Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Acknowledgments .. ..... .... . . . . . . . ..~......................___.____._. v

1. Mathematical Tables and Units and Systems of Weights and Measures

Mathematical Tables .. ............... 1-2
Units and Systems of Weights and Measures ... ............... 1-68

2. Casing, Tubing, and Line Pipe

Casing.. .............................................................................. 2-1
Tubing ................................................................................ 2-38
Line Pipe .............................................................................. 2-46
Equations for Calculating Performance Properties of Casing, Tubing, and Line Pipe ............... 2-46
API Threading Data ..................................................................... 2-64

3. Wellhead Equipment and Flow Control Devices

Introduction . ............... 3-l
API Flanged or Clamped Wellhead Equipment. ............... 3-l
Flow Control Devices: Safety Shut-In Systems ............... 3-18
Other Flow-Control Devices ............... 3-34
Corrosion ............... 3-35
Special Application. ............... 3-36
Independent Screwed Wellhead. ............... 3-39

4. Production Packers
Production Packers Classification and Objectives ............... 4-l
Tubing-to-Packer Connections. ............... 4-l
Packer Utilization and Constraints ............... 4-l
Considerations for Packer Selection ............... 4-4
Tubing/Packer System ............... 4-6
Tubing Response Characteristics. ............... 4-8
Combination Tubing/Packer Systems ............... 4-11
Tubing/Packer Forces on Intermediate Packers ............... 4-l I

5. Gas Lift
Introduction................................................... 5-l
Gas Fundamentals as Applied to Gas Lift . . S-3
Gas Lift Valve Mechanics 5-12
Continuous-Flow Gas Lift 5-21
Intermittent Gas Lift . 5-38
Unloading Procedures and Proper Adjustment of Injection Gas Rate 5-53

6. Hydraulic Pumping
Introduction 6-1
Downhole Pumps 6-2
Principles of Operation-Reciprocating Pumps 6-8
Jet Pumps 6-34
Surface Equipment 6-49
Appendix A-Fluid Properties 6-66
Appendix B-Friction Relationships 6-69

7. Electric Submersible Pumps

Introduction 7-l
ESP System. 7-l
Application5 7-l
ESP System Components. 7-3
Selection Data and Methods 7-9
Handling, Installation. and Operation 7-12
Troubleshooting 7-14

xv
 8. Subsurface Sucker-Rod Pumps
Introduction ................... 8-l
Pump Selection ................ 8-2
Plungers ...................... 8-4
Slippage Past Plungers. ......... 8-5
Soft-Packed Plungers ........... 8-6
Balls and Seats ................ 8-7
Double Valves ................ 8-7
Bottom-Discharge Valve ........ 8-8
Three-Tube Pump. ............. 8-8
Gas Anchors .................. . 8-9
Special Pumps. ................ 8-9
Corrosion .................... 8-9
Effect of Gases and Vapors. ..... 8-10
Conclusions ................... . 8-10

9. Sucker Rods
Introduction ................... 9-l
Steel Sucker Rods ............ ..,................,.. 9-l
Fiberglass Sucker Rods ......... 9-10

10. Pumping Units and Prime Movers for Pumping Units: Part l-Pumping Units
Introduction ............................................................ IO-I
Pumping Units ......................................................... IO-I
Component Parts ....................................................... IO-4
Pumping Unit Loading ................................................... IO-5
Counterbalance ......................................................... IO-6
Sizing ................................................................. IO-7
Installation ............................................................. IO-7
Lubrication ............................................................ IO-12
Changing the Oil ....................................................... IO-13

Pumping Units and Prime Movers for Pumping Units: Part 2-Prime Movers for Pumping Units
Introduction ............................................................................ lo-14
Internal-Combustion Engines .............................................................. IO-14
Electric Motors for Oilwell Pumping ....................................................... IO-19

