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Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

Article  in  Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · September 2017

DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.094

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 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 894–900

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Solar energy: Potential and future prospects MARK

a b c d e,⁎
Ehsanul Kabir , Pawan Kumar , Sandeep Kumar , Adedeji A. Adelodun , Ki-Hyun Kim
a
Department of Farm Power and Machinery, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
b
Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110 016, India
c
Department of Bio and Nano Technology, Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, Hisar-Haryana 125001, India
d
Department of Marine Science and Technology, School of Earth and Mineral Science, The Federal University of Technology, P.M.B. 704 Akure, Nigeria
e
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-Ro, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The development of novel solar power technologies is considered to be one of many key solutions toward
Solar energy fulfilling a worldwide increasing demand for energy. Rapid growth within the field of solar technologies is
Technologies nonetheless facing various technical barriers, such as low solar cell efficiencies, low performing balance-of-
Research systems (BOS), economic hindrances (e.g., high upfront costs and a lack of financing mechanisms), and in-
Renewable energy
stitutional obstacles (e.g., inadequate infrastructure and a shortage of skilled manpower). The merits and de-
Policy frameworks
merits of solar energy technologies are both discussed in this article. A number of technical problems affecting
renewable energy research are also highlighted, along with beneficial interactions between regulation policy
frameworks and their future prospects. In order to help open novel routes with regard to solar energy research
and practices, a future roadmap for the field of solar research is discussed.

1. Introduction
The sun is a major source of inexhaustible free energy (i.e., solar
energy) for the planet Earth. Currently, new technologies are being
employed to generate electricity from harvested solar energy. These
approaches have already been proven and are widely practiced
throughout the world as renewable alternatives to conventional non-
hydro technologies. Fig. 1 shows a comparison of the non-hydro re-
newable energy capacities between countries for 2012. Theoretically,
solar energy possesses the potential to adequately fulfill the energy
demands of the entire world if technologies for its harvesting and
supplying were readily available [2]. Nearly four million exajoules (1
EJ = 1018J) of solar energy reaches the earth annually, ca. 5 × 104 EJ
of which is claimed to be easily harvestable [3]. Despite this huge po-
tential and increase in awareness, the contribution of solar energy to
the global energy supply is still negligible [4].
Another major prospect with regard to solar research is associated
with the current drive toward reducing global carbon emissions, which
has been a major global environmental, social, and economic issue in
recent years [4]. For example, 696,544 metric tons of CO2 emissions
have been reduced or avoided via the installation of 113,533 household
solar systems in California, USA [5]. Therefore, the adoption of solar
technologies would significantly mitigate and alleviate issues asso-
ciated with energy security, climate change, unemployment, etc. It is
also anticipated that its use will play an important role within the
transportation sector in the future as it does not require any fuel
transportation.
Policies, investment, and supports (such as research funding) from
various governmental and non-governmental organizations for solar
technologies have helped build up a solid foundation for the exploita-
tion of this renewable energy system. While incentives and rebates can
be effective motives for the development of these markets, there are
also growing efforts to reduce the fiscal burden of these policy in-
centives. However, solar power subsidies have already faced sharp cuts
in many countries, which may retard growth within the industry. To
revert this potential decline, policies are changing to support the de-
ployment of solar power systems for large-scale power generation.
Furthermore, greater subsidies should be provided for residential solar
generators over utility-scale generators. In this article, we provide a
global scenario with regard to solar energy technologies in terms of
their potential, present capacity, prospects, limitations, and policies.
This will help us expand our understanding on how much further we
can count on solar energy to meet the future energy demand.
