 0,
the essential condition
(2) /(*) is decreasing before Q, increasing after.
(3) /'(*) is negative before Q, positive after.
(4) ,', f'(x) or ,' Is Increasing.
f"(x) or y positive.
(5) ,\ ,
t
Is
Fig. 17.
All of these conclusions are illustrated in Fig. 17.
Corresponding to these values of *, marked A and B in
Fig. 17, are the turning points P and Q, and it was found
Of the three methods given above for the discrimination
in § 57 that at P,f(x) =
0-385 and at Q,f(x) - 0-385. = between maximum and minimum values of a function:
Test III above may be employed to distinguish alge- Test a sound one fundamentally, though the
j
is
braically which is the maximum and which the minimum. calculations are apt to be tedious.
ga TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS MAXIMA AND MINIMA VALUES 93
Test II is also sound, but often laborious. (a) If * < — J, — — 2x is positive.
1
Test III is generally the easiest and most useful, but If * > — J, — 1 — 2x is negative.
there is an exception which will be discussed later.
,*, j<- is decreasing as * increases.
Example maximum minimum value when
.'. by Test II y Is a maximum when x =— J.
I. Find the or
y = 2x* — 6* + 3. (6) Also g = -2.
This is always negative.
minimum by Test
.". III the turning point Is a
For a maximum or
maximum.
dx
= 0. Example 3. Find the turning points on the curve of
:. ix -6=o y = x3 — 6x* + 9x — 2, and distinguish between maximum
* = 1-5. and minimum.
= x* - 6x* + 9x - 2.
There a turning point on the curve when x = 1-5.
To
is
distinguish between maximum and minimum: " / &
d
dx
= 3%' - 12* + 9.
.
dv .
— 6:
(a) Considering the expression for /,
dv
viz. 4x
and S= 6x - 12.
(1) If x < 1-5,

j is negative. For turning points,
(2) If x > 1-5 ^ is positive. dx

.*.
dv
-I- Is Increasing as x increases. .'. - 12* + 9 =
3* 1
or - ix + 3 = 0.
x*
.\ by Test II y Is a minimum when x = 1-5. x = 3orl..-.
.". There are turning points when x = and x = 3.

<»£ =
I
*•
To distinguish between maximum and minimum, we use
This is always positive.
.*. by Test III y Is a minimum when x = 1-5. Test III and examine *4
dx 1
Example 2. Examine y = 5 — x — x* for turning points From above t^ = Qx — 12.
and distinguish between maximum and minimum.

= 5 — x — x* If * = 1, -r~t = — 6. .'. a maximum point.
Since
g 1-2*
v
— If* = 3, ^=+6. /. a minimum point.
For a turning point — 1 - 2x = 0, .*. the curve has a maximum point when x =1 and a
whence * = -!• minimum point when x 3. =
The values can be found by substituting these values for
x in the function x* — 6** + 9* — 2.
They are maximum value -f- 2. . i_120
minimum value —2. •• * 600
Example 4. When a body is projected vertically upwards x = ± a/6-2 = ± 0-447 sq. in. (approx.)
with a velocity of 80 ft. per sec., the height (s) reached after a The negative root has no meaning in this connection, and
time t sees., is given by the formula s 80/ 16/*. Find = — is disregarded.
the greatest height to which the body will rise, and the time To discover whether this value of x corresponds to a
taken. maximum or minimum, we use Test III.
s isa function of t and s 80/ = — 16/*. d*y _24Q
Differentiating s with respect to /.
Then
dx* ~ x*
'
ds
= 80 - 32/.
When * =
0-447 this is positive.
dt ,*,the cost is a minimum for this cross-section.
But when greatest 120
s is Substituting for x in (- 600*, we get the minimum
ds cost.
= 0.
dt
:. 80 - 32/ =
Thus C
=(R47 +600x0-447.
whence t = 2-5 sees.
= £537 (approx.).
d*s Example A
Also
dt*
= -32.
that its volume
6.
is
cylindrical gasometer is to be constructed so
V cu. ft. Find the relation between the
This is always negative, there must be a maximum radius of the base and the height of the gasometer so that the
value for s when t 2-5. = cost of construction of the metal part, not inclitding the base,
shall be the least possible. Find also the radius of the base,
Substituting in s = 80/ — 16/*
r, in terms of V.
we get s = 100 ft.
Let h be the height of the gasometer.
Example 5. The cost, £C, per mile of an electric cable is Let A be the area of surface, excluding the base.
120 The cost will be least when A is least.
given by C = -'
} + 600*, where x is its cross-section in
Using the formulae for a cylinder, without base,
sq ins. Find the cross-section for which tlie cost is least, and A = w* + 2*rA (1)
the least cost per mile. and V = w*A (2)
C = -° + 600*. These equations contain two independent variables, r

and h. We accordingly eliminate one of them, h, between
dC- 12 ° x fiOO the two equations and obtain A in terms of r and V, which
dx~~l? +im
•
-
••
is a constant.
dC
For a maximum or minimum value of C, -.- =0. From A = 5*
dx (2)
Substituting in (1)
The following brief investigation will also include con-
A = w» + (2*r x sideration of a case in which ,? = but the function is

Jj).
neither a maximum nor minimum.
=W i
^. We will first
trate these points by
illus-
A is a function of r differentiate A with respect to r .

considering the case of
Then
dA = 2*r-:2F y = x*.
dr
Since 4 is to be a minimum, ?- must equal zero.

Then & = 3*»
2w 2V
y = 0. and £-«*
ax*
The curves of the

= ttT function and its first
two derivatives are
and V =™*.
shown in Fig. 18.
'-€ It will be seen that
the curve of y x? =
Also since V = nr*A passes through the
itr8 = 7W*A. origin, and at that
A h=r. point its curvature
Note. —The student should not make the mistake of changes from concave
attempting to differentiate with respect to r in A downwards and rising
Equation (1) as it stands. Care should be taken to (Fig. 126) to concave
distinguish between constants and variables in such upwards and rising
equations. In addition to containing two variables, (Fig. 12a). Thus it is
this equation does not contain the constant V. It is rising in each part
therefore necessary to eliminate h and obtain A in i.e., it is Increasing
terms of rand. v. throughout, except at Fig. 18.
the origin, when the
61. Points of Inflexion.
curve is momentarily stationary. At that point, there-
When studying how to discriminate between maximum fore, there is a stationary value, the gradient is zero,
and minimum values of a function, one of the tests applied and the tangent to the curve is the axis of *. It does not
(Test III) was that of the sign of -p^; viz., that for a therefore fulfil the condition for a turning point viz., —
increasing before and decreasing after, or vice versa.
maximum it is negative, and for a minimum, positive. To The curve of its differential coefficient i.e., of y' 3**=
complete this test it is necessary further to consider what is shown in the parabola, which is dotted. This curve is
happens when n-Q.
& always positive, which was to be expected from the fact
that the function y =
a? is always increasing. Its value is
d(cal)
— — :

zero at the origin. This indicates that the gradient of
y =• x* is zero at that point, which is a minimum point for (4) Consequently ftx 4.
-,- is changing sign at the point
y •=• 3*1 It shows further that y
. x* has a minimum » of inflexion. .
y
gradient at the point. (5) At the point of inflexion, C, , is a minimum for
the corresponding value of x.
dx
Such a point as this on a curve is called a Point of Inflex-
ion, the word indicating a bending in the curve. The (6) This value of ?— viz., — 1
—gives the gradient
curvature is changing at such a point from concave down-
wards to concave upwards, or vice versa, as would be the of the curve at the point of inflexion. It is therefore
case for y *".=— the gradient of the tangent at the point. If 8 be the
This is an invariable condition for a point of inflexion, slope of the tangent, then tan 6 1, and 8 135°. =— =
Summing up, it may be stated that at a point of Inflexion
but at such a point ,- is not necessarily zero, as in the above
on a curve:
example i.e., the tangent at the point is not always (1) The curvature changes from concave upwards to
concave downwards, or vice versa.
parallel to OX. Nor does the zero value of ? necessarily
(2) Consequently 7- will be increasing be/ore and
correspond to a turning point for the function. But for
the point of inflexion the gradient is a minimum and the decreasing after, or vice versa.
minimum value of -jr- in this example is zero. (3) Therefore ,

-^ will be positive before and negative
As an example of a function for which the tangent to the after, or vice versa.
curve at a point of inflexion is not parallel to OX, we can
consider the case of the point C on the curve of (5) ¥ will also be a maximum or minimum.
y = (x - \)(x - 2){x - 3). (Fig. 17.) . *y _

From this curve we note:
Thus P-t changes sign through the point of inflexion.
(1) At the point C the curvature is changing from
concave downwards to concave upwards. The tests for discrimination between maximum and
(2) When the curve is concave downwards
^
is ¥ 62.
minimum values of a function may be summarised as
decreasing. follows
.-.
g Is negative (§52).
T -
Maximum. Minimum.
<
|
point of Inflexion.
y— /(s) (l) Qcreutojt before.

I (1) Decreasing before ;
Changing from con*
When the curve is concave upwards
dx
is in-
|
.
(J) Decreasing alter. (3) Increasing alter. cave up to concave
down or vice-versa.
creasing.
A maximum or mini*
g Is positive (§52).
dy
rf»- !
1
(11
(2)
(3)
Positive before
Negative aiter.
Equal to
point.
at the
11) Negative before
n) Positive after.
(3) Equal to
point.
at the
mum.
decreasing. Increasing.
(3) At the point of change i.e., at the point of .*. .*.
. .,
inflexion
.
— d*v
-r<
ax*
is zero.
£y Negative. Positive, ! Zero and changing sign.
TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS MAXIMA AND MINIMA VALUES tox
Exercise 10. Its capacity is to be 8 cu. ft. Find the side of the square
= xa — 2*. Find and obtain base and the depth, so that the least amount of sheet iron
1. Draw the curve of v j2.
dx may be used.
itsvalue when x = — 1,
0, 2, 3, checking the values from
= 4-8 - 2-21 =5 = 0-5,
11. If and s when t express
the graph. For what value of x is there a turning point on ft
the curve? Is this a maximum or minimum point? s as a function of t and find its maximum value.
d*v
What is the sign of -A. ?
12. If H =pV and p = 3 - \V, the maximumfind
dv value of H.
2. Draw the curve of y = 3* — *'. Find / and calculate
dx
13. A rectangular sheet of tin, 30 in. x 24 in., has four
dv equal squares cut out at the corners, and the sides are then
its value when x = 0, 1, 2, 3. For what value of x is -f
turned up to form a rectangular box. What must be the
zero ? What is the sign of -j\ for the same value of x ? length of the side of each square cut away, so that the
volume of the box may be as great as possible ?
Is the function a maximum or a minimum for this value?
14. The strength of a rectangular beam of given length is
Find the turning points for the following function and
3. proportional to bd* where 6 represents the breadth and d
ascertain whether the function is a maximum or minimum the depth. If the cross-section of a beam has a perimeter
in each case: of 4 ft., find the breadth and depth of the strongest beam.
(1) 4*» - 2x. (2) x - 1-5* 1
. 15. Find the values of x corresponding to (1) a maximum
(3) x* + 4x + 2. (4) 2*» +x- I. value, (2) a minimum value, (3) a point of inflexion on the
4. Find the maximum and minimum
values of the curve of y =
Ix3 +
3** -
36* 10. +
following functions and state the corresponding values of xi 16. Find the maximum and minimum values of the curve
(1) *» 12*. — (2) 2*» 9** 12*. - + of the function y =*(*' 1). —
Find also the gradient of
(3) x* Qx* - 12. +
(4) 4*» 9*» 12* 13. + - + the curve at the point of inflexion.
(5) 2 9* -
6*» *». + — 17. Find the value of x at the point of inflexion of the
= —
5. Find the maximum and minimum values of
curve of y 3** 4* 5. +
18. The distance s travelled by a body propelled vertically
(* + 1)(* — 2)* and the corresponding values of *. j
upward in time t is given by the formula
6. Find the maximum and minimum values of 4* + -. = 120/ - 16<».
s
7. Divide 10 into two parts such that their product is a
Find the greatest height which the body will reach and the
maximum. time taken.
8. In a certain type of engine the ratio of expansion, r,
19. The bending moment (M) of a beam, supported at
and the number of pounds, N, of steam used per I.H.P.
— one end, at a distance x from one end is given by the
hour are related by the equation N 0-52r* 5-5r 32. = + formula
Find the value of r which gives the minimum value of N.
9. A closed cylindrical tin is to be manufactured to
M = \wlx — Jw* 1
,
contain 40 cu. ins. If the minimum amount of metal is where / isthe length and w is the uniform-load per unit
to be used, what is the ratio of the height of the tin to the length. Find the point on the beam at which the bendinp
diameter of its base ? moment is a maximum.
10. An open to be made of sheet iron; it must
tank is
have a square base and sides perpendicular to the base.
THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 103
where (x + 8x) takes the place of P, and x the place

of <?•
CHAPTER VII Transforming the numerator in (A ) we get
DIFFERENTIATION OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS «y — 2 2
Sx Sx
63. The circular measure of angles. Sx\ . Sx
S*
(
When considering the differentiation of the Trigono- 2cos(x ,
-r-^Jsm-g
metric or Circular functions it must be remembered that
Sx
the angle whose function is being examined is assumed to
or, re-arranging
be measured in circular measure. Thus, when finding the . Sx
differential coefficient of sin 9
sin 8 with respect to 6
i.e., the rate of increase of
—
it is clearly necessary that 8 should
be measured in absolute units, and not in arbitrarily chosen
units such as degrees or grades. Unless it is specially
E— {-+f)*-J
Transferring the numerical factor,
sin -^
2, on the right side to

the denominator, we have: ^x
indicated to the contrary, in all further work in this volume
angles will be regarded as measured in radians, often
expressed in the convenient form of fractions or multiples
of Jt radians.
2
Students who are at all hazy about circular measure
should revise it before proceeding further. (Trigonometry, In this form the second factor takes the form of -^- , the
Chap. X.)
64. Differentiation of sin x.

limit of
this
which,
we know
when 8 —
>• 0, was found in § 19.
that, proceeding to the limit in B,

From
Let y = sin x. .
sin
Sx
-g-
Let Sx be an increment of x. Lt
Let Sy be the corresponding increment of y. » Sx
Then y + Sy = sin (x + Sx) 2
but y = sin x. Taking limits, therefore we havei
.'. Subtracting Sy = sin (x + Sx) — sin x. r . 8zl
_.. ...
Dividing by Sx,
, „ 8y
ga
sin (x
5 -^
+ Sx) —sin x ...
(A) cos
V
x+ 2)
x
-o7-
Our next step to find the value of the limit of the right-
hand side as Sx
We
—
>• 0.
is
This requires some manipulation.
first change the numerator from a sum to a product
dy
= 8 *—>0)
2
-f-
COS X (since
by employing the trigonometric formula dx
n p
= 2 cos p Q Geometric proofs of the above, as well as of those which
_i_
sin P — sin Q T^
Y sin - ,=-
follow, are of interest, and will be found in larger books on
(Trigonometry, the subject.
§ 87.)
— ' —
io4 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 105
65. Differentiation of cos

Employing the notation and method used with
x.
sin x we " . ^_= sec 2

x.
dx
obtain:
Sy = cos (x + Sx) — cos x. A proof from first principles can readily be obtained by
Using the formula the method employed above for sin x and cos x, using the
cos P — cos Q = — 2 sin P—+

—
^-^ sin P --» — appropriate trigonometrical formula.
67. Differentiation of sec x, cosec x, cot x.

^Trigonometry, § 87.)
Sx\ Sx The differential coefficients of these functions can be
Sy = - o2 sin I(x + •
,
-g-J
sin
.
^. found from first principles as above, but they are more

easily obtained by expressing them as reciprocals of cos x,
Dividing by 8* .
sin x and tan x, and using the rule for the differentiation
sin^
of a quotient.
g = -2sin(* + ^)x 8*
(a) y = cosec x.
Sx
sin Then y
J = sinx 1
= -sin(* + |)x-Sx ~ cosx —

• iy ~ Q ~. cos *
2 (quotient rule).
* * dx sin 1 x ' sin* x
8*
sin This is more useful in the following form:
/ Sx\ 2
•*• U fx=- tx—Li
1,-^.QbX
. ,
— c os* cos *
>-0 1_
2 J sin* x sin x sin x
whence J- = — sin x. ;. SK = — cosec x cot x.

dx dx
66. Differentiation of tan x. (6) y = sec x.
This can be found most easily by making use of the y
*
= sec * = cos* 1
_.
Since tan * = sin *—
differential coefficients of sin x and cos x as obtained above.
dy
dx
_
~
— (— sin x)
cos' x
(quotient rule)
iy _ (cos x x cos x) — {sin x X (— sin x)}

~~
sina^
dx cos" x cos* *
cos 1 * + sin* x
(quotient rule)
= —*—cos *
x
sin x
cos X
cos* X
1
(Trig., §65)
^
dx
= sec x tan x.
cos1 *
(c) y = cot x. dy
I y = cos ax, £ = — a sin ox
tanx dv
y = tan ax, -f = a sec* ox
••
l= ^x 1 COS*_X
(quotient rule)
and similarly for their reciprocals.
cos' x sin* x Thus -j-

dx
sin 2x = 2 cos 2x
I
d x 1 . X
sin*x
dx"** = "2 sm 2
.". / = — cosec2 x. d .
tan
ax a .ax
dx J* b
Summary.
Slightly more complicated forms are such as the following:
68.
The above results are summarised as follows for con- If y = sin (ax + b), ? = a cos (ax + 6)
venience:
y = sin (ji + nx), dv
/ =» cos (it +• nx)
Function.
% y = tan (1 - *), %=~ sec* (1 - x)
sin x COS X
cos X — sin x
tan x sec'x 70. Worked examples.
Example I. y = sin' *.
Differentiate
cosec x — cosec x cot x i.e. ^ = (sin x)'
sec x sec x tan x dy - * (sin *>
cot X — cosec2 x
'•
•
&-2sin*x
2 sin x v -=jj=
= 2 sin x cos x
= sin 2x.
69. Differentiation of modified forms.
Example 2. Differentiate y = sin V*.
The
differentiation of the trigonometric functions
frequently requires the application of the rule for "a y = sin x*
function of a function ". A very common form involves a
—
multiple of x for example, ox. This is a function of a
•'•
^
& = * x (i *"*> (
J)
function, and its differential coefficient is a. Hence this = COS X* X 1

J
must appear as a factor of the differential coefficient. Vx
Thus if y = sin ax. dy
f = a cos ax =_ cos^Vx "
dx 2y/i
; .
Example 3. Differentiate y = vsin x; 35. cot (5x_+ 1). 36. C0t»3x.

i.e. = (sin x)' 37. Vcos x. 38. sin2xcos2x.
rfv , , • > i rf (sin x) 39. sin* x + cos* x. 40. sin* x —
cos* x.
•••
g-***»*H> 41.
»
42. J-^L?.
cos* cosx 1 + COS X 1 + COS X
2 sin x» 2\/siFx' 43. 44. x*cos2x.

sin x
Example 4. y = sin* (x*).
Differentiate (See § 47.) x* tanx — 1
v = (sin*')*. 45. —%-.
cos2x
46.
secx
• S = 2 sin x* x cos x* x 2*
ax 47. xVsinx. 48.
1
sin*x
+ sin x'
= 4x sin x' cos x*.
x cosec
Exercise 1 1.
49.
1 — »tanx" 50. sec* x.
Differentiate the following : 71. Successive derivatives.

1. 3sinx. 2. sin 3*. Let
3. cos
2
. 4. tan =.
x
Then
i =COS *
5. sec 0-6*. 6. coscc *,
C
2/,
= -sinx
7. sin 2x + cos 2x. 8. sin — cos 3x.
3x
9. sec * + tan x. 10. sin + cos 5x.
4x
sin (2x +
^ = -cosx
d"y
11. cos|6 + sin JO. 12.

l). d*y
,-?. = sin x.
13. cos (3n — x). 14. cosec (a — Jx). dy*
15. sin*x. 16. sin (x3 ). Clearly these derivatives will repeat in sets of four,
17. cos* (2x). 18. sec (x*). identical with the first four above.
19. tan VI — x. 20. a sin nx + b cos nx. From Trigonometry we know that cos x = sin (x + ,)
21. a(l —cosx). 22. 2 tan,. .'. the above may be written * *'
23. cos(2x + |V 24. tan 2x — tan*x. ^-cos»_sin(» +

a g
25. x* + 3 sin \x. 26. cos -.
27. x sin x. 28.

*
imx*
S-b{-(«+3}— (»+S-*('+i)
29. xtanx. 30.
X
tanx*
S-4W-+5M— (•+*)-*(•+»»
31.^.
x
32. sin 2x + sin (2x)». They may be continued indefinitely, Z being added in
33. cos* (x»). 34. x' tan x. each successive derivative, the sine form being retained.
no TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS m
Thus may be deduced that A periodic function. Since sin x sin (x -\- 2rc), the =
it
portion of the curve between x and x will be = =2n
aJ -*»(*+
repeated for intervals of 2r as x increases. There will be
)-
2 similar sections for negative angles.
Successive derivatives of cos x may be similarly obtained. Thus the section of the curve between and 2u will be
Those of tan x, sec x, cosec x, and cot x become complicated repeated an infinite number of times between oo and —
after a few steps in differentiation, and cannot be expressed + oo
, the whole forming one continuous curve.
by a general formula. sin x is an example of what is termed a periodic function,
and the number 2n is called the period of the function.
72. Maximum and minimum values of trigonometric
The following characteristics of the curve of sin x
functions.
illustrate much of the work of the preceding chapter.
Note. — Unless the student is familiar with functions
Types of curvature. The curve between
of an angle of any magnitude, he should revise Trigono- (a) and
metry, §§ 130-136. 2tc provides examples of the four types of curvature
= sin x, y = cos x. illustrated in Figs. 12(a) and {b) and Fig. 13(a) and (ft),
(1) y
When y = sin x while that of -r illustrates the connection between these
ax
dy_ = forms of curvature and the sign of the differential
dx- cos a:
coefficient (see § 52).
d*y
= — sin x. (b) Turning points. The curve between and 2ir
,—.
dx % shows that between these two values of x there are
The graph of sin x is represented by the thickest curve in two turning points, at P and Q, the values being 1 +
and — 1.
The broken curve that of and the thin one
Fig. 19.
d*~
is y-
dx
,
At P, when x = " *1 -
j£ =0, and
~l'dx~
Jj, S Is negative.
% .*. P is a maximum point.
At Q, when x = y . -£- = and ~'i Is positive.
.*. Q is a minimum point.

This is true for any section of 2n as x increases.
Consequently throughout the curve from oo to + oo —
there is an Infinite sequence of turning points,
alternately maximum and minimum.
(c) Points of Inflexion. There are two points of
inflexion on this section of the curve at A and B.
At A the curve changes from concave down to concave
dy d*v
up, t .
is a minimum,
.
viz., 1, t-=, and is — =
changing from negative to positive.
Fig. 19. Hence A is a point of minimum gradient. Its
.
1
112 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS "3
while numerically infinitely great. With this
still
gradient is given by the value of < at the point, viz.,
infinitely small increase in x tan 6 changes from co +
1— As this is the tangent of the angle of slope, the
.
to —
co . The curve of the function is therefore
curve crosses the axis at an angle of 135°.
At B this is reversed. The curve changes from
discontinuous. Similar changes occur when * n -x
etc. This can be observed in Fig. 20.
concave up to concave down,
My
/ isa
dx
maximum, and -x ,
The curve of tan x consequently periodic and

-j2, = 0, and is changing sign from positive to negative. (6)
the period Is n.
Is
B therefore a point of maximum gradient. This is

is
equal to +
1, and the curve cuts the axis at 45*. There ft; :
; T
is also a point of inflexion at the origin.
It will be seen that Fig. 19 illustrates graphically the :

: "yl \tT *
tt
whole of the summary in § 62. n
•
-J
TT t\
The graph of cos x is that of sin x, moved 5 to the left
' '
along OX. The curve of ? shows its shape and position in
Fig. 19. Consequently with angles, where they occur,

diminished by „, the above remarks respecting sin x are t
T'HJTTl
applicable to cos x. § :
. f
'Tnnf 5J:
(2) y = tan x. y cot X.
When: When! Iff 1. •

: IJffl Hi iiiir^LJ
y tm tan * v = cot x F10. 20.
dy dy
= sec'» dx
— cosec* x (c) The function Is always Increasing, and this is
ik
d*y d*y indicated by the fact that -? , viz., sec' x, is always
2 sec* x tan * 2 cosec* x cot * *
d? positive.
(d) There Is a point of Inflexion when x tt. The =
The graphs of tan x and of its differential coefficient sec* * curve is changing from concave down to concave up,
are represented in Fig. 20, the latter curve being dotted.
the differential coefficient, sec' x, is a minimum, and
The following characteristics of the curve of y tan * = its value is + 1. Consequently the curve crosses OX
may be noted: at an angle of 46°. Similar points occur for x =
(a) The curve Is discontinuous. When x —> % and any integral multiple of it.
tan x —> + co . On passing through *, an infinitely Since cot x =

tan x
its curve is the inversion of that
small increment of x results in the angle being in the of tan x. It is always decreasing (— cosec' * is always
second quadrant. Its tangent is therefore negative, negative); it is periodic and has points of inflexion
"4 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 113
when x = g, -^ . The student should draw it as All these angles are included in the general formula
an exercise. nit -+ (Trig., § 136.)
(3) y = cosec x, y = sec x.

Turning points on these curves may be deduced from ,*, the angles for which there are turning points in the
those of their reciprocals. When sin x is a maximum, above function are
cosec* is a minimum; consequently the curves are
periodic, and maximum and minimum values occur 4. 4• 4
alternately.
If y = cosec * Abo
dh/
t<
dx*
= — sin * — cos *.
dy
f = — cosec * cot x.
ax
This is negative when
it 9n
When * = * — cosec x = — 1, cot x = 0. *=4' 4
and positive when
•••
I-* *=-j
5n
...
j?, will be found to be positive.
.*. the curve is periodic, and maximum and minimum
Hence there is a maximum value when x 2" values occur alternately:
Both curves are discontinuous and periodic. Maximum when * - n4' 9n

4
(For the curves see Trigonometry, pp. 157, 158.)
_5re 13n
73. Worked example. Minimum when *- 4< 4 • • •
Find the turning points on the curve of y = sin x + cos x.

If y = sin * + cos x Max. value = sm + cos
. 7t . 71
.
dx
= cos * — sir
For turning points
dy
= 0. Similarly minimum value = — \/2.
die The curve is represented in Fig. 21. P is the maximum
Putting cos* — sin* = point and Q the minimum. A Is obviously a point of
sin * = cos* Inflexion.
and tan* = 1. The curve can be drawn by first drawing the curves of
sin * and cos *, and then adding the ordinates
of the two
X = 4" curves for various values of *.
The curve is a simple example of what are termed
But this is the smallest of a series of angles whose Harmonic Curves, or wavediagrams, which are of importance
tangent is + 1. in Electrical Engineering (see Trigonometry, § 139).
—
H6 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 117
74. Inverse circular functions.

When we write y =
sin x the sine is expressed as a function
of the angledenoted by x. When x varies, the sine varies
in consequence i.e., the angle is the independent variable
and the sine the dependent variable.

But we may require to reverse this relation, i.e., to
express the angle as a function of the sine. Thus we
express the fact that when the sine is varied, the angle
varies in consequence. The sine now becomes the Inde-
pendent variable and the angle the dependent variable.
This relation, as the student knows from Trigonometry, is
expressed by the form
y = sin -1
x
which means, y Is the angle of which x Is the sine. From
this meaning we can write down the direct function relation,
viz.i
x = sin y.
It must be noted that the —
1 is not an index, but a
part of the symbol sin- 1 , which expresses the inverse

function.
Exercise 12. All the other circular functions can similarly be expressed
For what values of x, not greater than n are there maxi- as inverse functions.
mum or minimum values of the following?
— 75. Differentiation of sin- 1 x and cor 1 x.
1. sin 2x x.
2. sin* * cos' x. Let y = xsin- 1
3. sin x +
sin * cos x. Then, as shown x = sin y . . (A)
sin x
.
Differentiating x with respect to y.
1 + tan j?
6. 2 sin * + cos x.
6. sin x + cos 2x.
7. 2 sin * — sin 2x. .
"
^ = J.
dx
= _i_
cosy
8. sin x sin 2x. dx
9. What is the smallest value of x for which 2sinx dy
+ 3 cos x a maximum.
is
From the relation sin*.y cos'.y = we have
10. Find the smallest value of * for which tan* x — 2 tan * -f- 1
is a maximum or minimum. cos y = VI — sin*y = vT~— «* (from A)

11. Show that the maximum value of a sin 8 + b cos 9
dl
is Va* + b* and the minimum value — Va* + b*. Hence = I
(Trig., § 139.)
dx Vl-X*
' —
118 TEACH rOURSELF CALCULUS THB TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS "9

Similarly if y = cos- 1
x gradient of the curve is the tangent of an acute angle,
the d.c. will be positive, while at such points as P and/?,
J=_
d where the angle of slope is obtuse, the d.c. will be
dx Vi~=l? negative. j
(5) Since x lies between 1 and — 1,
+ can-
The following points should be noted about these
functions and their differential coefficients. They can be not vanish. Therefore there are no maximum or
examined more easily by
HI means of the graph of the minimum points on the curve. If x =± 1,

t
function y = sin- 1
x (Fig.
becomes infinite.Consequently, at such points as
22).
A and B the tangent to the curve is perpendicular
(1) The function is a
to the x-axis.
many valued function
i.e., for any assigned value and cof 1
76. Differentiation of tan- 1 x x.
of x there is an infinite
number of values of y. Let y = tan- 1
x
=
y sin x is a single valued Then x = tan y
function. Differentiating with respect to y
(2) Since smy lies be-
-/ tween 1 and + 1, the

function sin- 1 x exists be-
tween these values of x
only.
(3) there is an
Since
—
and
infinite number
of angles
:
having a given sine, so for
::
lllllljjljft jttfrlf any value of x between
TIT Til V TTIII 1 +
1 and —
1 there is an
::g||[|j:i 1 1 1 1 ;5| i i
infinite number of points
on the curve. For ex- +X2'
|Sg|;||:ji;||: ample, if x =
J, the values
I
i . 11.
4-f4-j- +£ * f IT
"
"H f
'
'
of y at P. Q and R repre- Similarly, if y = cot- 1

x we can show that
H sent three of the angles

i BiH fii I" 1"
whose sine is £, and that
dy
n
I
Q the smallest posi- dx l+x .2"
HIIIIBlp Fig. 22.

at
(4)
is
tive angle.
The differential co-
In this case there is no ambiguity of sign.
The following points which are illustrated by the graph
efficient of sin-1 x, viz., of tan- 1 x in Fig. 23.
. may be positive or negative. Referring to Fig.

-2
(1) is always positive ; .". y is always increasing.
22, it will be seen that at all such points as Q, where the
120 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
dy dx
(2) j- does not vanish for any value of x ; .'. there
^ = secytany
is no turning point. dy _ 1
(3) Points of inflexion occur when y = 0, «, 2*, — it,
and
dx secytany
etc.
The gradient is positive.
but tan y = Vsec , y — 1 = Vx* — 1.
•
d* - '
dx xVxa_ I*
Similarly if y = cosec-1 x
dx "xVx2 - I"
331
2
i!;
Xr••;-- -2 '(-
i
77
Flo. 23. i
-it
The graph of y = cot -1

x is the reverse of this curve.
* is always negative, .', the function is always decreasing.

!!!!!!
There are no turning points, but a series of points of
inflexion at which the gradient is negative.
1
Fig. 24.
The drawing of the curve is left as an exercise to the 1
student. Fig. 24 represents part of the curve of sec- *. It is a
many-valued discontinuous curve with no part of it between
77. Differentiation of y = sec- 1
x and y = cosec- 1 x.
x= + 1 and x = 1. —
Let y = sec- 1
= secy.
x. -Z — i.e.,
— . .
—1 cannot vanish for any finite value
Then * ax xV x*
iia TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION 133
of x. There are therefore no turning points, but when Similarly for the other three functions.
x =± 1, * becomes infinite, as was the case in the curve 79. Worked examples.
of sin- 1
x (Fig. 22). The curve of cosec- 1 x is similar. Example Differentiate sin- 1 x*.
I .
"
Using the rule for a " function of a function
78. Summary of formulae.
«*y 1 d
The differential coefficients of the inverse functions are w,
collected together below for reference.

Sx -*dxW i
Function.
dy Vi^l»"
dx
Example 2. Differentiate tan- 1 -,.
sin"1 x
VI -x a
-1 1
COS X -2
Vl -x2 x
'^ -2
-1 1
x*
tan x = ?"+i x "^
1 + xa
-1 1 -2x
cot X
1 + xa
Example 3. Differentiate x* sin- 1 (1 — x).
-1 1 Using the rule for differentiation of a product
sec x
xVx2 - g = 2xsin-
l
X <
cosec
-1
x
1
1
1
(1 -x) + x« x
^_ (l _ x)t (1 -x,
xVx2 - 2x sin-1 (1 — x) + X (-1)

1
VI - (1 - 2x + x»)
X*
It should also be noted that Ixsln- 1 (I -x)
V2x^TxT
.x 1
.
sin
-1 - = >
a Va 1 — x* Exercise 13.
Differentiate the following functions i
a a* + x* 1. (a) sin- 1 4*; (6) sin- 1 ?

*- •
?
cos- 1
1
xVx* —
2. (a) ficos-
<* a* ^); (b)
12* TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS
CHAPTER VIII
3. (a) tan- -;1

(b) tan- 1 (a-*). EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
1
4. (a) cos- ^*; (6) sin^V*. 80.Compound Law of Growth.
Interest
5. (a) xsin- *; 1 1
(6) sin- -.
The student be familiar with two methods of pay-
will
ment of interest on money, termed Simple and Compound
1
6. (a) sin- (3* - 1) ; (6) cosecr 1 1. Interest (Algebra, §207). In each the interest bears a
fixed ratio to the magnitude of the sum of money involved.
(* + l) + 1) tan-
1 1
7 (a) tan- ; (6) (x* x.
- x; sin^VT^**. But while with Simple Interest the principal remains the
8. (a tan^Vl (b)
same from year to year, with Compound Interest it is added
1
9. (a) seer 5%; (6) sec- 1 **.
to the principal at the end of each year, over a period, and
10. (a) sin-
1
(sin *) ; (b) sin- 1 Vsin x. the interest for the succeeding year is calculated on the
11. (a) 2 sec- ax; 1
\b) tan^V*. sum of principal and interest.
1 **yHB 2x-
j— tan- Let P = the Principal.
^^—
12. (a) tan- (b)
% ;
Let r = the rate per cent, per annum. f
Interest added at end of 1st year = P x
13 . ^sec-i—^j^sec-
—
1
jqq.
'a' x*
Pr
x ,\ Amount at end of 1st year =P + j™
14. (a) sin-
1
^j—; (6) cosecr 1
r
15. (a) Stan- 1 *; (6) tan* sin- 1 *.
This is the principal for the new year.
.'. by the same working as for the 1st year
Amount at end of 2nd year = P ( 1 + ™j

3rd = p ( +Toor
i
.. .. tax .. =p(i+4)'.
Suppose the interest is added at the end of each half year
instead of at the end of each year, them
Amount at end of 1st half-year =P (l + *—%fft)

„ 1st year +2 x f
100.
2nd „ -P(I + 2 x 100/

.*, Amount at end of t years -P(I 2
)"
x 100/
123
.
ia6 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS ny

If the interest is added 4 times a year: 81. The value of Lt (\ + .)'.
Amount at end of 1st year =Pjl+ *— -r^vj

(\\
+ 1
-J
n
by means of the Binomial Theorem
1
" " P
V + Ax" 100 J
Similarly, if the interest is added monthly, i.e., 12 times

a year: n(n-l)(n-2) 1
Amount at end of t year = P (l + J2 .

**
+~ '9 + ' •
•
^-jqq) l_3
If the interest is added m times a year: Simplifying by dividing the factors in the numerators by
n, n*. n8 . . .
1 + Tqq- 1 Then
In
Then
this result let
roow
r
m =
1
«
nr
C+S'-' + + Tf ' ^ "ji
•••('-^)
"'
+ ••
loo ('-i)('-S
+ •
+ . .
.*, the amount after t years = P (l +

1
\m "
Li
But the limit of (1 + -) is equal to the sum of the
-'{('+3"}" limits. (Th. limits No. 2.)
Also
Now suppose that n becomes indefinitely large, i.e., the
1
interest is added on at indefinitely small intervals, so that l- - (-JX'-S
the growth of the principal may be regarded as continuous.
Then the amount reached will be the limit of
U —Z- J Lt
i
11. IE
' {('+*)}*
and Lt -TF»«te.
when n becomes infinitely large.
Li
To find this we require to find the limit of (l + -)" as
••• Lt + IV
('
)
Amount =P{ Lt (l +l)"p»

It becomes necessary, therefore, to find the value of
The limit is thus represented by an infinite series. It
Lt
,c + ,r- can be proved that as the number of terms is increased
128 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS r
without limit, the sum of all the terms approaches a finite rt
limi t, i.e., the series is convergent (see § 18). Its value has
Let = = X.
100
been calculated to hundreds of places of decimals, and can
be found arithmetically as follows to any required degree Then we can write:
of accuracy. Each term can be found from the preceding A = = Pe«
by simple division of the preceding by the new factor in
the denominator. Thus: f is called an exponential function because the index or
exponent is the variable part of function, whether it be t as
1st term = 1-000000 above or x in general.
2nd $t — 1-000000
3rd il = 0-500000 (dividing 2nd by 2) 82. The Compound Interest Law.
4th $9
= 0166667
6th 91
= 0041667 The fundamental employed in arriving at the
principle
6th It
= 0008333 above growth of the principal is con-
result is that the
7th II = 0001389 tinuous in time and does not take place by sudden increases
8th II = 0-000198 at regular intervals. In practice, compound interest is
9th II = 0000025 added at definite intervals of time, but the phenomenon of
10th n = 0000003 continuous growth is a natural law of organic growth
and change. In many physical, chemical, electrical and
Sum of 10 terms = 2-718282 engineering processes the mathematical expressions of
them involve functions in which the variation is propor-
tional to the functions themselves. In such cases the
Thus its value to 6 significant figures is 2-71828.
exponential function will be involved, and as the funda-
This constant Is always denoted by the letter e.
mental principle is that which entered into the Compound
Interest investigations above, this law of growth was called
or .- U(l+-JY by Lord Kelvin the Compound Interest Law.
I
83. The Exponential Series.
We shall next proceed to show that the function, e", can
be expressed in a series involving ascending powers of x,a
We have seen above that the amount [A) at C.I. after t result which might have been anticipated, since a series
years when the interest is continuously added is
was used to arrive at the limit of ( 1 + -} when n became
infinite.
'-'K'+aT Since
when n becomes infinitely large. -J8Jfr+$
Replacing (l
1\"
+ -) by its limit when n — > oo , we get i
Then
-={('+l)T
A=Pe™.
EICAL.)
-c+sr
: .
J3o TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 131
Expanding thus by the Binomial Theorem But this is the series for e*
^l
+nj =i +w*.-+- TF .g -^ :. n y -*
+
n*(n* - l)(n*
.
- -2)
-2) 1 ,
1 =-
dx
[8
This property, viz. that the differential coefficient of e»
<*-3 is equal to itself, is possessed by no other function of x.
1 +* It was to be expected, since we have seen that fundamentally
e* is a function such that its rate of change is proportional
to itself.
+
<-âX— 2) + . . Similarly, if -*..*--
dx
li
\~ x* x1
LI (l +-)"
1
=l+x + T
H L?
3 y-*-.%--«r~.
I.e., e
,
= l+x+r2 +."x -
3
The differentiation of e* can also be readily performed
This series can be shown to be convergent. by using first principles.
Replacing x by — x we get
85. The exponential curve.
e- = - I x + ^ - *- + . . .
(1) If y =*
d\
Similarly
a'x* a*x*
= +«* + ••
lZ+Tl +
<- 1
_ . ,a*x* a*x*
Since 5- is always positive, the curve of the function e*
84. c.
Differentiation of must be positive and always increasing. ,*, it has no
turning points.
Tliiscan be performed by assuming the series for «* as
above and differentiating it term by term. Since -Pi
dx
= e* this does not vanish for any finite value
xi jft «4 of *.
Since e* = +x +^ +
1
if + [4 + • • •
.'. there is no point of Inflexion.
i ltA _o 4- 4-
2*
4- |£ + ** 4- (2) If y = r«
1
i
x1 x3
:
'3* TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 133
above, #,-.
/ is always 86. Napierian, Hyperbolic, or Natural Logarithms.
Applying the same reasoning as
In § 81 we arrived at the formula
negative. .". curve is always decreasing. There are no
turning points and no point of inflexion.
The two curves are shown in Fig. 25. In drawing them, A = P« 100 .
values of the two functions will be found in the tables on This may be written :
pp. 379, 380. rt

A
= 106 .
P <s
rt
Let
100
= X.
Then we can write:
A
P
= e».
In this form it is seen that x represents the logarithm of *
to base e. In many similar examples e arises naturally as

the base of a system of logarithms. So it came about that
when logarithms were first {jiven to the world by Lord
Napier in 1614, the base of his system involved e. Hence
such logarithms are called Napierian logarithms. They are
also called Hyperbolic logs, from their association with the
hyperbola, and sometimes natural logarithms. The intro-
duction of 10 as a base was subsequently made by a
mathematician named Briggs, who saw how valuable they
would be in calculations. A short table of Napierian
logarithms is given on pp. 377, 378.
In subsequent work in this book, unless it is stated to
the contrary, the logs employed will be those to base e.
Fig. 25. 87. Differentiation of log, x.

