ECOM– 360

Fundamentals of Communication Systems

Chapter 05
Angle Modulation

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
 2
Why Frequency Modulation (FM)?
In AM, the changes in amplitude cannot be removed; doing so would
also remove the original information. In FM, the changes in amplitude
do not represent any intentional information. Thus, in FM receivers, a
circuit called a limiter is used to remove any changes in amplitude of
the received FM signal. In FM, it is the change in frequency that
represents the original information. The limiter in an FM receiver
removes the effects of noise but does not disturb the original
modulating signal.
A common example of the noise-free reception of FM compared to AM
is the TV set. Picture information is transmitted as AM, but sound
information is in FM. So one can observe a noisy picture while hearing
a noise-free sound.
Notice: FM is not completely noise free, but the noise that causes
changes in the amplitude of FM can be eliminated.
 3

Instantaneous Frequency
For an angle modulated signal A cos θi(t), the instantaneous
frequency , fi(t), is defined as the rate of change of the angle θi(t).
That is,
1 di (t )
fi (t ) 
2 dt
Example
Find the instantaneous frequency of
EM(t) = 10 cos [2000πt + 2 sin(10 π t)].
Solution
The waveform EM(t) can be written as EM(t) = A cos θi(t), where
A = 10, and θi(t) = 2π[1000t + sin(10 π t)]. The instantaneous
frequency is given by
1 d i (t )
fi (t )   1000  10  cos(10  t )
2 dt
 4

Frequency Modulation
The modulated waveform is given by
 FM (t )  A cosi (t )  A cos  2 f ct  k f  m(  ) d  
 t

  
where fc is the constant carrier frequency and kf
(Hertz/Volt) is a proportionality constant relating
frequency changes to amplitude values of m(t). Since
 t
 t
 ( t )   2  f c t  k f  m ( ) d    2   f i ( ) d 
   

The instantaneous frequency is given by

kf
f i (t )  f c  m(t )
2
Then, the frequency of FM(t) varies from fc + kf /2[min
m(t)] to fc + kf /2[max m(t)].
 5
Example
Sketch the resultant FM waveform FM(t), if m(t) is a one cycle
sinusoidal wave given by
m(t) =Am cos(2 fm t),
where Am = 20, fm = 125 Hz, kf = 300 Hz/V, fc = 5 kHz, and A =
1.
Solution
The resultant FM signal is shown next for a one cycle sinusoidal wave.

 300  20
 FM (t )  cos 10,000  t  sin(250 t ) 
 250 
 6
m(t)
20

10

-10

-20
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Above fc Below fc -3
x 10
1

0.5

-0.5

-1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-3
x 10
 7
Example
Sketch the resultant FM waveform FM(t), if m(t) is a sinusoidal
wave given by m(t) = Am sin(2π fm t), for Am = 10, Am = 14, Am =
18, where fm = 125 Hz, kf = 4  10-4 Hz/V, fc = 8 kHz, and A = 1.
Comment on your result.
Solution
The resultant FM wave is shown next. The amplitude of the
modulating signal m(t), given here by Am, causes changes in the
frequency of the FM carrier. Thus, how far form its resting
frequency the FM wave deviates is determined by the amplitude of
the signal m(t). The frequency deviation is determined by
kf kf
fi (t )  f c  m(t )  f c  Am sin(2 f mt )
2 2
 8


m(t) 0

 t
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1

0

-1 t
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
FM

1

0

-1 t
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1

0

-1 t
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
 9

Phase Modulation (PM)

There is no basic difference between phase modulation and
frequency modulation, since modulating a phase with a particular
signal also modulates the derivative of that phase, that is frequency,
with a related function of time.
The modulated signal for PM is given by

 PM (t )  A cos i (t )  A cos  2 f c t  k p m(t ) 

Notice θi(t) is modulated with m(t), instead of dθi(t)/dt. The

proportionality constant is kp

We can relate PM wave to FM wave by comparing the instantaneous

frequency of PM and FM.
 10

Generation of FM from PM, and vice versa

• For PM, the instantaneous frequency is given by
kp d
fi (t )  f c  m(t )
2 dt

• This looks very similar to the FM case, where

kf
f i (t )  f c  m(t )
2
FM  FM (t ) d FM  PM (t )
m ( t)
Modulator
m ( t)
  Modulator
dt

