Design Criteria For Bolted and Rivited Joints

Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and
Riveted Joints
Second Edition
Geoffrey L. Kulak
John W. Fisher
John H. A. Struik
Published by:
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION, Inc.
One East Wacker Drive, Suite 3100, Chicago, IL 60601
Copyright (2001) by the Research Council on Structural Connections.
All rights reserved.
Original copyright (1987) by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. transferred to RCSC.
Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Se
ction
107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the
copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information shou
ld be
addressed to RCSC c/o AISC, One East Wacker Drive, Suite 3100, Chicago, IL 60601
.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data:
Fisher, John W., 193 1Guide to design criteria for bolted and riveted joints.
“A Wiley-lnterscience publication.” Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Bolted joints. 2. Riveted joints. I. Kulak, Geoffrey. II. Struik, John H. A.,
1942-
III. Title.
TA492.B63F56 1987671.5 86-22390
ISBN 0-471-83791-1 (for Wiley copyright) ISBN 1-56424-075-4 (for RCSC copyright)
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6
Foreword
Since the first edition of this book was published in 1974, numerous internation
al
studies on the strength and performance of bolted connections have been conducte
d. Ln
the same period, the Research Council on Structural Connections has developed tw
o
new specifications for structural joints using ASTM A325 or A490 bolts, one base
d on
allowable stress principles and the other on a load factor and resistance design
philosophy. In addition, the Research Council has approved and published “A Test
Method to Determine the Slip Coefficient for Coatings used in Bolted Joints.” This
second, updated, edition has been prepared and approved by the Research Council.
Formed in 1947 and formerly known as the Research Council on Riveted and
Bolted Structural Connections, the Research Council on Structural Connections is
a
nonprofit technical body composed of consulting engineers, educational instituti
ons
trade associations and government agencies, and individual members. Its membersh
ip
is classified according to interest either as producers, users, or general inter
est, and its
purpose is to promote technical information and the knowledge of economical, eff
icient
and safe practices related to the design and installation of bolted structural c
onnections.
The Research Council’s Specifications have been endorsed by the Industrial
Fasteners Institute and endorsed and published by the American Institute of Stee
l
Construction, and they form the basis of the technical requirements of other nat
ional
standards.
Research Council on
Structural Connections
Preface
The impetus for the preparation of a second edition of the Guide to Design Crite
ria for
Bolted and Riveted Joints has been the enthusiastic reception of the original ve
rsion
and the continued citation for over a decade of that book as a source of informa
tion
regarding the design of bolted connections. There certainly has been no other si
ngle
reference in this area that has been so accepted by designers, teachers, student
s, and
specification writers.
Of course, a great deal of research into the behavior of bolted connections has
been
conducted since the publication of the original Guide. Indeed, that publication
itself
identified areas of concern and areas in which information was lacking, and it t
hereby
stimulated research. The success of the original Guide and the amount of signifi
cant
research that has been done since its publication indicated that a revised and u
pdated
version was desirable. The authors are grateful to the Research Council on Struc
tural
Connections for supporting the preparation Of a second edition and for underwrit
ing
the costs involved. Many council members offered suggestions, and the efforts of
the
council were coordinated by M. I. Gilmor of the Canadian Institute of Steel
Construction. Geoffrey Kulak also particularly wishes to express thanks to Profe
ssor J.
-C. Badoux, Director of ICOM (Institute de la Construction Mdtallique) at École
Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne in Switzerland. The majority of the revisions
contained in the second edition were prepared while that author was a visiting p
rofessor
at the Institute.
Readers of the original Guide will find that the second edition follows the same
framework. After introductory chapters treating the historical background of hig
hstrength
bolts and rivets, the behavior of individual fasteners is introduced. This is
followed by descriptions of the behavior of fasteners in the various types of
connections that are encountered in structural engineering practice. Throughout
the
book, new data have been used to update the information originally presented or
to
present thoughts in areas that were not covered at all in the earlier edition. T
here has
been a great deal of new work for the authors to draw on. For example, there hav
e been
significant improvements in our knowledge of the behavior of slip-resistance
connections, fatigue of bolted and riveted connections, beam-to-column connectio
ns,
and so on. The authors are grateful to researchers throughout the world who have
shared their results so willingly.