The differential coefficient of log, x can be readily obtained
The curve of e* illustrates the continuous increase of a by the method of first principles, the work involving the
function according to the Compound Interest law.
The curve of er* shows a law of decrease common in limit of (l + -)" as n proceeds to infinity. Or the
chemical and physical processes, representing a " dying
away " law, the decrement being proportional to the
differentiation of f may be demonstrated as follows
magnitude of that which is diminishing at any instant. Let y = log, x.
The loss of temperature in a cooling body is an example. Then x = e>.
a "
'34 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 135
•
dx * As a special case, if
y= 10*
and ^
dx
1—
e>
!
x
g= lf> x log, 10.
89. Summary of formulae.
Function. DifT. Coeff.

logarithm involved a different base, say
If the a, then it
can be changed to base e by the usual method. [Algebra,

e' e"
§ 153.)
- e
Thi is if y = log„ X 0" 0* x log.
then y = log. x x log„ e
and
I*
ax
= -X X log,e,
1
log.x
1
X
As a special case if
y = 10gl< * 90. Worked examples.

dy
=X 1
X l°gio ' Example I. Differentiate y = <r
v .
dx
Employing the rule for the function of a function
= 1
X
X 0-4343. If y m £*
68. Differentiation of the general exponential functions.
e* is a special case of a* where a is any positive number. = 6x x e3 **.
Let y = a* Example 2. Differentiate y = log x*.

Then log,^ = xlog,a dy l d
= x**JxW 1 is
x = log,y x
<rx
or
log, a
x 2x
dx
dy y log, a 2
x*
and £=y x log,
Or it can be obtained by noting that log x* = 2 log x.
d
£ = a' x log. o. Example 3. Differentiate log ;™=..
V x* — 1
x*
i 36 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 137
This may be written 13. (a) log (sin x) ;

(b) log (cos x).
y = log x* — log (x* — 1)' 14. (a)log^±|; (ft) log («•+«*).
1
-
2-G-O * U» 15. (a) log (x + V«" + I}; - log (1 + Vx).
(6) Vx"
16. (a) log tan * ; (6) logVFTl; 4* (c)
17. (a) x»c**; (j) .w-tasinftx.

X
18. (a) (b) log (VslHT).
x*-2 J;
~ x(x» - I)
- 19. (a) x*; (6) log {Vx^T + Vx+1).
20. (a) logj-q^; (b) sin x x log sin x.
Example 4. Differentiate y = c** sin (6x 4- c).
This is important in many electrical and physical problems,

such as, for example, the " dying away
21. (a) log^±^
- ; (6) ^ sin *x.
of the swing of a '
Va Vx
pendulum in a resisting medium.
22 - («) «~; Jqrf*
Let y = e-a* sin (bx + c).
(*)
23. (a) sin- 1 log x; (6) cos-»<r*.

Then -2 = {<r« x 6 cos (bx + c)} — {ae-"sm (bx + c)} 24. (a) e°* cos (6x c) +
(b) e-* cos 3x (c) <r*' sin (**+£)•
ax
= r«{D cos (bx + c) — a sin (bx +
; ;
c)}.
1 * log
25- (") /** sin-»^-=-^.
Exercise 14.
°a «* —V —
.; (b)
x* 1 e + e~*
26. Find the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and wth derivatives of
Differentiate the following functions i (a) y =c*; (b) y =
r<"; (c) y = log x.
1. (a) **; (6) el;Jc) e^.
2. (a) r^; (b) <fV; (c) *«-»».
3. (a) e-v; (b) e>; **».

^-
(c)
*• w (6) %^S (e)
6. a) xc*\ (6) xr»; xV*.

(c)
6. a) (x+4)**; (6) Csinx; (c) 10«*.

7. (a) 2*; (b) 10**; '(c) ****.
8. x"a x i«r+I. (c) C00".
9. ?* («+&)*;
(6) (C)
«*»
10. (a) log?; (A) log (ax» + bx + c).
11. (a) logx»; (6) log (x» + 3).

12. (a) xlogx; (6) log (j>x + q).
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS >39
In curve A the ordinate of any point on it is

(1)
CHAPTER IX one half of the sum of the corresponding ordlnates of
e* and e~*. For example, at the point P, its ordinate
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS PQ is half the sum of LQ and MQ.
91. Definitions of Hyperbolic Functions. .'. for every point on the curve
In Fig. 25 there were shown the graphs of the exponential

function e* and c~*. These two curves are reproduced in
' 2
Fig. 26, together with two other curves marked A and B. On
curve B, the ordinate of any point is one half
(2)
of the difference of the ordinates of the other two
curves.
Thus RQ = \(LQ - MQ)
i.e., for any point y = $(«* — «-*).
The two curves therefore represent two functions of x,
and their equations are given by
y = J(e* + e-«)
and y = $(e* — e-*).
found that these two functions have properties which
It is
in many respects are analogous to those of y = cos x and
y =
sin x. It can be shown that they bear a similar
relation to the hyperbola that the trigonometric or circular
functions do to the circle. Hence the function y =
J(e* + e-*) Is called the hyperbolic cosine, and y =
J(e» — e-x ) Is called the hyperbolic sine.
These are abbreviated to cosh x and sinh
x, the added h
indicating the hyperbolic cos, etc. The names are usually
pronounced " cosh " and " shine," respectively.
They are defined by the equations stated above, viz. :
cosh x = i(e» + e-*)
slnh x • J(e* — e-*).
From these definitions, also
cosh x + slnh x = e»
cosh x — slnh x = e~*
There are four other hyperbolic functions corresponding
to the other circular functions, viz.:
= sinh x ««« -1
+ r* -
tanh x -
cosh x e* as + i
i4o TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 141
l 2 This should be compared with the trigonometrical result

k
cos* x + sin*x = 1.
1
sech x = cosh* (2) cosh* * -f sinh* *
coth x = tanh 1
— r*'
x ef
These functions can be expressed in exponential form by

derivation from their reciprocals.
" 4
The names of these are pronounced " than," " coshec,"
" shec " and " coth." = 2
The curve of cosh x, marked A in Fig. 26, is an important
one. It is called the catenary, and is the curve formed by a
= cosh 2x
uniform flexible chain which hangs freely with its ends fixed. i.«., cosh* + sinh = cosh 2x.
1
x
These functions can be expressed in the form of series
This analogous
is to cos* x — sin* * = cos 2x.
which are derived from the series for p, found in § 83.
Similarly, any formula for circular functions has its
Thus counterpart in hyperbolic functions. It will be noticed
that in the above two cases there is a difference in the signs
used, and this applies only to sinh* *. This has led to the
and formulation of Osborne's rule, by which formulae for
hyperbolic functions can be at once written down from the
Hence by addition and subtraction: corresponding formulae for circular functions.
cosh * = 1 +7i2+j4+-.. Osborne's Rule.

In any formula connecting circular functions of general
slnhx = x + n+f + • ' • angles, the corresponding formula connecting hyperbolic
5
functions can be obtained by replacing each circular
function by the corresponding hyperbolic function, If the
92. Formulae connected with hyperbolic functions.
sign of every product or Implied product of two sines Is
There is a close correspondence between formulae ex- changed.
pressing relations between hyperbolic functions and
similar relations between circular functions. Consider the For example sec* x = 1 + tan* *
two following examples: becomes sech' x = — tanh* x
1
(1) cosh* * — sinh* x since tanh'*

sinh x x sinh x
= cosh x x cosh x"
2 ) \^
-f-e^)'
= i {(«**+ + 2) -
r* + **- 2)}
(«*«
93.
The more important of these corresponding formulae are
• cosh* x — sinh* x = I. summarised for convenience.
TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 143
M*
(3) tanhx.
Hyperbolic Functions. Circular Functions.
The differential coefficient may be found from the
cosh* x — sinh* * 1 — cos" * + sin* * 1 exponential definition, or we may use the above result.
sinh 2x —
2 sinh cosh * sin 2x —
2 sin x cos *
cosh 2* = cosh* * +
sinh 1 *
cos 2* «= cos* * sin* * — t
Let
.
y
' = tanh x — .
,—*-.
cosh x
—
sinh
sech* * —
1 — tan
h' * sec' x - + tan* x
cosech' * »
coth* * — 1 cosec* * =
1
cot" * + 1 *n,»
I hen
m dy
/ = cosh x cosh x . sinh * sinh x — .
r-j-
sinh (* y) — sinh * cosh y
± ± sin (* ± y) = ± sin * cos y ax cosh**
cosh j- sinh y cos * sin y (Quotient rule.)
cosh {* ±y) " cosh * cosh y ± cos (* ± y) — cos * cos y :f
sinh x sinh y sin x sin v _ cosh 1 x sinh' * —
cosbTx
The following striking connections between the two sets
<§ 92 >
of functions are given for the information of the student. -ooffiil
For a full treatment any book on advanced trigonometry = sech x. 2
should be consulted.
Similarly, may be shown that,
cosh *=!(<*+ r z cos x = }(«** + « -fa
) ;
)
it if
sinh *— i(«* — «-*); sin x = ^(e** — «"<*) y = cosech x, £ = — cosech x coth x

sinh x = sin ix -.
dy
cosh x = cos
t
»'* y = sech x, f-
dx
= — sech x tanh x
where » = V~ = T. (See Algebra, Appendix, p. 284.) y = coth x, j- = — cosech* x.
dx
94. Differential coefficients of hyperbolic functions.
These results should be compared with the differential
(I) sinhx. coefficients of the corresponding circular functions.
Let y = sinh*
e* — t-* 95. Curves of the hyperbolic functions.
2 The curves of cosh * and sinh x in Fig. 26 should be
Then 2~~ examined again with the assistance of their differential
Ix coefficients.
= cosh x.
= cosh x =
(1) y ;
2. S| n h x, 5? = cosh x.
(2) coshx.
Let y = cosh * + vanishes only when * = 0. There is therefore a
e* + r» turning point on the curve (curve A). Also, since
2 sinh * is negative before this point and positive after,
Then
dy _ c* — tr» d*x
while t-j is positive, the point is a minimum. There
dx~ 2
= sinh x. is no other turning point and no point of inflexion.
«44 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS '43
(2)
dy
y = slnh x; j-
dx
=cosh x, ^=
~-®» sinh x.
From
— oo
this form
to 0, e** increases from
it is evident that while x increases from
to 1.
^, *'.«., cosh is always positive and does not vanish. 2

a:
.". 1
u — 1 to 0.
or tanh x increases from
Consequently sinh x is always Increasing and has no e
4.
+, ,
1
Similarly, while x increases from to + eo tanh x ,
turning point. When x = 0, -p^ = 0, and is negative increases from to +1.
before and positive after. Therefore there is a point

The curve therefore has the lines y = ± 1 as its asymp-
totes and is as shown in Fig. 27.
of Inflexion when x = 0; since i^, i.e., coshx =l 96. Differentiation of the inverse hyperbolic functions.
when * = 0, the gradient at is unity and the slope j- Inverse hyperbolic functions correspond to inverse
circular functions, and their differential coefficients are
(3) y = tanh x; § = sech 1
x.
found by similar methods.
Since sech* x is always positive, tanh x
always increasing is (1) Differential coefficient of slnh" 1 x.
between — eo and oo +
Also since sinh x and cosh x are
. Let y = sinh- 1
x
always continuous and cosh x never vanishes, tanh x must Then x = sinhy.
be a continuous function.
J*
= cosh:y
dy = 1 1
or ' (§93)
ix cosh y Vl+smhTy
I 1
or
VI + Xa V? + 1'
1
(2) Differential coefficient of cosh" x.
Using the same method as above we geti

dy = I
dx " Vxa - r
(3) Differential coefficient of tanh- 1 x.
If y = tanh -1 x
= tanhy
x
A g = sech\y
Fig. 27.
dv 1
and
As was shown in § 91, tanh x can be written in the formi dx sech*y
1
tanhx = — tanh*y (§93)
e** +1 1
1 -
e^T~V
, . :
. 46 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS *47

The differential coefficients of the reciprocals of the
(4)
above can be found by the same methods. They are: (2) cosh"
1
X = + Vx —
log {x 2
>}•
dy Let =
y cosh-1 x.
y = sech"1 x, = I
,*, *=coshy,
dx~ xV\-x*' but sinh'y = cosh*y — 1 (§93)
^cosech-ix./^--—^.
dv = x* - 1.
.". sinh y = Vx*~^- 1
(both signs applicable).

y
= coth lx>
-
^ = _^_Lr As above = cosh y + sinh y
The following forms will be found of importance later :
= x± Vx* - 1.
.*. y = log {x ± Vx* - 1}
(1) If y= sinh- 1
or cosh- 1 x = log {x ± Vx* - -I}-
1 i
x - The two values thus obtained are:
dx a
log {x + Vx* — 1} and log { x-V> - 1}. =»
Thei r sum :
or i j .
Vx* + \og{x+Vx* _l}+log{*- Vx*- 1}
(2) Similarly, if y = cosh- 1 - = logUx + Vx*~~l) x (*• -Vx* -1)}

= log|x«-(x»-l)}
dy i
= logl
2i Vx*-F = 0.
97. Logarithm equivalents of the Inverse hyperbolic .*. these two values of cosh- 1 x are equal, differing
functions. only in their sign. Hence we may write
= -
(I) sinh 1
x log{x + vT+lfy cosh- 1 x =± log {x + -v/x^- !}
Let y = sinh- 1 x.
Note. —x must lie between 1 and co
Tlien x=sinhy. -f-
But = + sinh*.y
cosh*y 1 (§ 93)
= + **. 1 (3)tanh 1
x=|log[±-J
coshy = VT+^_ (A)
.", sinh y + cosh y = x + i/l + x* Let y = tanh- x 1
but sinh y + cosh y = e» (§ 91) then x = tanh y

.-. ef=x+ V\+ ~x*.
(and x lies between + and —
y = log {x + Vl +x*
1 1 (§ 95))
Taking logs
e** — 1
}
i.e., sinh- 1
x = log {x + Vx* + I}.
Note. —Since cosh y is always positive, the plus sign only

is taken in A. .-. *(««•> + 1) = e* - 1.
;
i 48 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS »49
Whence
1+X Logarithm equivalents.
slnh- 1 x = log {x + Vx* + 1}
cosh- 1 x =± log {x + Vx« - 1}
tanh-»* = ilog{-+*
and
= .og{ x + Vx + a*\
i.e.. %
Also slnh »?
98. Summary of formulae of Inverse functions.
+ Vx^^ ''}
cosh-
Function. Dlff. Coeff.
+
1
,
tanh- 1 -
, x
=J , .
log ^.
a x
sinh^x
Vx + 2
1
Exercise IS.
1
Differentiate the following functions:
cosh"1 x
Vx - 2
1 1. (a) sinh 5 ;
(b) sinh2x; (c) cosh*.
tanfr x 1 1
2. (a) tanh ax ; (6) tanh ^ ;
(c) sinli a* + cosh ax.
1 -X 2
3. (a) sinh-; (b) sinh' x; (c) cosh8 *.
-1 - 1
X
cosech x
2
4. (a) sinh (a* +
b) ; (b) cosh 2x* (c) sinh" ax. ;
xVI -f-x 6. la\ sinh * cosh x (6) sinh* x -f- cosh* x ; (c) tanh* x.
;
1
6. la) log tanh x; (b) x sinh x cosh x; (c) log cosh x. —
sech"1 x 7. (a) x* sinh 3x; (6) log (sinh x cosh x) ; (c) C^'. +
xV\ - x 2
8. (a) ViEhx; (6) log (c) c™>.
coth"1 x
1 J-±-g?^ ;
X2 - 1
9. (a) sinh-
1
1 ; (6) cosh- 1 ^; (c) sinh- 1 \^n
10. (a) sinh- 1 tan x; 1
tan- sinh x; (c) tanh- 1 sin x.
The following additional forms are important. When (6)
11. (a) sin- 1 tanh x; (6) cosh" 1 sec x; fc) tanh- 1 r^—
+ *^ t.
'
a' dx Vx 1 + a*
12. (a) cosh- 1 (4x + 1) ; (b) sinh- 1 2xVl r
-f x ; *
Y
a' dx Vx - 1
a*
13. tan- 1 x +
tanh- 1 x; tanh- 1 (tan Jx)
Y tanh -i5, ft
O OX
-•»
1— X1
(a)
(c) tan- 1 (tanh Jx).
(6)
14. Write the logarithmic equivalents of :
(a) sinh- 1 ^; (6) cosh- 1 -; (c) sinh- 1 =. CHAPTER X

INTEGRATION. STANDARD INTEGRALS
(d) cosh-' J; («) tanh->J.
99. Meaning of Integration.
15. Differentiate: The
integral calculus is concerned with the operation of
Integration, which, in one of its aspects, is the converse
of differentiation.
From this point of view the problem to be solved in
integration is: WluU is the Junction which on being
differentiated produces a given function ? For example, what
is the function which, being differentiated, produces cos x ?
In this case we know from the work on the previous chapters
on differentiation, that sin x is the function required. We
therefore conclude that sin x Is the Integral of cos x.
Generally If f'(x) represents the differential coefficient of
f(x), then the problem of Integration Is, given f'(x), find
f(x). or given jj. find y.
But the process of finding the integral is seldom as simple

as in the example above. A converse operation is usually
more difficult than the direct one, and integration is no
exception. A sound knowledge of differentiation will
help in many cases, such as that above, but, even when the
type of function is known, there may arise minor complica-
tions of signs and constants.
For example, if the integral of sin x is required, we know
that cos x, when differentiated, produces sin x. — We
therefore conclude that the function which produces
-f- sin x on differentiation must be —
cos *. Thus the
Integral of sin x Is —
cos x.
Again, suppose the Integral of x Is required. know We
that the function which produces this on differentiation
must be of the form x*. But j- {x*) = 2x. If therefore

x to be the result of the differentiation, the integral
is
must contain a constant factor of x such that it cancels with
the 2 in 2x. Clearly this constant must be J. Hence the
Integral must be \x*.
»3i
154 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION. STANDARD INTEGRALS 153
These two simple examples may help the student to stands, the result is x*. Consequently to get a complete
realise some of the difficulties which face him in the integral Intergal anunknown constant must be added.
calculus. In the differential calculus, with a knowledge of In the above example let C denote the constant. Then
the rules which have been formulated in previous chapters, we may state that the integral of 2x is x* + C, where C Is
it is possible to differentiate not only all the ordinary types an undetermined constant. Consequently the integral is
of functions, but also complicated expressions formed by called an Indefinite Integral.
products, powers, quotients, logs, etc., of these functions. This may be illustrated graphically as follows.
But simplifications, cancellings and other operations occur In Fig. 28 there are represented the graphs of y x',=
before the final form of the differential coefficient is reached.
When reversing the process, as in integration, we want to y = *' + 2, and y = x* —
3, all of which are included in
know the original function, it is usually impossible to

reverse through these changes, and in very many cases the
integration cannot be effected.
It is not possible, therefore, to formulate a set of rules
by which any function may be integrated. Methods have
been devised, however, for integrating certain types of
functions, and these will be stated in succeeding chapters.
With a knowledge of these and much practice, the student,
if he possesses a good grasp of differentiation, will be able
to integrate most of the commonly occurring functions.
These methods, in general, consist of transposing and
manipulating the functions so that they assume the known
form of standard functions of which the integrals are known.
The final solution becomes a matter of recognition and
inspection.
—
Integration has one advantage the result can always
be checked. If the function obtained by integration be
differentiated we should get the original function. The
student should not omit this check.
100. The constant of Integration.

Whena function containing a constant term is differenti-
ated, the constant term disappears, since its differential Fig. 28.
coefficient is zero.
When the process is reversed and we integrate, the the general form y =
x* +
C. They are termed Integral
constant cannot be determined without further information. curves, since they represent the curves of the integral
For example, let y = x* + 3. X1 + C, when the values 0, +

2, and —
3 are assigned to C.
Evidently there is an infinite number of such curves.
Then *y=2X . Let P, Q, R be points on these curves where they are cut
Ix by the ordinate * =1-5.
If the process is now reversed and 2x is integrated as it At all three points the gradient Is the same. They have
'54 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION. STANDARD INTEGRALS 155
the same coefficient, 2x, which for these points has the independent variable besides Thus tit indicates that
x.
value 3.
J
is the independent variable and we need to integrate
The integral y x* = +
C therefore represents a series of
t
with respect to it.

corresponding curves having the same gradient at points
with the same abscissa.
102. Integration of a constant factor.
The equation of any particular curve in the series can
be found when a pair of corresponding values of x and y is It was shown in § 39 that when a function contains a
known. These enable us to find C. If. for example, a constant number as a factor, this number will be a factor
curve passes through the point (3, 6) these values of x and u of the differential coefficient of the function. Thus if
can be substituted in the equation.
y = ax*
Thus on substitution in y = x* + C
we have 6 = 3» + C = o(nx-i).
JJ
whence C = — 3.
Thus y = x* — 3 is the equation of this particular curve It willbe obvious from § 39 that when the operation is
in the set. reversed, and we integrate a function containing a constant
factor, this factor must also be a factor of the final Integral.
101. The symbol of Integration. When finding an integral it is better to transfer such a
factor to the left side of the integration sign before proceed-
The operation of integration necessitates a symbol to
ing with the integration of the function. Thus:
indicate it. The one chosen is / which is the old-fashioned,
elongated " s," and it is selected as being the first letter of

J
5xdx = 5 J xdx
the word " sum," which, as will be seen later, is another
aspect of integration. = *x» + C.
The differential dx is written by the side of the function
to be integrated in order to indicate the independent Generally jaf (x)dx = aj f (x)dx.
variable with respect to which the original differentiation
was made, and with respect to which we are to integrate. It should be noted that no factor which Involves the
variable can thus be transferred to the other side of the
Thus jf{x)dx means that f(x) Is to be Integrated with
integration sign.
respect to x.
The example of the integration of cos * which was con- 103. The Integration of x».
sidered in § 99 would be written thus:
Simple examples of this can be obtained by inspection,
/cos xdx =
| sin x + C. viz.:
It is important to remember that the variables in the jxdx = \x* + C

function to be differentiated and in the differential must
be the same. Thus cos ydx could not be obtained as it Jx*dx = J*» + C
J
stands. It would first be necessary if possible to express jx*dx = ix* + C
cos y as a function of x.
Note. —Any other letter may be used to represent the jx*dx = J*s + C.
: —
i3 6 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION. STANDARD INTEGRALS »57
From these examples we may readily deduce that:
- farrs- 2^TTr +c -
x" +1 +
I
x"dx C.
Also, in accordance with the rule of § 102

h ax +b
sum.
o
105. Integration of a
Jaxn dx = ajxn dx
It is evident from a consideration of the differentiation
of a sum of a number of functions (§ 41), that on reversing
the process the same rule must hold for integration i.e.,
Remembering the rule for the differentiation of a function the Integral of a sum of a number of functions Is equal to
of a function, we can also deduce that the sum of the Integrals of these functions.
j(ax + b)"dx = q(>)

'
+ (ax + Vf** + C.
Examples.
|}
If a student has any difficulty in realising such a result

(1) J(*»-6x» + 7*-ll)<fc
as this last, he will see the reason for it by differentiating - J*dx - 5Jx*dx + ijxdx - 11 jdx
the integral obtained.
It was seen in § 38 that the rule for the differentiation of
*" holds for all values of n. The formula above for the -J -**+**"- 11* + C.
integration of the function similarly holds for all values of —
Note. The constants which would arise from the
the mdex. integration of the separate terms can all be included in one
Note. — It should be noted that jdx = x + C. constant, since this constant is arbitrary and undetermined.
104. Worked examples. ha^-W*

(1) \zx>dx = z\xHx = 3x^+C=~x« + C = fxidx - jx-tdx
(2) UVxdx = ijx*dx = 4 x £A +C = 4x|*1+C xi* — 1 *-*+» +c
= |xI+C. ixt-ixi + C.
I
106. The Integration of

(3)
If the rule for the integration of x" be applied to the case
r-Ul
=FTI + c of -or x- 1 , we get:
= 2** + C
—
= 2Vx + C.
Note. This last integral and those of the following allied
jf./^-^ + C
functions should be carefully noted;
•58 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION. STANDARD INTEGRALS '59
This result apparently infinite, and the rule does not

is
w
Ml ,
2
J* + l dx ..
)
~ ]x* *+ +2x + 7
2 2 dx
t ( )
seem to apply. The apparent contradiction must be left Jx* +2x + 7

for future consideration, but it should be remembered that = log X + 2x + 7). (
»
in these processes we are dealing with limits.

We know, however, that by the rule for the differentia-
tion of a logarithmic function (§87) that the differential — sinx dx
coefficient of log, x is -. ~J
=—
cosx
log COS X +C
Hence we conclude that
I.e., tan xdx = log sec x + C.
I
£-*.«• (6, /cot^=/g>
107. A useful rule for Integration.
By combining with this last result the rule in differenti-
.*.
Jcot xdx m log sin x + C.
ation for the function of a function we know that:
(7) 3*'+5~* + dx = '° g (3x * + Sx + ') +C
if
J = log {/(*)} l
(8) j(x + 2)l2x-l)dx.

Although there is a definite rule for the differentiation of
consequently the product of two functions, there is none for the integra-
tion of a product as in the above example. In such a case
Hence—when integrating a fractional function in which, the factors must be multiplied.
after a suitable adjustment of constants, if necessary, it is seen
that the numerator is the differential coefficient of the denomina-
Then j(x + 2) (2* - l)dx = J(2x* + 3x - 2)dx
tor, then the integral is the logarithm of the denominator. = 2jx*dx + Zjxdx - 2jdx
Clearly all fractional functions of x in which the
denominator is a function of the first degree can be integrated = §*» + ix* -2x + C.
by this rule by a suitable adjustment of constants.
108. Worked examples. In this example we employ a device which will be used
later in more complicated cases; the fraction is split up
(1) /*-i/4*
a ax into its component fractions. This we do by dividing eacn
'
J ax J
term of the numerator by the denominator.
= - log ax + C.
(x* + 3x* + 1 . [i 3 1 \ .
Then
.
(2)
/sti - N <" + « C
= fxdx + Sjldx +
l%
»/i?TW2*»+3 + +
J^+Slog*-^ -r-C.
I log (2x« 3) C.
i6o TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION: STANDARD INTEGRALS 161
109. If t-£ =x 3
express y In terms of x. 9. (4x* — 5x + l)dx. 10. J(3x«
- 5*»)<fc.
J
dy
Since t«» is the differential coefficient of -f,
dx'
it follows 11. fx(8x - \)dx. 12. J6x*(x* + x)ix.
that by integrating -P^ we obtain -+ Having thus found
13. J{(*-3)(x + 3)<**. U. ji(2x-*Hx+i)}ix.
j-, a second integration will give the equation connecting
y and x. ».» 16. hx-Hx.

Since 3-* »./£ 18. J-vT: <&.
Integrating
19. Ux-*dx.
= i*« + cx .
Integrating again y = J (Jx* + CJdx 21. J(x* + *"*)<**• 22. f{xi + 1 -fsrtyfe.
= jix*dx + JCjdx 23 24. - 6*-»») <*x.
= I x i*« + d* + Cr Jg
.'. y = A* + Cjx + C,.
5
25
As a two constants are intro-
result of integrating twice,
duced, and these are distinguished as Cj and C .
f
To find these it is necessary to have two pairs of corre- 27 . |vT. it. 28 -/( I i*-
sponding values of x and y. On substituting these, we get

-'"-*b)'
two simultaneous equations involving C1 and C, as the two 29
unknowns. Solving these, the values found are substituted ft*
in the equation 32
y = ft* 1 + C x + Cp
x "•/A- •/(*4-i-*4>-
and so the equation connecting x and y is found completely. f 2xrfx
34
Exercise 16.
35.
+
;^<kx 3
30./*
fx*-7
dx.
Find the following integrals.
1. jzxdx. 2. UxHx. 37. ^=^±1 £*. 38. /Va
3. [\x*dx. 4. foix*ix. 39. fV2x + Six. 40
5. Jl2x»dx. 6. jl5Pit. 42
7.
\% 8.
J*.
43. f {ax + Vfdx. 44. jx{l+x)[l+x*)ix.
1 6a TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION: STANDARD INTEGRALS 163
( xdx axdx sin The constant omitted from the above, as well as from
is
45 46 [1
jx*-Y .
J 1 +
cos ax others which follow, to save space.
"*" cos ^xd*

47 - 48 f- Trlgometrlcal functions.
JF-+1' I 2x +
sin 2x
• (b)
(5) /sin xdx = — cos x.

49. If = 3x» .find y in terms of x,
Jyj
(6) /cos xdx = sin x.
£ = 6**, findy in terms of x, when y = 5 x = 1.

50. If if
/tan xo*x = — log cos x = log secx.
(7)
61. If ,^J = 5*, find y in terms of x when it is known
J
(§ 107)
that * = 2, / = 12, and when x = l,y =

if
(8) jcot xdx = log sin x. (§ 107)
1.
dx
52. The gradient of a curve is given by £-; = 4x — 5. -J- Note. —The differential coefficients of sec * and
cosec x — sec x tan x and cosec x cot x—do not give
viz.,
When * = is known that y
1 it = 3. Find the equation of rise to standard forms, but to products of these.
the curve. . They are not therefore included in the list above, but
53. The gradient of a curve is given by ? = 9x* — 10* follow below. The integrals of sec x and cosec * do
not arise by direct differentiation. They will be given
+ 4. If the curve passes through the point 6), find (1,
later (§120).
its equation.
d*s
64- If j,«
dt
= 8/, find s in terms of
. .
t. when it is known that (c) Hyperbolic functions.
if / = 0, s = 10, and dt
J?
= 8. (9) Jsinh xdx = cosh x.
110. Integrals of Standard Forms. (10) /cosh xdx = sinhx.

We collect below a number of integrals known as Standard
Forms, which are obtained mainly by inspection as being (11) /tanh xdx = log cosh x.
the known differential coefficients of functions; a few of '. (using method of § 107)
them were employed above. (12) /coth xdx = log sinh x.
;
(a) Algebraic functions. (using method of § 107)
Note. —
The following variations of the above should
X" +
1
be carefully noted:
X
(dx sin axdx = cos ox
(2)/° =log.x. /
X
[sin (ox + b)dx = cos (ox + b)
(3) fa'dx = a' x log.e.
I cos axdx =- sin ox
(4) je'dx = e*. /
/
i6« TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION. STANDARD INTEGRALS «65
X
I cos (ax + b)dx = - sin (ox + b) 27. jcosh2xdx. 28. fsinh
| "dx.
J
tan axdx = - log sec ax 29. ftenhZxdx. 30. f
7
{sin(a+ ^-—
cos (a fc „,
bx)\dx.
/slnh axdx =- cosh ax 32.

I. Jtan |?«*.
/cosh axdx = - slnh ox. 33. (sec* g ax. "•ft**--ax.

sec*x
35. dx. 36. /cos xVsinx dx.
Exercise 17. r + tan x .
Find the following integrals: III. Additional standard Integrals.

In addition to the above integrals of standard forms, the
1. ht**dx. 2. \#*-Hx.
following additional integrals, which are obtained by the
differentiation of standard forms, are of importance,
3.
J
(«» + e-*)*dx. 4. J«5«fc.
especially Nos. 17-25:
6. j(£+e-i)dx. 6. /(*» — C*\dx. (a) Trigonometrical.
(13) /sec x tan xdx = sec x.

7. /"(*» + ato )<fc. 8. taax.
(14) / cosec x cot xdx = — cosec x.
9. fl<P*dx. 10. |(a« + a-)<fc. (15) cosec* xdx = — cot x.

J
11. fxeîx. 12. je eo, *sh\xdx.

(16) fsec*x = tanx.
(6) Inverse trigonometrical.
13. IsinSxdx. 14. JcosSxdx.
dx
= * or - *
(17) f
'
S in-i cos-*
+ Va* -
x
15. Jsinl(*+gi*. 16. fcos(2x a)ix. ' J x 2 o a
x
17. Jsin Jxdx. 18. /sin (a — 3x)ix. (18) (J^*
+x -2 2
= - tan 1 - or ! cor1 *
a
19. j(cos ax + sin bx)dx. 20. /sin 2axdx.
(19)
'
f —
xvx2
>
dx
— o, 2
= I sec * or
o.
1
o
- I cosec
o
1
a
•
«./(-*--.§)*. »/}$££* (c) Inverse hyperbolic functions.

sec1 xe 1*" <fx.
23. fsin» x cos xdx. 24.
J (20)/
Vx2 +
* = slnh"1 - or
a2
26. (tan ox + cot 6x)ox. 26. j-^^dx. x + Vx2 + o2
J log{ ]•
166 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION. STANDARD INTEGRALS 167
24(a) f.Jj*.«.fc- -!«**£

- itog' + Vj^W
x + Vx" oz " bx
i°s{
! 25 (a) .i5=^_
- ,
= - 1a cosech-> *?
1
* J xV«* + 55s
1
-i
or i. a +
s "
yy+y ?
+ * a bx
'
log«
2o fe
o - x Notes.
dx (1) In Formulae 20, 21, 20(a), 21(a) the "a" which
("> = - l
coth 1 * or
//: a a
appears in the denominator of the logarithm is omitted.
This means that the —
log a is merged in the constant of
integration.
la * x + o (2) In Formulae 17-25, if a = 1, we get the simpler form
stated in §§ 78 and 95.
(24) f
J xVefi
*L_
— x* --!sedr*5
a a
or (3) The Formulae 17-25 will be proved directly in a
~
later chapter.
- ! tog
°+ v° s zr*i (4) In the trigonometrical integrals it will assist the
memory if it be noted that whenever the name of the
a x
function in the resulting integral begins with "co" the
(25) /
/* - - 1 cosech 1
or function is negative.
+ xma
v
'JxVa* a 112. Worked examples.
a
6
x
Example I. Evaluate the integral
^ J
I-—>«»•.,
vie - 9*«
The following variations of Nos. 20-25 will be found The form of this integral can be transformed to that of
useful, especially in some of the applications in the next No. 17:
chapter:
= =J
20 (
v
fl)
/[ TffiTI+ a*i - bl sinb- -a
voV .
1
, . rrr-, .
J VI6 ^1*» J3VV - «* i V5?™»*
This is now in the form of No. 17, where « = |.
.'. Integral = $ sin- 1 (x -4-
J).
21 (a)
'
/-T-^—.Jcash-i*?
yVb 2x* b a
to + Vb»x* - a* = Jsln»^.
-jlogf
r
1 .bx a -4- 6*
^
22 (a]
ba
tanh- 1
.
— —
a
st
2ba
1 .
log
° a — bx
. -.
Example 2. Evaluate the integral
^ I -j=*L=..
JV9x*-l
oo i.\ ( dx 1 ..
coth " 1
, bx I . bx — a The form is that of No. 21 (a), where b = 3, a = 1.
23
« / wrîi -S * -555 Io
* ET+v
i68 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION. STANDARD INTEGRALS 169
Hence
IvSî = * cosh_1 3x = J{log 3x + v ™ - l}

8 - w /dri :
<*>
/to ; (c)
/ts£: I'
9 •
(fl)
/vSF+B : (6)
/^#+B-
Example 3. Find the integral 1 = t
. .
10
This can be transformed into No. 18.
*+W
;. by No. 18 integral (»x{) tan-
14 (.1 f <** /« f (* + l) dx
= (Jxf)tan-»^
= i an-* 3x
T
Exercise 18.
Find the following integrals:
dx
&
6-
« At^T* /fj?~+i6* <6)
6
- « /**=»' ""far* «/t»T»
: : :
SOME ELEMENTARY METHODS OF INTEGRATION 171
(4) cot* x. By the same device
CHAPTER XI J
cot* xdx = f(cosec*x — \)dx.
= — (cot x + x).
SOME ELEMENTARY METHODS OF INTEGRATION f sin' xdx. This can be found by employing the
(5)
113. This chapter will contain some of the rules and rule:
devices for integration which were referred to in § 99. The sin 3,4 = 3 sin A — 4 sin A 3
general aim of these will be, not direct integration, but whence sin*^4 = J (3 sin A — sin 3.4).
transformations of the function to be integrated so that it
The integral can now be written down
takes the form of one of the known standard integrals
which were given in the last chapter. (6) cos* xdx. The method is the same as in No. 5,
J
using
Transformations of Trigonometric Functions. cos 34=4 cos* A — 3 cos A.
1 14.Certain trigonometrical formulae may frequently be The following formula are useful for changing products of
used with advantage to change products or powers of sines and cosines into sums of these functions
trigonometric functions into sums of other functions when
la) sin A cos B = Ijsin (A + B) + sin (A - B)
the rules of § 105 or § 107 may be employed to effect a
(b) cos A sin B= J sin (A + B) - sin (A - B)
solution. Examples of this were given in § 108, Nos. 6 and (c) cos A cosB = cos (A + B) + cos (A - B)\
C
where, by changing tan x to -— - and cot x to -£^, the
(d) sin A sin B = cos (A - B) - cos (A + B)\
6,
, . cos x sin x (Trigonometry, § 86.)
integrals tan xdx and I cot xdx were found.
J 115. Worked examples.
Among the formulae which are commonly employed are /sin' x
the following
m sln»x =i(l -cos2x). Rearranging
(2) cos 1 x = J(l + cos 2x). (Trigonometry, § 83.) /sin' x , _ Tsin* x sin x ,
Hence, / sin' xdx = — cos 2x)dx

cos* x ~J cos* x
j\(\
/Qj— cos* x) sin x ,
, = J(* — i sin 2x). cos* x
/cos* xdx = J(x + J sin 2x).
{%xx dx-{™ x ™*
Similarly,
t
x
be noticed that the formula employed in each
= cos*
- dx
It will J cos* I
case enabled us to change a power of this function into
a sum, when integration was immediately possible. = sec x tan xdx —
/
J
sin xdx
The following are two further examples: = sec x + cos x.
(3) tan*x = sec*x - I.
tan* xdx = J (sec * - l)dx

1 Example 2. Integrate f sin 3x cos 4xdx.
/.
J
= tan x — x. Using formula (b) above
170
17a TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOME ELEMENTARY METHODS OF INTEGRATION 173
/cos 4x sin 3xax = ji{{sin (4x + 3x) — sin (4x - 3x)} Irrational functions can frequently be treated in this
way, as will be seen in the following examples, and those
= $ J sin 7x<*x — jjsin xdx employed serve to prove some of the standard integrals
= £{— $ cos Ix -f cos x} given in § 111.
= I (cos* — $cos7x).
Exercise 19.
A. Some trigonometrical and hyperbolic
substitutions.
Evaluate the following integrals:
in»|«&. 2. Jcos*^dx.
1 17.
Jvo» - x*dx.
The form of this suggests that if x be replaced by a sin fl,
an»|o*. 4. I cos* xdx. we get «* — a* sin* 0, i.e., u ! (l — sin 2 0). This is equal to
1 and on taking the square root the irrational
a* cos 6,
6. / sin* xdx. 6. (cot*2xdx. quantity disappears.
It will be seen that we are then left with two independent
7. [sin*2xdx. 8. cos' 3xrfx. —
variables viz., x and 6, since dx remains as part of the
J integral. But we must have the same variable throughout
9. /cos* {ax + b)dx. 10. /sin* xax. the integral. Consequently
dx must be expressed In terms of 0.
11. I cos* xdx. 12.
J
sin 2x sin 3«fce. Since * = a sin 8.
Differentiating with respect to

13. /cos 3* cos six. 14. /sin 4x cos 2xdx. dx
ft
-a cose.
15. /sin 4x cos ^ <£*• 16. / sin ax cos 6xax.
which, for this purpose, we can write as
17. sin G cos 6 dB. 18. / sin* x cos* xdx. dx a cos 8d9. =
J
The solution will therefore be as follows 1
1 + sin* x dx.
is-
L**L*.
x cos* x
y sin*
20
•Z cos* x To integrate J Va*
—
x* dx. .
21. (tan* xdx. 22. / sin* x cos* xdx. Let x = a sin 9.

Then dx = a cos 8a"8.
,
I
Vl + cos xax. 24. (sec1 xdx. Substituting in the integral
Integration by Substitution.
[ y/ a * _ x*dx = (Va — a* sin*
1 x a cos . a"6
16. It is sometimes possible, bychanging the independent

1 = JaVT — sin* 6 x a cos 0i6
variable, to transform a function into another which can
be readily integrated. Experience will suggest the par- = a* J cos* 6d"8
ticular form of substitution which is likely to be effective, = «*{J(e+isin28)} (See § 114.)
but there are some easily recognised forms in which certain = Ja*8 + \a sin 8 x a cos 8
known substitutions can be employed. (since sin 28 = 2 sin 8 cos 8).
i —
174 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOME ELEMENTARY METHODS OF INTEGRATION 175
It is now necessary to change the variable from 6 to x.
/
Vx2 - a 2 c/x.
Since * = a sin 8 and sin 8 = a- For this integral we employ hyperbolic functions.
8 = sin- =*
1
Let x = a cosh z.
also a cos 8 = aVl — sin'

Then * = cosh- -. 1
= Va* — a* sin* 8 - sinh * = 1

1
a
From cosh» z (See § 92.)
= Ya* - x*.
and sinh z = Vcosh z — 1
1
.". Substituting in
/ Va* — x*dx = Ja*8 + \a sin 8 x a cos 8

-4'•-.-iVJr^.
a
'a*
we get Also since = a cosh z x

= a sinh z dz
dx .
=^ *
JYtf^lfidx sin 1
+ JxVo^Tx2 .
:. fVx' —Ifidx = [Ya*~cash i — ? x a sinh 2 az
r .
Note. —
Instead of substituting x =
a sin 6 we could = J aVsmh*z x a sinh z . <fz
equally well put x = a cos 8. The student should work
this through for practice. = a'J sinh zdz 1
dx = a*/l(cosh 2z - l)rfz (See § 93.)

