Explora(ons

 of  Number  
 Part  2:  Sacred  Geometry  and  Islamic  Art  
Douglas  Lindner    
Frederick  P.  Lenz  Scholar  
Department  of  Electrical  and  Computer  Engineering  
Virginia  Tech  
 Outline  
•  General  IntroducAon  
–  MoAvaAon  
–  Form  and  Energy  
–  Infinity    
•  IntroducAon  to  Islamic  World  View  
•  The  CreaAon  Sequence  
•  Three  Core  Polygons  
•  Cosmology  
•  Space  Filling  Tiles  
•  Conclusions  
 Mo(va(on  
•  Look  at  the  historical  development  of  mathemaAcs  (the  language  
of  science)  and  see  what  it  tells  us  about  the  nature  of  reality  
 
•  InvesAgaAon  into  the  relaAonship  between  ancient  science  and  
modern  science  through  mathemaAcs  

•  Look  for  common  ground  for  a  dialog  between  the  hard  sciences  
and  the  spiritual  tradiAons  

•  Invite  further  conversaAons  on  this  topic  

•  It’s  fun  
Hall  of  Two  Sisters  –  Meaning?  
 Pythagoras  (500  BCE)  –  Father  of  Western  Science  

Aristoxenus  on  Pythagoras:  “Every  disAncAon  they  lay  down  

as  to  what  should  be  done  or  not  done  aims  at  conformity  
with  the  divine.  This  is  their  starAng  point;  their  whole  life  is  
ordered  with  a  view  of  following  God,  and  its  governing  
principle  of  their  philosophy.”  
 
“All  philosophy  and  inquiry  –  all  use  of  the  powers  of  reason  
and  observaAon  to  gain  an  understanding  of  nature,  the  
world,  and  the  cosmos,  including  what  would  later  be  called  
“science”  –  was  linked  with,  indeed  was,  the  effort  to  purify  
the  soul  and  escape  the  wheel  of  incarnaAon.  This  connecAon,  
for  the  Pythagoreans,  was  the  most  exalted  living-­‐out  of  the  
doctrine  of  the  ‘unity  of  all  being’.”  

KiYy  Ferguson,  The  Music  of  Pythagoras,  Walker  Publishing:2008,  p.  54  
Brush  Stroke  
 Layers  of  Reality  
Prefect  geometry  of  form  

Imperfect  geometry  as  manifestaAon  

 Does  Infinity  Exist?  
•  1   •  The  Greek’s  didn’t  
•  1  +  1  =  2   believe  infinity  existed.  
•  2  +  1  =  3   •  They  described  this  
•  3  +  1  =  4   process  as  unbounded.  
Ÿ  
Ÿ   What  do  you  think?  
Ÿ  
•  This  process  can  
repeated  indefinitely.  
•  Where  does  it  end?  
Zeno’s  Paradox  
•  Every  second  both  
Achilles  and  the  turtle  
cover  half  of  the  
distance  to  the  goal  line.  
•  Achilles  never  passes  the  
turtle.  
•  Neither  arrives  at  the  
goal  line.  
Zeno’s  Paradox  

The  distance  covered  by  Achilles  is  

 
?  
1  +  ½  +  ¼  +  1/8    +  …..    =  2  
 
Greek’s  didn’t  believe:  
 
•  There  could  be  an  infinite  number  of  terms  

•  There  could  be  a  infinitely  small  distance  

 Outline  
•  General  IntroducAon  
–  MoAvaAon  
–  Form  and  Energy  
–  Infinity    
•  Introduc(on  to  Islamic  World  View  
•  The  CreaAon  Sequence  
•  Three  Core  Polygons  
•  Cosmology  
•  Space  Filling  Tiles  
•  Conclusions  
 Number  and  Geometry    in  Islam  

“Know,  oh  brother  …  that  the  study  of  sensible  geometry  leads  to  skill  in  all  the  
pracAcal  arts,  while  the  study  of  intelligible  geometry  leads  to  skill  in  the  intellectual  
arts  because  this  science  is  one  of  the  gates  through  which  we  move  to  knowledge  of  
essence  of  the  soul,  and  that  is  the  root  of  all  knowledge  …  “  
 
-­‐  From  Rasa’  if,  by  Brotherhood  of  Purity,  translated  by  S.H.  Nasr  

Keith  Critchlow,  Islamic  Pa8erns:  An  analy<cal  and  Cosmological  Approach,  Inner  TradiAons:  1976.  
 History  of  Mathema(cs  
Chinese   Hindu/Babylonians   Greeks   500  BCE  -­‐  500  CE  
(number  representaAons   (geometry    
and  algebra)   and  logic)    
 
 
 