11. Oil Storage

Types of Storage Tanks ................................ 11-l
Tank Corrosion Protection ............................. 1 l-4
Appurtenances ........................................ 11-6
Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks ...... 11-6
Materials of Construction .............................. 1 l-9
Production Equipment ................................. 11-9
Vapor Losses ........................................ 11-11
Vapor Control and Gravity Conservation With Storage Tanks I l-12
Underground Storage .................................. 11-13

12. Oil and Gas Separators

Summary.. ........................................... 12-l
Introduction ........................................... 12-l
Primary Functions of Oil and Gas Separators ............... . 12-3
Secondary Functions of Oil and Gas Separators ............. 12-4
Special Problems in Oil and Gas Separation ................ 12-6
Methods Used To Remove Oil From Gas in Separators ...... 12-8
Mist Extractors Used in Oil and Gas Separators ............ 12-l I
Methods Used To Remove Gas From Oil in Separators ...... 12-13
Estimated Quality of Separated Fluids ..................... 12-13
Classification of Oil and Gas Separators ................... 12-16
Centrifugal Oil and Gas Separators and Gas Scrubbers ....... 12-20
Illustrations of Oil and Gas Separators .................... 12-21
Comparison of Oil and Gas Separators .................... .. 12-21
Estimating the Sizes and Capacities of Oil and Gas Separators. 12-21

xvi
 Computer Sizing of Oil and Gas Separators ............................. 12-25
Capacity Curves for Vertical and Horizontal Oil and Gas Separators ........ 12-27
Practical Considerations in Sizing Oil and Gas Separators ................. 12-32
Stage Separation of Oil and Gas. ...................................... 12-32
Selection and Application of Separators and Scrubbers .................... 12-35
Construction Codes for Oil and Gas Separators .......................... 12-38
Controls, Valves, Accessories, and Safety Features for Oil and Gas Separators 12-39
Operation and Maintenance Considerations for Oil and Gas Separators ....... 12-40

13. Gas Measurement and Regulation

Introduction ............................................ 13-l
Gas Measurement. ...................................... 13-l
Regulation.. ........................................... 13-49

14. Lease-Operated Hydrocarbon Recovery Systems

Introduction............................................... 14-l
Low-Temperature Separation (LTS) Systems . .. . . .... 14-l
Gas-Treating Systems for Removal of Water Vapor, CO,, and H,S 14-17

15. Surface Facilities for Waterflooding and Saltwater Disposal

Introduction ............................................ 5-l
Piping System Design ................................... 5-l
Selecting Pumps and Drivers ............................. 5-14
Separating Suspended Solids From Heater. .................. 5-18
Treating Hydrocarbons From Water. ....................... 5-2 I
Dissolved Gas Removal .................................. 15-28
Dissolved Solids Removal ................................ 15-29
Removing Hydrocarbons From Solids ...................... 1.5-30
Process Selection and Project Management .................. 15-30
Project Control ......................................... 1.5-32

16. Automation of Lease Equipment

Introduction ........................................... 16-1
Automatic Production-Control Equipment .................. 16-2
Production Safety Controls .............................. 16-4
Automatic Quantitative Measurement ...................... 16-5
Gas Measurement ...................................... 16-6
Temperature Measurement .............................. 16-7
Automatic Sampler. .................................... 16-7
BS&W Monitor ....................................... 16-7
Net-Oil Computer. ..................................... 16-7
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems . 16-8
Typical Automatic-Control Installations .................... 16-10
Automatic Well Testing ................................. 16-12
LACT ............................................... 16-12

17. Measuring, Sampling, and Testing Crude Oil

Introduction ............................................ 17-l
Procedure for Typical Measuring, Sampling, and Testing ...... 17-l
Abstract of API Manual ................................. 17-3