'
/ Va*'- x2 a
= ^(Jsinh2z-z)
Using the same substitution as in the previous case
VIZ., * = a sin 8 = j sinh 2z — z
g
we have Va* — x = a cos 8
%
«'
and dx = a cos 6</8 = a*
^2 sinh z cosh z — -* z
* l
cos 8d!8
= (a sinh z x a cosh z) — b«
£
»4
cos 8
= J(\/x* — a* x *) — tt cosh- 1 -
= jdQ
7«
(from above)
= sin-' - /. jVx 2 - o 2 dx - JxVx2 -

- \ cosh" 5 or o2 1
a
dx
= sin 1 -. + Vx 2 - a
/ V - 2 X2
(See §111.)
ixV^^^-^(log{-fx a
(See § 97.)
—
dx
/ Vx2 - a2
' .-. jVjfl + a2 dx = |xVx2 + a2 + \ sinh" 1
or
As in the case of the preceding integral

£xVx"2 + a2 + „
°- log
1
2 . x + Vx2 + a2
Let x = a cosh i.
Using the equivalents found above I dx
'
I Vx2 + a2
J
I ,
y/ x *
.
— —a* = J a sinh
i
.i-r-
z
/ X a sinh x . dx
As above, let x = a sinh *.
'a cosh zdz
.f<
dz 711611
/tFtW' a cosh 2
dx
= cosh"1 - or
-J*
=
•'• z
JVJT-
dx = sinh" 1 or
log
x + Vx2 - a2
(See §111, No. 21.)
•••/
Vx2 +"a2 _
-
log
X + x2 + °2
. (See § 111, No. 20.)
jVx* + a2 dx.
Let x = a sinh x
dx = a cosh zdz "»• /*£*•
The form of this suggests the substitution
and x = sinh- -a and 1 cosh x = -Vx* + a*,
a tan* 6 + = sec1 6.
1
Substituting
Accordingly, let x = a tan 8.
JV(x* + a*)dx = j a'\/slnh' 2 + 1 x a cosh zdz 6= - tan- 1

a
= fa cosh x x a cosh zdz then dx = a sec* 8i0.
= a* J cosh* ziz Substituting
f
<*x /"a sec* 8i8
= ^J'(cosh2!; + 1 )'fo aSJtan* 8 +TJ
,
= | (Jsinh2z+z)
a sec* 8^
I,oêc* 8
a* a1
= j x 2 sinh * cosh z + z -^
= } a sinh x x a cosh * + "a*

-s *
:
i 78 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOME ELEMENTARY METHODS OF INTEGRATION 179
•
••
[ dx
9 = I
tan
, x
"• Note. — / » « and I -j-_-, are solved by a method
J
I
x29 +
~i
a2
-
a a
which will be given later (§ 129).
(See § 111, No. 18.)
120. A useful trigonometrical substitution is given by
1 19. Summary of the above formulae. means of the following formulae, in which sin x and cos x
are expressed in terms of tan . The formulae are

Integral. I Substitution. Result.
2 tan Ix
I Va* — x'dx I
* — a sin |
g sin"»- + \xVa* — *»
1
dx
[ _«L_.
x <a\
COS X = r1 -+;-rtan*
1
|1
ix
tan* Jx
.
sin-»*
j \Tarzrx t a
In using these formulae it is convenient to proceed as
follows:
Vx* - a*dx x » a cosh i i-rvV-a'-^coslr'?
ft,
/ x> a Let = tan Jx

t
or
then sin x = pr
ixVx'î* - ,,
+ Vx* - I -t»
dx
i><* """ITT
V*« - ««
* — a cosh i cosh" 1
a
Since I = tanjx
j
or dt = i sec* 4xa"x
+ Vx* - a» • £*« 2rf<
= Ut
log*
sec* Jx 1 + tan* \x
6. |v7Tî» * — a sinh 7 l*V*« +«» + y«talr-»j : <>* = r+?-

This substitution can be used to find the following
integral
|*V? + a1 + 1
Jcosecxdx =
l?* X j
d.t 2rf< 2t
* — a sinh « sinh" 1
1+^
/ V'i* +
ft,
a«
or
log
+ Vx* + -y? i
= log t
4» —
7.
I
x* + a'
* a tan 6
a a fcosec xdx = log tan ^.
—
i So TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOME ELEMENTARY METHODS OF INTEGRATION 181
sec xdx can be found similarly or may be derived from Worked examples.
J
the above thus: The following worked examples are numerical variations
of the above.
From Trigonometry sec x = cosec (5 + x)
Example I. Integrate JVU— 9x*dx.
/sec xdx = cosec (g + *) Let Zx = 4 sin 0.
J
then x = | sin 8 and = sin-1 Jx
= dx = | cos 6tf 9
.-.
J
sec xdx log tan
(j + £)•
cos 6 = VI— afo1 6 = Jl — ®*g"
"jVlO-ftf.
It may also be shown that this is equal to Substituting
log (sec x -f- tan x).
jVl6-9x*dx = JVl6-168in»fl x fcos Oi0
The integrals
^»
/
/
—+ r—r
b cos x
and /
J a
, .
+ b sin x,
— can be «=
4J
cos x 1 cos Odd
solved by the above substitution. The following example V/cos* W0

will illustrate the method. 1 + cos 20 do
d*
,»/
Find the integral
fa
J
I '
5 + 4 cos*
,
.
= f(0 + } sin 20)
2dt
= ffsin- £x + sin cos 0}
1
Let dx = .
v where t = tan \x c= |{sin-» jx +
^ x iVI6 - 9*»}
then cos x = -C1
= f sin- jx + lxV\6^9x*.
1
On simplication the integral becomes 1

Examples Integrate
J ^r^=j-
+4(i-7«)
-2 §-+!»• Put = J sinh r then z = sinh- Zx
* 1
J 5(r+<«) ) ;
.'. = \ cosh
dx zrfz
form of integral
cosh 2 = VI +sinh'z = Vl + 9*'.
This is of the (18) of § 111.
and
integral = 2/ J tan-i|}
.'. -rw f <** ( I cosh z .
dt
- 1 tan-1 (j tan £*). fcosh

cosh
zrfz
?
resulting integral may take one of the forms 18, 22,
The
or 23 of the standard integrals of § 111, according to the */&
relative values of a and b. Or, it may require methods 1'
given in Chapter 12. Jsinh-^x.
i8s TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOME ELEMENTARY METHODS OF INTEGRATION 183
Exercise 20.
Example 3. inugrauf^^, Use the methods given above to find the following
Put x = V~l sin 8, then 6 = sin- Vfx. 1 Integrals by using suitable substitutions.
. dx = V£cos8<# ___„ i
Note. —
For other examples analogous to 1-10 but
cos e = Vl -Sn rG = Vl -T*1 = -i= V2 - 3* 1 involving the irrational quantities as the denominators
V2 of fractions, the student is recommended to solve some
of the examples of Exercise 18 by the method of
- / Vlcos8i6
substitution.
I V2 - 3x* J V2 -
2 sin 1 6
_ fVf coseie 1. V9 — x*dx (put * 2. V2g -*V*.

r-
/ V2 cos 6
3 sin 8). 4. V9 - 4x*dx (put x
3. Vr^4x*dx. f sin 8).
5. fVxr --idx. 6. \y/x i -2bdx.
7. fVx* +iQdx. 8 . jVx"'+5dx.
Example 4. Integrate
= tan 8.
J
I —7==.
x*v 1 H
9.
JV25x* 1^164*.
(
*
10
12
> ( xH
x*4x_
34*.
Let
Then
*
4x = sec 8481
11
JVW+T
and
Then
sec = Vl + 3.
1
u
u V.!*
4*
• x1
'
/*Vl +
4*_
dx
x*
^ f
/tan 8\/r1
sec
se c'eti
erfe
_
+ T8
tan
- 1&, ; (1 -x)Vi'-x* (put
sec '
-/tan 1
sec 8
17. /cosec \xdx. 18. /sec J«/x.
cos1 8 /sec x cosec xix.

-/cos 6 sin 1 8
48 19. /cosec 3xdx. 20.
-/
r
cos 848
sin 1 8
21
**• \-+ixCOSX
Jl
— 22. L
J 1 +
* sin
-
x
.
1 (by inspection or by putting

sin 8 sin 8 =z)
24. |(sec x + tan x)4x.
-¥
sec8
25 °- f_
26
tan 8 -
/4 + 3 cos* 75 3 cos x"
27 f ^
+ 5cosx . 28. 4»
f , -Ssint ,
74
J4
t«4 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOME ELEMENTARY METHODS OF INTEGRATION 185
B. Algebraic Substitutions. x = Vx + 3 or x + 3 = z*.

Transformation of a function into a form in which
121. Then X = 2» - 3
it can readily be integrated can be effected by suitable and dx = 2zdz.
algebraical substitutions in which the independent variable Substituting
is changed. The forms these take will depend upon the [ xdx f (z* - 3)2z dz
kind of function to be integrated and, in general, experience =
and experiment must guide the student. The general aim JVxT3 J V?
will be to simplify the function so that it may become
easier to integrate.
= 2 n z>-z)zdz
A
frequent example of this method is in the cases of
= 1 - 3)dz
irrational functions in which the expression under the (2
2J
radical sign is of the first degree, that is of the form ox b. +
These can be integrated by substitution.
Let ax + b=u*
or m = Vax + b.
Thefollowing examples are typical of the use of alge-
= |(x-6)VT+l.
braical substitution.
122. Worked examples. Example 3. Integrate jx*Vl — x*dx.

Example I. Integrate JxV2x + ldx. Let u* = 1 — x* and x* = 1 — «*.
= Vl —
or
and
Let
Then
2x + = u*
1
u = V2x + 1.
x = J(«* — 1)
dx = udu.
Then
and
Substituting
x
dx = -^ 1
~ «*'
i
du.
—u
- «*')VT=1? Z^ *
Substituting
/*»V(n=lV* = /(I x « x
î
>
jxV2T+~idx = Ji(u* - x « 1) x udu

= j/m*(u« - l)du = _ j u *(l - u*)du
/ 5m
— 3u\ 3
= \j(u*-u*)du -~\ 15 /
= -û>(5-3u*)
= - yV(1 - *%Wl - **{5 - 3(1 - x'))
= A (3m - 5m 8 s
) = -tV{(l -xV(2 + 3x»)}.
= A{3(2x + l)«-5(2x + !)«}.
f dx
Example 2. Integrate I .
Example 4. Evaluate \ p^—.
In this case no rationalisation is needed, but we try a
We rationalise the denominator by the substitution. substitution which will simplify the exponential form, thus j
x —
i8fl TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOME ELEMENTARY METHODS OF INTEGRATION 187
Let U =C Let cos * = u '
then then sin x = Vl — cos* x.
= cdx
u Also — sin xdx = du.
du
Splitting the factor sin 3 x into sin* x. sin x and sub-
or dx= du~ or du
,
—
u
'
stituting
Substituting Jsin* x cos* xdx = Jsin* * cos* x sin xdx
. .
/ dx (du .
/ ,
l\ m J (I -«*) x u* x (-du)
du
= - J(u* — u*)du
-/, = _ /««
l"5
~~
m'\
l)
Thus we have reached a standard form, No
(5111).
viz.. 18 = | cos' X — J COS X. 6
Integral i tan- 1 w
CAdllipit
i tan 1 e».
""""JVi+i
Let x=u*
Example 5. Integrate /SS^ rf*.
then dx = 2«<fM
This example illustrates the advantage in certain cases ol •
f dx ( 2udu
changing trigonometrical forms into algebraical, the reverse
of the method employed in §§ 117-120. It will then be
easier to operate with the indices.
Let u = sin x.
.'. cos X = VI — «*.
Then du = cos xdx. = 2{« - 2 log (« + 2))
fcos* xdx _ /cos Vr x cos xd
= 2{-\/- - 2 log {Vx + 2)>.
" /"^sm7 J (sufip
m- w») x du Exercise 21.
j 5? Note. —Some
of the following examples may be
solved by inspection, remembering the rule for the
differentiation of a function of a function. The
student is advised, however, if only for the sake of
- !*« - yY« v practice, to solve by the method of substitution.
Integrate the following functions:
-ft •v
/
sTn*x(ll - 2sln» x). I. jx* cos x*dx (put x* = u). 2. (put 2x* = «).
Example fi'l^j,
6. Find the value of the integral /"sin* x cos4 xdx.
xdx dx
The form suggests trying the same 1 { i (
substitution as that of
the preceding example.
— : —
i83 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOME ELEMENTARY METHODS OF INTEGRATION 189
x*dx Integrating throughout with respect to x, we get

6. /* sin Vx . dx. 6
1
|
lvi
[ sin xdx fl og xdx
8
Jl+icosx' Since u and v are functions of x, this may be written
/*" more conveniently in the form
9. jxVT+x^dx. 10.
+3*
r x*dx uv = (u .dv + |v . du.
lh Jx(x-2)'dx. 12
Thus if either of the integrals on the right side is known,
14. jxVx~^ldx. the other can be found. We
thus have a choice of solving
either of two integrals, whichever is possible or the easier.
for example, it it decided that Jvdu can readily be
*/*£» 16. f-^L,. If,
determined, then the other integral— viz., Judv—can be

found, thus 1
17. Jxfx^dx. 18. J^(putx-1=«).
judv = uv — Jv . du . . . (A)
19. jxi Vx*^2dx. to be employed will be better understood by
Jvx—s The method
studying an example. Suppose it is required to find the
22. ( **L_. integral r
JVx + 1 I x cos xdx.
23. /sin 3
x cos* xdx. 24. I sin* x cos* xdx. Let = x and dv = cos xdx.
Then du = dx
***** Since dv = cos xdx
25
25< f .
i (** + I)'' v = (cos xdx = slnx.
27.
J*»(l + 2x»)»<**- 28
-
l#7r+& Substituting in the formulae
Judv = uv — Jvdu
go. p£L±!a£f * we get
(pu„->). (put 1 + log X = J). Jx . cos xdx = x sin x — J sin xdx.

Thus instead of finding the original integral, we have now
Integration by parts. to find the simpler one of J sin xdx, which we know to be
123. This method of integration is derived from the rule — COS X.
for the differentiation of a product of two functions (§ 43), *.
Jx
cos xdx = x sin x + cos x.
viz.:
d{uv) dv du If u and v had been selected as follows:
dx
~ u *«fx + v 'dx u =
cos x then du sin xdx =—
in which u and v are functions of x. dv = xdx and v = J xdx = Jx*.
: : : X
igo TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOME ELEMENTARY METHODS OF INTEGRATION 191
Substituting in the formula we get Example 2. Evaluate jxe"dx.

jx cos xdx = \x* cos x — J Jx"(— sin x). We knowthat e»* produces the same result, except for
constants, whether it De differentiated or integrated. But
Thus the integral to be found is more difficult than the x has a simple form for its differential coefficient.
original.
Formula (A) above could of course be written in the form Hence let u = x. .". du = dx
dv = e"dx :. v = JVdx = e™.
jvdu = uv — judv . (B)
Substituting in
The choiceis arbitrary, but the student will probably
find better always to use one of the two forms.
it If the Judv =uv — J
vdu
form selected is (A), then o will always stand for the function
which is to be differentiated and dv as the one to be inte- fxe^dx
J
=x y. -
a
e" —
a
x
a
e™
grated to complete the formula. In determining which of
the functions is thus to be represented by u and which by v,
trial must be made as to which will produce the easier final
-H<-1)-
integral.
The following worked examples will perhaps serve to
Example 3. Integrate Jx* sin xdx.
make these points clear. For the reasons given in § 123, we choose
u =x 1
. .'. du = 2xdx
Example I. Evaluate the integral log xdx.
and dv — sin xdx and v = /sin xdx = — cos *.
J
Evidently since log x produces a simple expression on Substituting in Formula A, we get:
being differentiated, we put jx* sin xdx = — x* cos x + 2 J x cos xdx.
u = log *. .". du = In this example we arrive at an integral which cannot be
dv = dx. v = jdx = X. evaluated by inspection, but is the one evaluated in § 123
and requires itself to be " integrated by parts."
substituting in As was shown above
J
= uv — vdu
udv /
Jx cos xdx = x sin x + cos x.
log xdx = x log x — x x - dx Substituting this in the result obtained above, we get
J J
= xlog x — \dx jx* sin xdx = — ** cos x + 2{x sin x + cos *}
= x log X —X = — x* cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x.
This repetition of the process will occur in many other
or flog xdx = x(log x — I ).
s
cases. For example, if J sin xdx were required, the inte-
This important integral should be carefully noted. gration process would have to be applied three times.
Example 4. Integrate sin- 1 xdx. By addition of (A) and (B)

J
As in Example 2, we must represent dx by dv and o by 2 J e* cos xdx = e* sin x + e* cos x.
x
sln-
Je* cos xdx = Je (sin x + cos x).
x.
.'.
1
Let = sin-
u 1
*. • du =
Substituting in
dv = dx.
/it*
In the same way
integrals:
e** cos bxdx

we may
= t ,
find the general
.. {a cos bx + b sin
form of these
bx}
Judv = uv — jvdu and

AOX
we get /sin- 1 xdx = x sin- 1

x — I ,* * .
fe" sin bxdx = . ., {0 sin bx —b cos bx}
t
or more generally
Noting that the numerator with adjustment of sign is
the differential coefficient of (1 x*) in the denominator — Jc* cos (bx + c)dx = j£rr&{<>
+ »
cos (
bx + c) -f- b sin (bx + c)}
e"
|e«sln (bx + c)dx = -^-âsln (bx + c) -bsln (bx+c)}.
Hence
J
sin- 1 x = x sin- 1
x + V — x*. I
Exercise 22.
Example 5. Evaluate Je* cos xdx. Evaluate the following integrals :—
Take u = e» ;. du = e*dx. 1.
J
x sin xdx. 2.
J
x sin 3xdx.
Take dv = cos xdx .'. v = Jcos xdx m sin x. x3 cos xdx.
8. J x* cos xdx. 4.
J
Substituting in
6. x* log xdx.
5. Jx log xdx.
Judv = uv — Jvdu J
we get
7.
J
x* log xdx. 8.
J Vx log xdx.
J e*
cos xdx = e* sin x — Je* sin xdx . (A) 9. Jxe*dx. 10. Jx'Cdx.
11. Jxer«*dx. 12. Je* cos 2xdx.

Thus we are left with an integral of the same type as the
original. 1
J tan- xdx
1 14.
13. Jcos- xdx.
Now try u = cos x. ,*, du = — sin xdx.
and dv = e*dx. v =
15. x ten- 1 xdx. 16. Je* sin xdx.
.: e*. J
Substituting the formula above 17. x sin* xdx. 18. x sin x cos xdx.
J J
Je* cos xdx = e* cos x — Je*(— sin xdx). 19. J x sec* xdx. 20. Jxsinhxdx.
.",
Je* cos xdx = e* cos x + Je* sin xdx . . (B) 21.
J
x* sin- 1 xdx. 22.
J> (log *)» dx.
G(CAI..)
!
INTEGRATION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS '95
Similarly, in the example above
CHAPTER XII
INTEGRATION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS

I. Rational fractions.
have occurred frequently
25. Fractions of certain types
-/<*-D*+/_TT*
1
among the functions which have been integrated in

= Jx» - x + log (X + I).
previous work. One of the commonest is that in which the

numerator can be expressed as the differential coefficient Example 2. Evaluate /„- —~dx.
of the denominator. As stated in § 107
Then
n£)</x = +
f
iogflx) c.
}2x-Z ax J 2* -3 ax
A
special form of this which will constantly appear in
f(2*-3)+V dx
the work which follows is that in which the denominator is I Tx~-S
of the first degree, the general form of which is
(
dX
=-( = fx +¥ x 1 log (2x - 3) (§ 126.)
J ax +b a) ax +T>
i
= i*+¥log(2x-3).
= - log
1
(ax + b) + C. Exercise 23.

Integrate the following:
126. Variants of the above include fractions in which the
numerator is of the same as or of higher dimensions than the [ xdx [xdx
denominator, simple examples of which have already
1
)x+2- h-x
occurred. Such fractions can often be transposed so that
the rule quoted above may be applied. Worked examples a -r bx
illustrating this follow.
1 -X dx. - 1

+x J2T+i3 dx i-
-
l
( x dx
x* dx.
Example I. Evaluate
[
I —-t—j dx. x +2 Jl-x
[ x*dx
The process employed in transforming such a fraction is /fF=T
similar to that employed in arithmetic. Thus the fraction
11
= 8+ 3 _ .
"*"
, 3
8"
8 8
194
196 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS 197
128. Method of partial fractions. Let the numerators be A and B, so that

In the fractions above the denominators are of the first * + 35 A B
degree. We next proceed to consider fractions of which (x+B)(x — 5)
~ x -5 + x+6 ' (1)
the denominators are of the second or higher degree.

Clearing the fractions
When adding two such fractions as
2 1 x +25=A(x + 5) + B(x -5) . . (2)
x+3 x+B This is an identity and therefore true for any values of x.
we get
2(x
- + 5) - (x + 3) _ x +7 Let x =
5, by which means the coefficient of B vanishes.
(*+3)(x+6) x* + 8x + 15" Then 5 + 35 = 104 + 0.
By reversing this process, -— ., can be resolved
.". 10A = 40
t
.
A =4.
into the two fractions
X —O
2
-f-
f-s and
X •j- o
— j
;—_, which are called its
Substitution of this value of A in (2) would give a
equation which could be solved for B. But in this, and in
" Partial Fractions ", and these can be integrated directly. most such cases, it is more simple to substitute a value of x
in (2) so that the coefficient of A vanishes.
By this device we obtain the integral of . ,
.-g. In
proceeding to develop this method we will, for the present,
,
g
/. let x = - 5.
consider those cases in which the denominator of the Substituting in (2)
fraction to be Integrated can be resolved Into linear factors - 5 + 35 = + B(- 5-5).
which are different. /. 10B = - 30
If in the fraction to be integrated the numerator is of the and B = — 3.
same or higher dimensions than the denominator, the
fraction can first be simplified by the process given in § 127.
Substituting for A and B in (1)
The following examples will indicate how the partial g+35 _ 4 3

fractions are obtained. x* -25 x -5 x + 5'
129. Worked examples. Hence
Example I. Integrate \-i-—^-dx.
[x + 35 dX
.
f Adx
= )r^B Ux
Jx*=25 -* +1-
Factorising the denominator = 4 log (x - 5) - 3 log (x + 5).
x + 35 _ * + 35 x
i*^25 (* + 5)(*-5); Example 2. Integrals t t.
From what has been stated above this is resolvable into
two partial fractions with denominators (x +5) and This is a generalised form of Example 1, and is No. 23 of
(x — 5). Since the numerator of the given fraction is of the Standard Integrals (§111).
lower dimensions than the denominator, it is evident that Factorising
the numerators of the partial fractions will be numbers, 1 1
i.e., not containing x. i*"^"* (x + a){x-ay
;

Let
Hence
+x +a 23 -2x 4 _3
(x + a)(x — a) —a^ x 2**"+~9*- 5 2* - x + 5' 1
1 = A (x + a) + B(x - a), ( 4dx
!x [ Ux
+ 9* -5 dx= l2x-^\-j X +-5-
,
(1) Let x =a
j 2i«
then 1 = A (2a) + B(0). A = = 2 log (2x - - 3 log + 5).
x = —a 2a I) (x
(2) Let
then 1 =4(0) +B(-2a). :. B = - 2~a
Example
1 . . 1 I 4. Integrate I
%t ^ -8
+ 2* _-g </*.
x* —a* 2a' x —a "

2a "
x + a The numerator being of the same dimensions as the
f dx 1 fl dx dx i
denominator we proceed as shown in § 127, Example 1.
" )x* —a* 2aJ\x—a x + a!
x* + 10* +6_ (x» + 2x - 8) + (8* + 14)
" 2a * log (*-")- ,0g (* + ")}
*
x' f 2*^"8 ' ?+2*-8
or _ 8* + 14
x
/-/%='
-a 2o log6 X -°=-Icoth-^.
Ixi + i
The fraction thus obtained is now resolved into partial
fractions. Factorising the denominator
Similarly 8*_± 14 _ 8* + l4
x*> 2x -8 " [i- Zftx + 4)*
/-A* = i log
° ±* = 1 tanh-
*
8x_+J4_ _4_ + jB
/o — xa 2
2o 6
a - x a a Let
x*"+2x-8 *-2 x+4"
.'. = A (x + 4) + B(x - 2).
8x + 14
Example 3. /ntegrate j-^^JL^dx. (1) Let x = — 4;
u
then - 18 =4(0) +B(-6). /. B = 3.
Factorising the denominator (2) Let x =2
-2x _ then 30 =4(6) +B(0). 4=5. .-.
23 23 -2x
-5 _8* + 14 5 _3
5P + 9* ]2i~^ 1)(* + 6)' • (i~-2)(*+4) _ *-2 + *+4-
Let
. (x* + 10* +6 //. 5 3 . \
23-2% A B
, ,
,
(2x - l)(x~+Tj 2T^1 + x + 5' = x + 5log(x-2) + 3log(x + 4).

.'. 23 -2x=A(x + 6) +B{2x - 1).
(1) Let * = -5; 130. When the denominator Is the square of a binomial,
then 23+ 10=4(0) + B(- 11). ,'. B = - 3. as. for example, (x + a) 1 .
Let x = i; In this case the fraction may be the sum of two fractions
(2)
then 23-1 = 4(¥) +B(0). ,\ 4=4.
of which the denominators are (x + a) and (x a)* with +
constants as numerators.
: ; 1 ;
TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS mi
Example. Integrate .—r-ppdx. 2x — 2x + l

I
,,/ (x+2) -
t
ix. 12 '
i (2x H
*dx.
Let
3x
(x +
+l
1)»
Zx + \=A(x + l)+B
A
~ x + 1 + (* + l) r
5
. (1)
13
15
•
f
ix»-*-12
*»—
x'-2
2x»
,dx.
— llx-8 dx.
14.
16
yf,*'
x*
fx
8
x
2x»
2 — —
-
+
V - 1 ix.
*
Let * = - 1 t- x* -x -6 "
i x» -1
then -2=A{0)+B. .*. B = - 2. 131. Denominator of higher degree than the second and
A may be found by using the property of an identity, viz., resolvable Into factors.
the coefficients of like terms on the two sides of the (a) When the denominator Is entirely resolvable Into
Identity are equal. Comparing the coefficients of x in (1), different linear factors.
above, we get The method is the same as when there are only two
3=A. factors, but the number of partial fractions will correspond
. 3x + l
_x 3 2 to the number of factors.
•• (x + 1)» +1 (x + !)»•
" J(x + i)* ax

-)x + i y (* + i)»
Example. Integrate
^^J+y .
Factorising the denominator we get I
- 3k* (x+,)+ 3 - 4x - x'

«rr x(x-l)(x-3)'
Let
The second integral, »'.«., / . ..
t , is found by inspection, -x* — 4x +3 _A B
remembering that
xlx~^l)(x - 3) ~ x
+ x - 1 + x-3'
,
[dx 1
Then
}x*-~x -x»-4x + 3 =A (x — l)(x - 3) +Bx(x - 3) +Cx(x - 1).
Exercise 24. (1) Let = 0; x
Find the following integrals
then = 3/1+ Blfl) + C(0).
3 ,\ A=l.
i
(2) Let =1 x
1-
[-**- then - = A (0) - 2B + C(0).
2 .'. B = 1.
x = 3;
l
)x*-V (3) Let
then -18=^(0) +B(0) +6C. C = - 3.
3
Jx*-4-
4 f-£- .'.
3x-l
5
-/x* + 6x4-8' irf*. 1
+x -6 <*x.
m log x + log (x - I) - 3 log (x - 3).
(6) When the denominator can be resolved Into linear
factors, one or more of which may be repeated.
7x-8
»/•4x* + 3x — 1 dx. 10 -
Ar^** Example. Integrate
J
-
(
_ 1 ^*_ 2 y
;
>i TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS 203
The procedure is the same as that of § 130. Substituting this value of A in (1), we get :
Let x _ 1 = _ X* + i) + (BX + C)(x + 1)

-1 A B C ,r *• + * = (Bx + C)(x +
(
1).
* -2"
i i
Equating coefficients of x*
then
-1 ~4(*-l)(*-2) + B(*_2)+C(x-1) 1
.
\=B :. B = 1. (§ 130.)
(1) Let x = 1
Equating coefficients of x
then - = (0) - B + C(0).

1 /i .'. B= I. 1 = B + C. :. C = 0.
(2) Let * = 2; Hence
= - 1.
then
then
(3)
-
Let
1
*
=4(0) +B(0) +C.
=
— 1 = 2A — 2 - 2.
;
:.
.'.
C
4 ~ t.
(x -
*~
x
wm -1
*
-
- x-+i + ** +r
1
dx
*
Xdx
+ + )x* +
• ( A ~ )x \ (
(on substituting the values already found for B and C). ••
J (x + l)(x* + I)"* l l
= = - log (x + 1) + i log (x* + 1).

•'•
J (x - l)
s
(* -2) J (i - + 1 (*"Î)*
~~
F^2J dx
Note. — The integral / -y -r—y is one which can be
= log (x - I) - -]_-, -log(x-2). found by the application of the rule in § 107, but more
difficult cases will require the methods given in the
132. When the denominator contains a quadratic factor next section.
which cannot Itself be factorlsed. Exercise 25.
The method adopted in cases already considered can be Integrate the following:
employed.
Example. Integrate J^-fcLj^jL^.

1
*" (— - -
)x(x*
dx
1)'
Z -
)x*(x+2Y
*
d [ (2* + Wx 4
The factor (x* -f be resolved into real
1) cannot itself -
Jx(x -l)(*+2)- /(*-l)(x-2)(*+3)-
factors. However, two partial fractions with the denomina-
tors (x +
1) and (x* + 1) can be obtained. But the °-
J(x+2)(x^W
numerator of the fraction in which the denominator is of the
** + l)dx
second degree, viz. (x* +
1) may be of the first degree in x.
/•(
8
) x(x - 1)«
•
The general form of this can be expressed by (Bx + C).
-
}x(x' + \y
dx
/. Let 10 -
»-l A Bx+C (x* + l)(*-2)' /(T+ im*« +!j-
(x + l)(x*-+ I)
~X+ x*+l 1
,
' I
(?+4)(l-*)'
Then * - 1 = A (* + + (Bx + Q(x + 1) 1) (1)
Let x — — 1 13 {£** u./
then - 2 = A (2) + 0. :. A = - 1. +*
zo4 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS 205
133. Denominator of the form ax* + bx + c and not If (x +

b) is substituted for x in each of the above, since
resolvable into factors. the differential coefficients of x b and x are the same, +
The student have learnt from Algebra that the
will we have
expression ax* + bx + c can always be expressed as the
sum or difference of two squares. The following examples Aa f
I-.
J (x
—+ d* —
r—iT«
b)*
»*
a*
— I
a
coth- 1
...x —+a—b or
I
.;-
la
,
log-;
& (x—++ +-a
(x
—a b)
.
b)
; ,
illustrate this.
dx
x*+4x+2={x*+4x+ (2)*} - 2* + 2 (x + b)* + a*~a Un a '
= (x + 2)* - 2 or (x + 2)* - (V2)«

2x* - 3x + 1 = 2[x* -f*)+l
= 2{x* - i* + (i)*}-2 x (\)* + \
r
C s
(
—r-m = a tanh-,,x+i
J a* — (x + b)*
I
<^x
-,
1 ——
a
I
- !
or =-
la
I .
log
B
a
a
+ (x+b)
— (x+b)
; ,;.
= 2(x - })* - i = {V2(x - I)}* - (Vi)* Two cases may occur in the integration of such fractional
x*+6x+U = {x* + 6x + (3)*} - (3)» + 14 functions. They will be illustrated by the following;
= (x + 3)* + 5 = (x + 3)» + (V5)»
12 + 5x - x* = 12 - -5x) (I) When the numerator Is constant.
= 12-
-pp)' -(«-».
All of these are expressions for which there are no rational
factors. They are all included in the three types: Example!. Integrate J-^*L_g .
x*-a*
x*+a* We first express the denominator in the form x* + a*.
a*-x*
[a
x* + 6* + 2 = {x* + 6* + (I)*} -9+2.
We have seen that fractions of which these are denomina- = f*+3)«-7.
tors are of standard form (see § 111, Nos. 18, 22, 23).
Consequently the denominator of a fraction which is of the . f dx _ dx
f
form ax* bx + +
c can be transformed into one of these
••
./*»+6*+2 / X ( + 3)» - (Vl)*
three types. For convenience these three integrals are which is of form A above.
repeated, as they will be in constant use in work which
follows. dx I „. , x +3
x — / V7
- i«„ x a
'
X" - Oz
1 coth 1
- or
•
=-
2c^x~+-a
I ,
IOg
x + 3 -y7
dx
2V7 x + 3+v7-
B Itan-^.
+ x2 a a Example 2. Integrate /g
_ xr .
3*
1 tanh-1 * or Since 2 + 3* — ** = 2 — {** — 3* + 5} + *

Ja 2 -x* 2a b
a — x
Using formula C Re-arranging numerator

( dx f dx 6x + 7 = 3(2* - 1) + 10.
J2+3*-i*-./¥-(*-~|)« denominator x* — x — = (x —1 J)
1 — J.
2 yT7
Y + (2x - 3) + l)dx [Z 2x - 1) +
" -77,-, lo 8
- -
r (6x { 1
ax
.
V\7 VI7 2VI7 ','^T

VI7 /
(2x 3)-
n<x*-x-l -J' x*-x-l -
dx _f3(2*-l) 10_
Example 3. Integrate
j^-^ f
Rearranging the denominator The first integral is found by the rule of § 107 and the
second by using the standard from {A) above.
2x* +
4* + 3 2{(*» + 2* = + 1) - + 1 f}
(x-J)-^
v
. f(6x + 7)dx ,. ,, . ., . 10 ,
*'
2
Using formula B and substituting \

X tl T 2 "
)2x*-+4x +3
= 4
j (T+TF+T
Verification. —The student will find it a very useful
exercise to verify some of these results, by differentiating
Using (2?) as integral the integral obtained. The verification of the exercise
above, follows as an example.
=
)2x* + 4¥ + 3 */ IfjT+l)1 + } Ut
+ 10 (*-*>-f
•u .y=31og(*»-* l) + ^Llog
Then
^j tan 1
V2(x + I).
dy _ 3(2*_-_l]_ 10 1 1
(2) When the numerator Is of the first degree In the dx ~ x*~- x + + VI 1
variable. (*-i)-f (*-i)+fj

Type
Ax + 8 _ 4 + y@\ _ (x _ * _ \/5)
-3 + 10, fr-l + W-fr-i
dx.
I ox 2
OX +
4- bx + c 6*
135. To
solve this integral a combination of the devices
x*-x + V5 l
previously used is required as shown in the following

examples. 6s -3 10
Example Integrate » ** wdx.

>-« + ! + ^| (*-*)'
1
I. I
-(f)
The numerator must be first rearranged so that part of it 6*-3_ _10_
is the differential coefficient of the denominator.
;
i* - *' + 1 + ** — x + 1
Now j- (x* -x- 1) = 2x - 1.

6*_+7_
20S TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS 209
Example 2. Integrate U^"!

+l
5*
dx '
~te+ 3
~ (2x* + 4* + 3) = 4* + 4. ri(2.+ i)-i, x
x*+x + l
Re-arranging numerator 2* + l - dx
= *j **~+!T+T
5* + 1=5(4* + 4) -4. + *)» + }
*/(*
Re-arranging denominator = Jlog(*» + * + l)-(lx^)tan-^
2x* + 4* + 3 = 2{*» + 2* + |}
= 2|(* + l)»+& = Hog (*» + x + 1) _-^tan-»^±i.
(5* + l)dx
f2*»
/. + 4* + 3 Adding (1) and (2)
= fi(^+4)-4 +1
2%»
7 4* 3
ax
+
(4*+4)fr
+
t dx
B=+
** l
log(x-l)+llog(x«+x + 1 2x
l)- -^-tan-^
4- 1
.f V3 VT
Exercise 26.
= Jlog (2x* +4* + 3) - (2 + Vft tan-»^p Integrate the following:
= ! log (2x» + 4x + 3) - 2\/2 tan- V2(x + 1
I). dx <**
2-
+ 6* + 17- / *» + 6* - 4*
Example 3. Integrate I ;~^-= dx. dx *?
4 f 4
First we must resolve the fraction into partial fractions.
+ 4* + 6' J2x* + 2x+T
f (l-3*)rf*
Since x* - 1 = (x - l)(x* + * + 1). °-y3*»+4* + 2-
2* +l A Bx+C B)*L
Let
x» - 1 ~ x — 1
+ *+*+!* ,
"•" 7 f J??_+
Jx*+4x +5"
/. 2* + =.4(*»+* + l) +(.Bx+C)(*-l).
l
Let * = then 3 = A (3) + 0;

1 A= .-. I. y*»+2a:+2•
f+u
;
Comparing coefficients 11 f
(**+«)&
x* 0=4+5 = 1+ £. :. B=-l. y3x»+x+3"
(1)
(2) Constants 1 = —C + 1. C = 0.
II. Fractions with irrational denominators.
"
• f t2* + - f Jf_ - f xdx
*)**
d*
y x»-l ~Jx-l Jx' + x + V 136. Type
/K
'vW + bx + c
f , 9 L
By the use of methods similar to those employed in

) U
no TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS 211
previous sections, integrals of this type can be transformed Using Type A,

to one of the following standard forms (see § 111). dx
I V2*« + 3* - 2
+ v*~=r**
1
/t^F» = cosh
v/2
(A) ~l = log {x
a 1 . . 4x +3
= V2- C° Sh 5-
= slnh "1
= ,og {x + "
v/xJ ir?} -
Examples. Integrate
\ ^^^^^
(Q
hAi? i 4 + 8x - 5x« = 6f| - - (** {*)}
In this type the numerator is a constant and does not

<**
f
<»
involve the variable. Consequently it is necessary only •
f
to transform the denominator into one of the three forms
(A), (B), or (C). <**
The method of doing this is illustrated in the following
--
Vfi/Vtt- (*-*)»
examples: 1
—r- sm-
1
.*
—-r —\
.5x-4
Example!. * I
s,n
.
T-
Integra*
J^ + + ^ V5
Now (** + 6 ) dx
138. Type f
x* + &t + 10 = x* + 6* + (3)« -9+ 10 = (x + 3)» + 1. ' Vox" + 6x + c'
'
•
' J
f
Vx^Ttx +10
dx
_ = [
J VTx +W+r
d
— .-,-T-
is,
Let us consider_ajspecial case in which the denominatoi
say, V2x* + 7* + 8, i.e., (2x* + Ix f 8)*.
This is of type (C) above, in which x is replaced by x + 3, Then -j-
+ Sj
Z (V2x»"+ 7* — 8)-»
which has the same differential coefficient. = 4f2r« 7r -
J(2*« + 7*
-4- x (2x» + 7x - 8)
dx
dx = i(2x» + 7x - 8)-* x (4x + 7)
/ Vx* + 6x +13
= slnh- 1
(x + 3) or log {(x + 3) + %/**"+ 6x + 10}.
V2** + 7* - 8"
From
this it is evident that, ij the numerator of a fraction,
Example
v 2.
S^
Integrate I
J
-.
V2x*
- . _
+ 3a: - 2 of this type, is one half of the differential coefficient of the
expression under the root sign in the denominator, then the
Now, [2x* + 3* - 2) = 2(x» + f * - 1 integral of the fraction is equal to the denominator, i.e.,
= 2{(* + })• - ft}.
/i-jx (o*' + (x+c) _
••
yv2*» + 3*-2 W \/(* + j)» - ft* ' V'ax* + bx +~c
. dx = •v
/
oxr + lx + c.
2ia TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS ai3
Consequently, when evaluating an integral of this type, Exercise 27.

arrange the numerator so that part of it is the differential Integrate the following:
coefficient of the expression under the root sign in the
dx dx
denominator. 1
In general, this results in a constant being left over in

'
JVx* +6* + 10* */iV*~+ 2x + 4"
the numerator, as in the corresponding type in § 135. The £*
4 f
expression can then be divided, as in § 135, into two '
J Vx* - 4x + 2'
fractions, in whieh the first will be as above, and the
second as in § 137.
dx
6. f
" »
A worked example will make this clear. Vox* — \2x + •
i V*(4 - *j
xdx f (x + l)Jx
139.
InUsraU
Worked example,
(x + \)dx
7
JV*
(x + i)dx
r
Mwrr
iv& + x -3 10
)7xT=:* + i
Now £(2*« + *-3)=4*+l. f
(2x-3)dx
12 ' (
(2x + l)dx
2x+5 JV3—4X-X*'
Re-arranging the numerator
x + = i(ix +
1 1) +} 13 f
(2x + 3) dx 14
= &(** + !)} + !• Vx* + * + r -iVx» + 2^-l-
(x + \)dx 140. Some useful devices.
h
'
y/2x* + x-3 Other irrational functions can sometimes be transformed

so as to admit of the use of the above methods.
fHH^ + m + f^ 1' (a) Rationalisation. In certain cases the rationalisation
V2** + x - 3 of the numerator enables the integration to be performed.
-if l(4x+l)dx [ \ dx
V y/2x* + x — 3 J V2x* + * — 3' Example. Integrate l-W . dx.
J&+})^ = tf2 # + , - 3
As shown above if .
Rationalising the numerator
Vx — 1 _ Vx — I x Vx — 1
Also using the methods of §§ 135, 136
Vx + l
~ Vx+l x Vx — I
\d_x
_ T f
** x -I
/ V2x* +x 3 V \?2x* +x-3 Vx* — 1'
1
f=i
-•til-*-*-*- } •••
(4
.dx
; v*» -
(* + l)dx [_xdx__ f
I V2x* +x-3 J Vx*~^ l Vx*
<fo
—
= iVlx* + x - 3 + i«*..*|J. / 1
= Vx* — — cosh-
I
1
x.
2I 4 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS 215
(b) Substitution. By substitution for the irrational du
-
expression a new variable, such as u, the Integral can be f
— u '+ u*
simplified as shown in the following examples: Vl —u+u*
Vl
J
2» — (using method
= - smh
. , , 1
Example I. Integrate —ymm VT of §137)

J
+4 2-1
Let * = 1
-
u
or « = -.x1 = — sinh- X
Then dx =
j
.du. V3
u1
= _s,nh-^*.
. [ dx
— -fdu
-«-."'
1
_ f
" JxVx*'+4, )i If— Exercise 28.
sVs» +4 Integrate the following functions:
.du
-/ « /VS--
-/
-,V1
du
+ 4«»
MS* [— dx
„+ ix
Vl + 4m» "
Jx + Vi 5"-
6 '
f
; * Vx* 6* + 10'
=- I sinh-
1
2w
(rationalise the denominator).
1
=- i sinh-
1 -.
«**
8 f
Example 2. Integrate I
J xv x*
?
—x+
.
1
0./ (x f
*
+ l)Vx*+4x + 2
Let x = u- and a = -.
x (pot* + 1-|).
Then dx= i
II . f^H?*
I x
12 .
f f*+
JxWl x1
(rationalise numerator). (put * = tan w).
••
/*••** -* + i ii /1 -vV + I
**
~ u +7;
1
14.
aV •? / \/3~+T
dx
/
16
I (put
(x + \)Vx + 2
Vx + 2 = «).
:iVl - u + u*
AREAS BY INTEGRAL CALCULUS ai7
Let the area be A sq. units.