 PM (t )  FM (t )
  d 
m ( t) PM m ( t) PM
Modulator Modulator
 11
Example
Sketch the resultant FM and PM waveforms, for the sinusoidal wave
given by
m(t) = Am sin(2π fm t),
Where Am=25, fm =125 Hz, kf=300 Hz/V, kp=20.195 V-1
fc=5 kHz, and A=1.
Solution
The resultant FM and PM signals are shown in the next slide.

150  25
 FM (t )  cos 2  5000  t  cos(2 125t ) 
 2 125 

 PM (t )  cos 2   5000  t  0.195  25  sin(2 125 t )

 12

50
m ( t)

-50
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01
t ( se c )
1
F M ( t )

-1
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01
t ( se c )
1
P M ( t )

-1
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01
t ( se c )
 13

Maximum Frequency Deviation

The instantaneous frequency of a modulated FM signal, φFM(t),
varies from fc + kf /2[min m(t)] to fc + kf /2[max m(t)]. The
maximum frequency deviation from the carrier frequency is
defined as
Δf = kf /2 max |m(t)| For FM

f i( t ) m(t)

∆f
fc

t
 14
Similarly, the instantaneous frequency of a modulated PM signal,
φPM(t), varies from fc + kp /2 min[dm(t)/dt] to fc + kp /2
max[dm(t)/dt] The maximum frequency deviation from the carrier
frequency is defined as Δf = kp /2 max |dm(t)/dt| For PM

Modulation Index (Deviation Ratio)

The modulation index, β is a dimensionless quantity, defined as
f
=
fm

where, Δf is the maximum frequency deviation from the carrier

frequency and fm is the maximum frequency content of m(t).
 15
Example
Determine the deviation ratio, β for the following FM signal

 
t
FM (t )  200cos 20000 t  20  sin(10 ) d 


Solution
The instantaneous frequency is given by
kf
f i (t )  f c  m(t )  10000  10sin(10 t )
2
so, the value of Δf = (kf /2)max |m(t)| = 10 and fm = 5 , then

 f 10
=  2
fm 5
 16
Example
Determine the deviation ratio, β for the following PM signal
 PM (t )  200 cos  2 10000 t  10cos(10 t ) 
The maximum value of the
angle inside the brackets is
Solution called the phase deviation

 (t )  2 10000 t  
10 and denoted by:
The angle  cos(10 t )  Δ = kp max[m(t)].
 2 
and the instantaneous frequency is given by
kp d 10
f i (t )  f c  m(t )  10000    sin(10 t )
2 dt 2
 10000  50  sin(10 t )

so, the value of Δf = kp/2 max [dm(t)/dt] = 50 and fm = 5 , then

 f 50
=   10
fm 5
 17

Power of Angle Modulated Signal

The average power of an angle modulated signal A cos θ(t)
measured across an impedance of 1-Ω, is given by
1 T /2 A2
Pav  lim   A cos (t )  dt 
2

T   T -T / 2 2
Notice that, Pav is independent of m(t).

Example
Determine the average power of the following angle modulated
signal φEM(t) when measured across a 1 Ω antenna.

EM(t) = 200 cos 2π[10000t + 10 sin(10 π t)] = A cos θ(t).

Solution
A   40000
2
The average power, 2
200
Pav     20000 W
2 2 2
 18

Spectrum of FM Signal (Single Tone case)

we cannot find the Fourier transform of the general FM form,
because of the nonlinear relationship between m(t) and φFM(t).
Therefore, we will consider the case of a single tone modulation.
For a single tone modulation let m(t) = Amcos(2π fmt),
where Am is a constant amplitude. The FM signal is then given
by:
 FM (t )  A cos  2  f ct  k f a (t ) 
t
a(t )   m( ) d 
where 