 
Islamists   700  CE  –  1400  CE  
(integrated  and  extended    
 exisAng  knowledge)    
 
 
 
Western  Mathema(cs   Renaissance  to  present  
(Beginning  with  Galileo,  Descartes  and  Newton,  
Abstracted  mathemaAcs)  
 Contribu(on  of  Islamists  
•  Translated  all  science  texts  within  their  
domain  into  Arabic  
–  Science  rests  on  a  communal  language  
•  Integrated  scienAfic  insights  into  a  common  
framework  
–  Ex:  Introduced  “Arabic”  numerals  from  India  
•  Interpreted  scienAfic  knowledge  within  the  
Islamic  theology  
 Development  of  Islamic  Science  and  Art  
•  Incorporated  “Abrahamic  Pythagoreanism”  
–  Way  of  seeing  numbers  and  figures  as  keys  to  the  
structure  of  the  universe  
–  As  symbols  of  archetypal  world  
–  World  viewed  as  creaAon  of  God  
•  Developed  a  mathemaAcal  philosophy  and  science  akin  
to  Pythagorean-­‐Platonic  tradiAon  
–  In  a  totally  sacred  environment  
–  Seeking  to  discover  principles  as  revealed  by  God  
•  Differed  from  the  Greeks  in  that  they  accepted  both  
infinity  and  zero  
•  LiYle  known  in  the  West  
 Islamic  View  of  Reality  
•  UlAmate  Reality  is  Absolute  and  Infinite  
–  Source  of  all  being  
–  Source  of  all  consciousness  
–  Source  of  all  life  
–  Beyond  form  
•  Revealed  to  mankind  through  forms  which  are  
–  Externally  bounded  and  limited  
–  Open  inwardly  toward  the  limitless  

Forward  by  Seyyed  Hossein  Nasr  

 Outline  
•  General  IntroducAon  
–  MoAvaAon  
–  Form  and  Energy  
–  Infinity    
•  IntroducAon  to  Islamic  World  View  
•  The  Crea(on  Sequence  
•  Three  Core  Polygons  
•  Cosmology  
•  Space  Filling  Tiles  
•  Conculsions  
 Crea(on/Destruc(on  Sequence  
Symbols  exhaust  verbal  explanaAon  
but  
Verbal  explanaAon  can  not  exhaust  symbols  
 
Symbols  point  to  undifferenAated  unity  
Words  involve  never  less  than  two  
 
PaYerns  that  emerge  from  and  return  to  unity  
They  exhibit  fundamental  relaAonships  and  hierarchy  
1  –  The  Point  
 1  –  The  Point  

•  What  are  origins  of  the  point?  

–  Is  it  possible  to  have  no  dimension?  
–  How  can  it  occupy  a  place  in  space  that  has  not  been  created?  
•  Dao  Te  Ching:  “The  Dao  that  can  be  told  is  not  the  eternal  Dao”  
•  Islam:  “No  divinity  if  not  the  sole  divinity”  
•  Here  two  pairs  of  words:  
–  each  word  represents  a  degree  of  reality  
–  One  word  denoAng  affirmaAon;  one  word  denoAng  negaAon  
–  NegaAon  refers  to  manifest  domain;  affirmaAon  to  the  supraform  and  
Principle  together  
•  The  supreme  mystery  manifesAng  as  itself  as  paradox  
–  In  geometry:  “no  dimension  without  all  dimensions”  
•  DKL:  Zero  does  not  seem  to  play  a  role  here  
 1  –  The  Point  

•  ManifestaAon  of  a  acAon,  object,  or  thought  

necessitates  a  point  of  origin,  or  departure  
–  In  the  mind  it  represents  a  unitary  focus  of  conscious  
awareness  
–  In  the  physical  world  it  represents  a  focal  event  in  a  
field  previously  uninterrupted  
•  Point  of  awareness  does  not  reveal  its  causaAon    
•  Controlling  point  of  all  forms  
 2  –  The  Circle  

•  First  departure  from  unity  

•  Departure  from  source  indicates  direcAon  
•  Line  is  point  externalizing  itself  
–  Emergence  of  polarity  of  existence:  Two  end  points  of  line    
•  With  limited  departure  of  point,  line  expresses  as  a  radius  
–  Radius  expresses  control  by  center  point  (source)  
–  Demarks  acAve  outer  limits  
•  Emergence  of  the  circle  establishes  the  plane  
 2  –  The  Circle  

•  Circle  expresses  a  unity  reflecAng  the  unity  of  the  

original  center  point  (which  is  always  hidden)  
•  Archetypal  governing  basis  for  all  geometrical  
shapes  that  unfold  within  it  
–  Two  dimensional  world  being  closer  to  one  
dimensional  point  
 2  –  The  Circle  -­‐  Time  