2. Potential of solar energy technologies and comparisons
between locations
Only three renewable energy sources (i.e., biomass, geothermal, and

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kkim61@hanyang.ac.kr (K.-H. Kim).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.094
Received 21 September 2016; Received in revised form 12 August 2017; Accepted 25 September 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E. Kabir et al.
solar) can be utilized to yield sufficient heat energy for power genera-
tion. Of these three, solar energy exhibits the highest global potential
since geothermal sources are limited to a few locations and the supply
of biomass is not ubiquitous in nature [6,7]. A number of factors (e.g.,
latitude, diurnal variation, climate, and geographic variation) are lar-
gely responsible for determining the intensity of the solar influx that
passes through Earth's atmosphere [8]. The average amount of solar
energy received at Earth's atmosphere is around 342 W m−2, of which
ca. 30% is scattered or reflected back to space, leaving ca. 70%
(239 W m−2) available for harvesting and capture [9]. The annual ef-
fective solar irradiance varies from 60 to 250 W m−2 worldwide [10].
Fig. 2 depicts the annual average intensity of solar radiation over the
surface of the earth. Research has shown that “black dot” areas could
provide more than the entire world's total primary energy demand,
assuming that a conversion efficiency as low as 8% is achieved [11].
In comparison, the sunniest places of the planet are found on the
continent of Africa. As theoretically estimated, the potential con-
centrated solar power (CSP) and PV energy in Africa is around 470 and
660 petawatt hours (PWh), respectively [12]. However, in the regions
895
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 894–900
Fig. 1. Comparison of non-hydro renewable energy capacities
between countries. [1].
Fig. 2. Annual average solar irradiance distribution over the
surface of the Earth. [11].
other than Africa (like south-western United States, Central and South
America, North and Southern Africa, Middle East, the desert plains of
India, Pakistan, Australia, etc.), such potential is only limited to gen-
erate 125 gigawatt hours (GWh) from a 1 km2 land area [13]. Hang
et al. [14] estimated that around 6300 km2 of the wasteland located in
the northern and western regions of China (where solar radiation is
among the highest in the country) has around 1300 GW electricity
generation capacity. In contrast, the National Renewable Energy La-
boratory (NREL) in the United States has estimated that the solar en-
ergy potential within the USA is capable enough to provide 400 zet-
tawatt-hours annually (ZWh) [15], hugely exceeding the current
electrical generation capacity (22,813 terawatt-hours (TWh) [16]).
Morocco, a northern African country that enjoys about 3000 h of sun-
shine per year has recently launched one of the world's largest solar
energy projects (including both PV and CSP technologies), targeting the
generation of 2000 MW (MW) by the year 2020 [17]. Such a plan is
ideal due to their suitable atmospheric conditions (such as high alti-
tudes, low fugitive dust, high transparency, and low humidity). Simi-
larly, the Tibetan plateau in Northern China has been reported to
E. Kabir et al.
receive a very high solar radiation of ca. 195 kCal cm-2 y−1 [18]
(Fig. 3). In a similar environment, the yearly duration of sunshine in
Lhasa was reported to be 3021 h, while those in Chengdu and Shanghai
were 1186 and 1932 h, respectively [18].
Australia has the highest solar radiation per square meter of all
continents and is estimated to have the best solar energy resource in the
world. On the Australian continent, a relatively high daily solar irra-
diance of 4–6 kW h m−2 has been reported [20]. Comparable levels of
solar radiation were also observed in the desert areas of northern and
southern Africa, the southwestern United States, adjacent areas of
Mexico, and regions of the Pacific coast off South America [13].
The whole solar energy concept is regarded as the harvesting and
utilization of light and/or heat energy generated by the Sun and tech-
nologies (passive and active) involved in achieving such goals [21]. A
classification of present solar energy technologies is shown in Fig. 4. By
definition, passive technology involves the accumulation of solar en-
ergy without transforming thermal or light energy into any other form
(for power generation, for instance) [22]. Solar energy collection, sto-
rage, and distribution in the form of heat for the heating of homes
(especially during the winter season) exemplifies a form of passive solar
technology. On the other hand, active solar system collects solar ra-
diation and uses mechanical and electrical equipment (e.g., pumps or
Fig. 4. Classification of the present solar energy technologies.
