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Abstract: In internal combustion engines, particularly for spark ignition (SI ) engines, valve events
and their timings have a major influence on the engine’s overall efficiency and its exhaust emissions.
Because the conventional SI engine has fixed timing and synchronization between the camshaft and
crankshaft, a compromise results between engine efficiency, performance, and its maximum power. By
using variable valve timing ( VVT ) technology it is possible to control the valve lift, phase, and valve
timing at any point on the engine map, with the result of enhancing the overall engine performance.
To get full benefits from VVT, various types of mechanisms have been proposed and designed. Some
of these mechanisms are in production and have shown significant benefits in improving engine
performance. During the last two decades, remarkable developments have been seen in the field of
VVT. This paper reviews the literature in the technology of intake and exhaust philosophies of VVT
and their effects on the pressure–volume (PV ) cycle of the engine. A single-cylinder engine is simulated
by the GT-Power software. The effects of different VVT philosophies from the simulations are analysed
and compared to those of the literature reviewed.
Keywords: variable valve timing ( VVT ), variable valve actuation ( VVA), valve overlap, exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR)
stroke. Opening of the inlet valve represents the start 3 VARIOUS INTAKE AND EXHAUST
of the intake stroke as well as the start of intake and PHILOSOPHIES
exhaust valve overlap.
The main characteristic of conventional cam-operated
Exhaust valve closing (EVC). The exhaust valve closes engines is that the intake valve always performs the same
when most of the burned gases have been expelled to the displacement at a well-defined crankshaft angle and is
exhaust manifold. This is the end of the exhaust stroke independent of the engine working conditions. Variable
as well as the end of valve overlap. Closing of the exhaust valve actuation ( VVA) can enable the varying of valve
valve takes place at around 10 degrees after TDC during events as per engine speed and load requirements.
the intake stroke. Among the various intake and exhaust philosophies are:
1. Late intake valve closing (LIVC ).
Intake valve closing (IVC). Closing of the inlet valve
2. Early intake valve closing (EIVC ).
represents the end of the intake stroke and the start of
3. Late intake valve opening (LIVO).
the compression stroke. The inlet valve closes at around
4. Early intake valve opening (EIVO).
50 degrees after BDC during the compression stroke.
5. Early exhaust valve opening (EEVO).
6. Late exhaust valve opening (LEVO).
Exhaust valve opening (EVO). Opening of the exhaust
7. Early exhaust valve closing (EEVC ).
valve represents the end of the expansion stroke and the
8. Late exhaust valve closing (LEVC ).
start of the exhaust stroke. The exhaust valve opening
takes place at around 60 degrees before BDC. Combinations of some of the above philosophies are
also possible. Later in this paper, the above-mentioned
In the above discussion the angles of opening and closing philosophies are discussed with the help of the GT-Power,
of the inlet and exhaust valves are taken as baseline computer-simulation model results for a low-speed,
angles representative of any conventional cam-operated single-cylinder engine.
SI engine (see Fig. 1). Idealized pressure–volume (PV ) diagrams of various
intake and exhaust philosophies for 4-stroke SI engines
are shown in Figs 2 to 9, and are discussed in the follow-
ing. Note that the negative loops (pumping losses) have
been exaggerated for illustrative purposes. Any effects
on the positive loop are not considered.
mentioned that tumble inside the cylinder is induced To get delayed overlap, Stein et al. [16 ] used a dual-
by symmetric valve event, whereas swirl is induced by equal, variable camshaft timing ( VCT ) strategy to equally
asymmetric valve event. It was noted that EIVC supported phase shift the intake and exhaust valves. They tested
a longer flame development period, but faster combustion this concept on a 2.0 l, 4-valve engine by retarding the
occurs. This might be due to the low lifts of the intake valve events by 30 degrees. It was stated that exhaust gas
valve that helps to atomize the fuel droplets by shearing recirculation (EGR) helps to reduce NO , unburned HC
x
flow. EIVC results in a more stable combustion as and pumping losses. Reduction in NO occurs because
x
compared to that of LIVC. of the temperature drop inside the cylinder; reburning
Soderberg and Johansson [12] developed a cylinder of exhaust gases reduces the HC; and pumping losses
head for cross flow to compare throttled and unthrottled reduce because of the high cylinder pressure during the
operations using LIVC. This type of cylinder head intake stroke. They also mentioned that higher octane is
improves the swirl rate, it also assists LIVC operation not required for LIVC with the dual-equal VCT strategy
during intake valve opening by providing sufficient room because the compression ratio is reduced due to LIVC
to open. The LIVC strategy was applied to a single- and thus results in a lower gas temperature at the end
cylinder version of the 5-cylinder, 2.5 l, B5254FS, Volvo of the compression stroke.