Let P be any point on the curve OA.
Let its co-ordinates be (x, y).
CHAPTER XIII Drawing the ordinate PQ we have OQ x, PQ y. = =
Suppose the area to be increased by a small amount SA ,
AREAS BY INTEGRAL CALCULUS. DEFINITE due to the point P moving along the curve to , and M
INTEGRALS Q
moving along the axis to N.
141. Areas by Integration. Draw PS and MR
parallel to OX and produce QP to
The integral calculus had its origin in the endeavour to

meet MRat R.
find a general method for the determination of the areas Then we can represent QN by Sx
of regular figures. When these figures are bounded by and MS by 8y.
straight lines, ele- /. ON = x + Sx
r mentary geometry MN =y + Sy.
Y supplies the means of Also SA is represented by the figure QPMN.
/ obtaining formulae
for their areas;but
when the boundaries
The area
QPSN,
and
QPMN
lies between the areas of
area of QRMN is (y + 8y)8x

QRMN and
A( are wholly, or in
part, regular curves, .'. 8/1 lies
„ QPSNisyhx.
between y$x and (y + Sy)Sx
such as the circle,
A
*ry(" SA
S
ellipse, semi-circle, and
Sx
y and y + Sy.
etc., then, unless we
O
y\ Ql i
B
X
have the help
integral calculus,
must depend
experimental or ap-
proximate methods.
We proceed therefore
of the
we
upon
Now suppose
Then
limit,
as Sx
i.e.,
—
Sx to be decreased indefinitely.
0,
in the limit
8y
dA
Tx
=y
0, and j-
Sx
becomes -j-
ax
in the
to investigate how
= x*.
Fig. 29.
integration can be :. dA = x dx.
x
employed to determine any such area. Integrating A = Jx8 + C.

Let us consider, as an example, the parabola This result provides a formula for the area A in terms of
y = x*. any abscissa x and the undetermined constant C.
In Fig. 29, OA represents a part of this curve. But when x = 0, A =0,

Let A be any point on the curve and AB the corre- then C = 0.
sponding ordinate. /. for any value of x, when measured from O.
Let OB = a units.
Suppose it is required to find the area under OA, that is,
the area of OAB, which bounded by
When x = a as in the figure for the area of OAB
is
7 the curve, OX, and A = Jo* sq. units.
AB.
ai6
>i8 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS AREAS BY INTEGRAL CALCULUS 219
If now another value of x, say b, be taken, so that OD in Draw PS and MR parallel to OX.
Fig. 30 = b. Then by the above result Then MS = 8y
Area of OCD = J6».
and MN = y + Sy
.-. Area of CDBA = J(fl» - 6s ). also ON = x + 8*.
Let the area be in-
creased by &A. wheie $A
is represented by the
figure PQNM
Then the area of
PQNM lies between the
areas of PQNS and
QRMN.
,'. 6Alles between y6x
and (y + 6y)8x,
tlA
i.e., -=r lies between
Sx
y and y 4- 8y.
Let 8* be decreased
indefinitely.
Then, as 8x —> 0,
Fie. 30.
Sy — > 0, and Sv
8x
ap-
dA Fig. 31.
proaches -,- as its limit.
We will now proceed to establish a general rule which will
apply to any function. dA
•
in the limit
142. Definite Integrals.
dx=y
Let the curve drawn in Fig. 31 represent part of the .'. dA = +(x)ix.
function
y = *(x). Integrating, and representing the integral of <f>(x) by/(x).
Let AB and CD be fixed ordinates such that jdA = j<f,(x)dx
OB = a,OD = b.
Let ABDC be the area which we require to find and let
and A = f(x) + C . . . . (I)
it be A sq. inch. where C is an undetermined constant. Its value can be

Let PQ be a variable ordinate corresponding to any determined when the value of A is known for some value
point, (x, y), so that OQ = x, PQ = y = <f>(x). of x.
Then, if Q moves along OX so that x be increased by 6x Now A has been taken to represent the area ABDC, i.e.,
[i.e., QN), P will in consequence move along the curve to between the ordinates where x = a, and x = b respectively,
M (say). and the variable ordinate moves from x = a to x b. =
to TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS AREAS BY INTEGRAL CALCULUS 221
But when % = a,A = 0. (a) The results of substituting the limits in the
Substituting in I, =/(a) C, + integral are respectively f{a) +
C and f{b) +
C. Con-
.-. C = -f(a). sequently on subtraction the constant C disappears,
hence the term " definite." If a and b are numbers
When x = b, i.e., at D the integral will also be a number.
A=f(b)+C. (b) The variable is assumed to be Increasing from
Substituting the value found for C. the lower limit to the upper limit, i.e., in the above
A = f(b)-f(a). ... (II)
from to b. This must be carefully remembered when
dealing with negative limits. If, for example, the
Since f(a) and f(b) are found by substituting a and 6 limits are —
2 and 0, then the variable x is increasing
for * in f(x) which represents the integral of <f>(x), the area, from —2 to 0. Consequently the upper limit is
A between these limits a and b can be found by integrating
, and the lower limit 2.—
4>(x) and substituting the values x a and * —
b, f(a) being = This definite integral would therefore be written
subtracted from/(6).
This can conveniently be expressed by the notation
f<f>(x)dx.
m-m= /W)<fc- (c) The term

" limit " in this connection has not
the meaning attached to it previously in § 15. It
4>(x)dx is called a definite Integral and a and b denotes the values of the variable x at the ends of the
j
range of values a to b over which we are finding the
are called its limits, a being called the lower limit value of the definite integral.
and fa the upper limit.
.'. To evaluate a definite Integral such as

[ <f>(x)dx
Example I. Evaluate Hie definite integral i Zx . dx.
(1) Find the indefinite integral J<f>(x)dx, viz.f(x).
(21 Substitute for x in this the upper limit b, i.e.,f(b). Now hxdx = \x* + C.
(3) „ „ „ lower limit a, i.e., /(a).
(4) Subtract J(a) from f(b)
In practice the following notation and arrangement is
...
j>* =![>*];
found convenient = f{(5)»-(2)»}
= } x21
jy X)du = [f(x)j _63
~ 2*
= f»-Y(a).
The student will find it a useful exercise to check this by
143. Characteristics of a definite Integral. drawing the graph of y =
Zx, the ordinates at x 2 and =
The following points about a definite integral should be x = 5 and finding the area of the trapezium by the ordinary
carefully noted i geometrical rule.
TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS AREAS BY INTEGRAL CALCULUS 223
Example 2. Evaluate the definite integral l*sin xdx. Since

j
(1 + 3* - 2x*)dx = x + ?J* - §*»
Now /sin xdx = — cos x + C. .'.

£ (1 + 3x - 2*»)<fc = [* + 3 -
J* |^J
- "
= 0- (-l+l + f)
.'. /'sin xdx = T- cos «f 7
" 6"
-{{-«»§ -f- 008 0)}
= +1 Example 5. Evaluate the definite integral \ -. .
= 1.
*_.,cosh-
AM*. —This gives, in square units, the area beneath
Since
J
/•
Vx*-\
1
x.
the curve of y = sin x between and 5. A graph 01
this function
a
between and
••
rv^b-[° odri *i-
is shown in Fig. 32. Clearly, = cosh- 1
(3) cosh- 1 (2)
from symmetry the area under = 1-763 - 1-316 (both approx.)
this curve between and x = 0-447.
must be twice that between Rough values for cosh- 1 (3)
and cosh' 1 (2) can be found
and from the tables on p. 379.
5, i.e., 2 sq. units. Thii
More exact values can be found by using the algebraical
-X can be checked by evaluating equivalent of cosh- 1 *, viz. log, {* + Vx % + 1} using the
hyperbolic logs on p. 377.
I sin xdx.
Fig. 32.
Example 6. Evaluate the definite integral j x log xdx.
Example 3. Evaluate xe*dx. Using the result of Exercise 22, No. 5, we get 1
J
Now (xe*dx = \e* + C (by inspection)

f
Jx log xdx = x*2
-
( lo S* - D-
log xdx = [! -
•••
/>^=K
= -o to
x
.'.
jx
=|
,
(log
(log#e
*
$)]
-J)-|(log.l_l)
-*(e-l).
Example 4. Evaluate the definite integral
= (f
x i) - 1(0 - t)
f (1 + 3x - 2x*)dx. = *+
c '
*-i
J24 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS AREAS BY INTEGRAL CALCULUS "5
Exercise 29. dx
32
Evaluate the following definite integrals! '
Vx*
i.V + 2* -+2'
1. j*x*dx. 2. jV + 4)^*. 34 .ft

Jo
tan* zrf*.
3. (*(*» + 3x- 6)dx. 4. T (2* + l)»<fc.

35 '
f
1
k Vti
^ _
- \x - x*' 36 '
h Vx(l - X)'
6. f x-o-'dx. 6. j'Vx'dx.
37
fi
n
-
/, (T=V
7. (V+*-v*- 8. I cos3*ix.
145. Some properties of definite Integrals.
(1) Interchange of limits.
9. (cos - sin 26)<*8. 10. f*cos (28 + j)<f0. Let <f>(x) be the indefinite integral of f(x).
J
Then, if the limits of the definite integral are o and b
12. j*4*dx.
ff(x)dx = 4(b) - *(o).
14. \np j* (a* - *Fix. If the limits be interchanged
sin 1 *fc.
[
'f(x)dx = 4(a) - 4(b)

16. f
/o
a
it. f/(x)dx =- j'/(x)dx.
18. I ssinxix.
Thus, the Interchange of the limits of Integration
20 . / ** log xdx. changes only the sign of the definite Integral.
22 . ( tan-1 «&, (2) j"f(x)dx = ff(x)dx + ff(x)dx.

'a ' c 'a
Let be the indefinite integral of f(x).

24 . Py l+2xtt*. <f>(x)
f« dx /(x)dx=4(b)--f>(a)
26 j
'
iovT+1'
also j'f(x)dx= 4(b) -4(c)
and [j(x)dx= 4(c) -4(«).

H (CAL.)
226 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS AREAS BY INTEGRAL CALCULUS 227
/. ff(x)dx + \'f(x)dx = {4(b) - <f>(c)} + {4(c) - 4(a)) .*. When x is replaced by a —u in I f(x)dy, the limits
'» '» = 4(b)
6(b\ - 4(a)
,
d>(a\ •0
must be changed to those found above.
= \"f(x)dx.
/. j"/(x)dx =- f(a - u)du
In Fig. 30 there is a graphical illustration of this theorem.
Clearly, (a — u)dx (by (1) above)
Area of OMi = Area of ABDC -f Area of OCD,
i.e.. j°f(*)
'0
= />(*)
'»
+ /
'0
W Examples.
= j
(a — x)dx (by (3) above)
(3) Since / f(x)dx = <t>(b) - 4(a). where ^(x) is the
indefinite integral of I j(x)dx, then as the definite integral

I sin xdx = ("sin (^ — xjdx
/ft *0
0(6) — 4(a) does not contain x. any other letter could be

used in the integral, provided the function of each of the cos xdx.
two letters in the sum is the same. i
In general
For. ff(y)dy = 4(b) - 4(a)
n
rl
'a /(sin x)dx = ,' /(cos x)dx.
Jo
t f/(x)dx = 4(b) - 4(1).
'a 146. Infinite limits and Infinite Integrals.
= In the calculation of definite integrals between two limits

.: ff(x)dx \"f(y)dy.
and b it has been assumed
(1) That these limits are finite.
(4) j'f(x)dx = j'f(a - x)dx.
(2) That all the values of the function between them
'o Jo
finite, i.e.. the function is continuous.
are also
Let x =a—u or a — x = u. Wemust, however, consider cases when one or both of
Then dx = — du. these conditions is not satisfied.
Now, IfIntegration the variable Is changed,
In definite
che limits will also be changed and the new limits must be 147. Infinite limits.
determined. The problems which arise when one of the limits is infinite
.". in the above, when x = a, can be illustrated by considering the case of y = .
= a — x = a — a =0.
u
{
when x = In studying this function it will be helpful to refer to its
u = a — x = a — = a. gTaph, part of which is shown in Fig. 33. The values of
Thus when x = a,u = 0, and when x = 0,u = a. 1 being always positive, the curve of the function lies
. :
228 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS AREAS BY INTEGRAL CALCULUS 229
entirely above OX. It consists of two parts, corresponding l*-*""dx . ,
to positive and negative values of x. These two parts are -j, or more conveniently,
J
clearly symmetrical about OY.
= [_
/. ** d-
Its value in the limit becomes — (
\co al
1.
But the limit of —

CO
is zero.
I
.". The value of the definite Integral Is -and Is finite.
(2) Next, suppose the ordinate PA to move towards OY;

thenP/1 increases rapidly, and when OA i.e., a is decreased — —
without limit, the ordinate, i.e., the value of y, increases
without limit,
.". as a — >- 0, y —y co
The definite integral can now be written
f g or
f§-MT
In the limit -r becomes
--R-&
infinite.
Fig. 33.
Thus the definite Integral becomes Infinite and cannoi
be found numerically.
Let P, Q be two points on the curve. At the same time OY becomes an asymptote to the curve.
Let PA, QB be the corresponding ordinate. We therefore conclude that in the definite integral —
Let OA =a,OB b.= X
I
'a
,,
Then, as shown in § 142, the area beneath the part of the (a) Ifx becomes infinitely great, while y becomes
curve PQ and bounded by PA, QB and OX, is as shown by indefinitely small, the integral will have a finite value.
the shaded part of the figure and is represented by (b) If x becomes indefinitely small, while y becomes
t*dx r l-i» /I 1\ infinitely large, the integral has no finite value.
l* = l- x\ =-\b— ah a
It is clear therefore that in all such cases we must
investigate and determine whether the definite integral
(1) Suppose the ordinate QB to move indefinitely away
from OY, so that OB—
can have a finite value or not.
b— increased
i.e., is indefinitely.
Next we will consider an example in which both limits
Then the ordinate QB decreases indefinitely and in the become infinite.
limit OX is an asymptote to the curve (§ 14),
i.e.. as 6 — >• co , QB —> 0.
(<•
LIT*
dx r.
-,=[tan-i*]
. -i»
a
The definite integral can now be written i = tan- 1
b — tan- 1
a.
=
'3° TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS AREAS BY INTEGRAL CALCULUS *3>
integrals, to ascertain if the function is continuous between

If then tan- 1 b 2' the assigned limits, or whether becomes some
If a — * — <o then tan-' a
r.
2'
value of
This
x.
is necessary in the case of fractional
specially
it infinite for
In the limit functions which, while the numerator remains finite, the
in
denominator vanishes for one or more values of x.
becomes g-(-g)}
/:. ,+*» Thus i
_ i\/ _ 21
becomes infinite, and the curve is
dx
Therefore there is a finite value of the inti
i-gral therefore discontinuous
j 1 + **"
(1) when (x — = 0, and

I) x = 1, and
148. Functions with Infinite values. (2) when (x — 2) = 0. and x = 2.
We next consider functions which become infinite for

some value, or values, of the variable between the limits Similarly in , the denominator vanishes when
of the definite integral,
The function ,,
i.e., the function
which was considered above,

is not continuous.
is an
x = 2. or more accurately, y/2 x >- when x » 2.
Consequently the function approaches infinity as x
—
>• 2.
— —
x*
example; it becomes infinite when x = 0, as shown above. All such cases must be examined to ascertain it a finite
If therefore it is required to find the value of the integral limit and therefore a definite value oi the integral exists.
(**dx . .
For this purpose the property of an integral as stated in
-, it is evident th;it the function becomes infinite (or a § 145, No. 2, can often be employed. In using this theorem
/_» * the integral to be tested is expressed as the sum of two
value of x between the limits, viz. x = 0.
integrals in which the value of the variable for which the
[+ "^x function becomes infinite is used as an end limit. Each
If I j be evaluated as usual, disregarding this infinity
of these must have a finite value if the original integral is
value, the result is as follows: finite and its value is given by that sum.
An example of this was given above, when it was pointed
r+*dx r In* 8
out that Iwhen expressed as the sum of
, -,, and I
*t *
/0 dx '-* '<>
-. must be infinite, i.e., it has no meaning, since each

But this result is at variance with that obtained above
J-t x
(* 2 dx
when it was shown that I -, becomes infinite as x of the two component integrals had been shown to be
infinite. A further example is given below in which a
approaches zero. Similarly, it can also be shown that method is employed for determining whether a given
definite integral is finite or not.
I * is infinite.
J-t x
As
r+tfa
I , must be the sum of these (§ 145), it must be rdx— ,,
'-t x
has a finite value.
infinite.
It is therefore necessary, before evaluating certain The integral approaches infinity as x — > 2.
231 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS AREAS BY INTEGRAL CALCULUS *33
Using the above theorem (§ 145), the integral can be " dx

expressed as follows: x*-V
s
dx — dx
ii— + «>
vr=2 +
(*
Vx~-2 ~ I
f* I
) ) W=r£ c-*dx.
It is necessary, if the original integral is to have a finite (" xdx

e~ z cosxdx. 8-
¥*
value, that each of these integrals should be finite. We, 7. I
Jo i. 1
therefore, test these separately.
be replaced by 2 "2" + dx (" dx
In the first let the end limit
where a is a small positive number.
a, 9 f
a
(1)Then
t.^2=fr- 2) ,
]! +a
11.
J f. * £Vu4>
= ll{(3-2)l}-{(2+a)-2}l]
= f(l -al) 14. I x log xdx.
= | - f «l. Jo
As a > and (2 + ct) — > 2, the value of the integral 16 . j

'o
x*<r*dx.
approaches f.
.'. In the limit the value of the Integral Is f. (» dx
17. ( logxdx. 18
Jo
•
L ~v~*
I> dx
19 20
In the limit when a > 0, (—a)' —> and the value

of the integral becomes — f(— 2)1 = — J-y^.
As each of the definite integrals has a finite value, the
whole integral is finite and is equal to the sum of the two
integrals.
,W=2 =i-m
dx
=
-^'4). = f(l
Exercise 30.
When possible calculate the values of the following
definite integrals!
'dx a ("dx
1.
\:%- * rs.
x*'
INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION. AREAS 135
Then X MX
can be represented by 8*. Hence each of
the divisions X,X t A.A, ... is equal to 8*. ,
CHAPTER XIV Let A X X X , i4 r.Y,, A 9 X t ... be ordinates corresponding

to the points Ax At At , , . . .
INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION. AREAS Complete therectangles^P,^ ,Q X ,A ,Pt/itQt ,A t P x AgQ 3 . .
There are now two sets of rectangles corresponding to

149. Approxlmatlom to an area by
elements.
division Into small the divisions MX X X X ,
x t , . . .
(1) MP A.X.. X.PJIJL* X P A,X t 3

MAQ X X A QX. XJ4J
l
In the preceding chapter it was seen how, with the aid ot (2) X X . x t
integration, we could find the area of a figure bounded in
The area beneath the curve, i.e., the area of MABN. lies
part by a regular curve whose equation is known. We between the sums of the areas of the rectangles in sets
now proceed to the consideration of another, and a more
(1) and (2).
general, treatment of the problem.
If the number of divisions be increased the area of each
of the two sets will approximate more nearly to the area of
MABN.
If the number of divisions be increased indefinitely. 8*
will be decreased indefinitely and the area of each of the
sets (1) and (2) approaches to equality with the area under
the curve. It is therefore necessary to find expressions for
the sums of these sets and then to obtain their limiting

values when 8* > 0. —
The ordinates can be expressed thus:
AM = 4{a)
A ,X X
= 4>{a + 8x)
A tX t = Ua 4-28*)
AK -
X
X„ ,=#« 4- (n- 1)8*)
and BN m <f>\b)
where n is the number of divisions.

Fig. 34.
.". the areas of these rectangles in (1) are as follows:
In Fig. 34 let AB be a portion of a curve whose equation Area of MAQ X. = (AM x X
MX.) = <j>(a)Sx
is v = <£(*). „ X A tQtX, = (A X
X X X)
x (AVYJ = *(a + 8*)8*
Let AM, BN be the ordinates of A and B, so that ., AVI ,<?,*, = (A t X t) x {XJCJ = 4>(a + 28*)S*
OM = a, ON = 6.
.-. AM = BN=<f>(b).
tf,(a), „ XK .
x A n . x Qn . x N = M.-.AV x) x (X.. X N)
Let the co-ordinates of A be (*, y).
= <f,{a + (n - 1)8*)8*.
ABNM is the figure whose area is required. The sum of all these rectangles is
Let MN be divided into n equal parts at xX X ,X
, t S*tf(«) + <f>{a +- Xx\ + . . . + 4\a + (« - 1)8*}] (A)
234
2 36 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION. AREAS 237
Similarly the sum of all the rectangles in (2) is integrate meaning " to give the total sum ". The first letter
Sx[6(a + Sx) + <f.(a + 28x) . . .
of the word sum appears in the sign /, which is the old-
+ 4{a + (n - 1)8*} + Ub)] (B) fashioned elongated " s."
The area of the figure AMNB lies between {A) and (C). It is also evident why the
infinitesimal, dx, must necessarily appear as a factor in an
Then (B) - (A) = 8^(6) - 4(a)). integral.
In the limit when 8* > —
this difference vanishes. The definite integral has been used in the illustration
above to refer to the sum of areas. This, however, is used
Thus each of the areas approaches the area of AMNB.
as a device for illustrating the process by a familiar geo-
:. The area is the limit of the sum of either (A) or (B). metrical example. Actually there was found the sum of
The summation of such a series can be expressed con- an infinite number of algebraical products, one factor of
cisely by the use of the symbol S (pronounced " sigma "), which, in the limit, becomes infinitely small. The results,
the Greek capital " S." Using this symbol the sum of the however, can be reached independently of any geometrical
series may be written illustration. b
*£ ^(x)8x. Consequently, I <j>(x)dx can be regarded as representing

la
X—
the sumof an Infinite number of products, one factor of
By this expression we mean, the sum of terms of the
which an Infinitesimally small quantity. The successive
is
type <j>(x)§x, when we substitute for x the values products must be of the nature of those appearing in the
a, a + Sx, a + 2Sx, a + 38x, . . . demonstration above, and must refer to successive values of
between x = a and x = b. the independent variable, x, between the limits x b and =
for all such possible values of it
The area of AMNB is the limit of this sum when 8* —> 0,
x = a.
This being the case, the method can be applied to the
and this is written in the form
summation of any such series, subject to the conditions
A= Lt
—»
'i ^(x)Sx.
«— o
which have been stated.
J* This is of great practical importance, since it enables us
But we have seen, (§ 142), that this area is given by the to calculate not only areas, but also volumes, lengths of
integral curves, centres of mass, moments of inertia, etc., such as
b *-*
<f,(x)dx. are capable of being expressed in the form £ <f>(x)dx.
] x—a
They can then be represented by the definite integral
Lt'i" <f>(x)dx = f<f>{x)dx.
I« —» x —a •'a
In the above demonstration <f>(x) has been regarded as

150. The definite Integral as the limit of a sum.
steadily and continuously increasing, but the arguments
It is thus apparent that a definite integral can be employed will apply equally when if>(x) is decreasing. It
regarded as a sum, or, more correctly,, the " limit of a sum," is essential, however, that the range of values of x between
of the areas of an infinite number of rectangles, one side of a and b can be divided into a definite number of parts, and
each of which (dx in the above) is infinitesimally small. that the corresponding values of <j>{x) are continuously
The use of the term integral will now be clear, the word increasing or decreasing.
*3» TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION AREAS J39
This is called an element of area, and it is always necessary

The practical applications of the above conclusions are
to obtain this element before proceeding to the solution.
very many, and some of them will be discussed in succeeding
chapters. The sum of all such areas is given by the definite integral
,1
The most obvious application, in view of the method ydx.
followed in the demonstration, is to areas so a beginning
; I
will be made by examining examples of them. But = **»•
y
151. Examples on Areas. Area = j* ix*dx = i[V]'
'0
Example I Find the area between the curve of y = $x*, the
.
4
x-axis, and the ordinate of the curve corresponding to x = 2. units.
The
part of the curve involved is indicated in Fig. 35 by
Example Find the area between the curve of y = \x %
2.
OQ, where the ordinate from Q corresponds to the point ,
= 2. and the straight line y = 2.

the axis of y
*
The curve is the same as in Example 1, and is shown in
Fig. 35 with vertical shading the line y
; BQ
2. is =
Take any point P(x, y) on the curve as before, y, ; OM —
ON = x. PM
represents a small element of area.
In this problem it is convenient to consider the area as
being formed by the movement parallel to of PM, i.e., OX
y is regarded as being increased by 8y to form the rectangle
PM.
Then area of PM = x6y.
and when
8y —
Then the rectangle becomes
> 0. the element of area,
infinitely small,
is represented by xdy.
;. Area of figure OBQO is given by I xdy.
integral, and
h-°the
Consequently there are two variables in
one of these must be expressed in terms of the other so that
there remains one variable only.
The area required is that of OAQ indicated by horizontal Let us express x in terms of y, in which case the limits are
shading. unaltered.
Let P. (x, y) be any point on the curve, so that ON *.= Since y = J**_
Let x be increased by 8*. and drawing the corresponding * = V2y.
ordinate there is enclosed what is approximately a smalJ
rectangle, as shown in the figure. Substituting, Area = \\/2y.dy = %/2 j* y*dy
'0 'o
The area of this is approximately y8x.
When 6x becomes indefinitely small, the sum of the area = V^[5y»]' = V2 x 1(\/2V.
of all such rectangles throughout the range from x =
to x —2 is equal to the required area. = 85 sq. units.
The area of this very small rectangle is ydx.
24 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION. AREAS 241
dy had been expressed in terms of x, and it is seen that

If By the property of a right-angled triangle
dy =
xdx, then for the limits we must obtain the values of OM' + MP* = OP*
x corresponding to y =
2 and y 0. =
In this case they
x* + y* = a*.
are the same, since from y =
|x\ when y 2, x =
2, and = i.e..
y = 0. X = 0. This equation is true for any point on the circumference,
—
Note. Evidently the sum of this area and the
and itstates the relation which exists between the co-
ordinates of any point and the constant which defines the
preceding one in Example 1 must equal the area of
circle, i.e., the radius a.
the rectangle OBQA,
.«. x* +y* = 0*
».«., f + I = 4 sq. units. is the equation of a circle of radius a and the origin at its
centre.
Example 3. Area of a circle.
(I) Area by rectangular co-ordinates. Area of the circle x* -f y 1 = a*.
Fig. 37 represents this circle.

The equation of a circle.
Before finding the area enclosed wholly or in part by

a curve, it is necessary to know the equation of that curve.
To help those students
who have not studied
co-ordinate geometry
we will proceed to find
the equation of the
circumference of a
circle in rectangular
co-ordinates.
In any circle the
centre can be taken as
the origin of a system
of co-ordinates, and
two diameters at right
angles to each other as
the co-ordinate axes.
This is indicated in For reasons whichwill be apparent later it is better to
Fig36. find the area of the quadrant which is shaded; from this
Fio. 30.
'lake any point P, we get the area of the whole circle.
(x, y) on the circumference and draw PM perpendicular Let P (x, y) be any point on the circumference.
OX.
to
Let the radius of the circle be a.
Then OM = x, PM = y.
The element of area, as previously defined, can be repre-
Then OM = x,PM =y. sented by the small rectangle PM, and is given by ySx.
24* TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION. AREAS 243
In the limit as &x
by fdx.
— > the element of area is represented starting from the fixed position OA on makes a complete OX
rotation around a fixed point 0, the point P describes the
For the purposes of the definite integral which will give circumference of a circle, and the area marked out by OA
us the area, the limits of x for the quadrant are: is the area of the circle.
At 0. x = 0. Let the point P have

rotated from OA so that it
At A, x = a. has described the angle, G,
,
Area = f
ydx -
AOP being consequently a
L sector of a circle.
Since x* + y* = a* Now suppose OP to rotate
further through an
y = Va*
in-
^~x*
finitesimally small angle
.'. Area = I y/a* — x*dx. denoted by a*0. The in-
'a finitely small sector so de-
In § 1 17 it was shown that scribed would bean element
of area, and the sum of all Kio. 38.
s — x*dx = — such sectors when OP makes

hVa + ^xVa*
1
g sin-
'
x*.
a complete rotation from OX, back again to its original
tf
position, will be the area of the circle.

:. Va' - xHx = [jxVa* - at* + g sin-' *] .
The infinitely small arc subtended by do in the limit can
J
be regarded as a straight line, and the infinitely small sector
Now when x = a, sin = sin- 1
1 = 2'
5 . as a triangle.
The length of the arc is odO (Trigonometry. § 120).
When * = 0, sin- 1 = sin -1

0.
The altitude of the triangle can be regarded, in the limit,
a as the radius of the circle.
Using the formula for the area of a triangle
Area = JaVa* - a +JxJ)-fl
1
.*.
{
Element of area = J x arfe x a = JaVO
— "i " And the angle corresponding to a complete rotation is
4
2n radians.
.•. Area of the circle = -na*.
= j*" =
.-. Area Jaê [{a'tf
(2) Alternative method. = ia' x 2*
The following method will be found useful in its = IT (J*.
applications.
The area of a circle can be conceived as the area of a Example 4. Area of part of a circle between two parallel
plane figure which is traced out by a finite straight line as chords.
it rotates around one of its ends, and makes a complete
rotation.
In the circle x* + y* = 9 find the area contained between
Thus in Fig. 38 if the straight line OP, length a units,

the lines x = 1, x = 2.
The radius of this circle is 3 and the centre is at the
*44 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION. AREAS 145
origin. The area which it is required to find is shown in .*. Area of the whole
Fig. 39. = 2-582 x 2
Since x* + y* =9 = 5-164 square units (approx.).
y = V"9 — x*. Example 5. Area of a segment of a circle.
If ydx represents the element of area, then Find the area of tlie segment cut off from the circle
ydx = ViT^lPdx. x* +y* = 9 by the line x = 2.
This is the same circle as in the previous example, and the
Considering only the part of the area above OX, then
area required is that which is shaded in Fig. 40. Considering
only the area of that part lying above OX, we haves
Area = J
V9 - x* . dx.
Area = / ydx = I V9 — x*dx.

Using the result obtained in the previous example
j
Va*^l?dx = + fsin- !]
foxV9^~x~* 1
= {0 + J sin- 8} - {V§ + f sin- 1)

1 1
»fx I — {2-236 + i x 0-730} (from above)

= J - (2-236 + 3-29)
= 1-543
,*, total area = 3086 = 309 square units (approx.).
—
Note. As a check, the student should find the area
of the segment cut off by the line x 1. It should =
be the sum of those above.
Using the integral
Example 6. The area of an ellipse.
V«» - xHx = \x Va^^H* + \a* sin- -

1
(§ 1 17) Fig. 41 represents an ellipse in which the origin is the
I centre, i.e., the point of intersection of the major axis .4,4 x
?y/$^x*dx = \\xy/$^~x* + 1
f sin- £] and the minor axis l
. BB
Let the length of AA 1
be 2a.
= {J2v/9=i + |sin-» !}-{ iVS - + fsin-' J) 1
„ BB* „ 26.
= (V5 + | sin- 1) - ($VS + I sin- |)
1 1
Then OA = a, and OB = b.
= (\/5 - V2) - *(sin-» J - sin- J) 1
It is shown in co-ordinate geometry that the equation of
Now such an ellipse is
= 41° 48' = 0-730 radians (approx.)
? + £-1
sin- 1 1
and = 19° 30' = 0-340
sin- 1 J *
Area = 0-822 + f (0-730 - 0-340)
;.
= 2-582 (approx.). whence y = °- VaT^x*.
40 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION. AREAS a 47
Example7. Area of a segment of a hyperbola.

The element of area, ydx, is Va* — i?dx. not possible within the limits of this book to give
It is
Considering the area of one quadrant of the ellipse, such

any satisfactory account of the geometry of a hyperbola,
shaded or the method of arriving at its equation. For this the
as that which is in Fig. 41.
student is referred to a book on co-ordinate geometry.
The curve of y = -, which has been discussed previously,

is an example of a hyperbola (see § 14). In this form of
the equation the co-ordinate axes are the asymptotes of
the curve. There are two branches of the curve, and in
each the curve proceeds to infinity as x becomes infinite.
In the general form of the equation to the curve, the axis
of symmetry of the curve is taken as the z-axis and the
curve appears as represented in Fig. 42.
Y
Area of quadrant = I Va* — x*dx

b
= (' Va* - x*dx
= ^[jxVo*^x» + *sln->
Y'
J
J. Fig. 42.
The total area is four times this. AA
1
the line joining the apexes of the two curves, is
,
Comparing this with the area of the circle, radius a, in called the transverse axis.
Example 3, it is seen that the ratio of the area of the Let its length be 2a, so that OA a. =
Draw tangents to
quadrant of the ellipse to that of the corresponding area of the curve at A and A'. On them take AL, A'N I'M each
the circle of radius a is , i.e., the ratio of the major axis to equal to b. Then tan LOA = -.
a
the minor. This is also the ratio of corresponding ordinates
of the two curves.
Note. —
The relation between a and b cannot be
discussed here.
+ 1
24S TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION. AREAS 249
The straight lines N'OL, NOV

are asymptotes to the The general form of the equation is shown in co-ordinate
curve. It is shown in co-ordinate geometry that the geometry to be
equation of the hyperbola is xy = c*.
£-1- The area required to be found

portion of the curve as
is usually that under a
The similarity to the equation of the ellipse will be shown by the shaded
noticed. portion of the figure.
If b = a, i.e., AO = AL. LAOL 45°. = This can be found in
Thus LLOL x between the asymptotes, is a
, right angle, the usual way. A modi-
and the equation of the curve can be written fied form is worked out
in the next example.
x* - y* = a*.
This form of the curve is called a rectangular hyperbola. Example 8. Find ti\c
The area of the hyperbola, area enclosed between tlie
unlike the ellipse and circle, 4
is unenclosed, and conse- curve of y = -^r-y the
quently has no definite axis of x, and tlte ordin-

value. We
can, however, ates x* = 4.
= 1,
find the area of a segment
The curve of this
such as is shown in Fig.
function is a hyperbola Fig. U.
42, being cut off by the
double ordinate
Let AM = x v
PMPK (see Fig. 44).
When x —y —l,y=—— ><».
(dotted in the figure) is an
the ordinate x
.-. 1
Then, considering the asymptote to the curve. So also is the x-axis.

upper half of the segment, The area which it is required to find is that which is
the element of area can be shaded. ...
written ydx. Taking the element of area as ydx and substituting
But from the equation of the curve y = -a Vx*~— a*, and we have
the limits are a and x, since OA a. =
.'. Area of whole segment = 21 - Vx* ~a*tfc Area
- *[w^=y- 1- log* Vx *-~a{

To
« IM).
Equation of a hyperbola referred to its asymptotes as = 4(log 5 - log 2)
axes. = 4(log |)
This form has been mentioned above. = 4(0-9163) (remembering the logs are hyperbolic)
The curve is represented in Fig. 43. = 3-665 (approx.)
ISO TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION. AREAS 151
152. Sign of an area. Let A represent this area.