896
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 894–900
Fig. 3. Annual mean distribution of direct solar radiation in China
(unit: kWh/m2) [19].
fans) for the conversion of solar energy to heat and electric power. The
most well known application of this system is the solar water heater
system.
In general, active solar energy technology can be further grouped
into two categories: (i) photovoltaic technology and (ii) solar thermal
technology [23]. In recent years, photovoltaic technology involving the
use of semiconductors to convert sunlight directly into electrical energy
has become a highly desirable option [24]. The intense research efforts
of energy scientists with regard to solar options have helped to yield an
improved efficiency of photovoltaic technology; in case of hybrid per-
ovskite solar cells ((CH3NH3)PbI3), a promising achievement (e.g., an
efficiency increase of ca. 18%) has been reported [25,26]. Currently,
photovoltaic technology involving wafer-based cells (traditional crys-
talline silicon or gallium arsenide), commercial thin-film cells (cad-
mium telluride, amorphous silicon, copper indium gallium diselenide),
and new thin-film technologies (perovskites, organic materials,
quantum dots) are progressing with the advent of intense R & D efforts
[27].
In solar thermal technology, solar energy is harnessed into thermal
energy for domestic and/or commercial applications such as drying,
heating, cooling, cooking, etc. [28,29]. However, on the industrial
scale, concentrated solar thermal (CST) technologies are being used to
fulfill such heating requirements while concentrated solar power (CSP)
technologies are being employed to generate electricity. The latter in-
volves the use of high-magnification mirrors to concentrate solar energy
prior to converting it into heat energy to power a steam turbine [30].
Four types of CSP technologies are currently available on the open
market: (i) parabolic troughs (these concentrate sunlight onto a receiver
tube containing a working liquid); (ii) Fresnel mirrors (use multiple flat
mirrors to concentrate solar sunlight onto a receiver tube); (iii) power
towers (an array of thousands of sun-tracking reflecting mirrors posi-
tioned in a field to concentrate solar radiation to a single point), and
(iv) solar dish collectors (concentrate power by focusing ST energy onto
a single point situated above a reflector dish) [31].
2.1. Current global status for solar energy
The availability of most renewable energy sources (i.e., wind, solar,
tidal wave, hydro, etc.) tends to vary widely throughout the course of a
day, season, year, even from one geographical location to another [32].
A comparison of the global power capacities between different
E. Kabir et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 894–900

Table 1 2.2. Regulation and policy frameworks

Comparison of the global power capacity between different renewable energy sectors
(Unit: GW) [1].
Order Power capacity Year
2013 2014
1 Total Renewable power 1578 1712
2 Hydropower 1018 1055
3 Bio-power 88 93
4 Geothermal 12.1 12.8
5 Solar PV 138 177
6 Concentrating solar thermal 3.4 4.4
7 Wind power capacity 319 370
renewable energy sectors is listed in Table 1. In many countries, the use
of renewable energy has been pursued competitively along with con-
ventional energy sources, thereby making a significant contribution to
the national generation of power [33]. For example, solar PV con-
tributes an estimated 7.9%, 7.6%, and 7.0% of the electricity demand in
Italy, Greece, and Germany, respectively [34]. Solar PV capacities have
grown at phenomenal rates, from ca. 3.7 in 2004–225 GW in 2015 [35].
In 2015, with a total of $161 bn investment and additional 59 GW (a
34% increase over 2014's total) on solar energy led to cumulative in-
stallations of total solar capacity 256 GW worldwide at the end of the
year [36]. However, with nearly 100 GW of installed capacity, Europe
is still the most solarized continent. In 2015, the solar capacity for
Europe increased by 8 GW, while the United Kingdom, Germany, and
France achieved an increase of only 5.3 GW (75%) [37]. However,
China has excelled with a total installed solar power capacity of ca.
43 GW as of December 2015, thereby replacing long-time table topper
Germany in the global rankings [36]. Moreover, China also has plans to
increase its solar power capacity to 150 GW by 2020.