The instantaneous frequency of the FM wave is given by

Am k f t Am
f i (t )  f c  cos(2  f m t ) and a (t )   m (  ) d   sin(2 f mt )
2  2 f m
 19
The FM waveform, is of the form
 Am k f 
 FM (t )  A cos  2  f c t  sin(2  f m t ) 
 2 f m 
But, we have
f Am k f
 
f m 2 f m
Now, substituting β above, we obtain

 FM (t )  A cos  2  f c t   sin(2  f m t ) 

In order to separate the information portion from the carrier, we

expand φFM(t) into
 FM (t )  Re  A e  Re  Ae
j  2 fct   sin(2 f mt )  j (2 fct ) j  sin(2 f mt )
e 
The information terme j (  sin 2  fm t )
is complex and periodic with
period 1/fm, hence, it can be expanded into a complex Fourier series.
 20


That is, e
j  sin( 2 f m t )
  Dn e j 2  nf mt

n-

where the Fourier complex coefficients

1 Tm / 2 j sin(2 fmt ) - j (2 nfmt )
Dn   e e dt
Tm -Tm / 2
If we introduce the change of variables x = 2 fmt, then

1  j sin x - jn x
Dn  e e dx J n (  )
2 
Jn() is the Bessel function of the first kind of the nth order
It is obvious that, the coefficients Dn do not depend on fm; however,
they converge to the Bessel function of the first kind and order n.
 21

Bessel Function Properties

1
J0( )
J ( )
1
J2( )
J3( )
0.5 J ( )
4
J5( )
J n(  )

-0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10


1. J n (  )  ( 1) n J  n (  )

2. J
n 
n
2
( )  1
 22

Spectrum of FM Signals (Single Tone case)

The FM waveform becomes
 
 FM (t ) Re A  J n (  )e jn 2 fmt e j 2 fct
n 


 A  J n (  ) cos(2 f c t  n2 f mt )
n 
The FM waveform has been reduced to a sum of
sinusoids which consist of a carrier component and an
infinite number of sidebands of frequencies fc ± fm , fc ±
2fm , .... The Fourier transform of this sum is a train of
impulses.
A 
 FM ( f )   J n (  )   f  f c  nf m    ( f  f c  nf m 
2 n  -
 23

Table of Bessel Functions

β J0 J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6 J7
0.0 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.2 0.99 0.10 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.4 0.96 0.20 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.6 0.91 0.29 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.8 0.85 0.37 0.08 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1.0 0.77 0.44 0.11 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1.2 0.67 0.50 0.16 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
1.4 0.57 0.54 0.21 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
1.6 0.46 0.57 0.26 0.07 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00
1.8 0.34 0.58 0.31 0.10 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00
2.0 0.22 0.58 0.35 0.13 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.00
2.2 0.11 0.56 0.40 0.16 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.00
2.4 0.00 0.52 0.43 0.20 0.06 0.02 0.00 0.00
2.6 -0.10 0.47 0.46 0.24 0.08 0.02 0.01 0.00
2.8 -0.19 0.41 0.48 0.27 0.11 0.03 0.01 0.00
3.0 -0.26 0.34 0.49 0.31 0.13 0.04 0.01 0.00
3.2 -0.32 0.26 0.48 0.34 0.16 0.06 0.02 0.00
3.4 -0.36 0.18 0.47 0.37 0.19 0.07 0.02 0.01
3.6 -0.39 0.10 0.44 0.40 0.22 0.09 0.03 0.01
3.8 -0.40 0.01 0.41 0.42 0.25 0.11 0.04 0.01
4.0 -0.40 -0.07 0.36 0.43 0.28 0.13 0.05 0.02
 24