It be seen that in the foregoing examples of the
will
determination of areas, these were, in most cases, lying Then A = (x* - 3* + 2)dx
above the axis ol x, and the values of the function were J*
consequently positive. In the examples of the circle and
ellipse, in which the curve is symmetrical about both axes,
positive values of the function were still adU-n-d to by
finding the area of one quadrant and then the whole by
= (| - 6 4- 4) - (J
- | + 2)
multiplication by 4. We must now proceed to the con- = -*•
sideration of areas which lie below the x axes, and the values
The result is a negative area. But an area, fundament-
ol the function are negative. The following examples will ally, is signless. How, then, is this result to be interpreted ?
serve as an illustration: It will probably not come as a surprise to the student
because he will have seen that the definite integral I ydx
represents the sum of an infinite number of products which

are themselves infinitely small. When the area lies below
OX, all values of the function, \.e.,y, are negative, and since
dx, being the limit of 6x and representing an Increase, is
positive, all the products must be negative. Hence the
sum is negative. It has been pointed out (§ 15(1) that the
summation is general for all such products, and the repre-
sentation of an area by it is but one of the applications.
Hence if we are finding an actual area by the integration,
the negative sign must be disregarded, Since by the con-
?mm vention of signs used in the graphical representation of a

function ordinates below the axis are negative, the corre-
sponding areas are also negative. Hence as a matter of
Fio. 48. convention, areas above the x-axis are considered positive
and below the axis are negative.
Example Find
I. the area enclosed between the curve
= x* — The student may note the following in connection with
y 3* 4-2 and the axis of x.
the above examples:
Since x« 3* + 2- (x = - 1)(* - 2).
The curve cuts OX at x = 1, x = 2. (1) The area below the curve between x = and
x = 1, i.e., the area with horizontal shading in Fig. 45,
Also
ax
?- = 2x — 3. .". there is a turning-point when is given by
* = |.
f (x* - 3x + 2)dx ml
Since
J^t
=2 and is always positive, this point is a 'a
minimum. (2) Consequently the total actual area, ».«., di>

The curve is represented in Fig. 45, and the area regarding the negative sign of the above integral, is
required lies entirely below OX. 8-4-4 = 1-
a52 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION. AREAS 253
The total area as given by the integral

(3)
(2) Area of AQB = /' ix{x -l)(x- 2)dx
I* (x - Zx + 2)dx = i, i.e., | -I
= x* - 4*» + 4x»
I
Example 2. Find the area enclosed between the curve of

= — square unit.
y = 4x(x — l)(x — 2) and the axis of x.
I
The function 4x(x — 2) vanishes when x

\)(x — 0, = Hence, disregarding the negative sign of the lower area,
the total actual area of the shaded portions is 2 square units.
1 and 2. Consequently curve cuts the x-axis for these
its
If we integrated, for the whole area between the limits
values of x. Proceeding as shown in § 57, there are found
and 2 we get :
to be two turning points, as follows:
(11 a maximum value 1-55 when x 0-45; = Area = f*4x{x- l)(x - 2)dx
(2) a minimum value —
1-55 when x 1-55. = 1
That part of the curve with which we are concerned is = [*« — 4x» + 4.1/]
shown in Fig. 46. The areas required are shaded. = 16—32 + 16
= 0.
This agrees with the algebraical sum of the two areas
found separately.
From these examples we conclude that when finding the
total area enclosed by a curve and the axis of x when it
crosses the axis, we must find separately the areas above
and below the axis. The sum of these, disregarding the
signs, will be the actual area required.
Other examples follow.
Example 3. Find the area enclosed between the axis of x

and the curve of y = cos x, between the limits
(1) Oand^.
(2) and ir.
J
Fig. 46. (3) Oandir.
= f 4x(x - l){x -2)dx (1) The first area is shown in Fig. 47, in which it is the
Area of OPA
(1)
area above OX with shading.
»
= (4x* - 12x* + 8x)dx
I
is
Area = I cos OdO = [sin 8|

1
= r[x4 - 4*" + 4x*IJ — sin
sin 5
= (l _ 4 + 4) -
= square unit.
I
I.
(2) The second area is shown with shading below OX. It is evident from the part of the graph of y sin x in =
Fig. 48, that the area enclosed between the curve and the
Area = j
cos 0i9 = [sin |
= sin * — sin 5 1
1
V.
T
1
___
= - 1
^ ^yps
//vyyvs
WtYrtffc '
tfyVYY/'Y \ 4 x
KW/teJ.U.ti ,..., ... Chi--
I
-X
\ A. M/teW/M**
_.?. 4: _ _ Z 2?5V _2 -
,
- <<
X .
R?X/yS77
\~~...
:::±
__ _jz
—
"T' — — — — —
Z
1
X"I"I---32---_--__-
±::
——— — —
__t
—
Fig. 48.
x-axis consists of a series of loops of equal area, each

corresponding to a range of n radians, and lying alternately
above and below the x-axis; consequently they are
Fig. 47. alternately positive and negative.
The third area is composed of both (I) and (1) Area of first loop
(3) (2).
I cos 6if = Tsin el = / sin xdx = — cos x =— (cos n — cos 0)

= sin — sin 0.
tt =— (— » - 1) =2
= 0. (2) Area of second loop
These results agree algebraically, but if we require to
know the actual area between and n, the negative sign of = I = — cos x\ = —
sin xdx (cos 2* — cos n)
the second area must be disregarded, and consequently the
area of the two parts is 2 square units. = -{+l-(-l)}=-2.
Example 4. Find the area enclosed between the axes of x It is evident that if there are n loops, when n is an odd
and the curve of y = sin x, for values of x between number, the total area, regard being paid to the negative
(1) Oandir. signs, is 2. but if n is even, the area thus calculated is zero.
(2) it and 2tt. The actual area of n loops is 2n.
2J6 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION. AREAS i 57
Example 5. Find the area contained between the curve of This represents the element of area for the triangle, while
y = x3 and the straight line y = 2*. QR represents the element of area for OBAC.
.". their difference PQ represents the element of area for
Fig. 49 represents the parts of the curves of the given
the shaded part.
functions between their points of intersection, A and A 1 .
The areas shaded are those which we require to find. LetPR =y v QR =y t .
Then element of area represented by PR is equal to

y,dx, in the limit.
Then element of area represented by QR is equal to
ijijijijlljll;
y,dx, in the limit.
- - - - - -3 I awi
â hi /. the element of area PQ is represented by (y
i
yjdx, —
:;:::H::::::: in the limit. Before we can integrate, the limits of the
integral must be found. These will be the value of x at
::|jl ::::::: and A the points of intersection.
,
To find the value of x at these points we solve simul-

iiiilliiiiiii: 1 UbU i
taneously
iiciiiiliiil Mi fit :::£: y = 2x

::
y= x*.
- - - -2—| - if
._._
Then x*= 2x
mm :::::::::::::::
........J------
:::::::fl:::::
++
and the roots are 0,
.;
x
the area required

+ V?. — V2.
These are values of x at 0,
.*. for the positive area
= and
=1
A and A respectively.
OABO the limits are
*
(y,
= + V2~.
1
— yjjdx
Jo
:
;;;;;;;;:;;;S
Fig. 49.
; ! iiliiiiii;
rV-*>*«l>-£r
From symmetry it is evident that the parts above
and below the x-axis will be equal in magnitude but of
opposite signs. = I square unit.
We therefore proceed to find the area of ABO (the shaded From symmetry and previous considerations we conclude
area). This is the difference between (1) the triangle OAC, that the area below the x-axis is —
I square unit. This can
and (2) the area beneath the curve of y x*, viz. OBAC. = be verified as follows:
We first find as usual an expression for the element of /o r ^-,0
area.
From any point P on the line y = 2x draw the ordinate 4
PR, cutting the curve of y = x* in Q.
As before, construct a small rectangle represented by
,0-jV^-t^L]
PR. = 0-1 I.
1(CAL.)
Disregarding the negative sign the actual area of the two Find the area cut
13. off by the x-axis from the curve of
loops is 2 square units.
The student, as an exercise should verify by finding the
y = x» - x - 2.
Find the whole area included between the curve of
14.
area of the two loops by the integral
y
1 X=s and the line x 4. =
,+ vj 15. Find the area of the segment cut off from the curve
(2x - x») dx.
of xy =
2 by the straight line x + y 3. =
16. Find the total area of the segments enclosed between
Exercise 31. the x-axis and the curve of y x(x =
3)(x + 2). —
Note.— The student is recommended to draw the 17. Find the area between the curves ofy 8x*andy Xs = = .
which represents each problem, even though the

figure 18. Find the area which is common to the two curves
drawing might be rough. y =

x* and y* x. = %
1. Find the area bounded by the curve of y = x3 the
19. Find the area between the catenary, y cosh
^
=
x-axis and the ordinates * = 2, x =
,
(see § 91), the x-axis and the ordinates x 0, x 2. = =
5.
2. Find the area bounded by the straight line 2y = 5x + 7,
20. Find the actual area between the curve of y =
the X-axis and the ordinates x = = x* —
8x + 12, the x-axis and the ordinates x 1, x =9. =
2, x 6.
3. Find the area between the curve of y = log x, the
21. Find the actual area between the curve of y x* and =
x-axis and the ordinates * 1, x = 6.= the straight line y = j.
4. Find the area enclosed by the curve of y 4x'. the =
y-axis and the straight lines y 1 y 4. = ,
= 153. Polar co-ordinates.
5. Find the area between the curve of y* 4x, the x-axis — more simple and
and the ordinates x = = The equations of curves are frequently
4, x 9.
the determination of areas easier when polar co-ordinates
6. Find by the method of integration the area of the
are employed, instead of
circle x* + y* = 4. rectangular. For the
7. In x* + y*
the circle =
16 find the area included
benefit of those students
between the parallel chords whose perpendicular distances
from the centre are 2 and 3 units. who have had no previ-
ous acquaintance with
Find also the area of the segment cut off from the circle
them, a very brief ac-
x* + y* = 16 by the chord whose distance from the centre
is 3 units. , ,
count is accordingly (
given below. For a full
—
8. Find by integration the area of the ellipse .-^
I
+ % =1 treatment the student Fig. 50.
9. Find the area of the segment cut off from the hyperbola should consult a text-
x*
— Jv* = book on Co-ordinate Geometry.
jj
. 1 by the chord x = 4. (0) Definitions. Let OX (Fig. 50) be a fixed straight
10. Find the area between the hyperbola xy = 4, the line and a fixed point on it.
x-axis and the ordinates x = 2, x = 4. Then the position of any point P is defined with reference
11. Find the area included between the curve of to these when we know
y =
2x — 3x* and the x-axis. (1) its distance from 0,
12. Find the area bounded by y = c* and the x-axis (2) the angle made by OP with OX.
between the ordinates x = and x «= 3.
Let r be this distance.
Let 6 be the angle made by OP with OX. Then, for any position of P with reference to and OA
Then are called the polar co-ordinates of P.
(r, 6)
the polar co-ordinates are
0, the fixed point, is OP =r
called the pole, OP is IAOP = 0.
called the radius vector, From geometry it is known that LOPA is a right angle.
the vectorial angle,
and OX
the Initial line.
.". r — la cos 6.
6 is the angle which This the polar equation of the circle with the above
is
would be described by conditions. It may be noted that if the centre of the circle
the radius vector, in were taken as the pole, r is always equal to a ; i.e., the polar
—
rotating in a positive
direction from OX.
equation is then
r = a.
(b) Connection be-
In such a case r is a constant, being the radius of the
tween rectangular co- circle, and has no functional relation to G.
Fig. 51. ordinates of a point and
The equation of the circle may take other forms.
the polar co-ordinates.
Let Pbe a point (Fig. 51) whose polar co-ordinates are 154. Plotting curves from their equations In polar co-
(r, 0), and rectangular co-ordinates (x, y), viz. OQ and PQ.
ordinates.
Then it is evident that = r cos 6
x Many curves are easily drawn from their polar equations,
= rsln6
y though the plotting of points may be difficult when using
x» + y» = r*. the equations of the curves in rectangular co-ordinates.
The following example is given as typical of the method
(c) Polar equation of a curve.
employed.
If a point moves along a curve, as 8 changes, r in general
will also change. Hence Example. Draw the curve whose polar equation is
r Is a function of 6. -x^""" vP r = a(\ + cos 9)
The equation which = a + a cos 6.
states the relation be-
tween r and 6 for a The general method is to select values of G, find the
given curve is called the Xy^ \]A corresponding values of r; then plot the points obtained.
polar equation of the © As has been shown above r =
a cos G is the equation of a
circle of diameter a, when the pole is on the circumference.
|
curve.
It is evident therefore that if for any value of G, the value
(</) Example of a of r for the circle is increased by a, the result is the value
polar equation. of r for the required curve.
Let a point P move Draw a circle of radius
along the circumference | (Fig. 53).
p, 52
of a circle (Fig. 52). Take a point at the end of a diameter OA. will be
Let be a fixed point at the extremity of a fixed diameter. the pole for the curve.
Let 2a =
the diameter of the circle. Since cos 6 is a maximum, viz., unity, when 0=0, the
maximum value of r for the curve will be at the point B, Other examples curves which are readily drawn from
of
where AB = a. their polar equations are
Thus the maximum value of r Is la. (1) The lemnlscate, r l =
a* cos 28.
When 8 =? and *\ cos e = 0. = Hence we (2) The llmacon. r =

b — a cos 8.
r a.
(3) The spiral of Archimedes, r a8. =
get the points C and D. (4) The logarithmic or equiangular spiral, log r = «8.
(5) The hyperbolic spiral. r8 a. =
155 Areas In Polar Co-ordinates.
Let AB, Fig. 54, be part of a curve whose equation is
known in polar co-ordinates.
Fig. 64.
Suppose required to find the area of the sector OAB,

it is
contained between the curve and the two radii OA, OB,
the angles made by them with the fixed line being OX
LAOX =
Fio. S3.
LBOX = p.
In the 2nd quadrant, cos 6 is decreasing to — 1, at n, Let P be any point on the curve, and its polar co-ordinates
then r =a — a =0 {r. 8).
Similarly the general path of the curve may be found for .-. LPOX = S.
the third and fourth quadrants. Let 6 receive an increment 88, and r, in consequence be
Finally, when 8 = 2n, cor 8 1. = increased by 8r. The polar co-ordinates of Q, the new
.'. the curve is closed at B. position on the curve, are
To get other points on the curve between the special ((r + 8r). (8 4- 88))
points considered above, draw a series of chords of the
Then, with the construction shown in the figure, the area
circle, for increasing values of 8. If OP be one of these,
of the sector OPQ lies between the areas of the As 0PM,
produce it and mark off PQ equal to a. Then Q is a point
ONQ, the areas of which are
on the curve. The complete curve is as shown in Fig. 53.
It is known as the cardlold, from its heart-like shape.
AOPM = Jr*88
It is of importance in optics.
&0NQ = §(r + 8*)«88.
the angle 86 be now decreased indefinitely, then as The area of the circle twice
If
89 —
> 0, (r + ix) y r — is
=
this.
and the area of the infinitely small sector approaches |r*d6. ,*, Area of circle r*dO.
J
'0
This is, therefore, the element of area, and the sum of
all such sectors between the limits G = a and == (J will
But r = 2a cos 9.
IT
be the area of the sector OAB.

Expressing this as an integral, as before, .". Area = j
4a* cos' 9i9
rfi
Area of sector OAB = I \r*dd. = 4a* cos* OiG
I
"o
When the polar equation of the curve is known, r can be
expressed in terms of 8 and the integral can be evaluated. = 4a* f*J(l +cos29)rf9 (§114)
Jo «
Example. Find the area of the circle whose polar equation
isr =
la cos 9 (§ 153, d). = 2a»[9 + Jsin29j
If P be a point moving round the curve, the radius
vector describes the area of the circle. -Srfg + Jdnw]
= irO».
Exercise 32.
1. Find the area of the cardiod whose equation is
r = o(l + cos 9), the limits of 9 being 2tc and 0.
2. Find the area of one loop of the curve r = o sin 29, i.e.,
between the limits and =.

*
How many loops are there
between and 2n.
Fig. 65.
Note.— a sin 29 vanishes when 9=0 and 6 = £.
When Pis at A, 9 = 0. As the function is continuous between these values, the
SB
When P is at 0, 6 = g. curve must form a loop between them. The student

should draw roughly the whole curve.
.*. as P moves from A to 0, and the vectorial angle 9
3. Find the area of one loop of the lemniscate
changes from to 5, the area described is a semi-circle.
t* = a* cos 29.
Using the formula obtained above How many loops are there in the complete curve ?
4. If the radius vector of the function r a 9 makes one =
Area of semi-circle complete rotation from to 2n, find the area thus passed
over.
5. Find the area which is described in the curve LM 1$ said to be the mean value of ordinates of the
r = a sec' = from 8 = to 6 = 5. curve for the range of values x to x b. = =
6. Find the area enclosed by the curve r = 3 cos 6+5 ff{x)dx
between = 2n and 9=0. ;. Mean value of f(x) from a to b = '
z .
156. Mean value.
Let PQ (Fig. 55A) Example. Find the mean value of 2 cos t — sin 3t between
represent part of the
curve of a continuous
the values t = and / = 6-
function From the above, mean value
Let PA, QB be the 2 cos t — sin 3t)dt

X ordinates at P and Q.
f
where OA = a, OB = b.
Then from previous
work we know that
Fl0 68a [2 sin / + J cos
*i
->Q
Area of APQ8 = l" f(x)dx.

6
Let A BCD be a rectangle whose area is equal to that of - {2 sin 4
J2
sin
g + J cos
g) i cosO)
APQB. i.e., to
j
f(x)dx.
Draw LM parallel to OY , from L, the intersection of the B

curve, and DC parallel to OX.
Area ABCD = AB x LM 8
4
Area of ABCD
.
••
..
LM
.
—
= -'AB w'
Exercise 33.
_ Areaof APQB 1. Find the mean value of the function sin x over the
AB range of values x = to * = n.
t 2. Find the mean value of the function sin* x over the
j
/(x)dx
range of values x = n.
= to x 1
3. Find the mean value of y = - for the range of values

AB x = to x = 10.
1
*
4. Find the mean value of y* = 4x between % — \ and
* = 0. „x
5. The equation of a curve is y = b sin' — Find the .
mean height of the portion for which * lies between b which is required, and the greater the number, the closer
and a. will be the approximation.
6. Find the mean value of cos x between x = and * = t-
Y
7. Find the mean value of the function y = a sin bx 1
between the values x = and x = r- /

8. The range of a projectile fired with initial velocity v
and an elevation 6 is -^- sin 26. Find the mean range as

vanes from to 3.
157. Irregular areas.

^^^^^^
The determination of irregular areas, i.e., areas the
boundaries of which cannot be expressed by formal equa-
tions, is often a matter of great practical importance.
There are certain practical methods, such as using squared
A
^^^H
B C O E F G
paper and counting squares, which yield rough approximate
results, but there are also methods of calculation by which Fig. 56.
the area can be determined with greater accuracy, though

the area is approximately equal to
still approximate. The first of these is the trapezoidal rule
which is as follows: Vpx+yJ+{y,+y,) + (yt +yJ
- M(/i + y,) + 2(y, + y> + y. + y«)}
158. The trapezoidal rule. (half the distance between the strips) x {(sum of first
Let the area which it is required to determine be that
and last ordinates) +
(twice the sum of other
enclosed by the irregular curve PV (Fig. 56), the x-axis
ordinates)}.
and the ordinates PA and VG. Divide A G into any number 159. Simpson's rule for area.
of equal parts, at B, C, D ., each of length I, and draw
. .
the corresponding ordinate PA, QB, RC . . .

Considering again the irregular curve of the previous
section, it is evident that if the chords PQ, QR, RS
Join PQ.QR.RS . . VV.
.
. . .
Let the lengths of the ordinates be y v yt yt . . ,

. were to be replaced by the arcs of suitable regular curves,
Then each of the figures formed by these constructions, and the areas so obtained be found by previous methods,
such as APQB, is a trapezium, and their areas are the approximation to the area would be closer than that
founa by the trapezoidal rule.
i'O-i +yJ + l'(y, +y«) + - • • + V(y, +y-,)- Accordingly we assume that the part of the curve
joining three consecutive points, such as P, Q, R, is the arc
The areas of the trapeziums approximate to the areas of
of a parabola.
those figures in which the straight line PQ is replaced by
Assume the origin for this parabola to be at B, so that
the curve PQ, and so for the others. Consequently the sum
of all these approximates to the area of the whole figure
the co-ordinates of A B and C are
, /, 0, —
/, then the +
area of APRC can be found by integration.
Let the equation of the parabola, of which PQR is an arc.be Thus, if there be In intervals, there will be In + I
= a + bx + ex*. ordinates. From the consideration of these results we

y may deduce
Then, since the equation is satisfied by the co-ordinates
of A, B, C Simpson's rule for areas.
AP = a-bl+cl*=y l
. . . (1) // the area be divided into an even number of strips by
BQ=a=y. (2) equidistant ordinates. then
CR=a + bl + cn=y t .. . . (3) width of strip ,_ ,.
.
Area = r -
,,
{(sum of first and last
,,
ordinates),
adding (1) and (3) y +y. = 2(a +
x
cl*)
2(sum of odd ordinates) + 4(sum of even ordinates)}.
2c/* = y + y, —2a
-(-
whence ,
readily be undersood that the greater number of
=yi+y»-2y* from® It will
strips which are taken, the greater will be the accuracy of
the approximation to the area
Integrating area of APRC
160. Worked example. Find the area of a quadrant of a
{a + bx + cx*)dx of 2 inch radius.
circle
/:, "
In this example the result -
as obtained by Simpson's Rule
= \ax + \bx* + lex3 ! can be compared with the calculated area of the quadrant.
Fig. 57 represents the quadrant. _
= 2al + \cP
= 2/(a + \cP)
= 2l{y t + i(yi + V» ~ 2>-J} • (A) ..
~ - J
_ _^5»
_-__ :: -
TS
Similarly, area of RCET _ :::: x
::s:::: ; ,. :
= (y> + 4yi +&) . :: ::::::::: : s : : : : :

l
and area of TEGV

. . L
-- ~ .. _ S
J
.". area of whole ------ --- - ~\ ~-

----- __ -- I
- gtta +*y% +>•) + (* + 4^« +>•) + (y. + 4>". +y 7)}
O _f
= j{fa + r») + 2 (y» + yi) + 4 <y« + y« + y«)V-
Clearly, this process can be applied to any even number
of intervals, which involves an odd number of ordinates. Fxo. 57.
ij2 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION. AREAS 273
Divide the radius OA into 10 equal divisions each of 5. Find the area under the curve shown in Fig. 58, the
0-2 inch. ordinates being drawn at the points marked 1 to 12, each
Then the ordinates will be represented byy v y t ,ys . . ,yu . division representing one foot.
Measuring these, the working is arranged as follows:
(1) First and (2) Odd (3) Even

last. ordinates. ordinates.
ya = 1-96 yt m 1-99
yt = 1-83 yt = 1-91
y = 1-6
7 yt = 1-73
sum 2 y, = 1-2 y t = 1-42
y = 0-86
i0
sum 0-59
sum 7-91
By Simpson's rule
Area = 0-2
^ {2 + (2 x 6-59) + (4 x 7-91)}
= °~ x 46-82 = 312 square inch.

Calculated areas Jnr*= = Jxitx4=3l4
square Inch.
The error 0-2 in 3-14 is less than one per cent.
Exercise 34.
1. The lengths of nine equidistant ordinates of a curve
are 8, 10-5, 12-3, 116, 12-9, 13-8, 10-2, 8 and 6 inches
respectively, and the length of the base is 24 inches. Find
the area between the curve and the base.
2. An area is divided into ten equal parts by parallel
ordinates, 0-2 inch apart, the first and last touching the
bounding curve. The lengths of the ordinates are 0, 1-24,
2-37, 4-10, 6-28, 4-76, 4-60, 4-36. 2-45, 1-62, 0. Find the
area.
3. The lengths of the ordinates of a curve in inches are
2-3, 3-8, 4-4, 60, 7-1, 8-3, 8-2, 7-9, 6-2, 50, 3-9. Find the
area under the curve.
4. Ordinates at a common distance of 10 feet are of length
in feet, 5, 6-5, 9, 13, 18-5, 22, 23, 22, 18-5, 14-5. Find the
area bounded by the curve, the axis of x, and the end
ordinates.
THE LENGTH OF CURVES *75
curve. This method, as the student has probably antici-

CHAPTER XV pated, similar to that used for areas.
is An expression is
found for " an element of length " of the curve and the sum
THE LENGTHS OF CURVES
of all such elements is obtained by integration.
161. The measurement of the length of a curve. This process is called " the rectification of a curve."
The student will remember that he has previously been 162. General formula for the length of a curve in cartesian
faced with the problem of the length of a curve when co-ordinates.
considering the " circular measure of an angle.
'
The
unit employed in this method of measuring angles is the
Let AB
(Fig. 59)
represent a portion
radian, which is the " angle subtended at the centre of a
of the curve of a
circle by an arc equal in length to the radius {Trigonometry,
The difficulty of comparing the length of a curve
function y f(x) be-=
p. 150).
tween the points A,
with that of a straight line is met by the assumption that
the arc of a semi -circle subtends n radians, where »r is a
where x =
a, and B,
constant the value of which the student has no means of

where x = b.
Let P, Q be two
finding except by approximate practical methods. The
points on the curve,
student learns that this value has been found to be
and PQ the chord of
approximately 314159 . . . or some less accurate approxi-
the curve through
mation. Using this constant, the semi-circle is stated to
them. M N
contain ur units of length, where r represents the radius
and that the length of the circumference of the circle is
Let Pbe (x, y).
Let s be the length
2-nr units. Fie. 60.
of the arc from A to B.
It will be observed that this " formula " for the circum-
ference of a circle is, in reality, merely a statement that
When x is increased by Sx
the ratio of the length of the circumference of a circle to y » »y
then s „ 8s.
its diameter is represented by the Greek letter n, where the
i.e., 8s represents the length of the arc PQ.
value of »t is undetermined. The determination of its value
occupied mathematicians through the centuries, and by Then by geometry the chord PQ V(8x)* =
(8y)*. +
If Q be taken close to P, i.e.. S.v becomes small, the length
various ingenious devices, with which we are not concerned
of the chord is nearly equal to the length of the arc.
here, approximations were found.
Modem mathematics, however, with the help of the If Q is indefinitely close to P, in the limit when 8*
the chord approaches to coincidence with the curve and
> 0, —
calculus, as the student will see later, has solved the
problem, and it can now be proved that the ratio is incom- the sum of these chords is equal to the length of the arc.
mensurable, but that its value to any required degree of Then ds = V{d~x)* + (dyf*
accuracy can be calculated with certainty. T
Since no part of a curve, however small, can be super-
imposed on any portion of a straight line, so that it coincides
/. Integrating
or
V© + 1 • dy.
with it, its length cannot thus be found by comparison with

a straight line of known length. Integration, however,
supplies a method of determining the length of any regular
*74
2 76 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS THE LENGTH OF CURVES 277
If the integration is more conveni ently perfo rmed with .". circumference of the circle
respect to values of y, then s I a/(xa

j ) =1 tyt where + • = 4X
c and d are the limits of y. >* v ->" 2
In many cases the evaluation of the integral is difficult = 2tto.
and requires a more advanced knowledge of the subject Note.— The use of jinecessitated in the evaluation
is
than is contained in this volume. of the definite integral, and
it is there employed in the
same way as referred to in § 101.
Example I. Find the length of lite circumference of the Example 2. Find the length of the arc of the parabola
circle x* + y* = a*. x* = Ay from the vertex to the point where x = 2.
Since x' + = a*
y* The equation can be written in the form
y = y/&~=l? = {a* - *)» x*
= '
whence jg _|
V« a - x 1 A shown OQ
x* sketch of the curve is in Fig. 60, where
.
dy\* -
" (
\dxl ~W^x*
Considering the area of a quadrant the limits will be a
andO.
Using the formula above, viz.
then
[• dx
Fio. 60.
=ax [ sin ",

represents the part of the curve of which the length is
3o required. The limits of * are clearly and 2.
-.xg-O) Using
"T -«" + ©••*

278 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS THE LENGTH OF CURVES 179
on substitution Let P be any point (r, 8) on the curve.

Q be a point on the curve near to P, so that
Let LOOM.
*!•* the increase in 6 is 89 and PM
is the increase in r, i.e.. ir.
Whence Q is the point (r 8r. 8 + 88). +
l-et PQ be the chord joining P to Q.
Then QM =
r86 and the arc PQ represents 8s.
.-. by the formula of 16,
With the construction shown
§ 1
PM = 8r.
Then PQ* = (r80)« + (Sr)*
= J[J x 2VS + 2{log (2 + V8) - log 2°}]

in
When Q
the limit
is taken indefinitely close to P. i.e.. 80 — > 0,
_* + *%*/*' Ids)* = {rdQ)* + (dry
= V5 f log (1 +- v^) ;. ds = Vr*\dQ)* f \dr)*
= 2-295 (approx.). (£)'-"

(The logs being to base e.)
= V<
(A)
The limits of the integral are 8, and 6t .
164. Equation for the length of a curve In polar co-

ordinates. . Integrating, S = / de
The general method similar to that in rectangular
is
I
'+CS (')
co-ordinates. In Fig. 61 let AB

represent part of a curve We may also write (A) in the form
whose polar equation is known.
*-{V'*-0"*-
».«., we regard 8 as a function of r, hence if the limits of r
are r v r,
= (•%/'-•©'•*• • w
165. Worked example.
Find the complete length of the cardioid whose equation is
r = a(l — cos 6).
As was seen in § 154. the construction ol a complete

cardioid involves a complete rotation of the radius vector,
so that 8 uicreases from to 2s.
Fig. 61.
Since r = a(\ — cos 0)
dr
de = * s,n e -
Let the angles made by 0A and OB with OX be 6, and 6,.

Let s be the length of AB. Using formula (1) above
s = j V{a(l — cos 0)}* + (a sin 8)»a"6
= f Vfa»(T - 2 cos G + cos1 e)^M«i5» CHAPTER XVI
— cos 8i8
SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION. VOLUMES AND
= aV2 I Vl (on simplification) AREAS OF SURFACES
'o
166. Solids of revolution.
= aV2 f**y 2 sin* |</9
It is obvious that the methods of integration which
enabled us to find areas of plane figures may be extended
= 2ai sin|<fO to the determination of the volumes of regular solids.
The solids with which we shall chiefly be concerned are
-*[-*« ST those which are marked out in space when a regular curve
or area is rotated about some axis. These are termed
= 4a[— cos + cos 0] 7t
Solids of Revolution. For example, if a semi-circle is
= 8o. rotated about its diameter it will generate a sphere.
Exercise 35.
Similarly, a rectangle rotated about one side will describe
1. Find the length of the arc of the parabola y — §*» a cylinder in a complete rotation.
between the origin and the ordinate x = 2.
2. Find the length of the arc of the parabola y* 4* = 167.Volume of a cone.
from * = to x 4. = The method employed
3. Find the length of the arc of the curve y* x* from = for the determination of the
x = to x =
5.
volumes of solids or revolution can be illustrated by the
4. Find the length of the arc of the catenary y cosh x = example of a cone. If a right-angled triangle rotates com-
from the vertex to the point where x 1. = pletely about one of the sides containing the right angle as
an axis, the solid generated is a cone.
5. Find the length of the arc of the curve y log,* = Or, if a straight line, equation y = mx, is rotated about
between the points where x 1 and x = 2. (For the = the x-axis (or y-axis) so that it makes a constant angle
integral see Ex. 28, No. 11.)
6. Find the length of the part of the curve of y = log sec x
with the axis, it will generate a cone. Since the straight
line passes through the origin, and is of undetermined
between the values x = and x = 5.3 length,
7. Find the length of the circumference of the circle The volume will be undetermined.
(1)
whose equation is r = 2a cos 8. .(2) The complete solid will be a double cone with the
8. Find the length of the arc of the spiral of Archimedes, origin as a common apex.
r = ad, between the points where = and 8 jr. =
(Note. —
The student should draw the curve.) Incidentally, ifthe complete cone be cut by a plane
the section will be a hyperbola,
9. Find the length of the curve of the hyperbolic spiral Sarallel to the x-axis,
r = a from 8 = J to 8 1. =
(For the integral see Ex. 28, [ence it is that the curve as stated in § 151, Example 7,
has two symmetrical branches.
PiO. lo-j
10. Find the whole length of the curve of r = a sin 8 -. The volume becomes definite if an ordinate from a point
8 on y a
mx is also rotated to enclose a definite portion of
j8j
,
28a TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION. VOLUMES AND AREAS 283
the cone. the volume of such a cone that we will pro-
It is 1*
ceed to determine. V = I ity*dx
In Fig. 62 let OA be the straight line y = mx, A being
any point on it. =n I {mx)*dx
Let 8 be the angle
made with OX.
.*, tan 8 m. =
Let OA rotate
= AM
around OX so that
the angle made with But m= *
tan a
8 —
OX is always 8.
Let OA 1
be the V = in ht . h*
position after hall
a complete rotation.
= frAM*h
Then A, and every or, if AM = y v the radius of the base
other point on OA v = Wi'*
after a complete or volume of cone = J (area of base x height).
Fig. 62. rotation, will de-
scribe a circle, and 168. General formula for volumes of solids of revolution
a cone will be generated with apex at 0.
Let AMA be the double ordinate joining A and A '. It
l (A) Rotation around the x-axis.
is also a diameter of the circle formed by the rotation of Let AB (Fig. 63) be part of a curve whose equation is
A— viz.,AHAK y =/(*)•
Let V be the volume of the cone of which is the vertex
and the circle A BA ' the base. V
OMrepresents the height of the cone, Let this be h.
Let P be any point on OA and its co-ordinates (x,y).
j/
Let x t>e increased by Sx so that the corresponding point p9
Q on OA has co-ordinates (x Sx.y + Sy). +
PQ. on rotating, describes a small slice of the cone of which
the ends are the circles described by P and Q. N
The thickness of the slab is 8x.
Its volume lies between the cylinders whose volumes are
P'C
tcv*8* and n(y + Sy)*8x.
Let Q become infinitely close to P, so that 8x tends to
become infinitely small and in limit is represented by dx.
Thus as 8x > —
the volume of the slice * lry'dx. — r 8
\
therefore the element of volume.
Tiy'dx Is
Fig. 83.
The volume of the cone is the sum of all such elements

'
Let it rotate around OX, generating a solid which is
between the values x and x h. = = depicted in the figure.
284 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION. VOLUMES AND AREAS 285
Let AMA l
. BNB 1 be double ordinates so that OM = a, Let P (x, y) be any point on the curve and Q another
ON =b. point with co-ordinates (x +
Sx, y -j- Sy).
Let P
y) be any point on the curve.
(x,
Then, using the method of the previous example, the
Let x be increased by 8x, so that Q, the corresponding slab generated by PQ becomes, in the limit,
point on the curve, is (x Sx, y Sy). + +
Then, the volume of the slab described by PQ on rotation nx*dy.
lies between -rty^x and n(y + Sy)*Sx.
.". the volume of the whole solid is the sum of all such
In the limit when Q is infinitely close to P,
slabs between the limits y a,y = = b.
as Sx- 0, and Sy 0, volume r.y*dx.
4
The volume whole solid is the sum of all such slabs

of the
= f 7t**<fy (2)
between the limits x = a and x = b. Let V be this volume.

From the equation y =/(x), x can be found in terms of
= fttfd* (I) y and substituted in the integral.
169. Volume of a sphere.

Since y =f{x) we can substitute for y in terms of x and
integrate. Let the equation of the
circle in Fig. 65 be
B. Rotation around the y axis. x* +p = a*.
Let AB (Fig. 64) be a portion of the curve of y =/(*)• The centre is at the origin
and radius OA = a.
Let the quadrant OAB
be rotated about OX. The
volume described will be
that of a hemi-sphere.
Using formula (1) of the
preceding section, and re-
presenting the volume of the sphere by V, we have
V =2 x j^y'dx
= 2\'it{a* —x*)dx . . (A)
Fig. 64. = 27t[a»*-J*3]'

Let rotate around
it OY so that A and B describe circles = 2*(a - Jo = 2"
s 8
) x ia
'
as indicated, centres M and N. •4°*

Let OM = a, ON = b.
170. Volume of pare of a sphere between two parallel 171. Volume of an ellipsoid of revolution.
planes. This is the solid formed by the rotation of an ellipse
In Fig. 66 let the quadrant OCD of the circle x* + y* = r* (1) about its major axis,
or (2) about its minor axis.
(1) Rotation about the major axis.
The rotation as shown in Fig. 67 is supposed to be about

AA\i.e.,0X.
rotating around OX
describe a hemi-sphere. Let two
parallel planes whose distances from are given by OA a, =
=
OB b, mark out the segment whose volume (V) is required.
We may use equation (A) in the example above to express V.
Then V = (**(>•* - x*)dx Consequently any section perpendicular to OX is a circle.
Let the equation of the ellipse be
£+*-i
-«[(r»6-J6»)'-(rf«-Ja«)]
= *{>»(* -«) - W+ -<**)) ?-> * _ *«).
= Tr(b-o){r'-4(b» ob + 6«)}
Let V be the volume of the ellipsoid.
If 6= r the part of the sphere becomes = spherical cap. Consider the volume marked out by the rotation of the
- a){r* - J(r» + ar + a*)}. quadrant OAB, the limits being o and a.
Then V = it(r
Then, using formula (1) of § 168
Note. —When in this result a = 0, the spherical cap
becomes a hemi-sphere, and the result is one-half of This volume I'nyUx.
the volume of the sphere found above.
b ,*. Using formula (2) of § 168 and considering the half

.-. V= (a>-x*)dx above OX, we have, the limits of y being
2J\{ jt of the ellipsoid
b and
- -a
:
2nb* f ...
t
.
(«
,
f
- *v* Volume of half the ellipsoid
I
= \\x*dy
'0
.; Volume of whole ellipsoid

b
= 2* \
x*dy
iVofe. — If b m a. the ellipsoid becomes a sphere. •M)
(2) Rotation about the minor axis.

x* y*
Let the equation of the ellipse be -j + V| =» 1.
In this case, as indicated in Fig. 68, the rotation being

-¥[£-*!
Y
The solid formed by the rotation of the ellipse about

(1) The major axis is called a prolate spheroid.
(2) The minor „ an oblate spheroid.
—
Note. The solid, not of revolution, in which those
sections which are perpendicular to the plane of
XOY, as well as those which are parallel to it are all
ellipses, is called an ellipsoid.
172. Paraboloid of revolution.
This is the solid generated by the rotation of a parabola

about its axis. It is not a closed curve, consequently we
about OY, any point P (x, on the circumference of the can obtain only the solid generated by part of the curve.
y)
ellipse will describe a circle radius x and centre on OY. There are two cases.
The area of such a circle is nx*. (1) When the axis of the parabola coincides with OX.
;. Volume of slab between two such circles infinitely The general form of the equation in this case is
close together is
nx*dy. y % = 4,ax.
K(CAI_)
2Q0 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION. VOLUMES AND AREAS 291
OP in Fig. 61) represents part of the curve. Let P (x, y) be any point on the curve.
P is any point on the curve, its co-ordinates being (x, y). Let PB be its abscissa, so that
PA is the ordinate of P, and OA = c. OP rotates around
OX, generating a solid, with a circular base PQR. OB = b.
The element of volume as shown in § 168 (B) is
TtxHy.
The limits of y are and b.
,', using formula (2) of § 168
= f nx*dy
'
TTb«
= i-
Fig. 69.
As shown in § 167, the element of volume is ny*dx, and the

—
Note. Compare this with the volume of the circum-
scribing cylinder.
limits of x are and c. Let V be the volume.
(3) Parabola whose equation Is y = (ex 1 rotating about
/. V = {'ity^dx = n f'taxdx OX.
Jo ' 'o
The parabola does not
rotate about its own axis,
which coincides with OY,
= 2ttoc*.
but with the other axis.
Note.— The cylinder indicated by the dotted lines in Let the curve OQP
Fig. 69, having PRQ for one base, and a circle equal (Fig. 71) represent part
and parallel to it with as centre, is the circum- of the curve of the func-
scribing cylinder of the paraboloid. tion between the origin
The volume of this cylinder = Try* x OA and x = a, where PM is
= it x 4ac x c the ordinate of P and
= 4iroc'. OM = a.
,', Volume
of the paraboloid equals half that of the Let V be the volume
circumscribing cylinder. generated by OP as the
curve rotates around OX,
(2) When the axis of the parabola coincides with OY.
occupying the position Fig. 71.
In Fig. 70, QOP represents part of a parabola, the equation 0Q l P i after a half rotation.
of which is
Using formula (I) of § 168, the element of volume is
y = ax*.
ny'dx, and the limits of x axe and a.
29i TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION. VOLUMES AND AREAS » 93
and A 1
Also there is no enclosed solid, but the volume
.
can be found between sections corresponding to two values

of x.
Let P be any point on the curve, and PM its ordinate.
Let OM = c.
Let V be the volume between the vertex A, where

= i-rrk'o 5
.
x = a and x = c.
Then
If the part of the curve which is rotated is QP, where
QN is the ordinate of and Q ON =
b, then the volume
generated is given by
=
V = PityW* = lTTk»(o - b
6 5
). v [y - «'*x = S p - 3a *c
- a* 3a3)
-jg(«*-3««e + 2«»»).
173. Hyperbolold of Revolution.
This is the solid generated by the rotation of a hyperbola. (2) Rotation around OY.
It may take different forms. Let the equation be
(1) Rotation about OX of the curve whose equation is
Y*
* Y* _ I
_
a"» P~L The solid formed will be as indicated in Fig. 73.
Since there are two symmetrical branches of the curve,
as shown previously, there will be two corresponding solids, Y
one of which is shown in Fig. 72.
»v
p' >?^ /
/ —-y S'
p
)A'^*\ r A (
Q'
^ / ^'^S ^Q
/
V
Fig. 73.
Since the two parts of the curve are symmetrical, any

point P on the curve, after a half complete rotation, will
coincide with the corresponding point P* on the other arm.
These two parts are called an hyperbolold of two sheets. This point, like every other point on the curve, will describe
Clearly, there will be no part of the solid between A a circle.
;
The solid is therefore continuous, and is called a hyper- 2. Find the volume generated when an arc of the curve
bolold of one sheet. It stretches out infinitely around the of y m x*
y-axis, and any volume which has to be determined will be rotates round the x-axis between *=0 and
(1)
bounded by sections corresponding to two values of y, * = 3;
say y and y t
}
.
(2) rotates round the y-axis l>etween * = and

This volume can be found as in former examples. x = 2.
(3)Rotation of rectangular hyperbola about its asymp-
3. Find the volume of the cone formed by the rotation
which, as shown in § 151, Ex. 7, are the rectangular
round the x-axis of that part of the line 2x — y -f- 1 =0,
totes,
axes OX and OY. The equation of the curve is xy c\ = intercepted between the axes.
and there are two parts of the solid, above and below OX.
4. The circle x* +y* = 9 rotates round a diameter which
The part of the volume contained between two sections coincides with the x-axis. Find
parallel to one of the axes can be found in the usual way.
Thus, if P and Q are two points on the curve (Fig. 74), and (1) the volume of the segment between the planes
perpendicular to OX
whose distances from the centre,
and on the same side of it, are and 2;I
(2) the volume of the spherical cap cut ofl by the

plane whose distance from the centre is 2.
5. Find the volume generated by the rotation of the
ellipse x* =
+ 4y* 16, about its major axis.
6. Find the volume generated by the rotation round the
x-axis of the part of the curve y* =
4x between the origin
and x =4.
7. Find the volume generated by rotating one branch of
the hyperbola x* — y a =
0* about OX, between the limits
x = and x = 2a.
the corresponding values of y are y, and yt , the volume 8. Find the volume of the solid generated by the rotation
would be given by round the y-axis of that part of the curve of y
1
=
x3 which
puxMy. is contained between the origin and y 8. =
't, 9. Find the volume of the solid generated by the rotation
Note. — Only that sheet of the hyperboloid which is about the x-axis of the part of the curve of y =
sin x,
above OX is shown. There is a second similar sheet between x = and x =
Jt.
below. 10. Find the volume generated by the rotation round

Exercise 36. the x-axis of the part of the curve of y =
x(x — 2) which lies
below the x-axis.
1. Find the volume generated by the arc of the curve =
1 be rotated about the x-axis.
If the curve of xy
y = x' 1 1.
find the volume generated by the part of the curve inter

(1) when it rotates round the x-axis between * = cepted between x 1=x , 4. =
and x =3 12. The parabolas y* =
4x and x* =
4y intersect and the
(2) when it rotates round the y-axis between * = area included between the curves is rotated round the
anid * = 2. r-axis. Find the volume of the solid thus generated.
—
174. Simpson's rule for volumes. Then ADDC is a frustum of the cone.
Simpson's rule for calculating the areas of irregular The curved surface of the frustum can be considered as
figures can be adapted to find the volume of an irregular
the limit of a very large number of small trapeziums, such
solid. Thus, if the areas of the cross-sections of the solid as PQRS.
at equal intervals are known, these can be plotted as
ordinates of an irregular curve. For example, if in Fig. 68 Y B^_
of Exercise 34, each of the ordinates represents the area of
a cross-section of the irregular solid and / represents the >jr
distance between the cross-sections, then the sum of their A
products, which are represented by areas in Fig. 58, will A
represent the volume of the solid. Just as by applying
Simpson's rule in Example 34 we find the area of the irregular
O
figure, so the products will now represent the volume of
the irregular solid. In the particular example quoted the \
area was found to be 73-5 square feet, so, now, the volume A 3
of the Irregular solid Is 73-5 cubic feet.
—
Note. When the values of the areas of sections are
not known at equal intervals, those which are given V B
should be drawn, the curve plotted and then the
Fig 76.
ordinates required should be drawn and measured.
Examples can be found in books on practical Using the formula for the area of a trapezium, in the
mathematics, such as National Certificate Mathematics,
sum i.e., the area of the curved surface of the
limit, this
Vol. II.
frustum is—
Areas of surfaces of solids of revolution. AC x J (sum of circumferences of circles AD and CD).
175. Area of curved surface of right circular cone. .; if r =
radius of base (AB)
The curved surface of a right circular cone, if unrolled, is

and rl = radius of section (CD).
the sector of a circle. The problem is therefore that of

Area = JAC x 2n(r + l
r)
determining the area of this sector, and this can be found 176. General formula for area of a surface of revolution.
by previous methods.
Let / = radius of the sector (i.e., the slant side of the Let AB a portion of a curve which
(Fig. 76) represent
cone).
rotates round generating a solid of revolution. We
OX,
Let r = radius of circular base of cone. require to findan expression for the surface of this solid.
Let A = area of curved surface of the cone. Let PQ be a small part of the curve, which on rotating
Then it can readily be shown that generates a portion (shaded) of the surface of the whole.
A = ml.
Let PQ = Ss.
P and Q, on rotation, describe circles, PP 1 QQ l
, , with
Area curved surface of a frustum of a cone.
of centres M and N on OX.
Let the cone (Fig. 75) be cut by a plane, CD, parallel to Let PM =y.
the base. ThenCW=.y + 8y.
i9S TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION. VOLUMES AND AREAS 299
If PQ be small the portion oi

the surface which it generates
may be considered as surface of the frustum of a cone. ••
^-J'+C^lJ
Va' -
dx
.-. as shown in § 175. its area is 2* x y * **"£ y '

x 8s. x*
If
Then,
PQ becomes
in
indefinitely small so that Sy
the limit, area of strip = 2-rryds.
— > 0.
i*-x*
.dx
It was shown in § 162 that
The when a quadrant rotates are

limits of the integral
. . if s be the total area of the surface.
and giving rise to a hemisphere.
a,
/. using formula (1) above.
(i)
Surface of hemi-sphere = 2n I
y x - dx
'0 y
or (2)
= 2n j'adx
In particular problems limits are stated, and thus the
definite integrals may be found.
Note. — The form of the integral above may lead to = lira'.
complicated integration, consequently only simple ,*. Area of surface of sphere = 4tto 8.
examples will be given.
round OY. The above formulae are used
Rotation Exercise 37.
when rotation is round OX. If rotation be round OY, the Find the area of the surface of the solid generated by
1
following formulae may be used. the rotation of the straight line y =

f x around the x-axis,
between the values x and x= 3. =
2. Find the area of the surface generated by the rotation
(3)
about OX of the curve of y =
sin x, between x and =
x = 71.
or W 3. That part of the curve of x % = 4y which is intercepted

=
between the origin and the liney 8 is rotated around OY.
177. Area of the surface of a sphere.
Find the area of the surface of the solid which is generated.
= 4. The curve of the function x* + y* a* rotates =
Let x* y* +
a* be the equation of a circle which around OX. Find the area of the surface of the solid which
generates a sphere by rotation about OX, on which there- is formed between x and x = a. =
fore lies a diameter.
5. Find the area of surface of the zone cut off from a
Since x1 + y* = a 1
sphere of radius r by two parallel planes, the distance
y = \Za* — x*. between which is h.
dy _ x 6. Find the area of the surface of the solid generated by
dx Va*-
rotating round OX the part of the curve y x*, between =
x = find x 1. =
USES OF INTEGRATION IN MECHANICS 301
i.e., M = m. + m, -f m +
t .
or M=S(m).
CHAPTER XVII The product of the mass and the distance of the particle
from any point or axis, Is called the moment of the force
USES OF INTEGRATION IN MECHANICS about that point or axis.
It is established in mechanics that the moment about any
I. Centre of Gravity.
axis of the resultant acting at the centre of force Is equal to
178.
the sum of the moments of the particles about the same axis.
Integration, as a method of summation, can be applied ,*. considering the system of particles above and taking
to the solution of many problems in mechanics in which moments about OY
it is required to find the sum of an infinite number of
infinitesimally small products. Some of these are included

Mgx = m gx + m gx + tn^ =
1 1 1 t . . .
in this chapter, but in a volume of this size and purpose or, dividing throughout by g
only a few of the simpler examples can be given. Afx =
»»,*, m xx t + +mx + t s
179. The centre of gravity of a number of particles.