GEOFFREY L. KULAK
JOHN W. FISHER
JOHN H. A. STRUIK
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
January 1987
vii
Preface to First Edition
This book provides a state-of-the-art summary of the experimental and theoretica
l
studies undertaken to provide an understanding of the behavior and strength of r
iveted
and bolted structural joints. Design criteria have been developed on the basis o
f this
information and should be beneficial to designers, teachers, students, and speci
ficationwriting
bodies.
The book is intended to provide a comprehensive source of information on bolted
and riveted structural joints as well as an explanation of their behavior under
various
load conditions. Design recommendations are provided for both allowable stress d
esign
and load factor design. In both cases, major consideration is given to the funda
mental
behavior of the joint and its ultimate capacity.
The work on this manuscript was carried out at Fritz Engineering Laboratory,
Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa. The Research Council on Riveted and Bolted
Structural Joints sponsored the project from its inception in 1969.
The work has been guided by the Councils Committee on Specifications under the
chairmanship of Dr. Theodore R. Higgins. Other members of the committee include:
R.
S. Belford, E. Chesson, Jr., M. F. Godfrey, F. E. Graves, R. M. Harris, H. A. Kr
entz, F.
R. Ling, W. H. Munse, W. Pressler, E. J. Ruble, J. L. Rumpf, T. W. Spilman, F. S
tahl,
and W. M. Thatcher. The authors are grateful for the advice and guidance provide
d by
the committee. Many helpful suggestions were made during the preparation of the
manuscript. Sincere appreciation is also due the Research Council on Riveted and
Bolted Structural Joints and Lehigh University for supporting this work.
A book of this magnitude would not have been possible without the assistance of
the many organizations who have sponsored research on riveted and bolted structu
ral
joints at Fritz Engineering Laboratory. Much of the research on the behavior of
riveted
and bolted structural joints that was conducted at Fritz Engineering Laboratory
provided background for this study and was drawn on extensively. Those sponsorin
g
this work include the American Institute of Steel Construction, the Pennsylvania
Department of Transportation, the Research Council on Riveted and Bolted Structu
ral
Joints, the United States Department of Transportation-Federal Highway
Administration, and the Louisiana Department of Transportation.
The authors are particularly grateful for the advice provided by Dr. Theodore R.
Higgins and Dr. Geoffrey L. Kulak. Many helpful suggestions were provided that
greatly improved the manuscript and design recommendations.
ix
x Preface to First Edition
The manuscript was typed by Mrs. Charlotte Yost, and her assistance with the
many phases of the preparation of the manuscript is appreciated. Acknowledgment
is
also due Mary Ann Yost for her assistance with the preparation of the various in
dexes
provided in this book and other resource material. Many organizations have given
permission to reproduce graphs, tables, and photographs. This permission is
appreciated and credit is given at the appropriate place.
JOHN W. FISHER
JOHN H. A. STRUIK
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
July 1973
Contents
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Purpose and Scope, 1
1.2 Historical Notes, 1
1.3 Types and Mechanical Properties of Structural Fasteners, 3
2. General Provisions 9
2.1 Structural Steels, 9
2.2 Types of Connections, 12
2.3 Loads, 16
2.4 Factor of Safety—Load Factor Design, 17
2.5 Bolted and Riveted Shear Splices, 18
2.6 Fatigue, 20
2.7 Fracture, 22
3. Rivets 27
3.1 Rivet Types, 27
3.2 Installation of Rivets, 27
3.3 Behavior of Individual Fasteners, 29
3.3.1 Rivets Subjected to Tension, 29
3.3.2 Rivets Subjected to Shear, 30
