BMR Journal of Australian Geology & Geophysics, 4, 1979, 289-295 289

Stresses in the Australian crust : evidence from

earthquakes and in-situ stress measurements
D. Denham, L. G. Alexander*, & G. Worotnicki*

Evidence from earthquake focal mechanisms, ill situ stress measurements, and surface
deformations indicate that the Australian continent is in a state of substantial horizontal com•
pression. Reliable focal mechanism determinations are now available from eight earthquakes
that have occurred in several parts of the continent since 1967. Each of these mechanisms
indicates that the faulting associated with the earthquakes was caused by compressive stress
acting close to horizontal. III situ measurements made in mines and tunnels, and close to the
surface in quarry floors or on rock outcrops, also indicate horizontal compressive stress in all
areas.
Near the epicentres of the 1968 Meckering and 1970 Calingiri earthquakes, shallow over•
coring measurements «10 m) were carried out to compare the ill situ observations with the
earthquake focal mechanisms and surface faulting. The measurements were made in competent
granite at seven locations along a 200 km north-south traverse. The results indicate a high
regional compressive stress acting about 77 °E of N. This agrees well with the 91 ° and
102 °E of N directions for the pressure axes obtained respectively from the earthquake focal
mechanisms. The highest stress (23 MPa) was measured at the site farthest north from the
Meckering epicentre. and the lowest stress was close to that epicentre where the maximum
principal stress was about 4 MPa.
During 1978 and 1979 several sites in NSW were tested at depths ranging from 3 to 9 m.
At each site the stress measured was compressive. In the eastern part of the State at
Buckley's Lake, Jindabyne, Milton, and Moruya the axes of maximum compression were
north-south, but in the west at Ardlethan, Mirrool. Berrigan, and Tocumwal the stresses are
close to east-west, agreeing with the earlier results at Broken Hill and Cobar. The highest
values of about 20 MPa were obtained in Silurian granite at Tocumwal.
The results give principal stress orientation in different directions for different regions of
the contin!'nt; it is therefore clear that simple models derived from plate tectonic concepts
cannot be applied directly to explain the high observed stresses or their directions.

Introduction Solomon & Sleep (1974), Solomon & others (1975),

Most of the stress release in the Earth's crust takes
place at the boundaries of the lithospheric plates, by
earthquakes and fault creep. The directions of the
maximum compressive stresses at the boundaries, as
deduced from earthquakes and ground deformations,
are consistent with the concepts of plate tectonics.
However, away from the plate boundaries, the
stresses are more difficult to analyse, because large
intraplate earthquakes occur infrequently and usually
do not fit any overall pattern, and because the rates of
ground deformation are several orders of magnitude
smaller than those observed near the plate boundaries.
Nevertheless, in recent years considerable progress has
been made in examining intraplate stress. This is mainly
because of an increase in the in situ measurements
that have become available, and the increasing number
of intraplate earthquakes for which reliable focal
mechanisms have now been determined. For example
Sbar & Sykes (1973) have examined North America;
Ahorner & Schneider (1974), Europe; Worotnicki &
Denham (1976), Australia; Mendiguren & Richter
(1978), South America; and Richardson (1978) the
Nazca Plate. Sykes (1978) has made a valuable world•
wide review. Each study found compelling evidence for
considerable compressive intraplate stress; several of
the authors tried to relate the observed stresses to those
that would be expected from a simple plate-tectonic
model with pushing forces at the ridges, drag on the
base of the plate and along its sides (transform faults),
and pull at the subduction zones.
* csmo, Division of Applied Geomechanics, P.O. Box 54,
Mount Waverley, Victoria 3149.
Richardson & others (1976), and Chapple & Tullis
(1977) analysed numerical models of worldwide plate
motions and driving force systems to try and predict
the intraplate stress systems. However, although their
models fit some of the plates, no one model agrees well
with all observations from the in situ stress and earth•
quake focal mechanism results.
This is probably because the intraplate stress consists
mainly of two parts: a stress remanent from that exist•
ing during the formation and cratonisation of a
continent-which may decay by a process of viscous
creep; and a stress sustained by the present-day driving
forces of plate tectonics. In some plates, such as the
Nazca Plate, the second contribution will dominate,
and the intraplate stresses can be explained easily. In
other plates this is not the case and causes of the
stresses are not obvious; the Australian plate fits into
this category and it is examined here in the light of new
data obtained recently from earthquakes, overcoring
measurements, and ground deformations.
The objective is to try and determine the stress
patterns in the continent. These can then be used in
studies of earthquake risk, and in stability problems
encountered in surface and underground excavations
used in mining and civil engineering works.
Evidence from earthquakes
Denham & others (in prep.) present focal mechanism
solutions for six well-determined earthquakes. These are
plotted in Figure 1, with new solutions for tbe 1977
BaIIiang earthquake (Smith & Denham, pers. comm.)
and the 1978 Halls Creek earthquake (Everingham &
290 D. DENHAM & OTHERS