According to the American Solar Energy Industries Association, the
total solar PV capacity of the USA could reach 45 GW by 2017 [38]. In
Australia, solar power has become the foremost source of new power,
producing 913 MW against 774 MW derived from wind power in 2015
[39]. Interestingly, 1300 MW of coal power was decommissioned in
Australia at the same year [39]. This was applauded as a huge drive
towards replacing conventional coal-based power generation and
achieving a greener earth.
In India, the installed solar power grid reached a capacity of 3743
(March 2015), 6762 (March 2016), and 8062 MW (July 2016) [40].
With such developments, India is currently planning to increase its solar
power capacity to a staggering 100,000 MW by 2022 [40]. Similarly on
the European front, France plans to construct a 1,000-kilometer-long
solar roadway, with each kilometer capable of providing enough clean
energy to power 5000 homes [41]. To recap, Table 2 lists the present
solar power generation capacities and world rankings at the end of
2015.
In 2015, the global investment with regard to solar energy experi-
enced an upsurge, especially in China, the USA, Africa, Latin America,
the Middle East, and India. Although China is projected to retain its
2015 leading position, the USA is tipped to exhibit robust growth in 2016,
due to the anticipation of the Federal Investment Tax Credit (ITC). It is
1849
1064 also assumed that the USA will replace Japan as the third largest solar
106 market, exceeding the much-anticipated 10 GW mark in 2016.
13.2 However, in Europe, slow growth with regard to solar power invest-
227 ments was observed in 2015, compared to the preceding year. The total
4.8
global corporate funding within the solar sector (including venture
433
capital/private equity, debt financing, and public market financing)
was USD 25.3 billion in 2015, compared to USD 26.5 billion in 2014
[42]. In Germany, the 2014 Renewable Energy Act set fixed values to
the purchase and remuneration of PV electricity as well as levies on self-
consumption [43]. From 2016, systems generating over 100 kW must
directly market their electricity. Moreover, the electricity surcharge
was raised to 7.56 €-cts-kWh−1 in 2016, about triple that of the charge
in 2014, which was 2.54 €-cts-kWh−1 [44]. Due to drops in the feed-in
tariff among other obstacles, new imposing laws may substantially
decline the number of new PV installations in Germany. Meanwhile, in
the UK, the value of solar-power investments dropped from £5bn (in
2014) to £3.5bn (in 2015) as a result of cuts to large-scale generators.
The UK government cut subsidies to household solar power systems by
65% with plans to eliminate subsidies by 2020 courtesy of the EU state
rules [45]. Italy is also aiming to truncate all solar power incentives (by
10 ̴ 25%) on similar grounds [46]. Spain and Greece have also made
similar cuts as well. According to new policies by the Spanish govern-
ment, PV systems with capacities of 10–100 kW must add excess elec-
tricity to the grid without compensation, whilst systems with capacities
over 100 kW must be registered in order to sell electricity on the spot
market [47]. It is suspected that lobbying efforts made in a desire to
secure their bulk investments by the fossil fuel energy industry are
making the governments of some European countries hesitate to
maintain the support for the solar power sector.
3. Limitations and benefits of solar energy technologies
Solar energy is a constant power source that could provide energy
security and energy independence to all. Such a propensity is hugely
important not only for individuals but also for the socio-economic
prosperity of companies, societies, states, and nations. Nevertheless,
solar power is now being adopted as a natural and substantial part of
electricity generation in many developed and developing countries to
fulfill energy needs. However, there are a number of limitations as well
as benefits associated with its use.