3.3.3 Rivets Subjected to Combined Tension and Shear, 31
3.4 Basis for Design Recommendations, 33
3.4.1 Rivets Subjected to Tension, 33
3.4.2 Rivets Subjected to Shear, 33
3.4.3 Rivets Subjected to Combined Tension and Shear, 33
xi
xii Contents
4. Bolts 35
4.1 Bolt Types, 35
4.2 Behavior of Individual Fasteners, 39
4.2.1 Bolts Subjected to Tension, 39
4.2.2 Bolts Subjected to Shear, 44
4.2.3 Bolts Subjected to Combined Tension and Shear, 50
4.3 Installation of High-Strength Bolts, 52
4.4 Relaxation, 61
4.5 Reuse of High-Strength Bolts, 62
4.6 Galvanized Bolts and Nuts, 63
4.7 Use of Washers, 65
4.8 Corrosion and Embrittlement, 66
4.9 Effect of Nut Strength, 69
4.10 Basis for Design Recommendations, 70
4.10.1 Bolts Subjected to Tension, 70
4.10.2 Bolts Subjected to Shear, 71
4.10.3 Bolts Subjected to Combined Tension and Shear, 71
5. Symmetric Butt Splices 74
5.1 Joint Behavior up to Slip, 74
5.1.1 Introduction, 74
5.1.2 Basic Slip Resistance, 74
5.1.3 Evaluation of Slip Characteristics, 75
5.1.4 Effect of Joint Geometry and Number of Faying Surfaces, 77
5.1.5 Joint Stiffness, 78
5.1.6 Effect of Type of Steel, Surface Preparation, and Treatment on
the Slip Coefficient, 78
5.1.7 Effect of Variation in Bolt Clamping Force, 82
5.1.8 Effect of Grip Length, 89
5.2 Joint Behavior After Major Slip, 89
5.2.2 Behavior of Joints, 89
5.2.3 Joint Stiffness, 94
5.2.4 Surface Preparation and Treatment, 94
5.2.5 Load Partition and Ultimate Strength, 95
5.2.6 Effect of Joint Geometry, 99
5.2.7 Type of Fastener, 109
5.2.8 Effect of Grip Length, 111
5.2.9 Bearing Stress and End Distance, 112
Contents xiii
5.3 Joint Behavior Under Repeated Loading, 116
5.3.1 Basic Failure Modes, 116
5.3.2 Fatigue Strength of Bolted Butt Joints, 118
5.4 Design Recommendations, 126
5.4.2 Design Recommendations—Fasteners, 128
5.4.3 Design Recommendations—Connected Material, 138
5.4.4 Design Recommendations for Bearing Stresses, 143
6. Truss-Type Connections 148
6.1 Introduction, 148
6.2 Behavior of Truss-Type Connections, 148
6.2.1 Static Loading, 148
6.2.2 Repeated Loading, 155
7. Shingle Joints 158
7.2 Behavior of Shingle Joints, 158
7.3 Joint Stiffness, 162
7.4 Load Partition and Ultimate Strength, 162
7.5 Effect of Joint Geometry, 163
7.5.1 Effect of Variation in An/As Ratio and Joint Length, 163
7.5.2 Number of Fasteners per Region, 163
7.5.3 Number of Regions, 164
7.6.1 Approximate Method of Analysis, 165
7.6.2 Connected Material, 170
7.6.3 Fasteners, 170
8. Lap Joints 171
8.2 Behavior of Lap Joints, 171
8.3.1 Static Loading Conditions, 175
8.3.2 Repeated-Type Loading, 175
xiv Contents
9. Oversize and Slotted Holes 176
9.2 Effect of Hole Size on Bolt Tension and Installation, 176
9.3 Joint Behavior, 180
9.3.1 Slip Resistance, 180
9.3.2 Ultimate Strength, 183
10. Filler Plates between Surfaces 186
10.2 Types of Filler Plates and Load Transfer, 186
11. Alignment of Holes 194
11.2 Behavior of Joints with Misaligned Holes, 194
12. Surface Coatings 197
12.2 Effect of Type of Coating on Short-Duration Slip Resistance, 198
12.2.1 Hot-Dip Galvanizing, 198
12.2.2 Metallizing, 202
12.2.3 Zinc-Rich Paints, 202
12.2.4 Vinyl-Treated Surfaces, 206
12.3 Joint Behavior Under Sustained Loading, 208
12.4 Joint Behavior Under Repeated Loading, 210
13. Eccentrically Loaded Joints 217
13.2 Behavior of a Fastener Group Under Eccentric Loading, 218
13.3 Analysis of Eccentrically Loaded Fastener Groups, 220
13.3.1 Slip-Resistant Joints, 221
13.3.2. Ultimate Strength Analysis, 223
Contents xv
13.4 Comparison of Analytical and Experimental Results, 225
13.5.1 Connected Material, 227
13.5.2 Fasteners, 227
14. Combination Joints 232
14.2 Behavior of Combination Joints That Share Load on a Common Shear
Plane, 234
14.2.1 High-Strength Bolts Combined with Welds, 235
14.2.2 High-Strength Bolts Combined with Rivets, 238
14 3 Design Recommendations 240
14.3.1 Static Loading Conditions, 241
14.3.2 Repeated Loading Conditions, 241