120· 130· 140·

•
--,
• "

",
"
(" ( __'I
,, -,
...-'\

-
:'

\
. •
,
.... -.....
-, ...,,_oJ
V
I
......
\

\ , 20·
\ r"...;
,, I,,
\

,, ,,
,I ''
.... / ~, .... ,
, ........
(]

,, \
"
\,
,I
:\
BRISBANE
,,
,,
I
30·

• __ e ---- ,

•
,,
' ...................

•• •

-..
o 500km
[TI
00
.-+-
STRESS MEASUREMENTS MAGNITUDE Archaean
Near surface
• • -140·

I
o MPa 20 • > 5.99 PLATFORM COVERS
[f!J
! , ,

Near surface- • 5.00-5.99 Mesozoic to Cainozoic

magnitude not known
ffiJ
II
• 4.00-4.99
~ In mines
~~
OROGENIC DOMAINS
[E[J Early to Mid Proterozoic
FOCAL MECHANISMS
IT] Palaeozoic Fault
--ta\...
\.Z/ Direction at
pressure aXIs
2500 Bathymetric Contour
!
NB10-42-1A I 45.

Figure 1. Distribution of earthquakes greater than magnitude 4, 1873-1977; Earthquake focal mechanisms-lower focal
hemisphere displayed, black represents compression; in situ stress measurements made before 1976. <TV repre•
sents the vertical stress due to overburden.

Smith, 1979). Table 1 lists the focal parameters of the and hence correlate the earthquake fault planes with
earthquakes shown on Figure 1; also shown on this known faults. Possible exceptions are (1) in South Aus•
figure are epicentres of all known earthquakes with tralia, where diapiric intrusions in the Adelaide Geo•
magnitudes greater than 4 for the Australian region syncline may concentrate the stresses to more than
since 1873. twice the regional values, causing the zone of earth•
Although all Australian earthquakes for which focal quakes associated with the Geosyncline (see Campbell,
mechanisms are known result from compressive forces 1978); and (2) in Victoria. Recent work by Gibson &
acting close to horizontal, the directions of the pressure Cuthbertson (1979) suggests that Victoria is being com•
axes vary considerably and there is no predominant pressed northwestwards. Most earthquakes occurring
direction for the maximum pressure. It could be argued there are at depths less than 20 km; they appear to
that, because the relation between the axes of the define a series of northeast-southwest trending reverse
maximum and minimum principal stresses and the P faults that extend across the State. The focal mechanism
and T axes of the focal mechanisms may depend on of the 1977 Balliang earthquake supports this model.
the orientation of the planes of crustal weakness (such However, the large-scale faults suggested by the spatial
as pre-existing faults), there could be considerable distribution of the earthquakes are not evident at the
scatter in the directions of the pressure axes (see surface. They appear to be represented by a series of
McKenzie, 1969). However, evidence from North smaller, subparallel en echelon faults. So from surface
America (Sbar & Sykes, 1973), South America mapping alone it is difficult to identify the major
(Mendiguren & Richter, 1978) and the Meckering crustal faults.
region of Western Austraila (Denham & others, in From the evidence of earthquake focal mechanisms,
prep.) confirm that the P axes from focal mechanisms we are left with a picture in Australia of compressive
are usually aligned close to the direction of the maxi• forces acting close to horizontal but in several,
mum principal regional stress. apparently random directions. For example the 1978
Furthermore, since Australian earthquakes are not Halls Creek and the 1970 Canning Baisn earthquakes
associated with known major faults, it is impossible to give P axes almost at right angles to each other.
identify any zones of pre-existing weakness in the crust, Similarly the 1973 Picton and the 1977 Bowning earth-
 STRESSES IN THE AUSTRALIAN CRUST 291