3.1. Limitations of solar energy technologies

High initial installation cost is one of the most significant flaws of

the solar energy system; for example, the average price per watt for
Table 2 solar energy was $3.70 in the USA in early 2016 [48]. Based on an
The 2015 global ranking for solar power generation capacity. [1]. average solar energy system of 5 kW per household, the system would
cost $13,000 when the Federal solar tax credit is put into consideration
World Ranking Country Name Total Capacity (MW) at Installed (MW) in
2015 2015
(thereby reducing costs by 30%). However, lengthy payback periods
and small revenue streams also reduce the value of credits for such
1 China 43,180 15,130 systems [35]. Furthermore, the efficiencies of most domestic solar pa-
2 Germany 39,553 1418 nels are around 10–20% which is another shortcoming of solar tech-
3 Japan 33,300 10,000
4 USA 27,400 7260
nology [12]. However, more efficient (ca. > 20%) solar panels are also
5 Italy 19,160 700 available at higher prices. The performance limitations of other com-
6 UK 8437 3109 ponents such as batteries, inverters, etc. are other areas with con-
7 Spain 6967 6946 siderable room for improvement. Short battery lifetimes and the safe
8 France 6680 1020
disposal of spent batteries are another concern with regard to solar
9 Australia 5049 913
10 India 4680 2048 energy systems. Moreover, batteries are often large and heavy, thereby
requiring large storage space. Additionally, as solar panels are made

897
E. Kabir et al.
from rare or precious metals such as silver, tellurium, or indium, in-
sufficient facilities exist with which to recycle spent panels. Factors
associated with the maintenance of systems such as a shortage of skilled
manpower to meet growing demands for installation, maintenance,
inspection, repair, and evaluation of solar power systems are another
constraint as well. Furthermore, a lack of basic technical knowhow on
the user's behalf (especially in rural areas of the developing world) with
regard to solar power systems can result in irregular usage, over-
charging the battery, polarity reversal, by-passing the charge controller,
etc. which can all lead to system damage. Additionally, the plausibility
of cracks within the PV module, water intrusion, exposure to dust, and
algal growth can greatly lower the performance of the system. Poiso-
nous silicon tetrachloride, a byproduct of the polysilicon production
process, is costly (about $84,500 per ton) to process and recycle. To
make things worse, silicon tetrachloride is often dumped by most
manufacturing companies without proper pre-disposal treatment [49].
Another obvious shortcoming is that solar energy can only be har-
nessed during the day and works most efficiently when it is sunny.
Thus, solar energy is likely not the most reliable source of energy in
regions with unsustainable weather or climate conditions. Moreover,
air pollution levels at the installation area can also influence the ef-
fectiveness of the solar cells [50]. Exposure to exhaust fumes and
aerosols was found to reduce the current of silicon solar cells by 10%
and 7%, respectively [50]. Finally, huge plots of land are often required
to generate solar power at large scales. The rule of thumb is that a
1 MW solar power plant with crystalline panels (about 18% efficiency)
would require about 4 acres (16,187 m2) of land area, while thin film
technologies (12% efficiency) would require ca. 6 acres (24,281 m2)
[51].
3.2. Benefits of solar energy technologies
It is well known that nothing can compare with the energy potential
of the sun. As solar power is theoretically abundant enough, it is more
than capable of fulfilling the world's electricity demands. Because solar
energy is not only sustainable but also renewable, it is not necessary to
consider the notion that solar energy may eventually be depleted [52].
Global warming is characterized by cataclysmic potential, thus por-
tending its harmful impact on the climate, environment (including
animals and plants), and human health [53]. Power plants (especially
coal-fired) are a significant source of greenhouse gases (GHG), which
are responsible for approximately 25% of all anthropogenic emissions
[54]. Hence, GHG emissions associated with the generation of solar
power (including manufacturing, installation, operation, and main-
tenance) are minimal [55]. The range of CO2 emission per kilowatt-h
generated from coal, natural gas, and solar are estimated as 0.64 ̴ 1.63,
0.27 ̴ 0.91, and 0.03 ̴ 0.09 kg (emission ratio of 18:9.5:1), respectively.
As such, this comparison again confirms the superior environmental
friendliness of solar power among others [15]. Hence, solar power has
become one of the most feasible solutions to the current global warming
crisis, which if left unabated, could be extremely expensive with its
potential ramifications. Thus, mitigating global warming through the
substitution of coal and gas-based power sources with solar power will
eventually be environmentally, economically, and socially beneficial
toward achieving sustainable development.