engine with two overhead camshafts. By using LIVC to Ham and Park [17] studied the engine simulation
reduce pumping losses they found that residual gases model to check the effects of changing the maximum
also increased. This is because the intake and exhaust intake valve lift to control in-cylinder turbulence intensity
valves are operated by the same camshaft which, to and burn-rate. It was found that intake valve closing is
satisfy phasing requirements of the intake valve timing the most sensitive parameter for changing the breathing
to get LIVC, also influences the phasing of the exhaust- characteristics of an engine, that delaying IVC causes
valve timing. The authors claimed that, at part-load, fuel the volumetric efficiency to increase at high engine
conversion efficiency was improved by up to 9 per cent, speed while penalizing it at low speeds. To obtain high
combustion efficiency was improved by 2 per cent, and volumetric efficiency it is always advantages to use VVA
NO was reduced. devices that could vary both lift and duration, but
x
Saunders and Rabia [13] implemented the LIVC con- further experimental studies are necessary to check the
cept on an Austin A-series engine. They switched between validity of the above conclusions.
unthrottled LIVC and conventional throttled-load con-
trol. To achieve LIVC, they implemented a second
3.2 Early intake valve closing (EIVC )
camshaft above the rocker arm to directly control the
intake valve. Although the indicated thermal efficiency The EIVC system is based on closing the intake valves
was less, there was a 7 per cent improvement in fuel when the desired fresh air–fuel mixture has been intro-
efficiency and a maximum fuel economy gain of about duced. In this way, when low-load and low-speed con-
11 per cent at half load. They did not report the increase ditions are required, only a desired and limited fraction
in friction losses and the effects due to the second overhead of the intake stroke is used to introduce the mixture from
camshaft. the manifold. Then the valve is closed and, in the remain-
Elord and Nelson [14] obtained LIVC control by ing intake stroke, the cylinder is isolated. This partial
developing a device that could phase-shift the valve intake stroke is the result of early intake valve closing,
timing of an engine. A 4-cylinder, Fiat, DOHC engine, which reduces the amount of air–fuel mixture admitted
was used for the test program. It was noted that the inside the engine cylinder. The work (or pumping losses)
mixture charge was being returned to the carburetor. required for admitting this limited amount of air–fuel
Fitting a one-way, reed valve between the carburetor and mixture is less with respect to conventional engines.
the intake manifold can solve this problem. EIVC also results in some pumping losses due to the
Haugen et al. [15] tested the LIVC concept by design- low lift of the valves. This drawback can be improved
ing a third camshaft and placing it above the original by using variable-valve mechanisms that enable faster
intake-valve camshaft. This was implemented on a 1988 valve lifts [28].
Oldsmobile Quad 4, a 2.3 l, 16-valve, DOHC, 4-cylinder The idealized PV diagram for an EIVC engine is
engine. According to their invention, they obtained a shown in Fig. 3. The area below the atmospheric line is
6.3 per cent reduction in bsfc, NO emissions were a portion of the negative pumping work, which is greatly
x
reduced, but HC emissions increased. It was mentioned reduced with respect to a conventional engine.
that exhaust noise levels decreased because of the low Tuttle [18] tested the EIVC concept on a single-
cylinder pressure, but there was an increase in noise cylinder, SI engine. He used three modified cams to vary
during the intake stroke due to the gas backflow into the inlet valve events. He reported a 40 per cent reduction
the intake manifold. No details were given about the in pumping losses as compared to a conventional engine.