18. Offshore Operations

Introduction ............................... . 18-I
Historical Review .......................... . .. 18-l
Offshore Drilling .......................... .. 18-3
Field Operations ........................... . 18-17
Special Considerations ...................... 18-20
Structures ................................ 18-22
Offshore Production Operations .............. .. 18-27
Arctic .................................... 18-38
Electrica:, Instrumentation and Control Systems 18-43
Control of Subsea Production Facilities ........ . 18-48
19. Crude Oil Emulsions
Introduction............................................. 19-I
Theories of Emulsions 19-I
Sampling and Analyzing Crude Oil Emulsions . 19-6
Methods Used in Treating Crude Oil Emulsions, 19-6
Emulsion-Treating Equipment and Systems . . 19-15
Description of Equipment Used in Treating Crude Oil Emulsions 19-16
Operational Considerations for Emulsion-Treating Equipment. . 19-28
Economics of Treating Crude Oil Emulsions . . 19-32

20. Gas Properties and Correlations

Molecular Weight. . ... . . . 20-I
Ideal Gas . . 20-l
Critical Temperature and Pressure . 20-2
Specific Gravity (Relative Density) . . . . 20-4
Mole Fraction and Apparent Molecular Weight of Gas Mixtures .. 20-4
Specific Gravity of Gas Mixtures . . . . . 20-4
Dalton’s Law . . .. ... .. .. 20-4
Amagat’s Law. . 20-4
Real Gases . . . .. 20-4
Principle of Corresponding States. . 20-4
Equations of State . . .. . .. 20-6
Van der Waals’ Equation. . .. . 20-7
Viscosity . . . .. . 20-9
Viscosity Correlations .. . .. 20-9
Natural Gasoline Content of Gas . . . . 20-10
Formation Volume Factor . . ... 20-I 1
Coefficient of Isothermal Compressibility . . . I 20-11
Vapor Pressure . . . ... 20-11
Cox Chart 20-12
Calingeart and Davis Equation . 20-13
Lee-Kesler ............................ .. 20-13
Example Problems ..................... . 20-13

21. Crude Oil Properties and Condensate Properties and Correlations

Introduction .................................................. 21-I
BaseofCrudeOil ............................................ 21-l
Physical Properties ............................................ 21-3
True-Boiling-Point Crude-Oil Analyses ........................... 21-8
Bubblepoint-Pressure Correlations ............................... 21-9
Dewpoint-Pressure Correlations ................................. 21-10
Sage and Olds’ Correlation ..................................... 2llll
Total Formation Volume Correlations ............................ 21-15

22. Oil System Correlations

Introduction . .. . .. . .... .. 22-l
Oil Density Determination. . . .. 22-2
Bubblepoint-Pressure Correlations .. . 22-5
Solution GOR for Saturated Oils . .... 22-9
Oil FVF Correlations .. . .. 22-10
Total FVF’s 22-13
Oil Viscosity Correlations . 22-13
Gas/Oil IFT . . . . . 22-16
Glossary . . . . . . 22-20

23. Phase Diagrams

Introduction . . . .... 23-l
Single-Component Phase Diagrams 23-l
Phase Rule .. . . . . . . 23-2
Types of Diagrams. . . 23-2
Calculation of Phase Compositions. . . . . . 23-10

XVIII
24. Properties of Produced Waters
Introduction and History 24-l
Sampling ... ... . 24-3
Analysis Methods for Oilfield Waters .. . 24-5
Chemical Properties of Oilfield Waters . . . 24-5
Inorganic Constituents . .. .. .. 24-9
Physical Properties of Oilfield Waters 24-12
Interpretation of Chemical Analyses . . .. 24-18
Occurrence, Origin, and Evolution of Oilfield Waters 24-19
Recovery of Minerals From Brines . . . . .. . . . . 24-20

25. Phase Behavior of Water/Hydrocarbon Systems

Introduction ........................................................................... 25-l
General Hydrocarbon/Water Phase Diagrams and Equilibrium Data Sources ..................... 25-1
Hydrate Stability Conditions ............................................................. 25-4
Determining the Water Content of Gas (or Hydrocarbon-Rich Liquid) in Equilibrium With Hydrates 25-10
Definition of the Saturated Water Content of Natural Gases in Equilibrium With Aqueous Phases ... 25-11
Quantitative Prediction of Water Content in Light Hydrocarbon Systems ........................ 25-16
Quantitative Predictions of Solute Concentrations in the Aqueous Phase ......................... 25-16
Sour Water Stripper Correlations ......................................................... 25-17
Oil and Gas Reservoirs That Exist in the Gas Hydrate Region ................................. 25-18
Hydrate Inhibition ..................................................................... 25-19