Magnitude Poles oj Axis oj Axis oj

Location Depth (Richter nodal planes compression tension Null axis
and date Lat.oS Long.oE km scale) trend plunge trend plunge trend plunge trend plunge
Meckering 31.58 117.00 5 6.9 308 45 271 13 020 50 169 36
14 Oct. 68 062 22
Calingiri 31.11 116.47 5.9 067 40 282 16 023 39 172 46
10 Mar. 70 362 14
Lake Mackay 22.05 126.61 15 6.7 046 20 218 24 058 64 310 07
24 Mar. 70 218 27
Simpson Desert 24.74 136.92 7 6.2 323 26 181 01 271 39 090 50
28 Aug. 72 318 27
* Picton 34.17 150.32 21 5.5 265 36 064 06 323 65 157 24
29 Mar. 73 040 44
Bowning 34.66 148.89 20 4.8 107 20 151 10 059 20 263 68
4 July 77 015 08
Halls Creek 19.55 126.56 17 6.2 292 40 324 06 226 54 59 35
6 May78 173 30
Balliang 37.87 144.26 17 5.0 309 80 308 25 129 75 40 00
2 Dec. 77 129 20
Table 1. Earthquake focal mechanism solutions for the A ustraHan continent.
* Mills & Fitch (1977) give another solution for the Picton earthquake, based on surface waves. The parameters are similar to
those listed in this table, which were obtained from body waves.