extra friction losses that could occur by the additional Also reported was a 7 per cent reduction in fuel con-
third camshaft. It should be noted that more moving sumption with a 24 per cent reduction in NO at half
x
parts make the system complex. load. He also mentioned that at part-load, the cylinder
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D19203 © IMechE 2004
the cylinder undergoes decompression and recompression As shown in Fig. 4, the suction line of the PV cycle is
at a lower effective compression ratio, which results in more negative with respect to a conventional engine
lower average pressure and temperature to assist in the cycle. Even though pumping losses increase, there is no
reduction of NO emissions. They concluded that the detrimental effect on the volumetric efficiency. This is
x
two-step EIVC with dual independent cam phasing gives because all the air–fuel mixture is brought into the
8 per cent fuel economy, while three-step EIVC with dual cylinder with high velocity during the remaining suction
independent cam phasing gives 9 per cent fuel economy. stroke after the intake valve opens. This high velocity
Vogel et al. [26 ] made tests on a Ford ‘Zetec’, creates turbulence for the air–fuel mixture, which assists
4-cylinder, 2.0 l engine by fitting a secondary valve good combustion and is considered a good technique to
assembly between the cylinder head and the original reduce unburned hydrocarbon ( UBHC ) emissions.
intake manifold of the engine. The main purpose Badami et al. [27] performed experiments on a
was to implement VVT (EIVC ) with the use of the 2-cylinder, 4-stroke, 594-cc, 7.5-CR, air-cooled engine.
secondary valve. They obtained EIVC by shutting Experiments were to test the effects of spark advance
the secondary valve abruptly during the downward motion and changes in air–fuel ratio by variable valve overlap by
of the piston, which limits the air–fuel mixture admitted adopting the LIVO strategy by using a passive electro-
into the cylinder. It was concluded that this strategy hydraulic link for the valve operation. They claimed that
saved 70 per cent in pumping losses, the fuel economy combinations of spark advance (from 10° to 5°) and
can be improved by 4 per cent, and the roughness of the variable valve overlap results in a 6 per cent reduction in
engine is reduced. How the secondary valve was actuated fuel consumption when a fixed mass of fuel was delivered,
was not described, but the authors mentioned that the and that a 20 per cent reduction was achieved at a fixed
secondary valve concept is a ‘fail-safe’ design. They also throttle position. HC reduces by more than 40 per cent
mentioned that, according to tests conducted, the power but cyclic irregularities of the engine speed increase. Thus,
required to actuate the secondary valve was more than to reduce engine cyclic irregularities, it is recommended
the power saved in terms of fuel economy. that the spark advance be limited and LIVO is used to
If the LIVC strategy is compared with EIVC, then in reduce the overlap. The authors did not mention the
the case of LIVC the manifold pressure is high because effects of LIVO on pumping losses.
part of the air–fuel mixture from the cylinder goes back
into the intake manifold. For the EIVC strategy, the
3.4 Early intake valve opening (EIVO)
manifold pressure is also high but is caused by the
restriction of the closing intake valve (i.e. pressure buildup In conventional engines, the opening of the intake valve
due to stopping of the inertia flow). Higher manifold occurs at around 10 degrees before TDC. Early opening
pressure results in more fuel droplets being admitted into well before the end of the exhaust stroke means increasing
the cylinder. More droplets, which are not vaporized, the duration of the valve overlap. Some of the burnt
cause poor combustion. EIVC engines can overcome this gases will go back into the intake manifold because of
penalty because of their higher intake air–fuel mixture the cylinder-intake manifold pressure gradient [28]. This
velocity during the intake phase. This higher velocity backflow is also used for internal EGR, which is helpful
creates turbulence for good fuel vaporization. On the in reducing NO [29]. In addition, EIVO allows the
x
other hand, LIVC engines do not use the valve to throttle exhaust gases to be in contact with the low-pressure
the flow and thus there is no change in the incoming intake system for a longer period. Thus, the manifold
air–fuel mixture velocity. The flow losses for LIVC
engines tend to be higher when compared to EIVC
because of the air–fuel mixture reverse flow.