26. Properties of Reservoir Rocks

Introduction . . 26-l
Porosity . . .... .. .... .... .... . . . 26-l
Permeability .. 26-10
Fluid Saturations. . 26-20
Electrical Conductivity of Fluid-Saturated Rocks . 26-27
Empirical Correlation of Electrical Properties. 26-29

27. Typical Core Analysis of Different Formations

Introduction ............................... 27-l
Porosity .................................. 27-1
Permeability .............................. 27-l
Liquid Saturations ......................... 27-8
Percussion Sidewall Core Data ............... . . 27-9
Data From U.S. Areas ..................... 27-9
Data From Non-U.S. Areas ................. .. .. . 27-9

28. Relative Permeability

Introduction . .. . 28-l
Historical Background . 28-2
Framework Ideas . . 28-2
Measurement Methodologies . 28-3
Recent Literature 28-9
Critique of Recent Work . . . . . 28-10
Ramifications Needing Attention. 28-12
Conclusions . . 28-13

29. Petroleum Reservoir Traps

Introduction .............. .......... . 29-l
Trap Classification ................... . 29- 1
Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks. ...... 29-6
Glossary ................ .......... 29-8

30. Bottomhole Pressures

Introduction 30-l
BHP Instruments . . 30-l
Pressure Transducer Technology . ......... . 30-6
Calculated BHP . 30-7
Application of BHP . ,.,,.,....., 30-8

xix
31. Temperature in Wells
Introduction ........... ....... 31-l
Thermometers ......... ....... 31-I
Thcrmometry ......... ....... 31-2
Summary ............. ....... 31-7

32. Potential Tests of Oil Wells

Texas Allowable Rule .................... ....... 32-1
Productivity Index (PI) ................... . ....... 32-2
Specific PI. ............................. ....... 32-4
Theoretical PI ........................... ....... 32-4
Pseudosteady-State Flow .................. ....... 32-5
Stock-Tank Measurement. ................. ....... 32-6
Portable Well Testers, .................... .. ....... 32-7
GOR .................................. ....... 32-14
GOR as a Criterion of Reservoir Performance ....... 32-15

33. Open Flow of Gas Wells

Introduction .. ........................ ....... 33-l
Pitot-Tube Gauging of Low-Pressure Wells ... ....... 33-1
Backpressure Testing ..... ........................ ....... 33-3
Gas Well Inflow Equation. Pseudosteady State ......... ....... 33-5
Multipoint Test and Example ....................... ....... 33-7
Isochronal Test and Example ....................... ....... 33-10
Comparison of Multipoint With Isochronal Test ........ ........ 33-l 1
Gas Measurement ... ............... ............. ....... 33-13
Calculation of Subsurface Pressures .................. . ....... 33-13
Application of Backpressure Tests to Producing Problems ....... 33-20
Production Rate .................... ............. ....... _13-20
Causes of Deterioration in Performance ............. . . ....... 33-20
Examples of Remedial Operations ..... ............. ....... 33-22

34. Wellbore Hydraulics

Introduction ....... 34- 1
Theoretical Basis ....... 34- 1
Producing Wells . . ....... 34-3
Injection Wells . ....... 34-28
Oil Wells .. . ....... 34-30
Multiphase Flow. .. ....... 34-35
Flow Through Chokes .. ....... 34-45
Liquid Loading in Wells ....... 34-46

35. Well Performance Equations

Introduction. ............... ....... 35-1
Diffusivity Equation ......... . .. . ....... 35-l
Multiphase Flow. ........... ....... 35-2
Oil Well Performance ....... . ....... 35-2
Gas Well Performance. ...... ....... 35-10
Transient Well Test Analysis . .. ....... 35-14