.". with the usual algebraic notation
_ Zfmx)
It is shown in treatises on mechanics that if a series of ~ 2(m)
•
parallel forces acts upon a body, the point through which

their resultant can be considered as acting is called the Similarly, considering the moments about OX
Centre of Force ; also the resultant is the algebraical sum
of these parallel forces (Mechanics, § 24). > - Z(m)
*
This can be otherwise expressed as follows:

The point (x, y), the moments of which we have found,
Let m„ m t m s .
, be the masses of a number of particles.
. . isthe centre of mass of the system, or considering the masses
Let ( x v >i). (*»>
>t). (*s> y?) • • be the co-ordinates of the as acted upon by the force of gravity, the centre of gravity
positions of the particles with reference to two rectangular (e.g.) of the system.
axes, OX, OY.
Each of the particles is acted upon by the force of 180. The centre of gravity of a continuous body.
gravity, this force being termed the weight of the particle In the above section we have
considered the e.g. of a
and being proportional to its mass. system of particles irrespective of their distances from one
Since this force is always directed towards the centre of another. But a continuous solid body can be regarded as
the earth, these forces, in a small system of particles, may made up of an infinite number of infinitely small particles,
be considered as a system of parallel forces, which can be and the centre of gravity of these is the centre of gravity
denoted by of the body.
m \g- m iM. m tg. • . • As the momentof each of these particles about an axis
or u>„ w t w3
, , . . .
is the product ofmass and its distance from the axis, the
its
where w represents the weight of a particle. problem of finding the sum of these products at once
The centre of force of this system Is the centre of gravity suggests integration as the means of effecting it. The
of the particles. method of applying integration is most easily shown by
Let the co-ordinates of the centre of gravity be (x, y). examples, such as those which follow.
Let M
be the sum of the masses of the particles. It should be noted that e.g. of a body must clearly lie
300
3°i TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS USES OF INTEGRATION IN MECHANICS 303
upon any axis of symmetry which the body possesses. For .*, by the principle of moments
example, the e.g. of a solid of revolution must clearly lie
on the axis about which the revolution takes place. This
.-. x x \'2ydx = j'2xydx.
suggests that for the purpose of finding the e.g. it will a
generally be simpler to take the axis of revolution as a co- x = j
2xydx -=- {°2ydx.
ordinate axis.
181. To find the centre of gravity of a uniform semi- But y = Va* — x*.
The
circular lamina.
e.g.evidently lies upon the radius which is perpen-
x = JIo
2xVa* -x* dx + .
fW^* 1
. dx
dicular to the diameter of the semi-circle at its centre, i.e.

on OA in Fig. 77. This line = [-!(«, -*I)*]°- i*a* (§151, Ex. 3)
Y should therefore be taken as = la* * few». °
f the x-axis and the diameter as 4o

-
"\
X\I
'
the y-axis. * = 3.'
'
\ If the radius of the circle is

I
\ a its equation is 182. To find the centre of gravity
'
\
U x*+yt =a*. of a solid hemisphere.
:
Since the lamina is uniform, Let the semi-circle of the pre-

mass, or that of any part of
!
I
/
/ its ceding example rotate about OX,
I
/
'
/ it, can be represented by its thus generating a hemi-sphere.
/
// If m be the mass of
*
area. The e.g. will lie on the axis of
^rs
-
'
—"Q
i
unit area, it will occur on both
sides of the equations found in
rotation, OX.
Let x be its distance from 0.
§ 179, and so will cancel out. Equation of curve is
Fig. 77.
Let x be the distance of the x* +y* =a*.
e.g. from 0, along OX. .'. radius of circle a. =
If a narrow strip of width Bx be considered, at a distance The rectangle PQ of the pre- Fig. 78.
x from OY, such as is indicated by PQ in Fig. 77, then ceding example on rotating will
area of the strip =
2y Sx . generate a slab, which, when the width of the rectangle
and momenc of the strip = 2ySx x x. is very small can be considered as cylindrical.
In the limit when the width of each strip becomes .'. in the limit this volume = ny*dx.
indefinitely small. tm
Sum of areas of strips, i.e.. area of semicircle

:. volume of heml-sphere = I ny*dx
'0
= \'2ydx
moment of cylindrical slab = ity'ix x *.
/. sum of moments of all such slabs = ny*xdx.
|
also sum of moments of these strips 'a
= \'2ydx x x = f"2yxdx. Also moment of heml-sphere = ix I ny*dx

'a
30 4 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS USES OF INTEGRATION IN MECHANICS 305
But these are equal. Equating (1) and (2)
.'.xx J
ttyHx = J
ny*xdx. y x I nx'dy = j nx*ydy.
J '
Jo Jo Jo
.-. x = n j"x{a* - x*)dx + ('

(a* - x*)dx .'. y = I *y*dy -=-
I nydy (since x* = y)
Jo 'a
Jo Jo Jo
(§ 169)
= jt(|a*- la') tW = (* X 4s) -r » X 16)
x = la. -y
183. Centre of gravity of paraboloid generated by the .\ the e.g. Is i units from along OY.
rotation of the curve of y x*, about OY. = Note. —This is § the height of the solid.
Let the limits of x be and 2. When x 2, y 4. = = 184. Centre of gravity of a

Fig. 79 represents the solid generated by the rotation uniform circular arc.
about OY of that part of the
parabola y x* between the — Let BAC (Fig. 80) represent
values x and x 2 (see = = a circular arc.
§ 172).
Let r =
radius of arc, centre
The e.g. lies on OY. 0.
Let distance froraO bey.
its Let 2a = angle subtended at
PQ represents a small the centre.
cylindrical slab, formed, as Draw OA bisecting this
in the preceding example, by angle.
Tj —X the rotation of a rectangle Let OA be the «-axis.
of very small width. The e.g. of the arc must lie
Fio. 79. Let the co-ordinates of P onOA L

be (x,y). Let * = distance of e.g. from
In the limit when width of rectangle becomes infinitely 0.
small Let P
be the point (x, y),
Volume of slab = nx*dy. and PQ
be a small arc sub- Fig. 80.
Moment of slab about OX = nx dy x y % tending an angle 89 at 0.

Then PQ = r 80. .
:. sum of moments for all such slabs = nx*dy

j" xy (1} The e.g. of all such arcs as PQ must lie on OA.
Jy-0 ;. moment ofPQ about = r88 x x and x = r cos 0.
Volume of the whole solid = j Ttx*dy. PQ „ = r* cos 86. .
° (•
In the limit when PQ is taken infinitely small
.; moment of whole solid =y x I itx*dy (2) Moment of PQ = r* cos (WO.
'0 Mass of arc BC=rx2«
jo6 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS USES OF INTEGRATION IN MECHANICS 307
(representing mass by length as arc is uniform) 12. Find the the area bounded by the hyperbola
e.g. of
moment of arc = x x r x 2a. xy = «*, the x-axis. and the ordinates x a, x b. = =
Equating moments 13. Find the e.g. of the solid formed by the rotation of
= y = x* about the x-axis between the origin and x 3. =

x x 2ra I r* cos 6 . d8 14. If the portion of the curve of ay* x* which is =
bounded by the curve, the x-axis and the ordinate x b, =
=2 f r* cos do rotates about the x-axis, find the e.g. of the solid thus
generated.
.*. x x 2ra = 2r» Tsin el
= 2r* sin a.
MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RADIUS OF
GYRATION
-__ 2r* sin a
_
" 2mI" Moments
*
• • * 185. of Inertia.
= r sin a m
Let x m t m 3 ,
, , ... be the masses of a series of particles
x forming a system.
Let r v r t r 8 ,
, . . . be their distances from a given straight
Exercise 38. line or axis.
1. Find the centre of gravity of the parabolic segment Then the sum of the products
bounded by y* = 4ax and the line x = b. m r i*- or Z(mr l )
"Vi*- OT a''s*
i • • •
2. Find the centre of gravity of the segment of the para-

bola y* = fix, which is cut off by the line x = 5 and the is called the moment of Inertia of the system, and is usually
axis of the parabola. denoted by M.I. or I.

3. Find the centre of gravity of the area bounded by the It is also called the second moment of the system, while
curve y = **, they-axis. and the liney = 1. £(mr), which was defined in § 179, is called the first moment.
Find the e.g. of the parabolic segment of y — x%
4. ,
As was pointed out when considering centre of gravity
which is contained by the curve, the y-axis, and the line (§ 179), a continuous rigid body can be regarded as a
y = 9. system of infinitely small particles which, with the usual

5. Find the e.g. of a quadrant of a circle, radius r. notation, can be expressed by dm.
6. Find the e.g. of the area between the curve of y = sin x, The sum of the products or second moments then
and the x-axis from x = to x = it. becomes T,r*dm. This sum, taken throughout the body,
7. Find the e.g. of a thin uniform wire in the shape of a becomes in the limit the integral Jr*dm.
semi-circle, radius r.
Find the
8. e.g. of a thin uniform wire in the shape of a .-. M.I. = jr*dm.
quadrant of a circle, radius r.
The moment of inertia becomes of great importance
9. Find the e.g. of the circular sector shown in Fig. 80
when the body is rotating about an axis.
as OBAC.
10. Find the e.g. of the right circular cone formed by the
Suppose a body of mass M
to be moving in a straight line
with velocity v. Then its
rotation of the line y =
mx about the origin to x h. =
11. Find the e.g. of a quadrant of an ellipse whose Kinetic Energy = \Mv*.
diameters are 2a and 2b. Thus the Kinetic Energy of any particle is |v*<2m.
3o8 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS USES OF INTEGRATION IN MECHANICS 309
Now
suppose a body of mass to be rotating with M Y
angular velocity co about an axis.
Then a particle dm is moving at any given instant with
linear velocity v where v rco. = P Q
Its kinetic energy is \dmv %
»i 1
-B
i.e., \dm(ru>) %
.'. the total kinetic energy of the body is
K.E. = Ji{ra)*dm = \a*jr %

dm Fig. 81.
= Jw» x M.I.
In the limit when this element becomes indefinitely small
,". Total kinetic energy = J (moment of inertia) x co
1
186. Radius of gyration.

M.I. of the whole rod = J
x*dx
If the moment of inertia be written in the form

7=Mk^
so that k — Vl ? M.
but
=
M = 2a.
W
then k is called the radius of gyration of the body.
From these statements it is clear that
.'. / = JMo".
The kinetic energy of a body and the moment of Inertl* Since Mk* = JMa 1
are the same as If the whole mass were supposed to be k =

concentrated at a point whose distance from the axis of vT
rotation is k.
Example 2. Find the
187. Worked examples. M.I. of a uniform rect-
Example Find the moment of inertia and the radius oj
I.
angular lamina of mass M,
gyration of a uniform straight rod about an axis perpendicular about an axis which bisects •zzf?.
to the rod at its centre.

two opposite sides.
Let Af be the mass of the rod. Let A BCD (Fig. 82) re-
present the rectangle. X»-
Let 2a be its length.
Since the rod is uniform its mass may be represented by Let YOY 1 be the axis
its length. about which the M.I. is to
.". M
represented by 2a.
is be found.
Let AB =
Let be the centre of the rod and OY the
(Fig. 81) 2a.
perpendicular through 0. Consider a thin strip
It is required to find the M.I. of the rod about OY. PQ of mass M v V
Let PQ be a small element of the rod, where the distance By Example 1 its Fig. 82.
of P from is x. M.I. = iM a«. x

Then PQ
can be represented by 8x. The M.I. of the whole rectangle is equal to the sum of
M.I. about of the element PQ x*Sx. = all such strips.
3 io TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS USES OF INTEGRATION IN MECHANICS 311
i.e., M.I. = i(Af,a» + Af,a* + M a* + t . . .)

3. Find the M.I, of a uniform circular lamina of radius r
= Ja»(Af + M + M +
, t t . . . about a diameter.
4. Find the M.I., about OX, of the ellipse whose equation
is
Example 3. Find the M.I. of a uniform circular lamina
of radius r and mass M. about an axis through its centre and
a*
+ b*~ L
Perpendicular to the plane of the lamina.
5. Find the M.I. of an isosceles triangle, height h about
(1) its base;

(2) an axis through its vertex parallel to the base.
Find the M.I. of a right circular cone, radius of base r
6.
about its axis.
—X 7. Find the M.I of a uniform circular cylinder, radius of
base r, about its axis.
8. Find the M.I. of a fine circular wire, radius 0, about a
diameter.
9. Find the M.I. about OY
of the area of the segment of
y the parabola y* =
4ax between the origin and the double
Fig. 83(a). Pig. 83(6). ordinate corresponding to x b. =
10. Find the M.I. and radius of gyration of a uniform
Fig. 83(a) represents the circle, centre 0, OY being the sphere, radius r, about a diameter.
axis, perpendicular to the plane of the circle, about which
itrotates. 188. Theorems on mo-
Fig. 83(6) represents the plan of the circle. small A ments of Inertia.
circular band, radii * and x +
Sx, represents the element of
The following theo-
area
rems are helpful in the
M.I. of this band = (2kx . dx) x x*.
calculation of moments
The sum of all such as this throughout the circle is the of inertia in certain
M.I. of the whole. cases.
M.I. = f 2nx*dx = 2* = I. The moment of

.-. Jrcr*.
[j*«J Inertia of a lamina
But M= nr*. about an axis OZ per-
;. M.I. = {Mr*. pendicular to Its plane,
Is equal to the sum of
Exercise 39 the moments of Inertia
Find the moment of inertia and the radius of gyration
1. about any pair of rect- Fig. 84.
of a uniform straight rod, length /, about an axis perpen- angular axes OX and
dicular to its length at one end of the rod. Of In the plane of the lamina.
2. Find the M.I. of a uniform rectangular lamina of Let P be a particle of mass m in the plane of OX, OY
sides 2a and lb about the side of length 2b. (Fig. 84).
3™ TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS USES OF INTEGRATION IN MECHANICS 313
Let its co-ordinates with regard to these axes be (x, y]. perpendicular to OX and OY, then, it was shown in Example
Join OP. Let OP r. = 3, p. 310, that
Let OZ be an axis perpendicular to the plane XOY. I. \Mr*. =
Then POZ is a right angle. Hence I. I,+ If = .
.*. moment of inertia of particle at P about axis

OZ = mr a .
Let PM PN be drawn perpendicular to OX, OY.

,
II. Theorem of parallel axes.
Then OP* = OM* + MP* Let l t be the M.I. of a mass M

about an axis through its
= x*+y* centre of gravity ; let a be the distance of a parallel axis
r* = x* + y*.
or from the centre of gravity. Then
But M.I. of mass m at P about OZ M.I. = + Ma*.

Je
This may be defined as follows:

= mr*
= m(x*+y*) The moment of Inertia of a body about any axis Is equal
= mx* my* to the sum of—
-f-
(1) the moment of Inertia about a parallel axis, and

or 7, = 7. + V (2) the product of the mass and tne square of the
distance of the axis from the centre of gravity.
where Ix , 7r , I, are the moments of inertia of m about the
areas OX, OY and OZ, respec- It is evident that (2), i.e.. Ma*, is the same as the M.I.
tively. of the whole mass, collected at the centre of gravity, about
This is true for all particles of the selected axis.
a lamina of which the particle at
P is a part, and is therefore 189. Worked examples.
true for the whole lamina. Example I . Find the M.I.
As an example let us consider of a uniform circular lamina,
the case of the circular lamina radius a, about a tangent.
described in Exercise 39, ques-
In Fig. 8G the tangent to
tion 3.
the circular lamina centre C
Let ABC (Fig. 85) represent a
is taken as OY.
circular lamina.
Let XOX 1
be a diameter.
BC is an axis parallel to
be the M.I. about this
If 7,
OY through C, which is, of
diameter, then course, the e.g.
it was found in question 3, that Fig. 86.
Then, by the above theo-
I, = \Mr*. rem
If YOY 1 be another diameter at right angles to XOX 1 M.I. about OY = M.I. about BC +Ma*.
,
But M.I. about BC = \Ma*. (Ex. 39, (3), and example
then /, = \Mr* on Theor. I.)
/. 7, + 71 = \Mr* + \Mr* ,\ M.I. about OY = \Ma* + Ma*
= \Mo*.
If OZ be an axis perpendicular to the lamina and therefore
JM TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS USES OF INTEGRATION IN MECHANICS 315
Example 2. Find the M.I. of a uniform lamina in the
(2) M.I. about an axis through the centre of gravity and
shape of an isosceles triangle, height h and vertical angle la, parallel to AB.
about — Let Ie = M.I. about an axis through e.g.
11 An axts through the vertex parallel to lite base. Let a = distance of e.g. from
2) A line through the e.g. parallel to the base. In this case a = \h.
(3) The base. Using /=/„-(- Ma*, and substituting.
Arrange the triangle so Ic = / - M{\h)*
Y tliat its axes of symmetry = iMh* - iMh*
A lies along OX (as in Fig. = &Mh\
87).
M.I. about the base.
Then OC =h, AC = h (3)
tan a. Distance of e.g. from base = \h.

Let P [x, y) be any point By the theorem of parallel axes
on OA. M.I. about base
The strip PQ
represents
= (M.I. about axis through (M
8 an element of area
e.g.) -|-
(I)')
and y = x tan a. = tVMA' + iMh*
Fig. 87. Sx = width of strip = iMh*.
Exercise 40.
(1) To find M.I. about OY.
1. Find the M.I. of a uniform rod, length 2a, about an
Let m = mass of unit area. axis perpendicular to the rod through one extremity.
M.I. of strip = 2mySx x ** 2. Find the M.I. of a uniform square lamina about an
in the limit, M.I. of triangle

axis perpendicular to the plane of the square, at one corner.
.'. about
3 Find the M.I. of a uniform lamina in the shape of an
OY = m f 2yx*dx equilateral triangle of side 0.
(1) About a through the

line parallel to the base
but y = * tan a. centre of gravity.
(2) About an axis through the centre of gravity and
,\ M.I. =m f 2x* tan *dx = 2m tan a I x"dx

perpendicular to the plane of the triangle.
(3) About a line perpendicular to the plane of the
triangle and through a vertex.
= 2w tan a hx*~\ 4. Find the M.I. of a uniform circular lamina of radius a
= \mh* tan a about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the disc through
a point on the circumference.
but mass of triangle, i.e.,
5. Find the M.I. of a uniform right circular cylinder
M = mh x h tan o about a line through the centre of the axis of the cylinder
= nth* tan o.
and perpendicular to it. Length of cylinder is 2a and
radius of base b.
.*. M.I. = ±Mh*.
6. Find the M.I. of a uniform thin spherical shell, radius
3«6 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS
o, —
about a diameter. [Hint see problem of finding surface
of a sphere (§ 177)].
7. Find the M.I. of a solid sphere, radius a, about a CHAPTER XVIII
—
diameter. [Hint. divide the sphere into thin con-
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
and use the result of the previous question.]
centric shells
Find the M.I. of a right circular cone, height h, about
8.
190. Functions ofmore than one variable.
an axis drawn through the vertex parallel to the base, the
radius of which is r. Thus we have been concerned only with functions of
far
9. Find the M.I. of an elliptic lamina, axes la and lb, one independent variable. It was pointed out, however,
about an axis drawn through the centre of the ellipse and in § 12, tnat a quantity may be a function of two or more
perpendicular to its plane. independent variables. Examples were given in illus-
10. Find the M.I. of a uniform rectangular lamina, sides tration.
la and lb. We must now consider, very briefly, the problem of
About a side.
differentiation in such cases. An adequate treatment is
(1)
not possible in an introductory book on the subject, but
12) About a diagonal.
some simple aspects of the problem can be examined.
(3) About an axis perpendicular to the plane of the
rectangle and passing through a corner.
191. Partial differentiation.
We will begin with an example referred to in § 12, viz.
that the volume of a gas is dependent upon both pressure
and temperature.
Let V represent the volume of a gas.
„ p be the pressure on it.
„ t be the absolute temperature.
The law connecting these can be expressed by the formula
V-k '-
where k is a constant.
(1) Suppose the temperature to vary, the pressure
remaining constant.
Then -,.
dt
= k. -.
p"
(2) Suppose the pressure to vary, the temperature

remaining constant.
dV
Then
dp
=k -=p* t
°r
t
py
Thus the existence of two independent variables gives
two differential coefficients.
rise to
3«7
318 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 3'9
These are called Partial derivatives or Partial Differential 192. Graphical Illustration of partial derivatives.
coefficients. For the sake of simplicity the ordinary We have seen that a function with one independent
notation was employed above, but special symbols are variable can be represented by a plane curve. If, however,
employed to indicate partial coefficients. Instead of the there are two independent variables, the dependent function
letter " d," the small Greek delta, d, is employed. Thus can be represented by a surface, i.e., co-ordinates in three
the partial differentia] coefficients above would be written dimensions are employed. This can be illustrated as
follows.
(1) In Fig. 88. let XOY
represent a plane with OX, OY as
co-ordinate axis at right angles to one another. Values of
dv_ t
(2)
dp- *>»•
Thus. (1) indicates that V is differentiated with respect
to t (hence dt), while p is constant. Similarly, with (2).
—
In general if z be a function of x and y, the partial
differential coefficients are written
(1J , when x is variable and y constant.
(2) E , when y is variable and x constant.

dy
Using the form referred to in § 33. of defining the
differential coefficient, the partial differential coefficients
can be expressed thus:
|5- it
fte+**'fi-f(*'fi
dx j, _> o 6x
dz
= it
f{Xl Y + S y) ~ f(x< Y) Fig. 88.
dy 6y
ar-*-o
two variables x and y can be represented along OX and OY
Examples. as heretofore. This we
xy plane.
call the
=2*» +5x*y Draw OZ at right angles to the plane from 0.

(1) z + xy* + y*. Thus the planes XOZ, YOZ, are perpendicular to the
•'•
£= 6*' + 10-ty+y» (y constant) plane. XOZ is the (x, x) plane and YOZ is the (y, z) plane.
Values of z, corresponding to values of x ana y, are
|? = 5x» + Ixy + 3y* (x constant) marked on OZ.
Let P be a point in the plane of XOY with co-ordinates
(2) x = sxay + x* cosy + e*»
|* =2* cosy +2e t» Along OX mark OB = x, and along OY, OA = v,.
(y constant) Then P is the position of the point in the plane XOY.
Bz From P draw PC parallel to OZ and equal to *,, where *,
8y
= C0S y-*' smy {x constant) is the value of x corresponding to x, for x and y l for y.
320 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION jai
Then C represents the position of the point in space when
to x and y, so that when it is differentiated with respect
the co-ordinates are (x v y lt zj.
to x, y being constant, we have
If other values of x and y are taken, with the corresponding
values of z, we shall obtain an assemblage of points such as denoted by
C, which will lie on a surface. £(|) arly
(4) When differentiated with respect to y, x being
(1) Let y be constant and have the value yv constant, we have
GCE will now represent the variations of z relative to x
wheny is constant.
Consequently the partial differential coefficient =- will
gg dyCdy)
denoted ^ !?•
It will be seen that (2) and (3) are the same, except for
represent the slope of the tangent to the curve, corresponding the order of the differentials in the denominators. These
to any assigned value of x. For example, when x xv = indicate the order of differentiation.
C is the corresponding point on the curve and the tangent In (2) we differentiate with respect to y first and
GCE C then x.
to the curve at represents the value of j- when
x = xv x
then
In (3) we differentiate with respect to x first and
y.
(2) Let x be constant and have the value x,. It can be shown that these are commutative i.e., the
Then the curve of DCF represents the variations of z toy. order of differentiation is immaterial i.e., the result is the
The tangent to the curve at any point on it represents same
^ for corresponding values of y and z. or

3'z
dydx
*
- dxdy'
Similarly there may be third and higher derivatives.
193. Higher Partial Derivatives.
The partial derivatives are themselves functions of the 194. Total differential.
variables concerned, and thus may have their partial When a function of a single variable such as y = f(x) is
derivatives. differentiated, the result is expressed by
(1) Thus if — be differentiated with respect to x
[y being constant), this is indicated by ^- ( -p) and If this be written in the form
denoted by ^*v dy =/'(x)dx
(2) Since it is also a function of y, it can be differ-
the differential dy of the dependent variable y is thus
entiated with respect to y, x being constant. Thus we expressed in terms of the differential dx of the independent
have: variable x (see § 33).
We
now proceed to find a similar expression, when z is a
den0tedby function of the independent variables x and y; i.e., we
/y(ax) <Px
require to obtain the relation between dz, dx, and dy.
dz
(3) Similarly r- can be differentiated with respect Let z = f(x,y) (1)
Let x receive an increment 8x.
L (CAL.)
32» TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 3*3
Let y receive an increment Sy. Also, in the limit, with the usual notation, 8*, Sy, Sz,
And z receive a corresponding increment Sz. become the differentials dx, dy, dz.
Then z + 5z = f(x + 6x, y + 5y) . . (2) ;. substituting for the corresponding parts of (B) they
Subtracting from
become
(1) (2),
Z
6z = f(x + 6x, y + - Z
8y) f(x, y) . . (A) dz = l dx + l
dy
' (C)
y only varies, and
If is increased by 6y, the result can be ox dy
expressed by This is called the total differential of z, where z is a
f(*.y+6y) (3) function of the variables x and y.
If x only varies and is increased by 6x. the result can be A similar expression may be obtained when z is a function
expressed by of three variables.
f(x + Sx,y) (4)
195. Total differential coefficient.
If (3) be added to and subtracted from (A)
= {/(x + Sx.y + Sy)-f(x,y + Sy)} + {f(x,y + Sy) -f{x,y)\ Let x andy, and consequently z, be functions of a variable
Sz
t.
•
s* =
f( x + *x -y + sy) -Ji x y^L *y) }?*
{ - In equation (B) above, divide throughout by St.
Sx On
proceeding to limits in the same way as was adopted
[f( *.y -r- *y) -Ax,y))Sy (B) above with (B), then in the limit we reach the result
Sy
(1) Considering the first part of B.

dz
dt
dz
dx '
dx
dt
+
dz
dy -di
dy
' •
.
m
If 8x and 6y tend to become zero, then
This is termed thf total differential coefficient of z with
£x + Sx,y+Sy) -f(x,y+Sy) regard to x and y, these being variables dependent on t.
Sx
If y Is a function of x. and the total differential coefficient
in the limit becomes the partial differential coefficient of of dz is found by replacing t by x in the above, we get
f(x,y + Sy), when x alone varies and y remains constant.
dz _ dz dz dy
i
But in this expression Sy ultimately vanishes, and thus

it takes the form Sx ~ Jx + dy dx
Ax+Sx,y)-f(x,y) This may be obtained independently in the same way
Sx as the above.
Thus it becomes the partial differential coefficient ol
and
196. A geometrical Illustration.
f(x. y), when x varies y is constant,
8z
The following geometrical illustration will probably be
helpful to many students in realising the meaning and
Bx-
significance of the above results.
(2) Considering the second part
of B. The area of a rectangle is a function of two variables, the
In the limit this represents the partial differential coeffi- lengths of its two unequal sides.
cient of/(x,.y), when y alone varies, Fig. 89 represents a rectangle, with sides x and y.
8z Let A be its area.
*.«.,
By- Then A = xy.
324 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 3*5
Let x be variable and receive an increment 8x, while y Also letx =5 in., and be increasing at the same instant
remains constant. at 3 in. per sec.
Then A SA = (x + 8x)y. + At what rale is A increasing at the given instant t
Subtracting SA =ySx, i.e., In this problem another variable, time [t), is introduced,
rectangle CGHD. so that x and y, and consequently A, vary with time.
The rate of Increase of A The rate of increase of A is clearly given by the total
with regard to x, y being differential coefficient as stated in formula (D)
constant, is the partial differ- This becomes
dA _ BA dx BA dy
ential coefficient •„-, i.e.,
dt ~ Bx '
dt
+ By "
dt'
BA
We know that
Bx
=y = 8
Similarly, if y be variable.
Fig. 89. x being constant
= the rectangle DEFC = xSy
8.4
By
BA
and rate of increase =
3
8y
= %(*y)=*- dt~
Ifboth x and y vary, then by formula C the total differential ~2 -
dt
increase, in the limit, when Sx and 8y proceed to zero, is
dA
BA
dA^-^.dx
, . BA , , :. substituting |=(8x3) + (5x2)
+ ^dy.
.
= 34 square Inches per second.

Substituting the values of the partial differential coeffi-
cients, we get i
dA = ydx + xdy. = tan- 1
// 2 -, find the total differential dz.
Comparing with Fig. 89, it is seen that the total increase
in area, due to small increases of x and y, is rectangle
BEFC + rectangle CGHD + the small rectangle CFKG, If * = tan- 2x 1
i.e., in the limit 8z 1 /_ y\

x
+m
~
ydx 4- xdy + dxdy. Sx %
^ *>
i
But dxdy is the product of two Infinitesimals and is
called an infinitesimal of the second order. It can be
= **
_ -y
(-2\-
disregarded in comparison with ydx and xdy, which are
infinitesimals of the first order.
Bz
x*+y*
1
x
\
1
W xl +
+y*
i
.'. total differential Increase of area Is ydx + xdy. 8y-

y?* *
Total differential coefficient.
Now suppose y = 8 in., and at a given instant is increasing x* 1 x
at the rate of 2 in. per sec. x* + y* X
x
~ x*+ r
y
Ji6 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION Sa?
Substituting in formula D .'. substituting

dy 12*» - y*
= *' -~~y + * =
dz t . dx . .dy
J dx ~ - 2xy 4 3y»
f y* x* -j- y*
_ llx -
1
_ xdy — ydx
2xy - ly*
f
198. Implicit functions.
Exercise 41.
Z dz
Partial derivatives will, no doubt, have reminded A. Find the partial differential coefficients f , . . In
questions to 7. dx °i
students of the method of differentiating implicit functions I
as described in § 48. The connection will be made clear z = x*.

I. z = cos (x* + y»).
2. 3. z =
by a modification of formula (C), § 194. ,-*2-v
i» = i, +3i|yt Qxy* + 2y». * +>"
Let* == f(x. y) =
a constant, say c.
5. z = sin-' -. 6. * = tan- -. 1
7. z = y» u *.
Then its differentiatials equal zero. y y .
.'. Formula (C) becomes 8. II z = log (« + e»), show that » + % = 1.
ox dy
£*+g*-o-
dx
B. Find the total differentials
*
In questions 9 to 14.
9. z = 10. x = ax* + Ibxy + cy*.

ay — s dx y
dy dx 11. f = Iogx». 12. z = x*y + xy*.
dz 13. 2 = «*». 14. z = a*e*.
^ ~ dx
= 2*« + 3y\ find — =3
.
" dx n dx
15.
= 001,
Tf u
and dy = 0-02.
du. when *
.,
I, v
dy 16. If the law of a perfect gas be V = - , where K
It will be noted that though the total differential co-
represents the volume, p the pressure, and t the absolute
efficient of z is zero, this was not the case with the partial
temperature, find the relation between dV dt, and dp. ,
differential coefficients.
Referring to § 48 it will be seen that the results are. in 17. If u = x'y — siny, find -^-, and show that it is
principle, identical.
equal
^ to = < .
d dydx
Worked example. // * = 4** — xy* + y* = 0, find /. = — —
18. In the solid representing z a* x% 2y* what
From above is the slope at a point of the curve along a section for
dy _ /dz dz\ which y is constant ? What is the slope at a point along a

dx " \dx "
dy) section for which x is constant ?
19. The radius of the base of a right cylinder is increasing
but at a given instant at the rate of an inch per sec, while the
height is increasing at 2 inches per second. At the same
| . _ 2xy + 3y*. instant the height is 10 inches, and the radius of the base
5 inches. At what rate is the volume increasing ?
TAYLOR'S AND MACLAURIN'S THEOREMS 319
There no universal method of determining this, but there

is
are various tests which can be applied for certain kinds of
CHAPTER XIX series. A consideration of such tests is, however, beyond
the scope of this volume. Students who desire, or need to
SERIES. study, this important matter, should consult a book on
TAYLOR'S AND MACLAURIN'S THEOREMS Higher Algebra.
In this brief treatment of infinite series by the use of the
199. Infinite series. Calculus, the series considered will be assumed, without
When studying algebra the student has become ac- proof, to be convergent.
quainted with certain " series," as, for example, geometric 201. Taylor's theorem.
regression or series, arithmetical progression, and the
In the binomial theorem it is stated that the function
C inomial series.
la the first of these he will have considered the impor-
(x +a)" can be expanded in a series of descending powers
of x and ascending powers of a. Many other functions can
tant problem of the sum of the series, when the number
be similarly expanded, and various methods are employed
of terms is increased without limit, i.e., becomes " Infinite."
for this purpose. In this chapter, however, it is proposed
Two cases arise
to investigate a general method of expanding functions in
(1) When the common ratio r is numerically greater scries.
than unity, as the number of terms increases the terms Briefly, we shall see that fix +
h) can, in general, be
increase individually and so does their sum. If the expanded in a series of ascending powers of h. Such an
number of terms becomes infinitely great, their sum expansion is not possible for all functions, and there are
also becomes infinite, i.e., if SH represent the sum of n
terms, then, when n — —
>• oo , S„ > oo
limitations to the application of the theorem which defines
the form of the expansion.
(2) If, however, the common ratio be less than unity, We will begin by stating the theorem which is known as
the terms continually decrease and the question of Taylor's Theorem, and proceed afterwards to demonstrate
what happens to S» when n becomes infinitely great the truth of it.
is a matter for investigation.
In this case it is readily shown that when n — > oo Taylor's Theorem.
S„ approaches a finite limit. h2
f(x + h) = f(x) + hf'(x) + ,
^f'(x)
200. Convergent and divergent series.
In general when considering any kind of series, it becomes
a problem to be investigated as to whether + £f"* + . . . + -^p(x)+ . . . ad Inf.
(2) S» approaches infinity when n

— —
(1) S n approaches a finite limit when n
> oo
>- oo
, or
The following assumptions will be made :
If a series is of the first kind it is said to be convergent' (1) That any function which will be considered is
if of the second, it is called divergent (Algebra, § 270, § 282).
capable of being expanded in this form.
There is also a third type of series called oscillating, but (2) That subject to certain conditions in some cases,
we shall not consider it in this chapter. the series is convergent.
For theoretical and practical purposes it is very important (3) Tltat the successive differential coefficients, fl (x),
to know whether a given series is convergent or divergent. /n W./m W. • • . f'(x) all exist.
330 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS TAYLOR'S AND MACLAURIN'S THEOREMS 331
In accordance with ( 1) we will assume that f(x 4- A) can

be expanded in ascending powers of h as follows: /(* + *) =/W + V 1
!*) + y*2 /"(*)
f{x + h) = A„ +- A,h + A,h' + W* + . . . (B)

where the coefficients A , Av At , . . . are functions of x
but do not contain A. 202. Application to the binomial theorem.
Since this is to be true for all values of h To expand (x + A)" (by Taylor's theorem).
let h = 0. /(* + A) = (x + A)»
Then on substitution in (1), we havei = /(*) +¥ I
W+ r
2
/"(*) + -3 f'
a (x) + ...
A =/(x). When A = 0.
Since the series (B) is an identity, it may
be assumed that = *"
ft*)
if both sides be differentiated with respect to h, keeping x
'(*) = nx"->
constant, the result in each case will be another identity. '(* = n(x - l)x"-»
Repeating the process, we get: (*j=»(n-l)(*-2)x—
WP(x+h)=A + l (A i x 2A)
Substituting in Taylor's expansion
+ (A, x 3/.') + (A t x 4AS ) + . . .
since f(x) = 0, where x is constant. (x + A)- = x» + h . n*»- l

+ f^ "l n - l**"*
Similarly
(2) fa(x + h)=2A + &MAJt\ + (4.3,4 ,A«) +

t . . .
+ £§*- l)(»-2)*-» + ...
(3)/i"(x + A) = 3.2.L4, + 4.3.2L4 h + t . . .
or with the usual arrangement
and so for higher differential coefficients.
In all of these results put A = 0. (x + h)« = x- -f b*»-*Ji + n(n-r" '^x— »h»
Then from
2 ) ,-. 3
(l)P(x) =A V + i{?.-!)("- x h + ...
(2 /n(x) =2.M t .
(3) f™(x) = 3.2.1/1,. 203. Maclaurln's theorem (or Stirling's theorem).

P y (x) = 4.3.2. IA V This isanother form of Taylor's theorem. It is obtained
by putting x = 0. and for convenience replacing h by x.
i.e., A 1 =P(x) This is possible since Taylor's theorem is true for all valu
-/"W
A '~
of x and h.
.2 let x = 0, and h = x.
-^
.'.
Then Taylor's theorem becomes

4
"LL
f(x) = R0) + xf (0) + * HO) + • • + £ f( ) • • •
y4» =/J2 and so on. Li [£

IE In this form f"(0) means that In the n th differential
Substituting for these in (B) we obtain the theorem, viz..
coefficient of fix), x Is replaced by 0.
33» TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS TAYLOR'S AND MACLAURIN'S THEOREMS 333
204. Worked examples. Substituting in Maclaurin's series we have
Example I . Expand
= log
log (1 + x).
- log *+?
Since /(x) (I +*)J /(0) (1) ,
sin x =x— + - + +
B71I H fk . . .
f„-
/*(0) ={ =1 In this series x is measured in radians.