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D19203 © IMechE 2004
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D19203 © IMechE 2004
period, and then flowing back into the cylinder during Table 1 Engine specifications
the intake stroke. This flow reversion is also called the
Type of engine 4-stroke
‘internal exhaust recirculation’ process, which is used to Number of cylinders single cylinder
reduce NO . The shape of the valve lift and valve timing Engine speed 4000 r/min
x Bore and stroke 100 mm respectively
affect not only the pumping losses, but also the air motion
Compression ratio 9.5
inside the cylinder, which influences mixture formation TDC clearance height 3 mm
and combustion. Solenoid-operated intake and exhaust valves
Chapman et al. [31] presented a comprehensive
Inlet valve reference diameter 45.5 mm
computer model for predicting the gas dynamic pheno- Inlet valve opening timing 10 degrees before TDC
mena for an intake and exhaust system. According to Inlet valve closing timing 50 degrees after BDC
the authors, for spark and compression ignition engines, Inlet valve lift (maximum) 4.2 mm
Exhaust valve reference diameter 37.5 mm
the fluid flow process during the suction and induction Exhaust valve opening timing 60 degrees before BDC
stroke plays an important role in determining an engine’s Exhaust valve closing timing 10 degrees after TDC
overall efficiency. Their model accurately predicts the Exhaust valve lift (maximum) 5 mm
influence of engine operation parameters on engine
breathing efficiency. They took dynamometer tests on
Figure 11* shows the PV diagram for an engine used
a 1981 Ford, 2.3 l, 4-cylinder engine at 1500 r/min
for modelling purposes, with conventional opening and
( low speed) and predicted the variations during one
closing of intake and exhaust valves (see Table 1 for valve
engine cycle of the intake and exhaust processes. These
timings). Figures 12(a) and (c) show the valve lift and
variations show that at low speed there exists a sub-
phase profiles for the intake and exhaust valves respect-
stantial amount of backflow into the intake manifold.
ively, for a conventional (solenoid-valve-actuated) engine.
They experimentally found the flow characteristics for a
Figure 12(b) shows the air–fuel mass flow through the
conventional spark ignition engine for low speeds.
intake valve into the engine cylinder. During the com-
pression stroke after BDC and during the valve overlap
period, possible backflow can occur. Figure 12(d) shows
4 ENGINE MODEL SIMULATION AND the mass flow through the exhaust valve out of the engine
ANALYSIS FOR VVT cylinder. Again, possible backflow can occur during the
valve overlap.
The following section presents the analysis and computer For discussion purposes with respect to late and early
simulation results to predict the gas-flow dynamics through opening and closing of the intake and exhaust valves,
the intake and exhaust valves for a single-cylinder, VVT 50 degrees of margin is kept with respect to the standard
engine. For both the intake and exhaust valves, VVT is base-line angles of the conventional cam-operated SI
acquired by either advancing or by retarding the closing engine. Figure 10 shows a pictorial representation of
or opening timing of the intake and exhaust valves. The
valves used on this engine are solenoid operated. *Figs 11 to 21 were obtained by simulation with the GT-Power software.
Fig. 10 Various valve events and their range of opening and closing with respect to crank angle
D19203 © IMechE 2004 Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D19203 © IMechE 2004
the exhaust-gas dynamics because of the air–fuel mass Pumping losses for LIVC are lower, as shown in
backflow. Because there is more backflow during the Fig. 13(b), which agrees with the previous discussion in
compression stroke, this results in less air–fuel mass left section 3.1 on LIVC. LIVC reduces the effective com-
for combustion and thus less burnt gases are produced pression ratio and thus has a negative effect on (reduces)
after combustion (see Fig. 15(d)). the volumetric and thermal efficiencies.