Transmission Bandwidth of FM
• In theory the FM signal contains infinite number of side
frequencies, i.e. absolute bandwidth is infinite.
• In practice, the FM signal is limited to a finite number of
significant side frequencies (effective bandwidth).
• Effective bandwidth of FM depends on the parameter ,
and fm.
• Effective bandwidth can also obtained by computing the
range of frequencies that contain 98% of the total power,
i.e. find n0 such that
n0
J 0 (  )  2 J n (  )  0.98
2 2

n 1
 25

Transmission Bandwidth of FM
.  =1 J0(1)=0.765 J1(1)=0.44 J2(1)=0.115 J3(1)=0.0196

fc=200Hz, fm=20Hz | FM(f)|, for =1

1

0.9
J20(1)+2 2n=1 J2n(1)=0.9992
0.8

0.7

0.6
| FM(f)|

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2 2 f
0.1

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
f (Hz)
 26

Transmission Bandwidth of FM
2.  =2 J0(2)=0.224 J1(2)=0.577 J2(2)=0.353 J3(2)=0.129 J4(2)=0.034

fc=200Hz, fm=20Hz
| (f)|, for =2
FM
1

0.9

0.8
J20(1)+2 3n=1 J2n(2)=0.9976
0.7

0.6
| FM(f)|

0.5

0.4
BW
0.3

0.2

0.1 2 f
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
f (Hz)
 27

Transmission Bandwidth of FM
3.  =5 J0(5)=-0.178 J1(5)=-0.328 J2(5)=0.0466 J3(5)=0.365 J4(5)=0.391

fc=200 Hz, J5(5)=0.261 J6(5)=0.131 J7(5)=0.053 J8(5)=0.018 J9(5)=0.006

fm=20Hz | FM(f)|, for =5

0.5

0.45
J20(1)+2 6n=1 J2n(5)=0.9936
0.4

0.35

0.3
| FM(f)|

BW
0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1 2 f
0.05

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
f (Hz)
 28

Narrow Band FM (NBFM)

J 0 ( ) 1
• For small :

J1 (  )
2
J n (  )  0, for n  2.
| (f)|, for =0.2
FM
1

0.8 BW=2fm
| FM(f)|

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
f (Hz)
 29

Transmission Bandwidth of FM (For Any Signal)

• The effective bandwidth of FM signals can be obtained

empirically by noticing that the effective FM bandwidth is
slightly larger than 2f.
• Carson’s Rule:
 1
BW 2  f  f m   2f 1    2 1    f m
 
 30
Example
A 10 MHz carrier is frequency-modulated by a sinusoidal signal such that the peak
frequency deviation is 50 kHz. Determine the approximate bandwidth of the FM signal
if the frequency of the modulating sinusoid is (a) 500 kHz; (b) 500 Hz; (c) 10 kHz.
Solution
Since β = Δf /fm, then for
a. β = 50 kHz/500 kHz = 0.10; this is NBFM; BW  2  500 kHz (1 + 0.1) = 1.1 MHz.
b. β = 50 kHz/500 Hz = 100; this is WBFM; BW  2  500 Hz (1 + 100) = 101 kHz.
c. β = 50 kHz/10 kHz = 5; Carson's rule gives BW  2  10000 (1 + 5) = 120 kHz.

A more accurate method is by using tables to find the number n of significant sidebands
such that |Jn(β)|  0.01:
BW = 2 n fm = 2  8  10 kHz = 160 kHz.

Note that the space between the magnitude line spectrum in this case is 10 kHz.
 31
Example
A given FM signal is
φFM(t) = 100 cos[ 2π(500 kHz) t – 2 sin (2π(500 Hz)t) ].
Determine the following:
a. The carrier frequency, fc.
b. The peak frequency deviation, Δf.
c. The modulation index.
d. The approximate bandwidth of the FM signal.
e. The approximate band of frequencies occupied by the FM signal.

Solve in class
 32
Example
Sketch the spectrum of the FM signal φFM(t) for m(t) = α cos(2π fm t),
where α = 30, A = 100, kf = 20 V/Hz, fm = 100 Hz and fc = 800 Hz.
Determine the FM signal bandwidth from the plot and compare it to the
Carson’s approximation of the bandwidth.
Solution
The signal  FM (t )  A cos  (t )  A cos  2 f ct  k f a (t )  ,where
t

a(t )   m( )d   sin(2 f mt )
 2 f m
f =kf /2=300, =f/fm=3

From Matlab using β Jo(β) J1(β) J2(β) J3(β) J4(β) J5(β) J6(β) J7(β)
besselj(n, β) 3 -0.2601 0.3391 0.4861 0.3091 0.1320 0.0430 0.0114 0.0025

Using the rule |Jn(β)|  0.01 , BW = 2 n fm = 2  6  100 = 1200 Hz.