/n (0) = -J-- 1
If now we put x =
1, we may readily calculate the value
of a radian to as great a degree of accuracy as may be
desired, by taking sufficient terms of the series.
/
m W- 1.2
/™(0) = 1.2 be noted that the terms decrease rather rapidly, or the
It will
(1+*)*'
series is said to converge rapidly.
/-(,) =- L" It should be further noted that the series contains only
(!+*)«' odd powers of x, i.e., it is an odd function. The series for
cos x will be found to contain only even powers of x, i.e.,
an even function.
/«(x) = (- l)-» .
jfj-jjs: /"(0)
= (- !)-»!» -1. it is
Example 3. Expand e* in a series involving powers of x.

Substituting these values in Maclaurin's series, viz.
We have f(x) = e*. ,". /(0) =1.
/{*) = log (1 + x) =/(0) + xP(0) + gfm + • •
.'. P(x) = e*. :. p(0) = 1.
/"(*)=«*• .'. /«(0) = 1.
we have l Substituting in Maclaurin's series we get 1
+X) = X _£ + £_£ + + (_ |)-lx- + .. y2 y3 y4

log (I ... .
,-!+, + £+ * + *+...
It should be remembered that the base employed
throughout has been e. Consequently the above series Compare § 83.
may be used to calculate logarithms to that base. From 205. Expansion by the differentiation and Integration of
these the logs to any other base, such as 10, can be known series.
obtained.
The method may be illustrated by the following example:
Example 2. Expand sin x in a series involving powers By division.
ofx.
=sinx. =0 = l-x*+x*-x»+...
/(x) .\/(0) 1-l-i
P(x) = cosx = sin(x+?). /. P(0) =1 It may be proved that when a function is represented
by a series, and the function and the series are integrated
F(x) = -sinx. ;. f^(0) =0 throughout, the results are equal.
/m(x) = - cos x = sin (x + ^Y .%
/m(0) =- 1
y3 y5
/-(x) = sin(x + f). .\/"(0)
nn
= sin-£ tan 1
x = x - - + - - +
This is known as Gregory's series. It is convergent
and can be used to calculate the value of n. CHAPTER XX
Thus, in the series let * = I. ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Then tan-' (1) = £. 206. Meaning of a differential equation
Substituting in Gregory's series

A one which involves an independent
dtfferential equation is
variable, a dependent variable and one or more of their
« '.I
J '
+;- differential coefficients.

These equations are of great importance in Physics,
Hence, by taking sufficient terms, the value of n can be Engineering of all kinds, and other applications of Mathe-
lound to any required degree of accuracy. It converges matics. Although it is not possible in this volume to give
slowly, however, and consequently other series which more than a very brief introduction to what is a big subject,
converge rapidly are employed for the calculation. the elementary forms which are dealt with in this chapter
may prove valuable to many students.
Exercise 42. Examples of differential equations have already appeared
Expand the following functions in powers of xi in this book, as, for example, questions 49-54 in Exercise 16.
Again, as illustrated in § 100
1. (a) sin (a + x) ;
(b) cos (a + x).
«**. tan- 1 (x + A). H
2.
4. log (1 + sin x).
3.
5. cos x.
« J-*
dy = 2xdx ....
6. tan x. 7. log (1 + e*). or (2)
8. a'. 9. «-**. we obtain by integration the relation :
y = x* + c
10 «•"". 11. sec x.
(3)
. . . .
12. log sec x. 13. shv'x.

(1) and (2) are differential equations, and (3) is their
14. log (1 - x). 15. sinh x.
solution. Thus a differential equation is solved when, by
16. e* sin x. 17. tanhx.
integration, we find the relations between the two variables
x and y.
This process involves the introduction of an undeter-
mined constant. Thus the solution (3) is the genera]
equation, or the relation between y and x for the whole
family of curves represented in Fig. 28.
207. Formation of differential equations.

Differential equations arise or may be derived in a variety
of ways.
For example, it is shown in mechanics that if s be the
distance passed over in time tby a body moving with
uniform acceleration, a. then
d*s
==a (1)
dfl
335
336 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 337
By integration
Thus the equation j\) +3 ,- = is of the second
g = *+«, .... (2)
(
Integrating again s = \at' + c + c,

tt
. . (3)
order and third degree; 5 = ^1 + (^ dx (§ 162) is of
Of these (1) contains a second derivative, (2) the first the first order and second degree.
derivative, while (3) is the general solution of (1) and (2).
Differential equations may also be formed by direct 209. Solutions of a differential equation.
differentiation. Thus, let A solution which is complete or general must contain a
= x»+7x* + Sx + l number of arbitrary constants which is equal to the order of

V . . . (a)
the equation. Thus in § 207 (3) contains two arbitrary
dy
= «... .,...„
3x* + 14* + 3 ... ...
then g (b) constants and is the solution of (1), an equation of the second
order.
Solutions which are obtained by assigning particular
values to the constants, as in Exercise 16, question 54, are
called particular solutions.
This chapter will be concerned only with equations of
(a) is called the complete primitive of (a").
the first order and first degree.
Differential equations of the first order and

208. Kinds of differential equations.
first degree.
(A) There are two main types of differential equations:
210. Since solutions of differential equations involve inte-
Ordinary differential equations, involving only
(1)
gration, it is not possible in consequence to formulate rules,
one independent variable.
as with differentiation, which will apply to any type of
(2) Partial differential equations, which involve
equation. Some indeed it is not possible to solve. But a
more than one independent variable.
large number of equations, including very many of practical
In this chapter we shall concern ourselves with (1) only. importance, can be classified into various types, solutions
for which can be found by established methods. Some of
(BJ Orders.Differential equations of both types are
these types we will proceed to consider.
according to the highest derivative which occurs
classified
in them. Thus of the differential equations (b), (c), (d)
in §207:
211. I. One variable absent.
There may be two forms:
(b) is of the first order, having only the first deriva-
tive. (1) When y Is absent.
(c) is of the second order. The general form is dy = f{x)dx
(d) is of the third order. and the solution is y = \f(x)dx.
(C) Degree. The degree
of a differential equation is
This requires ordinary integration for its solution.
that of the highest power of the highest differential which
the equation contains after it has been simplified by Example. Solve the equation
clearing radicals and fractions. dy = (x* + sin x)dx.
Th en y = j( x * + sin x)dx. 213. Worked examples.
Example Solve the differential equation
."-
y = i* - cos x + c.
s I.
(2) When x Is absent.

xdy + ydx = 0.
The general form is
To separate the variables divide throughout by xy.
Then
d
y + dx =o.
y
or dy = /(y)dx.
This may be written in the form i
•••
/?+/?-•
dx _ 1 /. logy + log* = c,.
«*y "Ay) If the constant c, be written in the form log c

Then log y + log x = log c
whence xy — c.
The factor used to multiply throughout to separate
The solution the variables is called an Integrating factor.

is then obtained by direct integration.
Example 2. Solve the equation
Example. Solve the equation ~ tan v.
jf (1 +x)ydx+ (1 -y)*iy = 0.
Hence *? = J Multiplying throughout by we get

Ay tan y , i
l +* dx + L-y dy = o.
tany x y
J J sin y
(I + l)«/* + (i-l)<iy = 0.
.*. x = log sin y + c.
212. II. Variables separable.

If it is possible to re-arrange the terms of the equation
log x x + + logy —y = c.
two groups, each containing only one variable, the

in or log xy + (x - y) =r c
variables
are said to be separable. Then the equation takes
the form Exercise 43.
F(x)dx + f(y)dy = Solve the following differential equations:
in which F{x) is a function of x only, and/(y) a function of
i.f
dx
+ -
x*t
= o. dx
The general solution then is a dx
+ y)dx - - x)dy = 0.
i
4. (1 (1
JF(x)dx + = c. 5. (* + \)dy -ydx = 0.

ff(y)dy
6. sin x cos ydx = sin y cos xdy.
34<> TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 341
7. (y> - x*)dy + 2xydx = 0. 215. Worked examples.
Example Solve the equation
J dx + x1 1
I .
2yrf* =x(y — \)dy.

9.
(i - **)% - *y - 1.
10. y* + sin 2x & = 1. .

Transforming this to the general form, viz.,
11
"'
1 +y _ rfy
ltg_*
(1 + *»)*y <&'
13. xVy1 - ldx —yVx* — l<fy = 0. we get
14.L + ^-«.*
= to 15. 4?
IK = 2xy. dv _ x _ 1
1+2 dx"
,7
The slope of a
/x
—2,
dx r^py ~~ 1 -r&-
16. family of curves is What is the
equation of the set ?
* Since the integrating factor is eJpdx we proceed
, first to
214. III. Linear equations. Pdx in this case, noticing that P= — x

-„ Q= _.
1
,.
An equation of the form Comparing with the equation above we have,
jpdx =
-f rl- dx 1
where P and Q are constants, or functions of x only, is called

= ilog(l_-*»)
a linear differential equation. = log %/!-**.
It is so called because y and its derivatives are of the /. integrating factor =« -*' =
lo* v/l
Vl— **.
first degree.
It has been discovered that if such an equation is multi-
Using the form (A) in § 214, we have 1
r^xVl-
plied throughout by the Integrating factor elM*. an equation
is obtained which can be solved.
y Vl-X*=J ~x*dx
When multiplied by this factor, the equation becomes i dx

-/.
= sin- 1
x + c.
It may now be seen that the integral of the left-hand side .'. the solution is :
isyei1'''*. This is evident on differentiating yefPi*. There- yVl — x» = sln-» x + c.

fore the solution is
Example 2. Solve equation
yei"* = jQfif"'dx ... (A)
dv
lite
The procedure in solving this type of differential equation

cos*-/ +ysinx= 1.
Dividing by cos x,
is to begin by finding the integral jPdx, then substitute in
i
(A).
Examples will illustrate the method more clearly.
± + y tan * = sec x.
J43 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS J«
Comparing with the type equation
P= tan *.
3. f=y-x.
dx J 4.
dx
+ xy = x.
dy dy
/. JPdx = I tan xdx = log sec x. 6 + ay = **• t) 4- y tan x = 1.
-
dx dx
;. effi* = «s"o»"o- = sec x. ?
<y _ ay = x + 8.
1
tan x 2= 1 + y.
Using formula (A) and substituting '
a*x x x
9. rtily = — e*y)dx.
( 1 10. xrfy - aydx = (x + \)dx.
y sec x = / sec x sec xix
=
1 1 . cos* x +y . tan x.
,-
= / sec 1 xix 12. x' ^ 4- xy +

. = 0. 1
<fx
= tan x + c. 216. IV. Homogeneous equations.

.'. the solution is i
These equations are of the form

y = cos x tan * -(- c cos x
or y = sin x + c cos x.
Example 3. So/ue the equation

where P and Q are homogeneous functions of the same
f + 2xy -
x
1 + 2x*. degree In x and y.
P is V
Companng with the type equation Then „ a function of -.
Q x
P = 2x . Q m + 1 2x«. Such equations can be solved by using the substitution
.'
J/Vx = J2xdx = x«. y = =
or 'y
i. v »»x
x
.'. integrating factor is ««*.
.'. using formula (A) and substituting Thus the two variables x and c are separable, and the
solution can be found as before.
When the solution has been found, using these variables
V—Jil \-2x*)e*'dx
substitute - for v and so reach the final solution.
= j{f 4- 2xV)«&
= x**" + 217. Worked examples.
c.
.". the solution is :
Example I. Solve the differential equation
or
ye*
y
=
=
xe* + c
x 4 er*.
i*+y) •*-
In this example P and Q. i.e., x + y and x, are each
EXAMPLE 44. functions of the first degree throughout in x and y.
Solve the following differential equations:
Let «- — v or y = i»x.
% - 2x> - 2 *- + *+^=°- x '

'• 2 - X
^ Then dy — \dx 4 xdv (d.c. of a product)
344 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS its
Substituting in equation above Integrating
log v — log + v*) = log * +
(1 c,.
los =1 °s* + Io s c -
.*. (x + vx)dx + x(vdx + xdv) = r+v*

and xdx + 2vxdx + x*dv — 0. • —r -»i = c*
1 tr -f-
Separating the variables
t
z
(1 + 2v)dx + xdv = 0. X
' 1 + 2v + x
"•
i+5
Integrating,
whence = cx
i!og(l +2»)+log* = ei x^+y*
and log (1 + 2d) + 2 log * = c r and the solution is x* + y* = cy.
:. x»(l + 2v) = c.
Exercise 45.
Substituting *» (l + 2^) = c. Solve the following equations:
{x+y)dx+xdy = 0.
x* 4- Ixy = c.
1.
solution
(x +y)dx —xdy = 0.
.*. is
2.
3. (x+y)dx + (y-x)dy=0.
Example 2. Solve the equation 4. (x — 2y)dx +ydy = 0.
(x* — y*)dy = 2xydx. 5. (x»+y*)=2xy £.
d
Put y = vx
then dy = vdx + xdv.
Substituting 7. ty» — 2xy)rfx = (x» — 2xy)4y.
- v*x*)[vdx + xdv) = 2vx*dx. 8. x*dy +y*dx + xWy = 0.
9. y*dx + (x* — xy)dy = 0.
(x*
Dividing by x* 10. y*dx + (xy + x*)dy = 0.

11. (x - 2y)dy + xdx = 0.
(1 - v*)(vdx + xdv) = 2vdx
whence (1 — v*)xdv = v{l + v*)dx. 218. V. Exact differential equations.
Separating variables The equation Mdx -f- Ndy =
1 -» dx is called an exact differential equation, when it is formed
dv==
vJT+V*) i- from its complete primitive by simple differentiation.
by Thus, if the complete primitive be
:. partial fractions
fl 2v \ , dx
*• 4- 3x»y +f =c . . . . (A)
\v-T+7*} dv=
Then, on differentiation
x-
(3** +
0xy)dx + (3x* 4- 3y*)dy = (§ 198)
14& TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 347
This is an exact differential equation. Consequently Thus, in the example above
(1) (3x* +- Qxy) is the partial differential coefficient 5. and
ox
(3*» + 6xy)dx + (3x» + Zy*)dy =
8
(2) (3*» - 3y«) is the partial differential coefficient *\
py
£ (3*« + Qxy) 6x
The first is obtained by differentiating (A) with
and y constant, the second by differentiating with
* variable |(3x» + 3y)=6*.
y variable
and x constant. Hence the equation is exact.
In general the result is of the form
Bit ou 220. Solution of an exact differential equation.
n
+dy dy=0
, , ,
dx (§ 198)
ex The integral Mdx, i.e., M, integrated assuming x
J
Comparing with the form and Ndy
variable y constant, will contain those terms in
Mdx + Ndy = which contain x. Hence the following rule:
it is evident that M= *?
ox
(1) Integrate
J
Mdx, assuming y is constant.
(2) .. jSdy „ x
By Add the results, but the terms common to both are written
219. Test for an exact differential equation. down once only.
Thus in the above example

In 193 was shown that *",
§ it if ?£, be the first partial
differential coefficients, that of the second derivatives are J + 6xy)dx = x* + 3x*y
(3x*
8 e "\ B Bus
/(3**-f 3y')dy =3*^+/-
l j I
by\Bx) ™« o-xioy) Since 3**y occurs in each, it is written down once only.
.". the solution is
These are denoted by
Xs + 3x«y + f = c (see § 218)
an °
ByBx BxBy- 221. Integrating factors.
It was further shown that these are equal.
Equations which are not exact may often be made so by
Consequently, if the equation Mdx + Ndy = is an multiplying throughout by a suitable function of x and y.
exact differential equation
Such a factor is an integrating factor (see § 213).
It represents common factors which have been cancelled
out during the process by which the equation was obtained
the function
•. if M
be differentiated on the asumption from its primitive. This factor is not always easily
obtained. In some cases it may be found by inspection;
that y variable and x constant, and
is be differentiated W sometimes by the method of trial in others there are rules
with x variable and y constant ;
for obtaining it. The work in this chapter will be confined

the results are equal.
to the simpler cases only.
222. Worked examples. This is exact.
Example Solve (he differential equation
I.
{x+y)dx+ = 0. /2- dx = 2 log x = log x*

(x + 3y)dy
Applying the test of § 219, the second partial differential -dy = log y.
coefficient in each case is 1. /
.'. the equation is exact.
.'. the solution is
Applying the rule of § 220
log x* + log v = c 1
j [x + y)dx = \x* + xy or x*y — log c 1
or x y = = c.
!
]{x +3y)dy = xy + fy*
.'. the solution is Exercise 46.
fr* + xy + iy* = c, Solve the differential equations.
or x» +2xy + 3y* = c. 1. + (x + *y)dy = 0.
(* +y)dx
Example 2. Solve the differential equation 2. +y + \)dx + (x + 2y - \)dy = 0.
(2*
(6x* - IQxy + 3yl)dx 3. 2xdy +ydy = Zx*dx.
(- 5x* + 6xy - 3y*)dy
+ = 0. 4. (x* —y)dx + (x —y*)dy = 0.
5. (2xy -y* + 2x)dx + (x* — 2xy + 2y)dy = 0.
Testing
£- (6x* - lOxy + 3y*) = - 10* + fry

6. ydx — [x +y*)dy = (integrating factor -,.}
I (_ 5x* + 6xy - 3y«) = - 10* + Qy. 7. xdy —ydx = x*dx. (Integrating factor -j.)
Hence the equation is exact. 8. x{l -y>)dy +ydx = 0. v * '
Solving by method of § 220

9. (x* -y*)dx + xydy = 0.
10. [y* — x*)dy + 2xydx = 0.
/(6x»- lOxy + 3y*)dx = 2x> - 5x*y + 3xy*. 11. xdy +ydx = xy*dy.
j{-5x* + Qxy - 3y*)dy = - 5x*y 4- 3*y* - y*. INTEGRALS OF STANDARD FORMS AND
Writing down the common terms 3xy* and — 5x*y once OTHER USEFUL INTEGRALS
only the solution is
Algebraic functions.
2x» — 5x*y + 3xy» — y» = c.
I.
Example 3. Solve Hie differential equation (1) Jw* = s-iri *»+».

2ydx + xdy = 0.
Applying the test, it is seen that this is not an exact
equation. ,
®/f =log.*.
Multiply throughout by the integrating factor

xy
(3) la*dx = a' x log„ e.
Then -dx
x
+ y-dyJ = 0.
T (4) jfidx = C.
. 1
35o TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS STANDARD INTEGRALS 351
II. Trigonometric functions. V. Inverse hyperbolic functions.
(5)/ssin xdx = — cos x. (17)

J
,,| . = sinh- 1 - or log {x + Vxr+a i ).
/« sin axdx = cos ax.
(6)
1
I cos xdx = sin x.
(
a
(18) /rr^p = C08h"1 5 °r l0 6 {* + y - flt
>
cos axdx = a- sin ax.

I
+
i
/ tan xdx
I
/
= — log cos * = log sec x. "»>/,•-,. = a- tanh-

1 x
a
,11
- or h log -
2a
a
°a x
x
.
.
—
—
(7)
/ tan axdx = - log sec ax. «/»*» = 1
a
.. , x 1
coth- 1 -or it loc
a 2a
x --a
' x + a
.
.
——
(8) / cot xdx = log sin x.
log cot axdx = - log sin ax. (21) ( -T-f— = . --sech- 1 - or
J
--log{
III. Hyperbolic functions.
(22) (- r$L« = - - cosech- 1 -
x-vV -r ?
1
; a a
= cosh x. '
(9)
(10)
/
J
r
sinh xdx
cosh xdx = sinh x.

f
/
J
sinh axdx
1
= -a cosh ax. "Nl^)
—
tanh xdx =
s
cosh axdx = a- sinh ax. w»/vw? =J
ci n K-
sinh
(11)
J
/ log cosh x.
r
= ilog{6x + Vo'x» + a»).
tanh axdx = - log cosh ax.

•*•/*£=» "«-*•?
J
(12) / coth xdx = log sinh x.
f
I coth axdx — - log sinh ax.
1 1
r iog {ox + v^**1 - a*}.
IV. Inverse trigonometrical functions. = ; tanh- 1 —
- COS a +bx
(,4)
/v'^= Sin - ,
i
OT -1
5- =
2oa
1
,0g ~-*
a — bx'
rfx
(15)
/,a* + x»
itan-»
a
- or -I C ot' -. — — , coth- 1
I
a a a ba a
x 1 , x = 26a [0S ox
1 —a
cosec-1 -.
,
seer' - or br+~a
y xV x* — a* a a a a
ANSWERS
--i^ r
+v
,
rw '
}-
p.
1.
17.
- I, I, I, 17. 2<j« -
Exercise
4a+ 2(* + S.r)« -
^-"X.L+^.O.
1.
I.
4(* + 8x) + I.
««/;7»TW---i"""*- 7 2. 7.0. -6. a(a + 6).
-=*{ ~6i r
3.
4.
0.
9.
.. fc f
961. 9-0601, 9006001. 6001.
.
- 1.
Squares of the circular functions. 6. 1, 2. 8, 1414 . . .
6. 7. 0. - 11, - x* — Bx> + 3x + 7.
(23) / sin 1
xdx = \{x-\ sin 2x). 7. 3(< + S/)« + 5(1 + 80 - 1. 8. 2* . 8* + 2 . Sx + {8x)>.
cos* xo* = } (x + $ sin 2x). 9. (11 x* + 3x* . Sx + 3.r(8*)' + <S*)«.

(24) 3*» Sx + +
J (2) . 3.*(8.v)» (8*)».
(25) f tan* xax = tan x — x. (3) 3*1 + 3*(8*) 4- (8*)».

10. (1) 2*' + ihx 2A» + (2) ihx + 2A«.
(26)
J
cot 1 xax = - (cot x + x). (3) 4* + 2/i.
(27) j sec* xdx = tan* p. 31 Exercise 2.
a) 0: (A) values less than 1;

(28)
1
[ cosec xrfx = — cot x. 1.
e) 25. 2, 5, 10,
I, 1 -2, - I, - i -|;
.V; infinity
Other useful Integrals. «) the graph is a hyperbola similar to that of Fig. 3, but
the y axis is at x 1. =
jVa - xHx = ^ sin- ^ + \xVa* - x\
1 1
(29) 2. (a) 31. 301, 3-001, 3 000001; (6) 3,
3. (a) 5; lb) infinity.
21, 201;
(30) jVx*~=a* = \xVx* - a - ^ cosh- ^
1 1 4.
5.
(a)
1.
11, 5. 3, 2-6,
6. 2. 7. 3*'. 8. J.
(6) 2.
9. 4.
or |xVx» — a* — -g log +
, /-s , a* x T Vx*
,
X
— a*
- . . . p. 43. Exercise 3.
^
1. 1-6; 1-2.
- -
+ a*dx = ixVx* + a* + Jsinh-
^
(a) 2-5; 0-8; (c)
(31) [Vx* 1 2.
= 1-2* + 4.
(6)
^ 3. y
8s = 32/ X (80 +
fe
=
ixVx^+^+pog X + V
4. 16(8i)*; £ 32/+ 16(8/);
or . (1) 67-2; (2) 65-6; w (3) 64-16;
(4) 64016; 64 ft. per sec.
(32) sec xdx = log tan g + 1) 6. 6.

= + 3*(8*)« + (Sx)*
J 6. Sy 3*«(8.r)
or log (sec x + tan x). Sy

¥ =. 3*»- + 3*18*) + IS*)'; 12.
8*
(33)
f
cosec xox = log tan =. 7. Sy
8* Sy
x*+x&x' Sx x'+xJtx'
1
gradient = — 1
slope = 135'.
(34) | log xdx = x(logx-l). 8. (1) 2; (2) 2. 9. (1) 12; (2) 8.
M <CAI_) 353
35* TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS ANSWERS 355
p. 56. Exercise 4. 65. Exercise 7.
1. 7*»; 6; J; 000; f**; 60**; 4*»; 4-5*»; 32*. - 6
1. 2.
2. 4&*»; ^; apx>- 1 ; 2o*«-»; 2(26 + !)**»; 8n*. f2*-=-rp- (1 - 3*')*
2
3. 6; 054; - 3; p. +1
3.
(* + 2)*'
•!.
(x + 2)>"
|*»; 1*»; A**; **•;
6' S<M^
4. J*';
n+ 1* 2a +V 6.
(2*^+3)*-
6. a. 6. 20*. 7. 2w. 8. 4nr».
9.
«. « . 2 .
«; 2
-
7.
26 o *» - 8*
2\/*' *" 8^5' *Vi-
2*«' IT? Bp
.. 0-4. 16. 16. -24. p 9.
8*— 10.
1 —*
'
(inri).-
X* ' X** 1 2\rV{* + l) 1
192**'; -J. 203 _ i£ 12 - 40

11.
*- 1
12.
11. 13. 1-6; 0. '
2*« V?(Vi - 1)'"
14. 24. 15. - 002, - 0-5, -2.-8. 16. - ?•

2
13.
6*'
14.
- 2*» + 2
(*'-* + r
18. * - 4=- 19. * = -fg.
20. * = J. 5*' - 10*
l)
V? 15.
(3*» + *-!?' "•"Ti-
p. 60. Exercise 5. 4*>(2a« -*»)
17.
1. 12* + 6. 2. 9*« + 1. 3. 16** + 6* - I. (a»-*»)« *
*»- 4* + 2 "ir-fe+J^
4. x + ",. 19.
,1 _ 4* + 4
- 20.
7. 6 — 2* + Ox*. 8.4. 9. «+/<. Exercise

P- 71. 8.
10. 5 + 32*. 11. 0/ - 4. 12. 3o*«+26*+«. 1. 4(2* + 6) ; - 20(1 - 5*)«; (3* + 7)M.
13.2*-*.
2
2.
(rip -w-»*yrh
— -J- + !
16.
18.
2n*»-
3;*-
1
».
2nx. 17
1
19. * =+
2Vi 3^-
2 or
yî **" 3. 10*(*'-4)«; -3*Vl^T';
- 2* .1-2*'
n$_f
2. ix
20. 2, - 1, 2. 21. * — + 1 or * —— 1.
4.
(1 - 2*ip'
vr^"^** Vi-*1
'
p. 62. Exercise 6. 1 1 2
6.
12* + 5. 2. §*« + 2* + J. 9*' + 2* - J4^*)«' 2(4-*)«' (4-*)«-
1.
4. 8*» + 10*. 6. I2*» + 33** - 8*.
3.
6. 3*«.
10.
6.
- 2* -* 1
7. 3*«. 8. 4*» + 12*' + 6* — 8. 9. 4*». (*' ~ 1)" "(**-l)«' (1 +«•)»'
10. 4*» - 2* + 2. 11. 3*». 12. 24*» + 6*« — 22* — 3. * 1 - 1
13. 4**.
15. (2o* + &)(/>* + q) + p(ax' +
14. 18*'
bx + c).
+ 26* +9. 7.
(l -*•)"'
1 —*—
VW *' .
1 -*)*>'
2*
(1 + *)«(i - *)»'
* —
8.
16 - ** + *+« +
2* +» + 2 V*(*» (l+*)Vl-*»' 3(*« + 1)1" *•
Va , + *t '
(a* + *•)«"
-
S^*
ZVX + Vx(2x -
1)
+ *~ *.
1)(2* 1). 10. _ if - 4«*(1 - 2*»)-». T
17. ZVHV* + 2)(V'x - + x{2Vx + 1) 1). 2Vl-x + x* v '
356 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS ANSWERS 357
f3) Max. value 12. * = 0; min. value — 20, * = 4.
(a' - *•)» (4) Max. value 41, * = — 2; min. value 9j, * = J.

- 3** - (l +x) - (5) Max. value 2, * = 3; min. value - 2, * *= 1.
1
12. 13. 6. Max. value 4, * = 0; min. value 0. * = 2.
2(1 + *»)»' »Vl + 2* (i + *«)» ' * Vi + &' 6. Max. value — 4. * = — \ min. value 4, * = J.
- \x+ 3 . 4* - r..'
7. 6. 6. 8. 5-29.
;
9. height = diameter.
14.
2(2*' -8* +~4)»' 2\/l - * 10. 2-52 ft. ; depth 126 ft. 1 1 s = 3 + 4-8< - 1-6*' 6-6. ;
1 12. 4-5. 13. 4-42 in. (approx.).

15.
.
3(*+J)3' 1-5 ft. deep. 0-6

(1 - x)Vl - »*' v'2* t
14.
= _
ft. broad.
= = -
16.
- 6* - 7y
- 17.
2*(*' + y«) - x 15.
16.
,li
Max.
*
— +
3.
0-385;
(2) *
min. = —
2.
0-385; gradient = —
(3) * \.
L
Ix + 18v 2v(*» + y») + y —
17. * 0. 18. 225 ft. 32 sees. ;
*'-;y 19. 19. Centre of beam.
18. -
y*-x-
20.
<*>
= - 2* + 3
= i at (1. 1).
108. Exercise II.
d* 2y -t- 4
1. 3 cos *. 2. 3 cos 3*.
p. 76. Exercise 9. 3. — \ sin

r 4. i«ec.»i
1. *(3*- 2); 2(3*- 1); 6. 5. 0-6 sec 0-6* tan 06*. 6. — J cosec -„ cot .
2 2bx»- 1 26(26 -
l)*"*»; 26(26 1)(26 - - 2)***-'. fi
3 20*» -
;
9** ix + 60*' -
18* + 4; - 120* - 18. 7. 2(cos 2* sin 2*). — 8. 3(cos 3* + sin 3*).
4 60*« - 12* 1 +
1
6; 200*» 24*; 600*'

;
- - 24. 9. sec *(tan * -+ sec *). 10. 4 cos 4* — 5 sin 5*.

6 J_ ._
6 '2*»'
1 .3 11. — \ sin j8 + J cos J9. 12. 2 cos (2* + J.
*v 4*'' 8*''
-1 13. sin (3rc *). — 14. \ cosec (a \x) cot (a— — J*).
,
7 _! - . j_ 15. 3 sin' * cos *. 16. 3*' cos **.
-
V2* + 1' V/ (2* +TP" V^2* + EJ*" 17. — 6 cos* (2*) sin (2*). 18. 2* sec (*») tan (*•).
2.6. 24 - sec'^/l -
B
8 " ~ *»' **' *•• 19.
*)
20. n(a cos n* — 6 sin nx).
(- 1)'
2 \/\ - x
1
°' 2" {(« " sn +
*)" (a + ?p*j* 21. a sin *. 22. sec'*.
10. — 6; the lowest point on the curve. 23. - 2 sin (2*+ iy 24. 2 sec* 2* — 2 tan * sec* *.
ll! — 7; 2; and Y- 25. 2* + i cos \x. 26. "sin".
12 * = 3, * = 2; 2 6'— 026 (the lowest point on the curve). ** *
.„ sin * — * cos *
Exercise 10.
27. sin * + * cos *.
sin' *
100.
tan * — * sec* *
1.
dl = 2* - 2 ; - 4, - 2. 0. 2. 4; * 1 ; , is positive 29. * sec' *
* sec^— '"tan*
+ tan *. ,n
30 -
_
tan'* -
""point is a minimum. 31. 32. 2 cos 2* + 8* cos (2*)'.
*'
j.
dy
"-'
= 3 2*; 3, 1, —1, 3; l 5; negative; maximum. — — -
33. — 6* cos* (*') sin (**). 34. 2* tan * 4- *' sec' *.
dx
= = 35. — 6 cosec* (5* + 36. — 6 cot 3* cosec' 3*.
J; maximum.
1).
3. (1) * i; minimum. (2) *
(3) x
=
— 2; minimum. (4) * J; minimum. = — 37.
sin x
38. 2(cos« 2* — sin' 2*).
4. (1) Min. value 16, * —
2; max. value 4- 16, * - 2. = 2\/cos *'
(2) Max. value 6, * 1 min. value 4, * 2. = ; = 39. 0. 40. 4 sin * cos *.

S58 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS ANSWERS S59
sin .t 2 sin x 10. (a) i; jVr+ôsec *.
41. 42. (6)
(1 + cos *$*" (T+cosi)*
-
43.
sin * — 2* cos x
44. 2*( cos 2* — * sin 2*). »-"#&=* 2\/?(l + *)"
2 V*
sin ** - 1
._
*6-
2*(cos 2* +
x sin 2*)
'" 46. sin x + cos x.
12- (»)
rip; (6)
VI - *•"
5*
roe*
cos* 2* - 2
2 sin* + * cos x ta sia x cos *(2 4- sin
- x) 13 - {a) : (6)
47.
2Vsfii*
"•
(1 + sin *)*-
Va-^,'
sec* * 14. (a) pip! r7=
49. 60. sec *(2 sec' * — cosec* *).
(»)
vT^r
p.
(1
116.
- tan *)»•
Exercise 12.
15. (a) /(*) = tan-* + 1^^: (*) sec' * sin- * +
^^ tan*
1. Max., * ;min..*=- 7t
. 2. Max., x = 4'
p. 136. Exercise 14.
6 6
3. Max., * = -„. 4. Max., x = ii
1. (a) 6eB*. (6) |A
4'
= tan-1 2. Max., x =
-
1 2. (a) - 2e-«\ (b) -*"' (e) - 2«»-»
6. Max., x 6. ^ or sin" J.
-/>«-". J<*
Max. 1"6V3 when * = jit; min. — 16\/3 when * = Jn. 3. (a) (6) (e) a*"*».
7.
8. Max. when sin * -f V j ; min. when * = — Vj" «• — «-•

(c) 2*<f\
1, when x =
4. (a)
9. 33° 42' (approx.). 10. Min. 2
g.
6. (a) (* + l)C. lb) (1 -
*)*-. C ) «r-(| ;
*). -
p. 123. Exercise 13. 6. (a) ««(* + 6). (&) e*(sin* +cos*). (c) lOe*.
... 2 X 10* cos* x e"".
L (a) (b) 7. (a) 2* log. 2. (6) • (c)
Vl - 16*'' -0-4343
- 8. (a) *»-»a"(rt * log a),+ {b) 2au * 1 \oga.
2- W 77^=1:
Va* — *"
(»)
Vo - x*'
(c) — sin * e°°". .
a 9. la) 2fc*a
ta *
log a. (b) (o + by log (a + b).
3. (a)
- 4*
(t)
irfep (e) a'-'sec 1
i.
*.
(b)
2a* + b
10. (a)
ax* + bx + «"
*. (*)/»- sin-' * +
Vi *_^ ; pi-
' 11. (a)
J. » *^
12. (a) 1 + log *.
13. (a) cot*. (6) — tan *.
7- («) *l * +
+ 2— 2:
(6) 2*tan-»*+l. * « a^'
i (6)
8. (a)
2(2 - *)Vl - *' 2uT^)-
?!i?*_-_i}
»• (a) ! ® svhr sin * w 2*1
*V25*»- 1
j6o TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS ANSWERS S«'
17. <«) 2*«*"(1 + 2*). [b) — ake - ** (sin ft* — cos ft*).
- 11. (a) sech*. (6) sec,.
e~l2a* 1)
18. " (6) cot x.
(«)
*-(l
2*«
+ log*).
' J
12. (a) — !—
+
(u
Vi +
2
,
3" IC)
+ 2)-
sV«* -1"
19. (a) (b) V2x'(ix i) *(*
20. («)
r+>
1
(6) cos* (1 + log sin *). » 3 - w rr*»- (6) isecx - (c) 1 sech *.
Va_ * + V*1 + Vx> -

21. M Vila - *)'
(6)
«* sin *(2 cos * + a sin *). 14. (a)log{*±yf + *}. «, ,„„ /*
(».og{<
1
}•
a'" log a.
22. (") <&x .
1 r*
«> *{* + v*r+ »}. (.) IO
g{
3*
+ vê?}.
23. (a)
*\?f^~(I6g~*)«" \/l
W - *"
24. e"\a cos (6* c) 6 sin (bx c)}. + — +
(6) — <**{a cos 3* + 3 sin 3*}. 16. (a) -; /+ o» .. (6) 7 (e)
"
V**
l '
Vx^â*
. y
' a'
,
- x*
,.
- ,-«-{l sin («, + - cos (« +

to
—
J ic
*) }.
160. Exercise 16.
a p.
25. (")
*V a ^**'
7 ,= w ^;-,- In order to save space the constant of integration is not
26. (o) a'e-, a'e", o 4«~, a"***. shown in the following answers after the first twelve.
o»<-", a»e—• , a*e - — , (— l)-a"e— 1. 9*' +
C. 2. $*» + C. 3. \x* + C.
1 1x2 ~ 1 X 2 x 3 (- I)*'* l«- I 4. 0-08 *« + C. 5. ix* + C. 6. 6r» + C.
(«) " *»• ~x*~ ' X' 7. J* + C. 8. 6 + C. 9. A*» - J*« + * + C.
10. |*» - 6 *' + C. 11. g*» - J,» + C
12. \x* + ix* + C. 13. ix* - 9*. 14. |*» + S*»- 12*.
1. (a) \ cosh . (6) 2 cosh 2*. (e) J sinh ^. 15. - 1

16. - 1
17. -
2 0-4*04
'
*
2. (a) a sech* ax. (b) J sech*;. 18. |*». 19. Vx. 20. j*«. .
H a (cosh ax + sinh ax).

21. §*• + 2*». 22. «*« + * + 3**. 23. - ^.
3. (a) — **i cosh -. (6) sinh 2*. (c) 3 cosh* * sinh *.
* ^* - 10*°'. 26. - + + log*-*.
4. «») a cosh {ax b). + M 4* sinh 2**.
24. 25. gt.
^ 1
J
;
M na sinh" -1 ax cosh ax. 27. it*. 28. * - J*' - *. 29. 1-4 log*.
g~
(a) cosh 2*. (6) 2 sinh 2*. (c) 2 tanh * sech* *.
6.
2
30. log (* + 3). 31. hog (a* + 6). 32. log
Jj|.
* cosh tanh *.
-
6. (a) .
sinh 2x
, „ . (6)'
'
*. (c)
33. log (*• + 4). 34. - 4 log (3 2*). 35. * + 3 log *.
7. (a) Zx* sinh 3* + 3** cosh 3*. (6) 1.
- log*+'-' 2
w cosh *e ,lnl". 36. i*« 7 log ». 37. 2*»'
38.
,
3a'
(a* + 6)«.
""fr* 2. (e) sech" *«•*">'•. 2

8. (a)
2Vsinh*
(6)
39. J(2* + 3)». 41. Va* +T.
1 ~, 2
9. (a)
V*T +~i"
(C) - 8VT^"#. ^(a* + M + 3 + ^+-
1'+^ + 5'
,
44
fl + *)V2(1 + *') 42. 43. 6)'.
'
2 4
10. (a) sec*. (6) sech*. (c) sec *. 45. J log (*•
- 1). 46. — log (1 + cos a*).
3 6i TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS ANSWERS 3*3
47. J log (e* + 6). 48. i log (2* + sin 2*). 4. (a)
1
cosh" ^ or log {* + V*' — 16).
49. y =
ix* + C,x + C,. 60. y = 2*» + 3.
61. y J*. + 2* - y. 62. y = 2x* — &x + 6. (6) -icoth-'|orJlog^.
63. y 3*» - 6*« + 4* + 4. 64. s = J<* + 8< + 10. 6. (o) sinh" 1 ^ or log {* + V*' + 16). (6) J tan-' f •
164. Exercise 17. 6. (a) i8in->^.

2. !«**->.
1.
(6) j cosh" 1 ~ or J log (3* + V 9*» - 26).
/
3. i(e«* -*-«*) + 2x. 4. (!('• .
3T
(e) 1 sinh"
1 or J log (3* + y/9x* + 26).
6. 6.
1
*(*- + *—). g
7. J(«" + a u log. *). 8. 2'1or, «.

7. (a) J
".
-.?*
tan- (b)
J tanh- S or ^ log |±*
& — 4X
9. J10>Mog 10 «. 10. (a* - a-*)log.«. 9x_1 2*
11. 12. -«<"•. (c) -Jcoth-JorAlog—TS-
13. — j cos 3*. 14. I sin 5.r.
15. — 2 cos + 3- 16. isin (2* + a).

8. (a) J tan- ^. (6) J sinh"' ^ or | log {3* + V«*» + 4).
• (-
17. — 3 cos Ix. 18. J cos (a
— 3x).
(e) J cosh- y + Vft** - *)•
or i log {3*
19.
1
—
°
sm ax
•
— 5
1 i
i cos a*. 20. — g cos 2a*. 9. (a) } sinh" 1 If or * log {7* + -JiVx + 25). 1
* 6
21.
23.
!sin 3*
sin *.
-f-
3 cos =.
J
22. log (*
24. «>"•.
+ sin *),
10.
(6)
sin-
1
^= sinh"' vl - * or ^
j
log {x \/2
in '
+ V2*1 + 5).
25. log sec ax + log sin bx. 26. log (1 sin*
(a) (6) J sin
.
-f- a-).
V5 2* V?
27. J sinh 2*. 28. | cosh**. 11. (a) 1
i sinh" -^g or J log {2* + -/fi + 4^').
29. J log cosh 3*. 30. {sin (a — 6*) — cos {a + bx)).
* • b (b) J tanh-??.
31. |<.» + ie' — it" 32. | log sec
30*
33. 3 tan?. 34. log (1 +
J.
«)•
12. (a)
^7= sinh"
1
or
^j log (y/7* + V 7*' + 36).
(6) - cosech- * or - log jl±^L±£-'l.
36. log(l + tan*). 36. |(sin*)'.
"•
13. (a) isec-f
168. Exercise 18. (6) - » cosech" 1 or - J
log
_+^T4}.
2
f j
(a) sin- * (6) cosh-' ? or log {* + V*1"^ 9). 14. (a) - J sech-
1
or - | log t*±S@EBl.
J
sinh- 1 + V** + 9). (6) cosh- ? + sec- ?
(e)
1 or log {* J
172. Exercise
(a) J tan- j. (6) J tanh- | or | log |±£ p. 19.
(c) -icoth-«| or ilog—J 1. J(*-sin*). 2. J(* + sin*).