15. Gusset Plates 243
15.2 Method of Analysis and Experimental Work on Gusset Plates, 244
16. Beam and Girder Splices 255
16.2 Types and Behavior of Beam-Girder Splices, 255
16.2.1 Flange Splices, 257
16.2.2 Web Splices, 259
16.3.1 Flange Splices, 261
16.3.2 Web Splices, 262
17. Tension-Type Connections 263
17.2 Single Fasteners in Tension, 263
17.3 Bolt Groups Loaded in Tension—Prying Action, 266
17.4 Repeated Loading of Tension-Type Connections, 272
17.5 Analysis of Prying Action, 274
xvi Contents
17.6.1 Static Loading, 282
17.6.2 Repeated Loading, 286
18. Beam-to-Column Connections 289
18.2 Classification of Beam-to-Column Connections, 290
18.3 Behavior of Beam-to-Column Connections, 292
18.3. 1 Flexible Beam-to-Column Connections, 293
18.3.2 Semi-Rigid Connections, 300
18.3.3 Rigid Connections, 301
18.4 Stiffener Requirements for Bolted Beam-to-Column Connections, 313
Author Index 323
Subject Index 329
Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE
The purpose of this book is to provide background information and criteria that
can
be used as a guide to the improvement of existing design procedures and
specifications for bolted and riveted joints. To achieve this goal, extensive re
search
work performed in the United States, Canada, Australia, Germany, the Netherlands
,
England, Norway, Japan, and elsewhere was reviewed.
Among the criteria considered as a basis for design was an evaluation of the
load versus deformation characteristics of the component parts of the joint. The
major emphasis was placed on the behavior of structural joints connected by
ASTM A325 or A490 high-strength bolts. The joint materials considered ranged
from structural carbon steel with a specified yield stress between 33 and 36 ksi
(227 and 248 MPa) to quenched and tempered alloy steel with a yield stress
ranging from 90 to 100 ksi (620 to 689 MPa).
The different types of fasteners, connections, loading conditions, and design
procedures are discussed briefly in the first two chapters. Chapters 3 and 4 dea
l
with the behavior of individual fasteners under various loading conditions.
Chapter 5 describes the behavior, analysis, and design of symmetric butt splices
.
Special types of joints such as truss-type connections, shingle joints, beam or
girder splices, and beam-to-column connections are discussed in subsequent
chapters.
1.2 HISTORICAL NOTES
Rivets were the principal fasteners in the early days of iron and steel, but occ
asionally
bolts of mild steel were used in structures.1.6, 1.8 It had long been known
that hot-driven rivets generally produced clamping forces. However, the axial
force was not controlled and varied substantially. Therefore, it could not be
evaluated for design.
Batho and Bateman were the first to suggest that high-strength bolts could be us
ed
to assemble steel structures.1.1 In 1934 they reported to the Steel Structures C
ommittee
of Scientific and Industrial Research of Great Britain that bolts could
2 Introduction
be tightened enough to prevent slip in structural joints. It was concluded that
bolts
with a minimum yield strength of 54 ksi could be tightened sufficiently to give
an
adequate margin of safety against slippage of the connected parts.
Based on tests performed at the University of Illinois, Wilson and Thomas
reported 1.2 in 1938:
The fatigue strength of high-strength bolts appreciably smaller than the holes
in the plates was as great as that of well driven rivets if the nuts were screwe
d
up to give a high tension in the bolt.
Little more was done about high-strength bolting until 1947 when the Research
Council on Riveted and Bolted Structural Joints (RCRBSJ) was formed. The
purpose of the council, known now as the Research Council on Structural
Connections (RCSC), was as follows:
To carry on investigations as may seem necessary to determine the suitability of
various types of joints used in structural frames.