quakes which took place in the same region give stress obtained from the overcoring results with those
axes in different directions. There can be no doubt, from the earthquake focal mechanisms from the
however, that compressive forces are dominant in the Meckering and Calingiri earthquakes, and the surface
continental crust. faulting.
The Meckering earthquake is probably the best docu•
Evidence from in situ stress measurements mented of all Australian earthquakes. It took place on
Since 1957 over 1500 measurements of in situ stress 14 October 1968 and had a Richter magnitude of 6.9.
have been made at more than 50 localities in Australia The arcuate (concave to the east) north-south faulting
(see Worotnicki & Denham, 1976). Early results were produced a scarp 37 km ling with a maximum surface
obtained by flat jacks, but from 1963 most stress displacement of about 2 m (Everingham, 1968).
measurements have used borehole-overcoring methods;
these involve installing a gauge in a small pilot hole in
solid rock, and then monitoring the change in shape
of the hole when it is overcored by a larger (88 to
150 mm) diameter core barrel. The oyer coring relieves
the stresses in the rock surrounding the gauge-thus
enabling the change in shape of the pilot hole to be
measured, and the stresses in the rock to be computed.
Measurements have been carried out mostly in mines
and tunnels, at depths ranging from 1.5 m to 1.5 km.
The reliable results obtained before 1976 are sum•
marised in Figure 1. In 1976 CSIRO and BMR started
a systematic program of measuring regional stress
throughout the continent; several sites have been tested
using shallow « 10 m) holes drilled from the surface.
The site requirements for the shallow overcoring
tests are at present quite restrictive, calling for
unweathered competent rocks either cropping out or
lying close to the surface in regions of low relief. For
the measurements to be meaningful the rocks must be
well bonded to the crust and not mechanically
decoupled by joints, faults, or weathered material.
Furthermore, to obtain reliable observations in regions
of low stress, careful corrections must be made for
temperature and pore pressure effects. These correc•
tions can be as large as 3 MPa (Denham & others, in
prep.).
Most of the useful results from the recent overcoring
program have been obtained from the Meckering region
of Western Australia and the southern New South
Wales part of the Lachlan Fold Belt.
Meckering region
A detailed account of the Meckering measurements
is given in Denham & others (in prep.). The objective
was to measure the in situ stress near the epicentre of Figure 2. Meckering fault scarp, showing reverse-angle
a large earthquake, and to compare the directions of faulting.
292 D. DENHAM & OTHERS
(Permian·
Cretaceous )
. •
• 5 -5.99
• > 5.99
FOCAL MECHANISMS
.. ~
--+-
STRESS MEASUREMENTS
~ actIvIty and uplift through the Tertiary to the
o
Near surfar:e
MP. 5
~
50km
H50/ B10- 17A
Figure 3. Stress measurements near Meckering; the earth·
quake distribution before 1978 and the fault
scarps from the CaIingiri and Meckering earth·
quakes are also shown.
Figure 2 shows a section of the scarp indicating the
thrust nature of the faulting. Many smaller earth·
quakes have subsequently taken place in the region, the
largest being those at Calingiri on 10 March 1970
which had a Richter magnitude of 5.9 and Cadoux on
2 June 1979 which had a magnitude of about 6.2. The
Calingiri earthquake produced a fault scarp about
3.5 km long with a maximum surface displacement of
about 0.3 m (Everingham & Parkes, 1971). The
Cadoux earthquake also produced a fault scarp; about
12 km long and with a maximum surface displacement
of about 0.5 m (Gregson, pers. comm., 1979).
Shallow overcoring measurements (3-10 m) were
made at seven sites in competent granite along a
200 km north-south traverse in the southwest corner
of the Archaean Yilgarn Block. The results are sum•
marised in Figure 3, which is adapted from Denham &
others (in prep.). At most sites three measurements
were made at different depths and the magnitudes and
directions shown are the average result from each site.
Apart from the result at site 5 the observations indicate
a marked east-west trending maximum principal stress.
When the in situ stresses are averaged the resulting
regional maximum principal stress acts at about
N 77 °E, which is similar to the P axes from the
Meckering and Calingiri earthquakes, of N 91°Eand
N 102°E respectively. The highest principal stress, of
23 MPa, was measured at the site farthest north from
Meckering (....-'90 km) and the lowest stress (-4 MPa)
was measured near the epicentre. The maximum stresses
that occur at shallow depth are therefore of similar
magnitude to the stress drops calculated from the earth•
quakes using surface waves (Fitch & others, 1973).
Lachlan Fold Belt
31 " During 1978 and 1979 overcoring measurements
were made in the southern New South Wales part of
the Lachlan Fold Belt. Figure 4 shows the sites and
summarises the reults. A full description of the 1978
measurements is given in Denham & others (1979).
Most of the Lachlan Fold Belt was formed in the
Palaeozoic (570-225 m.y.) by a process of continental
accretion and cratonisation in an interactive zone
between the Australian Proterozoic continent and the
palaeo-Pacific Plate. The Belt currently consists mainly
of a series of volcanics, granites and deformed (and in
several areas partly metamorphosed) sediments. The
deformations are associated with four main orogenies,
starting in the Ordovician (450 m. y.) and continuing
32' until the Carboniferous (300 m.y.). The main struc•
tural trends are approximately north-south .
The stress patterns at the time of cratonisation will
probably have changed following uplift, rifting, and
seafloor spreading along the eastern coastline to form
the Tasman Sea (80-60 m.y.), and rifting along the
southern coastline associated with the seafloor spread•
ing between Australia and Antarctica (---55 m.y. to the
present). Since the opening of the marginal seas around
the continent there has been substantial volcanic
Quaternary.
The earthquake activity in the Lachlan Fold Belt is
currently rather diffuse and occurs in a broad zone
which parallels the coast. There are no major linea•
tions, but several localised clusters. Examples are the
Dalton-Gunning zone about 50 km north of Canberra,
and near Lake Talbingo. The Talbingo earthquakes
were triggered by the filling of the Dam in 1971
(Timmel & Simpson, 1974) and provide evidence of
tectonic stress in the crust. No focal mechanisms were
determined for any of these earthquakes, but the
mechanisms from the 1973 Picton and the 1977 Bown•
ing earthquakes both indicate a compressive regime
in the Lachlan.
The sites for overcoring tests were restricted by the
criteria described earlier, but eight sites have so far been
tested successfully (Table 2). The stresses observed fall
into two main patterns. In the western region, at
Ardlethan, Mirrool, Berrigan, and Tocumwal the maxi•
mum principal stresses tend to be approximately east•
west, agreeing with the earlier results from Cobar and
Broken Hill (see Fig. 1). In the east results from
Buckley's Lake, Jindabyne, Milton and Moruya give a
predominantly north-south direction for the maximum
principal stresses.
The greatest stresses were observed at Tocumwal,
where the results were similar to those obtained at
Berrigan on a different nearby batholith. Both these sets
of measurements were in competent, high modulus
rock sited in flat country. Additional confirmatory
evidence of the Tocumwal results is provided by a
pop-up in the quarry floor (Fig. 5) which was caused
by compressive forces acting close to east-west.
Discussion
There is now good evidence from several parts of
the continent that compressive stresses are present
throughout the upper crust. However, the simple models
derived from standard plate-tectonic concepts that
 STRESSES IN THE AUSTRALIAN CRUST 293