Since β = 3, then Carson’s approximation yields,
BW  2 ( Δf + fm) = 2 fm (1 + β) = 800 Hz
 | FM(f)|, for =3, A=100 33

30

X: 1000
Y: 24.29
25

20
X: 900
Y: 16.94
| FM(f)|

15 X: 800
Y: 13 X: 1100
Y: 15.44

10
X: 1200
Y: 6.595

5 X: 1300
Y: 2.149

0
-1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500
f (Hz)
 34

HW #7
• 5.1-3, 5.2-1, 5.2-2, 5.2-3, 5.2-4, 5.2-6,
5.2-7
 35

Narrow Band FM (NBFM)

• Alternatively:
 FM (t )  A cos(2 f ct   sin(2 f mt ))
 A cos(2 f ct ) cos(  sin(2 f mt )  A sin(2 f ct ) sin(  sin(2 f mt ))
• For small , cos( sin(2 fmt))≈1, and
sin( sin(2 fm t)) ≈  sin(2 fm t).
 FM (t ) A cos(2 f ct )  AAβsin(2πf
sin(  sin(2
ct  f mt ) sin(2
)sin(2πf  f ct )
m t)

 A cos(2 f ct )  A cos(2 ( f c  f m )t  cos(2 ( f c  f m )t 
2

• In general the NBFM signal can be written as:

 FM (t ) A cos(2 f ct )  k f a (t ) sin(2 f ct ) 
 36

Narrow Band FM (NBFM)

 FM (t ) A  cos(2 f ct )  k f a (t ) sin(2 f ct ) 

m ( t) t _ NBFM
kf   d

X
+
∑

Phase shift
-/2

Acos( w c t )
~
 37
This approximation is linear in a(t), and is therefore linear in m(t); moreover, it is
similar to AM since there is a carrier and a set of sidebands. As a consequence, we
expect the bandwidth of NBFM to be approximately 2fm. However, this is where the
similarity ends. For NBFM the amplitude of the carrier is constant compared to the
AM signal, furthermore, the two sidebands are shifted by π/2 relative to the carrier
as compared to AM.
t
The Fourier transform of a(t )   m( ) d  for f > 0, is given by


M( f )
A( f ) 
j 2 f
when M(0) = 0, therefore, if M( f ) is limited to fm, then A( f ) is also limited to fm.

The bandwidth of the NBFM is as anticipated 2fm. In practice, low

deviations with β < 0.25 is called NBFM.
 38

Narrowband Phase Modulation

Phase modulating with m(t) is exactly the same as frequency modulating with the
derivative of m(t). since the derivative of m(t) contains the same range of frequencies
as does m(t). Accordingly, NBPM occupies the range of frequencies located between
fc - fm and fc + fm with a bandwidth of 2fm. From the general form of PM wave which
is given by:
 PM (t )  A cos(2 f ct  k p m( t ))

in order for PM to be narrowband kp is very small , hence, kpm(t) must be a very

small angle, or equivalently, |kp m(t)|  1. Then,
 PM (t )  A cos(2 f ct ) cos(2 k p m(t ))  A sin(2 f ct ) sin(2 k p m(t ))
φPM(t)  A cos(2π fc t ) - A kp m(t)sin(2π fc t)

or,
φPM(t)  A cos(2π fc t ) + A kp m(t) cos (2π fc t + π/2).
 39

φPM(t)  A cos(2π fc t ) - A m(t) kp sin(2π fc t)

m ( t)
_ NBPM
X ∑
+

Phase shift
-/2

Acos( w c t )
~
 40

Amplitude Distortion in NBFM

• Due to the NBFM stage, approximation has made, which
results in amplitude distortion.
• For NBFM:

 FM (t )  A cos( wct )  k f a(t )sin( wct ) 
 E (t ) cos( wct   (t ))
where E (t )  A 1  k 2 f a 2 (t ),
and  (t )  tan 1  k f a(t ) 
• As a result the instantaneous frequency:
1 d 1 k f am(t)
(t )
fi (t )  f c   (t )  f c 
2 dt 2 1  k f 2 a 2 (t )

 
1 k f m(t ) k f m(t )
fi (t )  f c   f  1  k 2 2
a (t )  k 4 4
a (t )
2 1  k f a (t ) 2
2 2 c f f
 41

Amplitude Distortion in NBFM

• For m(t)=Amcos(wmt), kf a(t)= sin(wmt)
 
1 k f m(t ) k f m(t )
fi (t )  f c   f  1   2
sin 2
( w t )   4
sin 4
( wmt )
2 1  k f a (t ) 2
2 2 c m

for small  ,

 
k f Am cos( wmt )
fi (t ) f c  1   2 sin 2 ( wmt )
2
 1 1 
f c   f m cos( wmt ) 1   2   cos(2 wmt )  
 2 2 
3 3
 f c   f m cos( wmt )  f m cos( wmt )  f m cos(3wmt )
4 4
 2   3 fm
 f c   f m 1   cos( wmt )  cos(3wmt )
 4  4
 3 fm
f c   f m cos( wmt )  cos(3wmt )
4
the amount of Amp. dist.
 42

Frequency Multipliers
• Frequency multipliers are non-linear devices that produce an output
signal with frequency multiple of the input signal frequency. An n fold
frequency multiplier is simply:

Xn Output signal
Input signal with
with frequncy fout
frequncy fin fout=nfin
• Example, consider the following squaring device:
A2
x(t )  A cos(2 f ct  k f a(t )) cos(4 fct  2k f a(t ))
2 y (t )  x 2 (t ) BPF 2
(.) @2fc
 A2 cos 2 (2 f ct  k f a(t ))
kf d
fin (t )  f c  a (t )
2 dt
kf d
f out (t )  2 f c  2 a(t )
2 dt
 43

Generation of Wideband FM
I. Indirect Generation
Starting with the NBFM with instantaneous frequency
kf
f i (t )  f c  m(t )
2
Now, if we apply the output of a NBFM modulator to a nonlinear
device that multiplies all frequencies by a constant n. Then, the
resulting waveform has an instantaneous frequency
kf
f i (t )  nf c  n m(t )
2
The frequency deviation of the new waveform is n times that of the
old. Consequently, for a large value of n, multiplication changes
NBFM to WBFM.
 44

Generation of Wideband FM
• Example: The commercial FM receiver f =75 kHz
1. NBFM: fc1=200 kHz, f =25 Hz, the bandwidth of the voice baseband
signal ranges from 50 Hz to 15 kHz.
2. The modulation index , is computed at the worst case (=f/50=0.5)
3. To achieve f =75 kHz, we need frequency multiplication by 3000.
4. This frequency multiplication is obtained by multistage multiplication.

∆f 1 = 2 5 H z ∆f 2 = 1 . 6 k H z ∆f 3 = 7 6 . 8 k H z

m ( t)
x64 X Power
NBFM x48
Amp.
Down
f c1 = 2 0 0 k H z Conversion
f c3 = 1 . 9 M H z
f c2 = 1 2 . 8 M H z f c4 = 9 1 . 2 M H z
f LO= 1 0 . 9 M H z

~
 45

Example
 46

Generation of Wideband FM
II. Direct Generation Tuning Circuit
R L C0
VCO

Voltage controlled
Oscillator
1
•The oscillating frequency f 0  , center frequency
1 2 LC0
fi (t )  ,
2 L  C0  C (t ) 
where C(t )  m(t )  varactor (variable capacitor), C (t )  km(t )
1
 fi (t ) 
 km(t ) 
2 LC0 1  
 C 0  C(t) C0 L

1 1

2 LC0 km(t )
1
C0
 k 
f 0 1  m(t ) 
 2C 0 
 47

Demodulation of FM & PM
There are two categories of demodulators:
1. Discriminator Detector
This is a device that discriminates one frequency from another by
transforming changes in frequency into changes in amplitude. The
amplitude changes are detected just as was done in AM. This
technique is used for both NBFM as well as WBFM.
If the modulated FM waveform

 
t
FM (t )  A cos 2 f ct  k f  m( ) d 


is differentiated with respect to time, one obtains

d FM (t )

  A  wc  k f m(t )  sin wct  k f  m( )d  
t

dt 
 48

FM Demodulation by a Discriminator Detector

• The envelope of the output of the discriminator is proportional to the
baseband message m(t).