Solar energy is considered to be a non-polluting, reliable, and clean
source of energy. Unlike other energy sources, its use is not accom-
panied by the release of harmful gases (e.g., oxides of C/N/S and/or
volatile organic compounds (VOCs)) and particles (e.g., soot, carbon
black, metals, and particulate matter (PM)). Such fossil fuel emissions
from gas-fired power plants have been indicted with regard to causing
neurological damage, heart attacks, breathing problems, cancer, etc.
[56,57]. Machol [58] reported that the replacement of fossil fuels with
renewable energy could minimize premature mortality rates, lost
workdays, and reduce the overall costs for healthcare. Additionally,
fossil fuel power plants require huge amounts of water for their
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 894–900
operation to exert a significant influence on the current water shortage
issues. A limited accessibility to water during droughts and heat waves
has hindered the generation of electricity by limiting its generation
from power plants. On the other hand, electricity generated from solar
installations does not require water to operate; additionally, the ex-
istence of fuel by-products or the requirement for radioactive waste
storage is nonexistent.
When compared with fossil fuel technologies that are primarily
mechanized and capital intensive, solar power technologies are re-
garded as being more labor-intensive. A positive aspect of this notion is
that solar technologies should improve job opportunities. On average,
more jobs can be created per unit of electricity production with solar
energy as opposed to fossil fuels. The Solar Foundation [59] reported
that the solar industry employed around 208,859 workers in the USA on
either a part-time or full-time basis for manufacturing, installation, and
sales. Within a year, a growth rate of 20.2% was reported. Moreover,
the industries responsible for solar energy supply chain systems will
also benefit tremendously, while some unrelated local businesses (due
to an increase in shop and restaurant business hours) would also benefit
from an overall increase in income [60]. Furthermore, local solar en-
ergy projects would keep money circulating within the local economy,
thereby saving a substantial amount of money presently being used for
the importation of fossil fuels from other locations. From an economical
perspective, solar power is beneficial in a variety of ways due to tax
incentives, an elimination of electricity bills, increased property values,
and high durability.
The efficiency of solar power technologies has increased greatly in
recent years and has been accompanied by a progressively steady de-
cline in costs, which are projected to drop even further. For instance,
the total cost of a PV module has been reduced from USD 1.30 per watt
(in 2011) to USD 0.50 per watt (in 2014) (ca. 60% cost reduction) [61].
As the solar markets mature and more companies take advantage of the
solar economy, the availability and affordability of solar power will
grow at an impressive pace.
Although solar power systems require an upfront investment for
their installation, they otherwise operate at very low costs. Unlike the
price of fossil fuels, which are prone to substantial price swings, the
financial demand for solar power is relatively stable over long periods.
Moreover, there are no (mechanically) moving parts in solar panels,
making them free of noise pollution and durable (no wear and tear),
with very little in the way of required maintenance. Moreover, solar
panels can be easily installed on roof tops and mounted onto building
walls, meriting their installation flexibility. Furthermore, solar power
systems are less prone to large-scale failure because they are distributed
and composed of numerous individual solar arrays. Therefore, if any
section of arrays were found to be faulty, the rest could continue to
operate. However, additional solar modules could also be added over
time to improve the energy generation capacity. These notions reveal
huge advantages in the ruggedness and flexibility of solar power sys-
tems over all other energy sources that have already been established.