...
144' 146' 148' 150'
143' 152'
33'

... ..
.. .
.. . ...
:. :
.-.'. .. •.....
•.., • ~Picton
1.97l •
.. ..
. ........
MIRROOL • • • '-" •
J
. . ...
34'

-..
.-..
~

..
~

. I.. .. Strt: . .. . 1.,

· \..- -,- -.1 •
... \~~"~... .
----(
\
"
•
.
Bownmg 1977
• --~; !..... . . •
/~t~
,/'
"- ,
I .-.r:.~

-:..
• ( . , CANBERRA
---',,1]1J'
1 \ • BERRIGAN
...
V/"~ ..,.;.
C',,- _••• 1\1' .... " ,;.~ ACT
.. .. .
-
'-.'
....
-.J'

• ' ....... ~-~

.
.....' .
.'--~"""""~'_ r-~-J'-.- -~;...

..
........ WINDY CR'EEKI. •
a 36'
• I
TOCUMWAL

..
... .. :. ..
.....• .
......j JINDABYNE
•• '- .......

. '-
......

Balliang 1977

... ·.
~:. .. 38'

..
, ..
• Iw

--+-•
FOCAL MECHANISMS STRESS MEASUREMENTS

~rection of pressure axis Near surface

o MPa 10
I

+
MAGNITUDE
< 5.00
In mlnes O'v
• 5.00-5.99
• > 5.99
o 200km
155/B10-3A

Figure 4. Stress measurements in the Lachlan Fold Belt.