•  Outside  concept  of  Ame  –  eternity  

•  Within  limits  of  Ame  
–  Point  travels  around  the  circle  return  in  to  the  point  of  
departure  
–  Point  travels  forward  in  Ame  
•  This  establishes  a  helix:  expression  in  Ame  of  circle  
 2  –  Externaliza(on  of  Circle  
Original  Unity  

•  CompleAon  of  the  reflecAon  of  two  

•  both  center  coincide  with  boundary  of   circles  
each   •  Point  of  contact  that  reflects  original  
•  amount  of  manifestaAon  of  deparAng   unity  
circle  reflects  exactly  amount  remaining   •  First  expression  of  “measurement”  –as  
in  the  original  circle   distance  “between”  can  be  idenAfied  
two  discernable  uniAes  
3  –  Development  of  Area    

Circles  remain  in  contact   maximum  expansion  

state  of  equilibrium  
 3  –  Triangle  

•  Maximal  expansion  is  reached  when  the  circles  just  touch  

•  This  expansion  generates  a  triangle  establishing  area  
•  The  triangle  is  the  first  polygon.  Other  polygons*  can  be  reduced  to  it.  
•  Symbolic  of  the  minimal  needs  of  consciousness  –  Knower,  Knowing,  and  
act  of  Knowing  

*  In  this  talk  polygon  means  regular  polygon.  

 3  –  Triangle  
Fractal-­‐like  quality  
 
Suggests  the  infinitely  large  
 
Suggests  the  infinitely  small  
 6  –  Emergence  of  the  Hexagram  

mirror  reflecAon  of  4   mirror  reflecAon  of  3  

7th  circle  completes  unity  

mirror  reflecAon  of  5    
1  manifesAng  6  -­‐  hexagram    

Note:  Islam  asserts  CreaAon  was  completed  in  six  days.  

6  -­‐  Hexagram  
Metaphysical  Origins  
World  of  Being  
Balancing  Point  

ManifestaAon  
Sensorial  World  
4  -­‐  Square  
Earth  
 Outline  
•  General  IntroducAon  
–  MoAvaAon  
–  Form  and  Energy  
–  Infinity    
•  IntroducAon  to  Islamic  World  View  
•  The  CreaAon  Sequence  
•  Three  Core  Polygons  
•  Cosmology  
•  Space  Filling  Tiles  
•  Conclusions  
 Three  Core  Polygons  

3rd  unity  =  hexagram   Hexagram  or  Circle  =  Heaven  

   
   
   
   
   
1st  unity  =  triangle       Triangle    =  Human  Consciousness  
   
   
   
   
   
 2nd  unity  =  square    Square  =  Earth  or  Materiality  
Three  Core  Polygons  
Hexagram  or  Circle  =  Heaven  
 
 
 
 
 
Triangle    =  Human  Consciousness  
 
 
 
 
 
 Square  =  Earth  or  Materiality  
 Outline  
•  General  IntroducAon  
–  MoAvaAon  
–  Form  and  Energy  
–  Infinity    
•  IntroducAon  to  Islamic  World  View  
•  The  CreaAon  Sequence  
•  Three  Core  Polygons  
•  Cosmology  
•  Space  Filling  Tiles  
•  Conclusions  
 Cosmology  
•  Islam  asserts  the  unity  of  existence/universe  
•  Unity  has  inner  and  outer  aspect  
–  Outer:  sensible  observaAon  
–  Inner:  appreciaAon  of  the  expression  of  cosmological  laws  
in  one’s  own  structure  
•  Goal  of  spiritual  disciplines  is  to  unite  inner  and  outer  
•  Language  of  the  archetypal  laws  which  unite  inner  and  
outer  cosmos  is  paYern,  or  number  paYern  
•  Islam  takes  the  paYerns  and  periodiciAes  of  the  
heavens  to  correspond  with  the  archetypes  in  the  
mind  
 The  Cosmos  
“My  companions  are  the  stars:  whomsoever  any  one  of  you  follow,  you  will  be  rightly  guided.”  
-­‐Muhammad  

•  Circle  is  the  inner  core  of  of  the  Ameless  

moment  of  Ame  and  dimensionless  point  
of  space  
•  Periods  of  Ame  and  direcAons  in  space  
occur  as  interval  around  the  circle  
•  The  dodecagon  symbolizes:  
–  12  months  of  the  year  
–  12  hours  of  the  day  
•  The  square  symbolizes:  
–  4  seasons  
–  4  cardinal  direcAons  
•  Two  symbolizes:  
–  The  solsAces  
–  Day  and  night  
 Zodiac  and  Earth  
•  Very  common  paYern  
•  Contains  both  4  and  12  
•  Suggests  the  zodiac  
corresponds  to  the  
earth:  
–  4  seasons  
–  4  elements  (fire,  water,  
earth,  air)  
–  4  qualiAes  of  heat,  cold,  
moist,  and  dry  
6-­‐12:  Unfolding  of  Dimension  

Note  the  presence  of  triangle,  square,  hexagon,  and  dodecagon.  