D19203 © IMechE 2004 Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
4.3 Case III—early intake valve opening (EIVO) flow. By EIVO, the duration of the valve overlap period
increases and thus the amount of backflow also increases
The intake valve opens 50 degrees earlier with respect to during this period. Pumping losses are reduced, as shown
a conventional engine. No changes were made to the in Fig. 13(c), which agrees with the pervious discussion
exhaust-valve timing, as shown in Fig. 16(c). in section 3.4 on EIVO.
Figure 16(a) shows the early opening of the inlet valve Figure 16(d) shows that there are not many significant
and Fig. 16(b) shows the corresponding air–fuel mass changes in the exhaust-gas dynamics, due to intake valve
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D19203 © IMechE 2004
timing variation. This is because the suction stroke starts 4.4 Case IV–late intake valve opening (LIVO)
well before TDC (Fig. 16(a)). But, it is observed that
there are fluctuations in the flow of fresh air–fuel mixture LIVO is obtained by a 50 degrees delayed opening with
at the beginning of the intake stroke, which may be respect to a conventional engine.
caused by the pressure gradient between the cylinder and LIVO prevents partial or full-valve overlap, which
exhaust manifold. results in very low or no backflow occuring, as shown in
D19203 © IMechE 2004 Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
Fig. 17(b). The suction of the air–fuel mixture starts after 4.5 Case V—early exhaust valve closing (EEVC )
the intake valve opens, away after BDC. This late opening
increases the vacuum inside the cylinder and results in EEVC is obtained by closing the exhaust valve 50 degrees
higher pumping losses (Fig. 13(d)). Late opening of the earlier with respect to a conventional engine.
intake valve creates turbulence for the incoming air–fuel EEVC reduces the partial or total valve overlap period
mixture, which helps homogenous combustion. and results in the reduction or prevention of backflow
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D19203 © IMechE 2004
(Figs 18(b) and (d)). Because of EEVC, the total amount scavenging due to the exhaust stroke does not take
of burnt gases may not escape out of the cylinder during place, which results in some residual gases staying in the
the exhaust stroke. In Fig. 18(d) it is noticeable that the cylinder.
exhaust stroke is finished well before TDC by closing During the end portion of EEVC, the exhaust gases
the exhaust valve early. In such a situation, normal have a smaller exhaust valve opening area to flow out
D19203 © IMechE 2004 Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
of the cylinder. This flow restriction may increase the 4.6 Case VI—late exhaust valve closing (LEVC )
pumping losses, as shown in Fig 13(e). Pumping losses
also increase because of the compression and expansion LEVC is obtained by closing the exhaust valve 50
of trapped residual gases. degrees later, as shown in Fig. 19(c), with respect to a
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D19203 © IMechE 2004
conventional engine. LEVC increases the valve overlap 4.7 Case VII—early exhaust valve opening (EEVO)
period, which allows backflow to occur (Fig. 19(d)). This
is the reason why LEVC is one of the best methods to EEVO is obtained by opening the exhaust valve 50 degrees
create internal EGR. As shown in Fig. 13(f ), pumping earlier with respect to a conventional engine. Even though
losses are lower. EEVO provides better scavenging for the burnt gases,
D19203 © IMechE 2004 Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
it also cuts down part of the expansion stroke, which Because of early opening, the pressure gradient between
results in the reduction of the expansion work, as the cylinder and the exhaust manifold is less, creating a
shown Fig. 13(g). The mass flowrate during the exhaust strong blow-down. This is why some of the work is
stroke is more as shown in Fig. 20(d), with respect to a transferred to the exhaust stroke and results in an increase
conventional engine. of the pumping losses, as shown in Fig. 16(g).
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D19203 © IMechE 2004
4.8 Case VIII—late exhaust valve opening (LEVO) For this case the majority of work shifts to the exhaust
stroke, as shown in Fig. 21(d). A stronger blow-down
LEVO is obtained by opening the exhaust valve 50 degrees takes place and no loss occurs in the expansion work
later with respect to a conventional engine. during the power stroke, as shown in Fig. 13(h). Late
Fig. 22 Valve lift and valve timing for various VVT mechanisms
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D19203 © IMechE 2004
D19203 © IMechE 2004 Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
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Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D19203 © IMechE 2004