The council sponsored studies on high-strength bolts and rivets and their use in
structural connections. The realization that bolts could be extremely useful in
the
maintenance of bridges helped support developmental work at this early stage. Th
e
use of high-strength steel bolts as permanent fasteners has become general since
the formation of the RCRBSJ. Prior to that time heat-treated carbon bolts were
only used for fitting-up purposes and for carrying the loads during erection. Th
e
bolts were tightened to pull the plies of joint material together, but no attemp
t was
made to attain a precise amount of clamping force.
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) in conjunction with
the RCRBSJ prepared a tentative specification for the materials for high-strengt
h
bolts, a specification which was first approved in l949.1.3 Using the results of
research, the RCRBSJ prepared and issued its first specification for structural
joints using high-strength bolts in January 1951.1.4 This specification permitte
d the
rivet to be replaced by a bolt on a one-to-one basis.
In the early 1950s, the installation procedures, the slip resistance of joints
having different surface treatments, and the behavior of joints under repeated
loadings were studied.1.6 Outside of the United States high-strength bolts also
attracted much attention. Sufficient experience was gained in the laboratory and
in
bridge construction to enable the German Committee for Structural Steelwork
(GCSS) to issue a preliminary code of practice (1956).1.7 In Great Britain, the
general practice was similar to practice and specifications in the United States
. The
British Standards Institution issued a British Standard (BS) 3139 dealing with b
olt
material in 1959. In 1960, BS 3294 was issued to establish the design procedure
and field practice.
Research developments led to several editions of the RCRBSJ specifications.
Allowable stresses were increased, tightening procedures were modified, and new
developments such as the use of A490 alloy steel bolts, galvanized joints and bo
lts,
and slotted holes were incorporated.1.4 The first edition of the Guide to Design
1.3 Types and Mechanical Properties of Structural Fasteners 3
Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Connections,1.13 sponsored by the council and
published in 1974, provided a valuable summary of connection and connector
behavior for designers and specification writers alike. The presentation of the
strength and deformation statements in their most fundamental and basic forms
made the guide directly useful for those using the limit states design formats t
hat
emerged in the late 1970s.
1.3 TYPES AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL
FASTENERS
The mechanical fasteners used in structural connections can be classified as eit
her
rivets or bolts. Both serve the same purpose, but there are significant differen
ces in
appearance. Standards for both types of fasteners are given in Ref. 1.5.
The most commonly used types of structural bolts are (1) the ASTM A307
grade A carbon steel bolt, (2) the ASTM A325 high-strength steel bolt, and (3) t
he
ASTM A490 quenched and tempered alloy steel. 1.3, 1.9, 1.10
The ASTM low carbon steel fastener is primarily used in light structures,
subjected to static loads. The high-strength A325 and A490 bolts are heavy hex
structural bolts used with heavy hex nuts (see Fig. 1.1).
A307 bolts are made of low carbon steel with mechanical properties as
designated by ASTM A307. A325 bolts are made by heat-treating, quenching, and
tempering medium carbon steel. Two different strength levels are specified,
depending on the size of the bolts (see Fig. 1.2).1.3 The quenched and tempered
alloy steel bolt, designated as the A490 bolt, has higher mechanical properties
as
compared with the A325 high-strength bolt. It was especially developed for use w
ith
high-strength steel members. The A490 specification calls for the heavy head and
Fig. 1.1. Heavy hex bolts. (a) High-strength bolt (Courtesy of Bethlehem Steel C
orp.); (b)
installed bolt.
4 Introduction
ASTM designation Bolt diameter (in.) Tensile strengtha (ksi)
A307-83a All 60 minimum
A325-84 ½ -1 120 minimum
1 1/8 – 1 ½ 105 minimum
A490k-84 ½ - 1 ½ 150 minimum – 170
minimum
Fig 1.2 Tensile strength requirements of structural bolts. aComputed on the stre
ss area.
the short thread length of the A325 specification together with chemical and
physical properties nearly identical to the A354 grade BD bolt.1.11 For the
development of the A490 bolt many calibration tests were performed on A354
grade BD fasteners manufactured to conform to the A490 specification
requirements. The mechanical properties of the different bolt types for structur
al
joints are summarized in Figs.1.2 and 1.3. Unlike rivets, the strength of bolts
is
specified in terms of a tensile test of the threaded fastener. The load versus
elongation characteristics of a bolt are more significant than the stress versus
strain
diagram of the parent metal because performance is affected by the presence of t
he
threads. Also, the stress varies along the bolt as a result of the gradual intro
duction
of force from the nut and the change in section from the threaded to the unthrea
ded
portion. The weakest section of any bolt in tension is the threaded portion. The
tensile strength of the bolt is usually determined from the “stress area,” defined
using U.S. Customary Units as:
2
n
0.9743 – D 785 . 0 area stress
=
Fig 1.3 Coupon stress versus strain relationships for different fastener materia
ls.