E (t )   A  wc  k f m(t ) 
• The complete FM demodulator is a discriminator + an envelop detector

 FM (t ) d Ak f m ( t )
  Envelop
Detector
dt

fc
 49

PM Demodulation by a Discriminator Detector

Note that, if the transmission is PM rather than FM, the output of the
pervious system is the derivative of m(t). Therefore, to change the
system to PM demodulator, we must add an integrator to the output of
the system. Starting with
 PM (t )  A cos(2 f ct  k p m(t ))
differentiating with respect to time

 PM (t )   A  wc  k p m(t )  sin( wct  k p m(t ))

d
dt

 PM (t ) Ak m (t)

d
  Envelop
Detector
dt
 50
Now, the transfer function of a differentiator is given by
H( f ) = 2π j f = |H( f )| e j θ( f ) = 2π | f | e j π/2
The magnitude of the output of the differentiator is linearly related to
the frequency of its input. The differentiator therefore changes FM to
AM. When a differentiator is used in this manner, it is called a
discriminator.
 51
In order for a system to change FM to AM, the magnitude of its
transfer function must be linear throughout the range of frequencies
of the FM wave.
52
 53

Demodulation of FM
2. Time-Delay discriminator
An approximation to the derivative of φFM(t) could be obtained
from the fact that,

d FM (t )  FM (t )   FM (t  t0 )
,for small t0
dt t0
where the difference is taken between two sample values of the
waveform.
d FM (t )
t0  FM (t )   FM (t  t0 )
dt
 FM (t ) + Envelop t oAk f m ( t )
_ ∑ Detector

Delay T0
 54
Noise Reduction in FM Systems
1- Bandpass Limiter
In FM the message signal is embedded in the frequency of the carrier,
however, noise and interference result in amplitude variation of the
FM signal. In general, the amplitude variations of an angle modulated
carrier can be eliminated by using a bandpass limiter.
 55
The incoming frequency modulated signal is given by

υi(t) = A(t) cos θ(t),

t
θ(t )  2 f ct  k f a (t ), where a (t )   m ( ) d 


The output υo(t) of the hard limiter can be expressed as a function of

θ, since the envelope A(t)  0.

 1 , cos θ  0
υo (t )  
 1 , cos θ  0
 56

Hard Limiter

vi(t)

t
The function υo, as a function of θ, is a periodic square-wave with a 57

period of 2π. Then, its Fourier series expansion is given by

( n -1) / 2
4  ( -1)
υo (θ)   cos θnθ
 n  odd n
  cos θ  cos 3 θ  cos 5 θ 
4 1 1

 3 5 
The Fourier series expansion is valid for any real θ. However, we have

then, θ(t )  2 f ct  k f a(t )

υo [θ (t )] 
4
 
cos  2 f c t  k f a(t )   cos  6  f ct  k f a(t )  
1
3 
The output of the hard limiter has the original FM wave plus multiples
of the FM wave.
 58

Passing this output through a BPF tuned to fc with bandwidth BFM,

gives the desired constant amplitude FM signal

cos  2 f c t  k f a(t ) 
4

This result applies to PM as well.
 59
2- Preemphasis and Deemphasis
In angle modulated systems the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of
the receiver can be improved if the level of modulation at the
transmitter is boosted for higher frequencies this is called
preemphasis and attenuated at high frequencies on the receiver output
this is called deemphasis. This gives an over all baseband frequency
response that is flat while improving the signal-to-noise ratio at the
receiver output.
 60