36. Development Plan for Oil and Gas Reservoirs

Introduction. 36-l
Oil and Gas Differences 36-2
Characterization of the Reservoir . 36-3
Prediction of Reservoir Performance .. 36-9

37. Solution-Gas-Drive Reservoirs

Introduction .................................. 37-1
Definitions. .................................. 37-l
Typical Performance .......................... 37-1
Types of Models Used. ........................ .37-2
Basic Assumptions of Tank-Type Material Balance _17-2
Basic Data Required. .......................... .37-3
Material-Balance Equation ...................... _17-5

XX
 Material Balance as Equation of Straight Line for Determination of OIP and of Gas-Cap Size 37-6
Material-Balance Calculations Using Tracy’s Method .................................. 37-7
Comparison of Tarner’s and Tracy’s Methods ........................................ 37-10
Material-Balance Calculations Using Muskat and Taylor’s Method ....................... 37-10
Sensitivity of Material-Balance Results .............................................. . 37-13
Production Rate and Time Calculations .............................................. 37-17
Insights From Simulator Studies .................................................... 37-21
Volatile Oil Reservoir Performance Predictions ....................................... 37-22

38. Water Drive Oil Reservoirs

Introduction ........................... . . 38-1
Definitions. ........................... . . 38-l
Mathematical Analysis .................. . 38-l

34. Gas-Condensate Reservoirs

Introduction ................................................ . 39-1
Properties and Behavior of Gas-Condensate Fluids. ............... 39-1
Gas-Condensate Well Tests and Sampling ....................... 39-4
Sample Collection and Evaluation ............................. . 39-6
Operation by Pressure Depletion .............................. 39-10
Operation by Pressure Maintenance or Cycling .................. 39-15
General Operating Problems: Well Characteristics and Requirements 39-24
Economics of Gas-Condensate Reservoir Operation ............... . 39-26

40. Estimation of Oil and Gas Reserves

Estimating Reserves ........................... 40- 1
Petroleum Reserves-Definitions and Nomenclature. 40-2
Glossary of Terms ..................................................................... 40-3
Computation of Reservoir Volume ........................................................ 40-4
Computation of Oil or Gas in Place. ...................................................... 40-5
Saturated Depletion-Type Oil Reservoirs-Volumetric Methods ................................ 40-8
API Estimation of Oil and Gas Reserves. .................................................. 40-12
Undersaturated Oil Reservoirs Without Water Drive Above the Bubblepoint-Volumetric Method ... 40-12
Volatile Oil Reservoirs-Volumetric Methods ............................................... 40-13
Oil Reservoirs With Gas-Cap Drive-Volumetric Unit Recovery Computed by Frontal-Drive Method 40-13
Oil Reservoirs Under Gravity Drainage. ................................................... 40-14
Oil Reservoirs With Water Drive-Volumetric Methods ...................................... 40-15
Volumetric Recovery Estimates for Nonassociated Gas Reservoirs ............................. 40-2 1
Production-Decline Curves ................ 40-26
Other Performance Curves ................ 40-32

41. Valuation of Oil and Gas Reserves

Types of Oil and Gas Property Ownership 41-l
Valuation . . . 41-2
Forecast of Future Rate of Production 41-9
Development and Operating Costs . . 41-l 1
Federal Taxes . .. ... . . 41-12
Different Concepts of Valuation 41-16
Interest Tables and Deferment Factors. 41-25

42. Injection Operations

Introduction . . . . . . 42-l
Important Factors in the Design of Injection Operations 42-2
Analysis of a Reservoir for Injection Operations 42-3

43. Gas-Injection Pressure Maintenance in Oil Reservoirs

Introduction. . . . ... 43-1
Types of Gas-In.jection Operations . 43-2
Optimal Time To Initiate Gas Pressure-Maintenance Operations 43-3
Efficiencies of Oil Recovery by Gas Displacement . 43-3
Methods of Evaluating Unit-Displacement Efficiency. 43-3
Methods of Evaluating Conformance Efficiency . . . 43-6
Methods of Evaluating Areal Sweep Efficiency . 43-7
Calculation of Gas Pressure-Maintenance Performance 43-8

xxi
 Appendix A-Example Calculations of Future Performance . 43-10
Appendix B-Selected References Containing Equations, Calculation Procedures, and Example
Calculations Related to Gas-Injection Performance Predictions . .. . . . . . . 43-16
Appendix C-Data Requirements for Engineering Analysis of Gas-Injection Operations 43-17