predict a consistent direction for stress throughout the two main possibilities. The first is that the earthquakes
whole continent do not apply, Within specific regions, occur along pre-existing zones of weakness in the crust.
such as the southwest Yilgarn Block and central New These zones would then determine the attitudes of the
South Wales, the evidence from earthquake focal fault planes and hence the true regional stress pattern
mechanisms, overcoring measurements, and ground would not be revealed-as suggested by McKenzie
deformations all give consistent results, However, the (1969); the second possibility is that the stress field in
boundaries of these specific regions are difficult to the crust is distorted by lateral inhomogeneities. These
define, and stress directions can change abruptly from would be expected at craton boundaries, and at the
region to region, For example, the 1973 Picton and edges of similar large crustal features.
1977 Bowning earthquakes which were close together, The results of the overcoring measurements are
gave pressure axes almost at right angles to each other, reasonably consistent. However, the data are scattered
although both mechanisms indicated that compressive thinly, and the problem remains of ascertaining whether
forces close to horizontal caused the earthquakes. or not the rock tested is properly coupled to the crust.
Similarly, the 1970 Canning Basin and the 1978 Halls It is therefore important that more overcoring
Creek earthquakes show thrust fault solutions, but with measurements are taken. This may involve testing at
pressure axes in different directions, greater depths than the current maximum of about
The reasons for the apparent inconsistencies in the 10m. Because of the deep weathering present through•
directions of the pressure axes obtained from the earth• out most of the continent, it is often difficult to find
quakes are not evident. However, there seem to be competent, coupled rock near the surface.
294 D. DENHAM & OTIfERS

bearing
degrees
depth principal stresses bearing E Mean Values E of N, of
Site m "1 MPa "2 of "1 GPa "1 "2 average "1
Milton
Cretaceous 4.9 18.0 6.0 15.5 69
monzonite 8.3 18.7 6.5 26.5 63 16.9 5.7 12
35.41 °S, 150.36*E 8.9 13.9 4.5 173.5 59
Moruya
Silurian 3.7 4.6 4.0 8 54 4.6 4.0 8
granodiorite
35.91 oS, 150.12°E
Berrigan 3.5 11.4 5.6 74 49 11 .8 7.6 77
Silurian 3.8 12.1 9.5 80 53
granite
35.68°S, 145.82°E
Tocumwal 6.7 17.0 12.2 79 47 17.6 11.4 76
Silurian 8.3 18.1 10.7 73 47
granite
35.76°S, 145.63°E
Ardlethan 9.2 0.6 -1.2 130 53
Silurian 6.2 3.5 2.1 100 44 4.2 1.5 102
granite 9.3 7.5 2.5 106 47
34.20 0 S, 146.80 0 E 10.0 5.4 2.6 70 50
Buckley's 4.2 3.0 2.4 32 73 3.0 2.4
Lake 6.2 1.7 1.5 132 72 2
Silurian 9.2 4.4 3.4 23 74
adamellite
36.46°S, 148.95 °E
Jindabyne 4.3 9.3 7.1 6 64 9.1 7.1
Silurian 6.2 9.1 7.5 165 62
tonalite 8.7 9.0 6.6 17 62
36.43 °S, 148.62°E
Mirrool 4.8 6.2 4.7 81 44 5.9 4.3
Silurian 6.4 8.3 6.7 81 44 81
granite 9.2 3.2 1.6 80 43
34.37 °S, 147.07°E

Table 2. Shallow overcoring results in Lachlan Fold Belt.

"1 & " 2 are the major and minor principal stresses in the horizontal plane.

Acknowledgements
We thank G . Blows, A. Buckland and R. H. Thomp•
son of CSIRO for detailed site selection and testing;
L. Hodgins and N . Lodwick of BMR for carrying out
the drilling; R. Smith for providing pre-publication data
for the Balliang earthquake; and J. Mifsud for drafting
the figures.

References
AHORNER, L. & SCHNEIDER, G., 1974-Herd mechanisms
von Erdbeden in Oberrhein-Graben und in seinen
Radgebirgen, Approaches to Taphrogenesis, Interunio
Commission on Godynamics, Karlsruhe, West Germany,
Science Report 8, 104-17.
CAMPBELL, D . L., 1978-Investigation of the stress-con•
centration mechanism for intraplate earthquakes. Geo•
physical Research Letters, 6, 477-9.
CHAPPLE, W. M., & TULLIS, T. E., 1977-Evaluation of the
forces that drive plates. Journal of Geophysical Research,
82, 1967-84.
DENHAM, D., ALEXANDER, L. G., & WOROTNICKI, G. (in
prep.)-the stress field near the site of the 1968 Mec•
kering earthquake W.A.
DENHAM, D ., ALEXANDER, L. G., & WOROTNICKI, G., 1979
-Rock stress measurements in the Lachlan Fold Belt,
NSW. CSIRO Division of Applied Geomechanics, Techni•
cal Report, 84.
EVERINGHAM, I. B., 1968-Preliminary report on the 14
Figure 5. Tocumwal pop-up. The quarry floor has been October, 1968 earthquake at Meckering, Western Aus•
fractured by compressive forces which have tralia. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Australia, Record
caused the pop-up. 1968/ 142 (unpublished).