Preemphasis

• Voice signals are very week at high frequencies

• The preemphasis filter should boost the high frequency
components of the signal before signal transmission
• f1 = 2.1 kHz, f2 = 30 kHz (typical values)

2 j  1
H p ( ) 
1 j  2
 61

Deemphasis
• The deemphasis filter is
used at the receiver
• The deemphasis filter
compensates the effect
of the preemphasis filter

• This way the signal will

be received without
distortion
The question now is how preemphasis and deemphasis
enhance noise performance of the FM transmission?
 62
Preemphasis and Deemphasis
In the preemphasis characteristic the second corner frequency f2 occurs much above
the baseband spectrum of the modulating signal, say 25 kHz for audio modulation.
In FM broadcasting the time constant τ1 is usually 75 μsec so that f1 occurs at 2.125
kHz.
 63
Preemphasis and Deemphasis
As shown, the preemphasis curve increases the high-frequency response after 2.125
kHz. This increase is accomplished at rate of +20 dB/decade. Thus, the transmitted
signal has an increased boost for higher frequencies. In order to reduce the effect of
this high frequency boost, a corresponding deemphasis network in the receiver will
have the opposite effect on the signal. It can be seen that, the deemphasis curve roll
off at -20 dB/decade starting at 2.125 kHz. This combination results in a flat
response between the transmitter and receiver.
 64

Noise Analysis of Preemphasis & Deemphasis

• In order to know the SNR improvement, we have to compare

between SNR without premphasis-deemphasis and SNRPD with
premphasis-deemphasis

• Noise is added to the signal at the receiver so preemphasis does

not affect noise power

• Signal power at the receiver output in case preemphasis-

deemphasis used is the same as if preemphasis-deemphasis not
used since preemphasis and deemphasis cancel each other

SNRPD No
• As a result, SNR gain = 
SNR N oD

where NoD is the noise power at the receiver output (after

the deemphasis stage)
 65

Noise Analysis of Preemphasis & Deemphasis

Input FM
Signal Envelope
 Differentiator Detector & Deemphasis
DC-blocking n (t)
o noD (t)
n(t)

• The differentiator makes the power of the noise

concentrated at high frequencies

S no ( f )  S ni ( f ) | H ( f ) | 
2
2
 2

Ac
 66

Noise Analysis of Preemphasis & Deemphasis

• This implies
B
 8 2
 B 3
N 0  4 2  2 f 2 df  2
 B Ac Ac 3

• For NoD B
 2
f1
N 0 D  4 A
2 2
f df
f  f1
2 2 2
B c

8 f  B 1 B 
2 3
N0D  2   tan
1

Ac  f1 f1 
 67

Noise Analysis of Preemphasis & Deemphasis

SNRo No B3 1
• SNR gain =   3
SNRoPD N 0 D 3 f1  B 1 B 
 f  tan f 
 1 1

• Example: For a commercial FM receiver,

B = 15kHz. Find the SNR gain when using
preemphasis-deemphasis system with f1 = 2.1kHz
 68
FM Radio Broadcasting
Commercial FM radio uses the frequency range of 88 to 108 MHz for
transmission of voice and music signals. The carrier frequencies of
adjacent stations are being separated by 200 kHz. The maximum
frequency fm of the information signal is set at 15 kHz and the
maximum frequency deviation Δf is set to 75 kHz, which gives a
modulation index β = 75 k/15 k = 5 (WBFM).
 69
The Stereo FM Receiver
FM stereo is the process of sending two independent audio signals
simultaneously within the same FM channel. At the transmitter, two
signals L and R are added and subtracted to obtain L + R and L - R.
These signals are preemphasized. The preemphasized signal (L - R)
DSB-SC modulates a carrier of 38 kHz obtained by doubling a pilot
tone of 19 kHz. The three signals form a composite baseband signal.
The reason for using a pilot of 19 kHz rather than 38 kHz is that it is
easier to extract the pilot at 19 kHz, because there are no signal
components within 4 kHz of that frequency. The receiver operation
is quiet obvious.
70
 71

HW #8
• 5.3-1, 5.3-2, 5.4-1, 5.4-2