44. Water-Injection Pressure Maintenance and Waterflood Processes

Introduction ....................................................... 44-l
Important Factors in Waterflooding or Water-Injection Pressure Maintenance . 44-2
Determination of Residual Oil After Waterflooding ...................... . 44-5
Predicting Water Injection Oil Recovery and Performance 44-7
Water-Injection Well Behavior ....................................... 44-32
Water-Injection Case Histories ....................................... .. 44-36
Pilot Floods ....................................................... . . 44-37
Surface-Active Agents in Waterflooding ............................... . 44-39
Water Source and Requirements ...................................... . 44-41
Water Treating .................................................... . 44-43
Selection and Sizing of Waterflood Plants. ............................. . 44-45

45. Miscible Displacement

Introduction . . . . . 45-l
Theoretical Aspects of Miscible-Phase Displacement . 45-l
Factors Affecting Displacement Efficiency . . 45-6
Engineering Study . . . . . 45-8
Appendix-Engineering Examples . . 45-10

46. Thermal Recovery

Introduction. ........................ . 46-l
Two Forms of Steam Injection Processes . 46-l
Three Forms of In-Situ Combustion. .... .. 46-l
Historical Development ............... .. . 46-3
Current Status. ...................... . 46-3
Theoretical Considerations. 46-4
Analytical Models for Steam Injection ... . 46-7
Numerical Simulation. ................ 46-l 1
Laboratory Experimentation ........... 46-12
Field Projects ....................... . . 46-13
Project Design ...................... . 46-17
Well Completion. .................... .. 46-19
Field Facilities ...................... . 46-19
Monitoring and Coring Programs ....... 46-20
Operational Problems and Remedies .... 46-2 1
Case Histories ....................... 46-22
Thermal Properties ................... 46-3 I

47. Chemical Flooding

Introduction ......................... 47-l
Mobility Control Processes ............ . . 47- 1
Low-IFT Processes. .................. . 41-9
High-pH Processes ................... 47-18
Summary ........................... 47-22

48. Reservoir Simulation

Introduction ........................................... 48-l
A Brief History ....................................... 48-l
General Description of Simulation Models ................. . 48-2
Purpose of Reservoir Simulation. ......................... . . 48-6
Considerations in Practical Application of Simulation Models. . . 48-7
Validity of Simulation Results. ........................... . 48-9
Simulation Technology .................................. . 48-13

49. Electrical Logging

Fundamentals ....................... . 49-l
Spontaneous Potential (SP) Log ........ . 49-7
Resistivity Logging Devices ........... . 49-l I

xxii
 Induction Logging ................................ 49-14
Focused-Electrode Logs. ........................... 49-1x
Microresistivity Devices ........................... 49-22
Uses and Interpretation of Well Logs ................ 49-25
The Digital Age .................................. 49-36

50. Nuclear Logging Techniques

Introduction ...................................... 50-l
Nuclear Physics for Logging Applications. ............ . 50-3
Nuclear Radiation Logging Devices .................. 50-15
Interpretation of Nuclear Logs ...................... 50-23

51. Acoustic Logging

Introduction ...................................... .. 51-l
Elasticity ........................................ .. . 51-l
Acoustic Wave Propagation in Rocks. ................ 51-4
Acoustic Wave Propagation Methods ................. . 51-l I
Methods of Recording Acoustic Data. ................ 51-14
Applications ..................................... 51-28
Conclusions ...................................... 51-47
Appendix-Theory of Elastic Wave Propagation in Rocks 51-49