EVERINGHAM, I. B., & PARKES, A., 1971-Intensity data
for earthquakes at Landor (17 June 1969) and Calingiri
(10 March 1970) and their relationship to previous
Western Australian Observations. Bureau Of Mineral
Resources, Australia, Record 1971/80 (unpublished).
EVERINGHAM, 1. B., & SMITH, R. S., 1979-Implications of
fault-place solutions for Australian earthquakes on 4 July,
1977, 6 May, 1978 and 25 November, 1978. BMR
Journal of Australian Geology and Geophysics, 4, 297-
301.
FITCH, T. J., WORTHINGTON, M. H., & EVERINGHAM, I. B.,
1973-Mechanisms of Australian earthquakes and con•
temporary stress in the Indian Ocean Plate. Earth and
Planetary Science Letters, 18, 345-56.
GIBSON, G., & CUTHBERTSON, R., 1979-Seismicity and the
tectonic structure of Victoria. In DENHAM, D. (Compiler),
summaries of papers presented at CUMSEA symposium,
Canberra February, 1979. Bureau of Mineral Resources,
Australia, Record 1979/ 2 (unpublished).
McKENZIE, D . P., 1969-The relation between fault plane
solutions for earthquakes and the directions of principal
stresses. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America,
59, 591-601.
MENDIGUREN, J . A., & RICHTER, F. M., 1978-0n the
origin of compressional intraplate stresses in South
America. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors,
16, 318-26.
MILLS, J . M., & FITCH, T. J., 1977-Thrust faulting and
crust-upper mantle structure in East Australia. Geo•
physical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 48,
351-84.
STRESSES IN THE AUSTRALIAN CRUST 295
RICHARDSON, R. M., 1978-Finite element modelling of
stress in the Nazca plate: driving forces and plate
boundary earthquakes. Tectonophysics, 50, 223-48 .
RICHARDSON, R. M., SoLOMON, S. c., & SLEEP, N. H.,
1976-Intraplate stress as an indicator of plate tectonic
driving forces. Journal Of Geophysical Research , 81,
1847-56.
SBAR, M. L. , & SYKES, L. R., 1973-Contemporary com•
pressive stress and seismicity in eastern North America;
an example of intraplate tectonics. Geological Society of
America, Bulletin 84, 1861-82.
SOLOMON, S. c., & SLEEP, N. H., 1974--S0me simple
physical models for absolute plate motion, Journal of
Geophysical Research, 79, 2557-67.
SoLOMON, S. C. , SLEEP, N. H. , & RICHARDSON, R. M., 1975
-On the forces driving plate tectonics : inferences from
absolute plate velocities and intraplate stress. Geophysical
Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 42, 769-801.
SYKES, L. R. , 1978-Intraplate seismicity, reactivation of
pre-existing zones of weakness, alkaline magmatism and
other tectonism postdating continental fragmentation.
Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics, 16, 621-88 .
TIM MEL, K. E., & SIMPSON, D. W., 1972--Seismic events
during the filling of Talbingo reservoir. ANCOLD
Bulletin 36, 27-33.
WOROTNICKI, G., & DENHAM, D. , 1976-The state of stress
in the upper part of the earth's crust in Australia
according to measurements in mines and tunnels and from
seismic observations. Proceedings of ISRM Symposium,
Investigation of Stress in Rock, Advances in Stress
M easurement, Sydney, Australia, 71-82.