 6-­‐12:  Unfolding  of  Dimension  
•  Note  octahedron  in  solid  lines.  
•  This  projecAon  of  3-­‐dimensional  
space  from  a  2  -­‐dimensional  
paYern  illustrates  the  Islamic  
doctrine  of  emanaAon  where  
manifestaAon  is  asserted  through  
dimension.    
–  Our  World  in  3-­‐dimensional  
coordinates  is  at  the  gross  end  of  
the  scale.  
–  The  2-­‐dimensional  plane  is  used  to  
symbolize  more  subtle  levels  of  
emanaAon  and  indicate  the  
direcAon  of  the  source  of  
emanaAon.  
–  The  1-­‐dimensional  point  is  divine.  
The  other  solids  are  similarly  constructed.  
 Outline  
•  General  IntroducAon  
–  MoAvaAon  
–  Form  and  Energy  
–  Infinity    
•  IntroducAon  to  Islamic  World  View  
•  The  CreaAon  Sequence  
•  Three  Core  Polygons  
•  Cosmology  
•  Space  Filling  Tiles  
•  Conclusions  
 2-­‐Dimensional  Space  Filling  
•  How  do  you  know  space  exists?  
•  How  do  you  represent  the  infinity  of  space?  
•  Can  you  select  polygons  (of  one  type)  so  that  
you  can  fill  space  leaving  no  gaps?  
–  This  has  a  mathemaAcal  answer  
•  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  periodicity?  
Three  Core  Polygons  

Three  primary  shapes  that  will  fill  a  

plane  without  gaps    
 
Each  point  in  each  figure  can  be  
surrounded  by  a  smaller  figure,  so  
exhibiAng  an  infinite  expansion  
and  contracAon  
 
Each  figure  exhibits  different  
symmetries  and  ways  of  reflecAng  
itself  
 “Threeness”  
Founda(on  of  Islamic  Pacerning  
 

Each  polygon  represents  different  

ways  of  filling  the  plane  

Represents  the  equilibrium  of  the    

three  regular  tessellaAons  of  the  plane  
Simultaneous  Expansion  of  Unity  
Alterna(ve  Presenta(on  
Equilibrium  Posi(on  
2-­‐Dimensional  Space  Filling  
The  only  three  totally  regular  polygons  that  
exactly  fill  2-­‐dimensional  space.  
 
A    
 
Only  8  semi-­‐regular  tessellaAons:  
 
All  node  juncAons  are  similar.  
 
Each  node  has  the  same  kind  and  number  
of  polygons  surrounding  each  node.  
 Example  of  Tile  Filling  

Stone  Lavce  paYern  

Semi-­‐Regular  paYern  A  (previous  slide)  
Friday  Mosque  at  Isfahan  
 Example  of  Tile  Filling  

Shibam-­‐Kawkabin,  Yemen,    
Semi-­‐Regular  paYern  A  (previous  slide)  
early  10th  century  
From  North  African  and  Spanish  Branch  

Dodecagon  in  square  grid  

Different  set  of  axis  of  symmetry  
Note  “Maltese  Cross”  
 Found  in  Halls  of  Alhambra  

IntroducAon  of  4-­‐pointed  flowers   Final  PaYern  

Hall  of  Three  Sisters  
Hall  of  Two  Sisters  
Shrine  of  Imam  Reza,  Mashhad,  Iran  
•  Star  octagon  ‘controls’  
design  
•  ‘Frozen’  shapes  indicate  
“cold”  
•  Fluid  shapes  indicate  
“heat”  
•  These  shapes  are  
complimentary  
•  Reflects  the  concept  
that  Ame  is  a  flowing  
image  of  eternity  
 Outline  
•  General  IntroducAon  
–  MoAvaAon  
–  Form  and  Energy  
–  Infinity    
•  IntroducAon  to  Islamic  World  View  
•  The  CreaAon  Sequence  
•  Three  Core  Polygons  
•  Cosmology  
•  Space  Filling  Tiles  
•  Conclusions  
 Conclusions  
•  Discussed  the  role  of  three  basic  polygons,  
triangle,  square,  and  hexagram  is  the  creaAon  
sequence  or  emergence  of  manifestaAon  from  
unity  in  Islamic  philosophy  
•  Introduced  cosmology  into  the  geometric  
sequence  
•  Showed  how  these  basic  shapes  are  used  to  
create  Islamic  Aling  paYerns