52. Mud Logging

Introduction . . .. . . 52-l
Service Types . . . . . 52-l
Formation Evaluation Services . . . . 52-2
The Modern Mud Logging Unit 52-11
The Mud Log ... .... 52-11
Petroleum Engineering Services . 52-16
Drilling Engineering Services .. 52-27
Selecting a Mud Logging Service. . . 52-28
Standards for and Status of Services . 52-30

53. Other Well Logs

Introduction ...................................... . 53-l
MWD .......................................... .. . . 53-l
Directional Surveys ............................... 53-3
Dipmeter Logging ................................ 53-7
Caliper Logs ..................................... 53-16
Casing Inspection Logs ............................ . 53-17

54. Acidizing
Introduction . . . 54-l
General Principles . . 54-l
Acid Reaction Rates . . 54-4
Acid Additives . . . 54-6
Acidizing Techniques . . . . 54-8
Laboratory Testing 54-9
Acid Treatment Design . 54-10
Critical Wells . ... . 54-11
Summary . 54-12

55. Formation Fracturing

Introduction . .. . . 55-l
Hydraulic Fracturing Theory . 55-l
Formations Fractured . . ... 55-2
Fracture Planes. . . . 55-2
Fracture Area ... . . . . 55-2
Reservoir-Controlled Fluids. . . 55-2
Viscosity-Controlled Fluids .. . 55-4
Fluid-Loss-Controlled Fluids 55-4
Stimulation Results. .. .. 55-4
Fracturing Materials . . . 55-5
Fracturing Techniques 55-8
 Multiple-Zone Fracturing. 55-9
Fracturing Equipment. 55-9
Treatment Planning and Design 55-9

56. Remedial Cleanup, Sand Control, and Other Stimulation Treatments

Introduction................................................... 56-l
Reperforation ___.,..,,,..._..___.,,.,..,,,._.._..,._____._.._. 56- 1
Abrasive Jet Cleaning . 56-l
Mud Removal................................................. 56-l
Water Blocks and Emulsions 56-2
Scale Deposits................................................. 56-2
Paraffin Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56-2
Large-Volume Injection Treatments 56-2
Steam Injection 56-2
General Comments . 56-2
Sand Control ~~~~.~..~.~.~~~..~..~~~.~.~~~~....~~~..~~~...~~.~~ 56-2

57. Oil and Gas Leases

The Landowner’s Interest ......... 57-l
The Oil and Gas Lease ........... 57-3
Assignments by the Landowner .... 57-6
Assignments by the Lessee ........ 57-7
Unit Operations ................. 57-7
Getting the Well Drilled .......... 57-8
Lease Problems During Development 57-10
Taxation ....................... 57-l I
Offshore Leasing ................ 57-l I

58. The SI Metric System of Units and SPE Metric Standard

Preface .................................. 58-2
Part 1: SI-The International System of Units 58-2
Introduction ................................................... 58-2
SI Units and Unit Symbols ....................................... 58-2
Application of the Metric System ................................. 58-3
Rules for Conversion and Rounding. .............................. 58-5
Special Terms and Quantities Involving Mass and Amount of Substance 58-7
Mental Guides for Using Metric Units ............................. 58-8
Appendix A-Terminology .............. 58-8
Appendix B-S1 Units ................... 58-9
Appendix C-Style Guide for Metric Usage . 58-l I
Appendix D-General Conversion Factors. .. 58-14
Appendix E-Conversion Factors for the Vara ...................... 58-20
Part 2: Discussion of Metric Unit Standards .......................... 58-2 I
Introduction ................... 58-2 I
Review of Selected Units ........ 58-22
Unit Standards Under Discussion 58-24
Notes for Table 2.2 ............ 58-25
Notes for Table 2.3 ............ . 5x-25

59. SPE Letter and Computer Symbols Standard

Symbols in Alphabetical Order.. 59-2
Quantities in Alphabetical Order. 59-18
Subscript Definitions in Alphabetical Order . .. . ..... .. 59-52
Subscript Symbols in Alphabetical Order 59-63

Index . I
Author .... .... .... .... . . . .. .... ... 1
Subject . . 15

xxiv