4. Future prospects of solar technology
Solar energy is one of the best options to meet future energy de-
mand since it is superior in terms of availability, cost effectiveness,
accessibility, capacity, and efficiency compared to other renewable
energy sources [62,63]. For the first time, researchers have successfully
measured in detail the flow of solar energy, in and between different
parts of a photosynthetic organism [64]. The result is a first step in
research that could ultimately contribute to the development of tech-
nologies that use solar energy far more efficiently than what is currently
possible. Researchers from the Graphene Flagship showed that the
lifetime of perovskite solar cells can significantly enhanced by using
few-layer MoS2 flakes as an active buffer interface layer [65]. Fur-
thermore, scientists in Hong Kong reported that they have successfully
developed perovskite-silicon tandem solar cells with the world's highest
E. Kabir et al.
power conversion efficiency of 25.5% [66]. It is worth mentioning here
that the efficiency of perovskite solar cells was only 3.8% when first
appeared in 2009 [62]. Hence, semi-transparent perovskite solar cells
have been created that demonstrate high-power conversion efficiency
and transmit visible light while blocking infrared light, making them
great candidates for solar windows [67]. It was demonstrated that the
polymer poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) should have great potential
for cost-effective and highly efficient perovskite solar cells as a hole
transporting material [68].
A team of researchers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
has developed a new solar cell that combines two different layers of
sunlight-absorbing material to harvest a broader range of the sun's
energy [69]. Using a heat-resistant device, made of tungsten and alu-
mina layers, researchers have found that the device can absorb the sun's
broad spectrum radiation and convert it to electricity [70]. A green
polymer derived from bio-waste was applied to the dye-sensitized solar
cells [71]. Chitosan obtained from the insects and crustaceans chitin
was modified to produce the phthaloylchitosan electrolyte for the dye-
sensitized solar cells with efficiency of more than 7% [71]. CdTe and Cu
(In,Ga)Se2 thin-film solar cells were also seen to have high efficiencies
of around 16.5% and 20%, respectively [72]. The CH3NH3Pb0.75Sn0.25I3
perovskite solar cells with inverted structure were consequently found
to have a maximum power conversion efficiency of 14.1% [73]. Freitag
et al. [74] achieved very high power-conversion efficiencies under
ambient light conditions by a dye-sensitized solar cell. Their photo
system was seen to combine two judiciously designed sensitizers, coded
D35 and XY1, with the copper complex Cu(II/I)(tmby) as a redox
shuttle (tmby, 4,4′,6,6′-tetramethyl-2,2′-bipyridine) to feature a high
open-circuit photovoltage of 1.1 V.
5. Conclusions and remarks
Solar energy technologies have become well-established and pop-
ular technologies throughout the world. To achieve this, billions of US
dollars have been invested and much more are expected to be invested
in the near future to overcome the current limitations in the solar in-
dustry. Presently, a number of new large scale solar power (for example
CSP) projects are coming online or are under development in both
developed and developing countries. CSP has been found to be suitable
for regions without frequent clouds or haze, although the system is
more expensive than PV technology. PV technologies for the time being
may continue to be the primary source of solar power generation.
Moreover, the potential market for off-grid solar systems remains lar-
gely untapped given the limited evolution of supporting policies and
institutions.
Despite a rapid decline in solar technology costs in recent years, the
overall costs to generate solar power still remain high. Incentives and
rebates which are crucial for the development of the solar energy
market are making it apparent that innovative approaches are still
necessary to reduce the fiscal burden of various policy incentives.
However, the solar industry should focus more on the quality and de-
velopment of its technology. Additionally, researchers should also focus
on improving the competitiveness of solar power against both con-
ventional and other renewable energy sources. Hopefully, more re-
search efforts will be dedicated toward PV technologies in the near
future to enhance their efficiency, stability, manufacturability, and
availability, to reduce balance-of-system (BOS) costs and reduce the
costs of modules. In this review, we investigated the global potential of
solar energy technologies, their limitations and benefits, and their fu-
ture prospects. Accordingly, we concluded that despite a few drawbacks
solar energy technology is one of the most promising renewable energy
sources to meet the future global energy demand.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by a grant from the National Research
899
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 894–900
Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science,
ICT & Future Planning (No. 2016R1E1A1A01940995). This work was
also carried out with the support of "Cooperative Research Program for
Agriculture Science and Technology Development (Project No.
PJ012521032017)" Rural Development Administration, Republic of
Korea.
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