8. (a) sin" (W tanh- or J log
3. 2tan?-*. 4. J jy +sin2* + Jsin 4*1.
4" J
J J-±-*.
364 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS ANSWERS 365
6. i
/?? — sin 2* + J sin 4*1 6. -(\ cot 2* + x). 26. J tan"' U tan |Y 26. } tan" 1 (2 tan *)
7. J* — J sin 4*. 8. J* + A sin 6*.
9. \x +
1
/„ sin 2(ax + b). 10. - jcos*+ A cos 3*. 27. itanh-'(tan*,).
4a'
11. tS sin 3* +
} sin *. 12. J(sin x — i sin 5*).
13. i(sin 2* + i sin 4*). 14. — i(cos 2* + J cos 6*).
p. 187.
10. - ^TTcos -g + icos
2 J.
. fcos (a b)x +
cos (a 6)*1 ,
— 1. J sin*'. 2. ilog
1 _ 2 tl (Algebra,
_
. p. 211.)
16. -*\ a + b +--a"-^5- J" 3. VV+ **. 4. - jVZ- 6*.
17. -
J cos 20.
18. Hx - i sin 4*).
6.-2 cos y/x. 6. JV1 + '*.
19. tan x —
cot *. 20. 2 tan x x. —
21. J tan 1 *-
log sec*. 22. li sin' 2* -A
* + Jsin 4*). - 7. J log
1 -t- 2 cos *"
8. J (log*)'.
23. 2\/2 sin

*
24. tan * + i tan* *.
9. i(6 + *•)«. 10. tan-'*'.
4
2 11. h(x - 2)»(6* + 2). 12. log (* +
+ 2( ;-±^.
i)
183. Exercise 20.

P- 13. i(* -f 2)V*~Î. 14. A(3* + 2)(* - 1|<.
fV9 - * *V25 — *' - V5 - *'. i(*« + 2)V*' - 1.

V Sin" 5+- 2 ~-
o .. •
i .
15. 16.
1. J sin'* + 2.
17. A(*~ 2)»(2* + 3).
|(2*» + 3*' + 6* - 11) + log (* - 1).
4. J Sin- 5 +
f VT-
"**' 18.
g VT-
i sin
-' 2* + I* 1
A(3*« + 4)(*« - 2),. 20. 2(V* + 3 log (V* - 3)).
3. .
19.
6. 21. 2{J* - V* + log (V* + 1)>.
X
6. 1*v*.--25- V iog* + ^;- 25
.
22.
2{ ^*-t + ^*-log(Vx-+l)}.
+ 49 + V si *" 1 * 8 i*V*' T6 + jsinh-' ^g.

23. J cos' *
— i cos' *. 24. i sin' * — f cos* * + sin'*.
7. J*V*' -
Vb !(*• - 3)(*« + 1)1. 26. i; - - 2).

25.
\ + J log («*
9. I sinh-' j + i*%/26*' + 16. .
? x v —
-V
**
10. J.rV**
.
- 3 - | cosh- » ^ . 1 1 .
1
3
27. A
-
(1 +
-
2*")«(3*» - 1). 28. -
12. i*Vl + ** - i sinh-' * 13. sinh
-1
* — Vi + 29.
(1
3i»
*')'
30. |(1 + log*)'.
* •
14. 16. — sin" 1

x.
a'* '
vr^r 193. Exercise 22.
T* formula. Trigonometry, 83). 1. sin * — * cos *. 2. J sin 3* — 3* cos 3*.
16
vs\ (see §
3. (** — 2) sin * + 2* cos *. ,_i
17. 2 log tan*. 18. 2 log tan g + 4. *(*• — 6) sin * + 3(*' — 2) cos *. 5. (!og * — J).
J) 2
3*
20. log tan *. 6. ^(log*-*. 7.
£ (log* -J).
19. J log tan
21. tan^
*
22. tan * — sec *. 8. |*» (log x _ |). 9. **(* - 1).
1
10. *•(*'- 2* + 2). n. _.-(«?+!).
23. tan * + sec *. 24. log
p_ sin*
3 66 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS ANSWERS 36?
12. J«»(cos 2* + 2 sin 2*). 13. * cos-> * — Vl —
x*. 3. - j log* + § log (* - 1) - J log (* 2). +
14. *ton->*- Jlog(l -f *»). 15. J(*« +
1) tan-'* —}*. 4. i log (* - 1) + i log (* - + A + 3). 2) log (*
16. J** (sin* —
cos*). 17. J** —
J* sin 2x —
i cos 2*. - A log (* + 2) + ft log (* - 3) - -^ - 7
18. — J* cos 2* +
} sin 2*. 19. * tan * —
log sec x. 6.
zy
20. * cosh * — sinh x. 21. £shv'* +
*'
Vl — *'.
6- - 2 j~r: + Jflog (* - 1) - log (* + 1)}.
1}
I
7. -log* + 21og(*-l)- 4- -- -L_i
22. £ {(log*)'- J log * + J)}. i 1 r (_
.
8. log * - J log (** + 1).

Exercise 23. 9. iJlog (* - 2) - i log (*« + 1)} _ | ton"' *.
195. *
* - 2 log (* + 2). 2. - {* + log (1 - *)}.
10. Aflog (*• + 4) - 2 log (* + 1)} + i tan->
p{a + bx - olog (a + 6*)}. 4. * + 2 log (* - 1). 11. + 4) - 2 log (1 - *)) - i ton-' J
ftflog (*•
— * -f 2 log (* + 1). 6. * — 2 log (2* + 3). 12. (*+!)+ log (* - 1) - log (*• + 1)) +
J (log
"*.
!*• - 2* + 4 log (* + 2). 8. - * - ix* - log (1 - *). 13. log (* + 1)) + 4 tan-» *.
i(log(*- 1) -lo
i{^ + * + ilog(3*-l)}. 14. fog * + 2 ton" 1 *.
209. Exercise 26.

£ {|(a + M* - 2a(a + 6*) + a' log (a + 6*)}.
p.
10.
11. 3<i*»-*» + 4* - 8 log (* + 2)}. 2.

1
h6 ^-n-vn
12. J** + i** + * + log (* - 1). 2Vl3 (* + 3) + Vl3'
4.-Lton-x?l±i '
;>. 200. Exercise 24. Vl3 Vl3

Lftkf£^ 2. J log {-±^. 5. - J log (3*« + 4* + 2) + A ton"' ?5_+. 2 .
x — 2 2*- 3
i
4, - Aiilo8 2T+-3-
6. 3 log (* + 2) - 2 log (* + 4).
2 log (* + 3) + log \x - 2). 7.. log (*» + 4* + 5) + ton"' (* + 2).
-
6.
7. log [2* + 6) + 3 log (* - 7).
flogfc*- 1)- A log (3* + 2).
og
-
(* + 1) - i log (*»-* +
+
1) +—
1
^rr:
.
tan-'
tan
, 2x
-_. 1
8.
3 log (* + 1) - } log (4* - 1). 10. log (1 - *) + 2 9. * 2 log (*» + 2* + 2) 3 ton- 1 (* + 1).
0. j-^-j.
10. - I log (1
- 2* - *•) +2^2 log
11. 2 log (* ++ JjLj
2) 12. J log (2* + 3) 4-^-^. ffijjtg .
13. * + 2 log (x - 4) - log (* + 3). 11. ilog(3*. + * + 3) + -|f ton-.«î.

* + i log (* - 2) - i log (* +
3 r5
14. 1).
*• + 2 log (* + 2) - log (* - 3). + + (**-*+!) + fcjl.
15. 12. ! log (* 1) J log tan-'
16. J*» - 2x + 2 log (* + - log (* - 1) 1).
_Ja
203. Exercise 25. p. 213. Exercise 27.

1. - log * + i log (* + 1) + J log (* - 1). 1. sinh"' (* + 3) or log ((* + 3) + V** + 6* + 10).
+ 2)-log*>- i.
2. *{log(* 2. sinh-'^p «• log ((* + + VFT^Tl}.
1)
368 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS ANSWERS 3*9
* —2
3. cosh 1
: /7) or log l(x - 2) + Vx*
,
- 4* + 2).
.
V2 - 1
4.sin l2 *+ l
. 6.
i
5
„^.«1 St
cosh" —— a . ''
3"'
n + 1 ' 2.
4J. 3. 1J.
4. 9. 6. 2925. 6. V.
6. sm-> j-. 7. V*» + 1. 7. V. 8. i- 9. 0.
- 10. 11.(approx.).216
8. V** + + 1 sinh- 1 *. 9. V** 1 + cosh" 1 *.
12. 2(« - 1) = 3-436 (approx.). 13. Jw«.
2
10. v'«r=r* + 1 + i sinh* *-/|-^ -£-'. -
14. 15.
J^ .*,. ,6.
}
11. 2V* 1 — 2* + 6 — sinh 1 *-"" !
.
17. log V2. 18. 1. 19. - J.
2
— 8V» — 4* — *•, 20. -J. 81. "-I. 22. £ - J log 2.
12. — 3 sin- 1
*-t-
V7 o, , i
24. f (7v"7 - 8). 25. «,»•
13. 2v/*' + * + 1 + 2 sinh- 1 — 26. 4 - 2 log 3. 27. £. 28. ;-.
4a
-~l + * "tJ. *
14 V* + 1 2* cosh" 1
29. 30. 1. 31. log (2 + V3).
*
32. -9379. 33. 5— 3S
1, 34. 1 -
p. 215. Exercise 28. 35. sin" 1 J — sin" 1 J. 36. n. 37. - tig.
1. Vx* = 4 + 2 cosh- 1 \. 2. iV4x* -9 + J cosh-'

2
„\
\/*(* + - cosh- 1 **-±-3
3. 3) | .
Note. —
The omission of an answer indicates that no finite
value of the integral exists.
6. J*« — t*\/** — + 1 1
i cosh" *.
2. k- 3.
j- 4. J log 3. 6. 1.
6. 'sinn- *,+
VlO *
l °.
-"•(^ 2
)-
7.
13. K,
J. 9.
14.
1
-
— log 2. 10. log 2 — J. 12.
*
-
-cosh-( 2* +1
J. 16. 2. 17. 1.
8. ). -sin-'j-J-*
9. 1. 18. 2. 20. 0.
~ n M*+ UV2J
-—I.
f^*^
-
10. -cosech-* or log *}

vr+~it _ - Vi + *»
ii. vr+~V" + log 12. 1. 152J. 2. 36}. 3. 4047 (approx.).
4. \. 25 6. 6. 4n.
+ vr+x') - ^±f x \ 7. 6- 199 and 3-628 (both approx.).

13. log (x 8. I2n.
9. 4-982. 10. 4 log 2. 11. A.
14. fcrVF-M* - 1 logj* + Vl + V). ^^+-2 _ 12. e* - 1. 13. 4|. 14. 555.
15. - j(x + 2)Vl 16. log ^—-j-j.
1
15. f — log 2.
yw + i - 16. Between — 2 and 0. area = 5 J ; between and 3 area = 151.

17. log 17. 34 H. 18. 19. 2-3504.
Vx + 1 + 1'
20. 40. 21.
J.
&.
.
37° TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS ANSWERS 371
p. 265. Exercise 32. p. 299. Exercise 37.

3na> . 135n
1.
2 •
2. |ira»; 4. 3. Ja«; 2.
'" "16 • 2. 2iti\/2 + log (V2 + 1)}.
4a* 208* 12Tia«

4. 5. , (for the integral see Example 19). ,
3 •1. 6. 2rcrA.
597t
3 •
-
TT*
.
6. ^(Viooo- i).

0-637 (approx.). OS. 0-256.
<
1. 2. 3.
6.
4 1. x= !6; y = 0. 2. * = 3; = j\/io.
4- I-
r.Vi 3. *
J ! v *• 4. x = 8; y =
2v
7.* 8.
'.
6. q from the centre along the middle radius.
p. 272. Exercise 34. 7. — from centre along radius at right angles to diameter.
2r 2r _ , r sin a
1. 260 sq. ins. 2. 6-24 sq. ins. 3. 60-7 sq. ins. 8. x = --; y = . 9. f .
4. 1426 sq. ins. 6. 73-5 sq. units. re a

4a ib
10. JA. 11. x y
Exercise 35. 3n' 3n'
p. 280.
* =
b-a k*(b -a)
1. V5 + i log (2 + V5). 2. 2\/5 + log (2 + V^5).
12.
log 6 — log a
; V 2 a& (Tog b —
logo}"
13. x = 2-5; y = 0. 14. \b from 0.
3. W.
V6-1
(V6-V2)+log^^_
M(H>
6.
7. 2rta. 8. 6-la.
|MP; |Mo*. 3. IMA
^
1. 2.
0. a{(VE- V2) + log (1 + V2) - 1

log -J
6 V3
}. 4. UCP. 6. (1) iMA'; (2) |jtfi*.
6. A.Mr«. 7. JMr«. 8. J.Wa".
9. ?A/6*. 10. \Mr*\ rV\.
243 * 2
1
i. w, s
5
-; (6) 8ji. 2- (a)
-f«: (6)
'J*. 1. i,MaK 2. \Ma\
3. -|«
3. (1) &Ma\ (2) rVMa»; (3) \
9
tMaK
(2)
r 4. {Ma'. 5. ^("3' + £)• 6. |Jlfo>.
384«
_ 64*
6.-3-. 6. 32te. 7. fica'. 8 -— 7. |Afa«. 8. &M(r» + 4A»). 9. iM(a» + 6«).
7
3? 96* a'6*
11. 12.
5
' 10. (1) V«6*: (2) i/î: (3) V«6(a» + &«).
*
57* TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS ANSWERS 373
Exercise 41. *• ** x* x* 3*'

P- 327. + + +
12 '
2 + 12 + 45
13 - * 6 + 40
1. yx'~ x **log ; *.
T« X*
2. - 1x sin (*• + y*) ; — 2y sin (*• + y»). 14. -( '+2 +
,
+ 5 + ...).
* 3
1
3. ^ **
4.
x*
3*«
+
+
y»'
6xy +
x*
6y«
+
;
y*'
3*« + 12*y + 6y».
15 *+l s + :«
*'
+ -7 + '--
6.
1 .
0.
y
+y f
16. » + *+ " Tg "-
Vy* - **' yvV -
lax
**' xi x>~+y*-
xdy ,- •,,.+",*,*•_
:3
A
a yd* - ,7.
y
.
7. i- ~ 9.
y*
. .
y
10. 2[ax + by)dx + 2(6* 4- cy)dy. 11.
y dx + log xdy. p. 339. Exercise 43.
12. {2xy + y*)dx + (*» + Zxy')dy. 13. e*[ydx + xdy).

=
14. a*«» (log "dx + dy). 15. 040 (approx.). I. y - J+ 2. y 3. y car.
(1 + y)(l -
k
16. dV = dt- 'dp. 17. Each equals 6**. 4. *)
— 2x; — 150tt8 cu. ins. per sec. 6. sec x = c sec y. 7. *• + y* — *y = 0.

18. 4y. 19.
8. (1 + y*)d **) + = «'• 9. log x*y — y = e.
334. Exercise 42. 10. ;

1
.
"?*?
-y «= e tan *. 11. (1 + y')(l + **) -ex*.
(a) sin a + * cos a — x*
-g sin a
.
— x*
cos a + 12. y = *•**•. 13. V** ^n - Vy* — 1 — ».
1. T .
. . .
rl v* v*
X*
14. + log*-£-$- 15. y — c«
(b) cos a — * sin a — ~X*
_ cos a + -„ sin a + 2
*y -
. . .
3 16.
,( l+4+ '; + .'; + ...).

Exercise 44.
342.
V xh* - 3*'
+ r+ j, - (J + ;t)l - M +#IJ»
1 h*
+
,
p.
+ =
tan- * •
3
- •
l. y + l cx>. 2. x
x* 2xy o.
* - 1*' + »*• - =
*• *• *•
• •
3. y x + 1 + «•. 4. y ca * +L
1" g + S " 6 + + n COS 2" •
=
x + ix* + ,V +
6 -'
a+l+"~"
v .
6. y sec * = log (sec * + tan *) + c.
log 2 + J* + ix' - = + —
192 7. y ex* + - a
8. y 1 e sin x.
10. y « j-£_ - 1 4
1
8. 1 + x log a +
x>
- _(Joga)«
**_(log «)• 9. ye* =x+ e.
:;
ft**» ft'*» 11. y = tan* — 1 + ce" 12. xy 4- log x e.

J. 1 - A* + +
10. 1
+*+T-8+--- 1. x> + 2xy = o. 2. y = x(l°g * + ")•
*' 0U 5
+ I* + g + ^ +
'
11. 11 J.*" 4. J. 4.
• • 3. log Vi« + V- - tan- ? = c. 4. -£-
x —
= log^—-,
y
1 1 1
374 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS CIRCULAR MEASURE OF ANGLES

6. ** — y = ex.
%
e.
' - J
= *.
Ridnns 6 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54
7. xy(x — y) = e. 8. xy* = e(* + 2y). 1
0* ooooo •00175 00349 00514 -00698 00873 01047 •OI333 •01396 •01571
I
0. « at ce*. 10. *y» c(x + 2y). l*
9°
o'745 -oioio •01094 03309 01443 02618 "01793 •01067 •03141 'OJJ'6|
-05061
11. *» + 3*«y — 4y« 8°
-03491
05136
03665
•054"
03840!
05585
04014
•05760
04189
05934
-04363!
•06'OQJ
04538
•06183
-04711]
-06458
TJ48S7
-06631 06807]
V 06981 x>7'5* •07330 ^7505 07679I 07854 0&039 -08103 •0837! 085JI
p. 349. Exercise 46. 6' 08737 •08001 -09076 09150 -^94*5 -59599 «9774 -00948] -iot*3 io*97
e* 10473 10647 10811 10006 11170 11345 H5'9 -11694 11862 1»43
1. x* + 2xy + 4>' = c. 2. x% + xy +y*+ x-y. ». 7* mv, 13391 1566 1374 13915 13090 13*65 3439| •36'< 13788
3. 2*y — x* = «. 4. ** + y* — Zxy = c B" 59*3 14137 U3'i 14486 14661 '4835 15010 15184 '5359
-17104
15533
•16331 17379
5. **y — xy x + *-*
+ y* = e. 2-* e.
9*
10"
1570J
'7«5?
15881
17*18
16057
17801 "7977
16406
•18151
16581
18336
'6755
18500
-30146
-16930]
18675 18850
10595
•190*4
10769]
7. y -*(* + <•). 8. log xy — \y* = c.
il-
ly
19'99
10944
'9373
1III8
19548
11393
•19733
11468
''9807I
11643
-300711
1181; 11991
10430J
13166 1*340 11515
18* 13689 ll86« -33038 13313 1338; 135** 13736 1391 14086 14360
9. log* + lg = «. 10. *» + y» - cy •0. 14" 144J5 14609 14784 14958 •*5'JJ >53«7 1548* 15656J 15831 16005
16* 16180 *6354 165*9 16704 16878 17053 17137 17401 17576 •*7751
v*
1 1. log xy — -^ = » ie-
17*
379*5 18100 •18174
'30010
18449
•30194
18633
303*9
1879* 18973 19147
30718 -30S9*
193**
31067
*949&|
"31*41
•*9*7' 19845 30543
18- 31416 31590 3'7*5 •31940 in 14 -331891 -3*463 3*638 3*8x» 3*987
IB* JJ'*' 3333* •335>o •336S5 3j8j<. 34034 34*08 3438J 34558 3473*]
30* 349o; •35081 35156 35430 35605 35779 35954 -36118 36303 3*477
21" 3665a •36836) 37001 37'7* 37350 375*5 •37699 37874, •38048 38**3
33" 3839' 38573 •38746 38931 30095 •39370 39444 39619 39794 39968
23° 4«"43 •40317 4049a 40606 40841 41015 41100 •41364 •41539 4'713
34' 418S8 43061 4**37 43411 43586 43761 4*935 43»o 43*84 43459
25' 4J6J3 4J808 4398» 44'57 4433' 44506 44680 44855 •450*9 45*04|
36° 45379 45551 457*8 4590*1 46077 •46351 464*6 •46600 46775 46949
37" 47' »4 47*98 47473 47*47 47831 47997 48171 •48346 •48520 48695
38" 48869 49044 49118 49393 49567 4974* •40916 •50091 •50165 50440
28* 50615 50789 50964 51138 J'3'3 5>487 51661 51836 53011 51185
30* 513*0 5*534 5*700, 5*88, 53058 53*33 53407 •53581 33756 "5393 1
BI- 54 '05 S4*8o| 54454 54639 54S03 5497' -5515* 553*7 5550I •55676
BS' 55»5' 56015 '56300 56374 56549 56733 56898 •5707* 57*47 "574a'
33- 5759* 57770 57945 5S119 58194 58469 58643 •58818 58993 •59167
34' 5934' 59516 59690 59865 60039 •60314 60388 60563 •60737 -6091*
36" fin*; 61361 614J6 -61610 617S5 61959 63134 61308 •61483 63657
38" -61833 63006 •63181 6J355 63530 63705 •63879 •64054 •64*18 64403
37- •*457; 6475* -640161 05101 65*75 6545' •65634 65799 *5973 66148
38- •66333 66,97 6667* -66846 67011 67195 67370 67544 *77i9 *7893
39- 68068 -6834I 6S417 68591 68766 68941 69115 69*90 •69464 •6»*39
40° 69813 609S8 70163 70337 7051 70686 70860 7«35 71*09 71384
41" 7'5S» 7'733 71908 71081 73357 7*43' 73606 7*780 7*955 73«*9
4ST 7J304 7)47* 73*5 J 73837 74003 74'76 14351 745*6 74700 74875
43" 75"4? 75114 75398 75573 75747 759** 76096 76*71 76445 76630
44* •7*794 7*9*9 77'44 773'8 77493 77667 77843 78016 78191 78365
V 2- 3' 4' 5'

DlfforonooB
28 68 87 118 146
375
-
CIRCULAR MEASURE OF ANGLES HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS

Dillcicncc for 41b rugni-
64' Third iigni6cant figure
0' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' Scant figure.
RuSuu
16* 78714
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80634
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7ff I 33645 1*33830 132994 i*33i6g '•33343 '-335'8 '•3369-' 133867 H-6
'•357 8 7 13596' 3-9 13630 1635 3661 3686371 3737 5 151183033
77 •34390 1*345*5 '•34739 '*349»4 13308s 135363 1-35438 X-35613
78" i*36t3< 1*36310 1-36485 1*36659 1-36834 1-37008 1 37 '83 x "37357 '37532 137706 |M 15173033
«-39*77 x 39452
40 :-3TO 3 39'3S93»J9** 3987I40124036U06 5 7
78" 1-37881 1*38056 1*38230 138405 138579 13875 I-38938 1 39103 41 I-4XIO l'34 4« 5941834207 4231 3 5 7 4171933
GO- 1-30636 1*39801 « 39975 1-40150 1-40334 i*4049C 1*40674 1*40848 1-41023 1*41107 4-2 «"435' (375 4398 M»» 444' 4469 4493 5 7 14 17 19 31
BI 14137: 1*41546 141731 1-41895 1 -420701 1*42244] I -42419 1-43593 1-43768 1*43942 4*3 1-4586 (609 4633 4656^679 4703 2 5 7 I4I161S31
82> 143117 r43»o3 1-43466 1*43641 '43815 I-43990 '*44'04 1*44339 «-445«3 X-44&88 4-4 1-4816 4830486148844907 4939 5 7 '3'6 1820
83- 1-44863 1-45037 1-45211 x*453S6 1*45560 1*45735 '-459'Oj 1*46084
84 1-4660* 1-46783 '•46957
146259 X-46433
1*47131 1-47306 1-47480 1-47655 1 '47829 1-48004 1*48178 M
4-6
1*5041 S063 5085 s'orjxs29.5151
1-5361 53835304 5336J347 5369 5390 54
4
4
7
6 J' S i8»
f3:'5
88' I-48353 1-485*8 1 '48702 1 48877 1-49051 1-49226 I-494OO 1*49575 x-49749 '49924 4-7 1*5476 5497 55'8 553*5560 558 1 6 '3«5
I-5I495 1-51669 I
86" 1*50091 i*5<»73 1-50447 1 50622 150796 1-50971 1-51146 1*51330 4-6 1*5686 5707 5728 57485769 5790 * 4 6 13-14 16 19
87° 1-51844 i'53oi8 1*52193 1*52367 1-52543 1-52716 1-52 . 1-53065 1*53340
.
1*53414 4-9 X5893 59'3 5933 5953 5974 5994 4 6 -1J14 16 18
88° 153589 I-53764 1-53938 '54 "3 1-54387 1*54462 1-54636 1-548" 1-54955 1*55160
1 -56905 50 1*6094 6114 «>34 6154,6174 6l94(52'4*6333|6333 6 l8
89° 1-55334 '-55509 '•55633 '55858 1*56032 1*56307 1-56383 1-56556 ''5 673' 4 J2I4
6-1 1-6393 53 '2 •63326351637 6390 4 6
n u 16 18
6-2 x-6487 550665356544
"•3*3 p*2'- 6563
.
6583 4 6 1113
r 3- S* * 6' 63 1-6677 S696 671567346752 677I 6845 4 6 11 13
DifforonceB— 6-4 1*6864 5883 6ooi|69ig693S 6956 7o»9 4 6 7| 11 13

29 68 87 | lie 140
ti/jU.—Htny type iodtcate* chingc of rhmoc-riitic.
376 377
HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Difference (01 4th ligni-
Third u'gniScant figure.
ficant figure.
No.
sinh x cosh •
-• tint) x cosh X
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9128468789 00 1-0000 1-0000 1-0000 •60 1O487 •6065 5311 1-1276
01 l-OXOI 9900 -oioo l-oool •61 • 0653 0005
65 '7047 W66 70847102712071381156717471927210 2 •oa 1-0203 -9802
3324 1 1329
•0200 I -0001 •63 1-6820 -5945 11383
6-8 17228 7'4° 7263^281 03 3438
7299] 73'7 17334 735' 737o<7387 1-0305 •9704 0300 10005 •63 0989 •jSN
67 7405 74" 744017457 7475 749' 75"9 75*7 7544 750' -0-1 1-0408 9608 5551 11438
-0400 10008 -64 17160 •5827 •5666 ••494
5« 17579 759617613 7630 7647 7664 768" 7*99i77'6 7733 05 1-0515 9511
6-9 1 7750 7766778378007817 7834 785 "7867 .7 88*|7901 '5 0500 1-0013 •86 «7333 57*9 5782 ITS51
-00 l-o6lS •9418 -0600 10018
•07
•68 '7507 37" 3S97 1-1609
60 1 7918 7934 795' 79*7 7984 8001 8oi7Bo34g050go66 03
1-0725 -9324 •0701 10015 •67 17683 S655 0014 11669
e-i 1-8083 fagg 81168132S148 8165 8181 ?T07J82i3pi29 •0833 9231 -oSoi 10031 -68 7860
•09
5599 0131 11730
6-2 1-8245 5362 8278 82948310 8326 8342 8358.8374B390 1-0942 9U9 •0901 10041 -69 1-8040 5543 6248 1-1792
6-3 1-8405 3421 843784538469 8485 85oo»5i6»53aB547 10 1-1052 9048 •1002 10050 60 1-8221
6-4
.
8656|S672p6$7S743 11
3488 0367 1-1855
18563 J579 8594B6108625 8641 2 3 5 1-1163 •8958 1102 1 0061 81 18404 •5434 •6483 1-1919
•12 8869
8-5 1-8718 3733874987648779 8795 88io|S825|884o|8856 1-1275, 1203 10072 62 I-8589 '5379 0605 1-1984
13 11388
e-e 1-8871 3886 8901 8916 8931 8946 J961
8-7 1-9021 3036905190669081 9095 31101912519140)9155 u15
•1503
-8781
8694
1304
1405
100S5
10098
•83
64
I-8776
18965
3326
5173
•6725
6846
11051
in 19
e« 1-9169 3184 9199 92139228 9242 9257^272^286)9301 11618 •8607 -1506 IOI1J •86 «-9>55 •5220 6967 1118S
6-9 3330934403599373 9387 9402"
' 9 10 12 •IB ••735 •8511 •1607 10128 68
•WS- 3 i 13
17 ••853 *437 •1708 10145 87
'^348
1-9542
3169
3117
7090 11258
70 18 7»»3 11330
'•9459 1473 9488 9502 9516 9530 9544 1-1072 8353 '1810 10161 68 ••9739 •5066 7336 11402
71 1-9601 9615 9629 9643 9657 9*7' J6859699j97«3| 19 11092 6170 1911 10181 69 '•9937 3016
7-2 7461 11476
'•974' 1755 97O9M82»790 98io 38249838*851 20 1-3214 8187 1013 1-0201 70 20138
7-3 »6iS974»988, •4966 7586 11552
1-9879 38929906992099339947 -21 11337 8106
7-4 1115 T022I •71 10340 •4916 11628
2-0015 J0042 0055 0065 0082 DO96k>i09k>i22k>i36 ' 3 8 9 •;>•>.
11461 •8025
0028 1218 IO243 753 •0544 •4868 $38 11706
-23 11586
7-6 2-0149 5162:017601890202 0215
7-6 2-0281 )295|o30oio321 0334 0347
77 2-04x2 1425^438045104640477
M29tol4210255'|026S
3229J0242(0255!0268
'35°P373P3 860399
5490105030516(0528
M
SB
•23
117 ti
11840
7945
7866
•7788
1320
14*3
1526
IO266
IO289
IOJI4
78
75
1-0751
1-9959
1-1170
w
•4819
•4714
7966
•8094
•8223
11785
11865
'2947
7-8 2-054' 554^50705800592 0605 3618)0631^6430656 • 1969 77" 1629 10340 •78 • 1383 •4677 8353 13030
7-0 2-0669 o68i|o694|0707 07i9 0732 0744^757*07690782 •27 1-3100
' 3 4 7634 IO367 77 11598 •4630 8484 13114
1-3131 7558 -2837 IO395 78 1-1815
BO 2-0794 D807W19 2832 0844 0857 0869 08820894 0006 4584 861} 13199
8-1 1-0919 O93'P943 o95 60968 °^°
•-3364 7483 1941 10423 ^79 11034 •4538 874.8 13286
"W" '005 '017
as 2-1041 1054 1066I1078 1090 1102 1114 1126U 138 -no
•31
•3499 7408 3045 1-D453 80 l?»55 •4493 8881 «337«
1-3634 IO484
8-3 21163 1175 11871199 1211 1223 I235]i247|i258 7334 3150 «1 11479 -4449 9015 •34«4
8-4 2-1282 1294 130611318133011342 1353 1365 1377 4
-.'13
13771 7261 3255 10516 82 11705 •4404 •9150 •3555
-33 1-3910 7189 3360 IO549 83 11933 •4360 0286 «3«47
86 1412 1424 1436
1-1401 1448 1459 1471I1483 I494 •3-1 1-4049 7118 3466 I0584 84 13184 •4317 9413 »374»
8-6 1529 54' '552
2-1518 1564 1576 1587.1599 1610
1691 17021713)172.
«a 1-4191 7047 357» 10619 •85 •3396 •4274 9561 •3835
8-7 1645 16561668
2-1633 1670 •3d «977 3678 IO655 80
1804 l
i8i5Ji827 i83;
«'43J3 3632 •4131 •9700 13932
8fl 1759 1770 1783
1-1748 1793 •37 '•4477 «9»7 3785 I0692 •87 •3869
(
'928:1939 '950 •4190 •9840 1-4029
8-9 21861 1872 1883 1894 1905 '9'7 •33 14623 6839 IO73I
3892 «8
9-0 11972I1983 1994 >oo6 2017 2028 1039J2050I2061 « •-4770 6771 '4000 10770 •89
••4109
1-435'
•4M»
•4107
•9981
1012a
1-4128
1-4229
3094210521162127
9-1 1-2083 |«#y4.-.«ji" j---/ — 2138 •40 -491S •6703 •4»8 SOSlI 90 ••4596 4066 11065 «-433i
fra 2-2192 1203 2214I22252235 2*46 »57]226B| *l 1-5068 15637 •4116 I0852 91 ••4»43 •4023 10409 ,-
»35j4 •36 •43 4434
9-8 21300 1311 2323)3332 1343
*C3Z?
1-5220 6570 •432s 10895 92 ••5093 •3985 '0554 4539
9-4 21407 1418 <«a •5373 6505 •4434 I0939 •93 '•5345 10700
4* 6440 3946 «4645
«5527 •4543 IO984 -94 13600
9-6 iijij »5*3 3906 10847 ••4733
<M 1-5683 •6379 4653 1-1030 -95
9-8 1-2618 1618 2638 •5857 3867 ••0993 1-4862
2172111732 mm
9-7
•40 1-5841 •6313 •4764 I-IO77 96 1-6117 3829 1-1144 ••4973
11 1-6000 6250 •4875 1-1125 97 10379
9-8 11814 3834 2844I: •48 1-6161 -6188
3791 1-1294 13083
9-9 2-2923 2935 »4^'
:
•49*6 ""74 •98 10645 3753 11446 ••5i99
-49 10323 6126 •5098 1-1225 •99 10912 37«6 11598 •-53M
log. 10 • 3-3026. log, xooo — 6-0078.
tog. 100 - 4-6°52. log, toooo - si 103.
378 379
3
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
ft f 4-* sinh < cosh r X «* €" sinh 1 co«h 1
1-00 17183 3679 1-1751 3*80

• 543' S3"'S 0301 '6*543 16573
1-05 1-8577 -3499 "539 6038 300 34*8' O187
1
'7391 17,11
1-10 3 -0041 33 -19 13356 1-66S5 3-eo 36*598 0173 18185 18 313
116 31581 3166 1*4108 ' 717, 3-68 3*475 OI60 9.n, 19150
1-90 3-3-101 •30 11 '5095 16107 3*70 40 ,,7 20 111
-0147 10lj6
1-26 34903 1865 1-6019 SliS, 3-76 41*51'
1 OI33 111,9 11171
1-30 3-6*93 »7i5 1*084 19709 3*80 «4 701 0124 "*H9 11-361
1-36 1*574 1591 «-799> •i5»S 3-85 46993 Oil] 13*86 -0 507
140 «-<>S5' 1466 '9043 a 1509 3*90 ,9 ,01 OlOl 14 691 14711
1-46 41631 1346 1*0143 • 14 81! 3-96 3 '-935 0193 25-95* •5 977
1-50 44* «7 -»]• ••1193 ••1514 400 54*598 -0183 17 190 17 J08
1-68 47"S 1111 1*1406 • '4619 4*06 57397 017, 18-690 18707
1-60 4"9330 1019 •3756 410
•5773 60-340 0166 30 161 30 178
1-66 S-»70 -loio »*5°7S ••6095 4*16 63 434 0158 3'709 31725
1-70 54739 1817 1-6456 1S183 4-30 66*686 0150 33*336 33 35'
1-76 5754* 173* ••7904 1-964J 4-98 70 I0J 0143 35-0,6 33060
1*0 6-0,96 1653 1-9,11 3 '075 4*30 73700 -0136 368,3 36*57
1-85 *159* •1571 1*1013 3-»5*3 435 77478 olio, 3*733 3*7«6
1-80 6«8 59 1496 31681 4*40 81-451 0113
J 4"77 40719 «73l
1-96 7-0187 -14IJ 4431 4-46 85-617
3 3'58-iS 0.17 ,1*08 ,1*819
8-00 n*»» •333 3*6169 3 -761a 460 90*017 •0111 45-003 45 01,
a-05 7 •;<-•,") .ik 7 3*8196 394*1 488 04-631 0106 «7 3" «7*3-»
9-10 8 1661 IMS 4XMI9 4 >443 •100 99484 -Olol I9 7J7 49 7,7
2-16 8-58,9 116] 4-1345 4 '3307
4*68 10459 00956 511S8 S»l97
no 9-0150 108 4 4571 «*5679 4*70 10995 -00910 4, 069 }«97*
8-25 94*77 1054 4-69I3 479*6 4*75 11558 -00865 57 7«* 57 796
8*0 9974' IO03 4-9370 5*0371 4-80 111*51 -0081 j 60751 60759
238 10-486 •0954 3'95« 3 1905 466 an* 00783 61866 6385,
240 11-013 •0907 54661 55570 4*90 '34 19 007,5 67 111 67 l,g
246 11-388 0863 37S«o 5*373 4*66 141-17 •00708 7°S-1 -' 70 591
2-L.O ii-iM -otii 6*0501 61313 5-O0 148*41 ™»7« 1.0
7« ">) 7,
855 11*807 •0781 »*3645 64416 fi-06 156*01 -00641 78*008 7*01,
260 13464 •0743 66947 6-7690 6-10 16,-01 XW610 81008 8l-oi«
MB «4'54 0707 7-°4-7 71 113 818 171*43 00580 86113 86119
2-70 14-880 •067a 7-4063 7-4735 8-90 181*17 00551 90*633 0o-»i9
S-76 «5*4J •0639 77*94 7*513 6*26 '9057 -00515 951*0 95 »«»
280 '6-445 •0608 81919 8*1517 6*30 10034 004 99 100*17 100 1}
2UB 17188 •057* 8-6150 8*6718 6*36 H0*6l 00475 105 30 105 )l
300 18-174 •0550 9*0596 9 11,6 8*40 111 1t 00,51 11070 110 71
mb 19-106 •0513 9*5-168 9*579« 6-46 13176 00,30 16 38 116-38
3-00 •0*086 •0498 IO*ol8 10068 6*60
5*66
144-69 -00,09 m*3< 111*35
3-05 tITIS •0474 «o*534 10-581 15714 •00389 1 1861 12801
310 11-198 •0450 11-076 Il-lll 8-60 17043 10170 13511 •13 "
316 «3T3» •0419 11-647 11-689 6*68 1*419 00351 1,2 1, •41 1]
3-20 >4J33 -0408 11-146 11*187 5-70 108*87 •00335 '49 43 1,9 «.
3-25 15790 -0388 tt-C** 11*915 5-76 3'4 '9 -00318 57*09 157 IO
330 17-11] •0369 '353* '3*575 6-80
J3030 -00303 '65 15 165 15
MB 18503 •0351 «4-»34 14*169 5-85
347^J •00188 17361 I7l6l
340 19-964 •0334 •4*965 '4-999 6-90 36504 -0017, 181-51 81 51
3-48 31500 •0317 •5734 5766 6-66 -00161
3*373 191-88 191 is
8*00 ,03*43 001,8 10171 101 -71
j
380

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CIALCTWH

Teach Yourself Algebra

Teach Yourself The Slide Rule

Teach Yourself Statistics THE ENGLISH UNIVERSITIES PRESS LTD

far as possible the

have been simplified and curtailed.

number of routine exercises have been

included, and the is

taken "dm Mr Abbott's Mathematical

by courtesy of the publishers, Messrs.

XVI. Solids op Revolution. Volumes and

XVII. Uses op Integration in Mechanics .

XVIII. Partial Differentiation .

XIX. Series. Taylor's and Maclaurin's Theo

book on the subject in 1693 bu he \ and g are constants.

maticians. variables are of two kinds.

relaSTSat. whVnVy° value U assigned to

determineda corresponding value

^r wnstLts, other than actual numbers letters at the :2sin^ = 2x^=V3.

of f(x) is obtained. If these pairs of values of x and f(x)

y+Sy=f(x+Sx) § 108), and is shown in Fig. 1. At the points on the

and I receive an increment St, then s will receive the incre-

employed to denote incre- t HtfrH- W+* *.

Single letters are sometimes :::

method. For example

whence k = f(x + h) - f(x). iiii m i i :ii: HjJ- n r.-i I

9. Graphic representation of functions. Fig. I. Curve of /(*) — *».

,6 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS FUNCTIONS 17

function of y. But the

of a wire to electrical current is a function of both the

18 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS

/(2),/(U./(0)./(a + !),/©./(- 5).

3. If /(8) = cos 6, find the values of VARIATIONS IN FUNCTIONS. LIMITS

= x*. find the values of

8. If /(*) = ** + 2x + find an expression for

TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS VARIATIONS IN FUNCTIONS. LIMITS ai

(1) When the denominator Increases, the fraction

=- if the numerator is any finite number e.g., -.

The above conclusions can be illustrated by drawing the

(2) x =If (IO

expressed by the symbol co .

This is not a number with which we can operate. Multi-

It is evident from the above reasoning that when x

represented by ^, becomes an infinitely small magnitude,

smaller than any finite number which can be specified or

not as a number, but as an infinitely small magnitude.

M TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS VARIATIONS IN FUNCTIONS. LIMITS *3

The arguments employed above apply equally to the 2x

form Let us examine the function

TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS VARIATIONS IN FUNCTIONS. LIMITS *3

value of this function for any value of x is readily

are slightly greater or slightly less than that which produces

X - -2 001 Substituting in the fraction

Let x = 2-001. x *-a* (a + h)* - a*

Or, taking values less than 2

approaches 4, and that ultimately when the value of x differs

This might be expressed in the form employed previously x*-a*

infinitely great, and is called the sum to Infinity

28 TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS VARIATIONS IN FUNCTIONS. LIMITS W

radius which bisects BC at right angles and consequently Let OA B be a circle.

or Li **-: (3) Limit of a product.

The limit of the quotient of the functions is equal when * —y a, h — > 0.

unless Lt(v) = 0. = na"- 1 .

9. Graphic representation of functions. Fig. I. Curve of /() — ».

Let x = 2-001. x -a (a + h)* - a*

This might be expressed in the form employed previously x-a

'; 5; ?; 006; i»; 15*«; ~j-; l-5x»; (4x)». of y