1.3 Types and Mechanical Properties of Structural Fasteners 5
where D = nominal bolt diameter
n = number of threads per inch
Figure 1.4 shows typical load versus elongation curves for three different bolts
of
the same diameter. The tensile strength of each of the bolts was near its specif
ied
minimum.
In addition to regular structural bolts, threaded parts have many other
structural applications, for example, anchor bolts or tension rods. Anchor bolts
are
used in column base plates to prevent the uplift of the base plate due to column
moments. Threaded parts in tension rods are frequently used to transmit tensile
loads from one element to another. In all of these applications, the threaded pa
rts
are primarily subjected to tensile loads, and the ultimate tensile load of these
connections is determined on the basis of the stress area.
The nut is an important part of the bolt assembly. Nut dimensions and
strengths are specified so that the strength of the bolt is developed.1.5
Bolts are generally used in holes 1/16 in. (2 mm) larger than the nominal bolt
diameter. When A307 or other mild steel bolts are used, the connection is
commonly in bearing, and the nuts are tightened sufficiently to prevent play in
the
connected members. The clamping force is not very great and should not be
considered to have any influence on either the fastener or connection behavior.
High-strength bolts (A325 and A490) can produce high and consistent preloads.
The RCSC specification requires that they be tightened to at least 70% of the
specified minimum tensile strength of the bolt material. The tension is obtained
as
the nut is turned against the gripped material. Such tightening requires the use
of
hand torque wrenches or powered impact wrenches. Two methods of controlling
bolt
Fig 1.4 Comparison of bolt types (direct tension).
Fig. 1.5. Rivets. (a) Rivet types (Courtesy of Bethlehem Steel Corp.); (b) insta
lled rivet.
6
References 7
Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3
Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.
Rockwell B
Brinell, 500-kgf load, 10-mm ball
55
103
72
126
76
137
85
163
76
137
93
197
Fig. 1.6 Hardness requirements for A502 rivet steel
tension are used. A detailed description of both tightening procedures is given
in
Chapter 4.
Rivets are made from bar stock by either hot- or cold-forming the
manufactured head. The head is usually of the high button-type, although flatten
ed
and counter-sunk rivets are made for applications with limited clearance. Differ
ent
rivet types are shown in Fig. 1.5.
Structural rivet steels are of three types: (1) ASTM A502 grade 1, carbon rivet
steel, (2) ASTM A502 grade 2, high-strength structural steel rivets, and ASTM
A502 grade 3, similar to grade 2 but with enhanced atmospheric corrosion
resistance 1.12. Grade 1 and 2 rivets correspond to those formerly made from ste
el
conforming to ASTM A141 and A195, respectively. Grade 3 rivets are made from
steel conforming to ASTM A588. The mechanical hardness requirements for A502
rivet steel are listed in Fig. 1.6. The stress versus strain relationships for t
ypical,
undriven A502 rivets are given in Fig. 1.3. For comparative purposes this figure
also shows the stress versus strain curves obtained from 0.505-in, diameter
specimens turned from full-size A325 and A490 bolts. In North America, rivets ar
e
now seldom used in new work. Bolts, either ordinary (A307) or high-strength
(A325 and A490), provide an equal or superior connection, and their installed co
st
is less than that of rivets.
REFERENCES
1.1 C. Batho and E. H. Bateman, Investigations on Bolts and Bolted Joints, secon
d report of
the Steel Structures Research Committee, London, 1934.
1.2 W. M. Wilson and F. P. Thomas, Fatigue Tests on Riveted Joints, Bulletin 302
,
Engineering Experiment Station, University of Illinois, Urbana, 1938.
1.3 American Society for Testing and Materials, High-Strength Bolts for Structur
al Steel
Joints, ASTM Designation A325-84 (originally issued 1949), Philadelphia, 1985.
1.4 Research Council on Riveted and Bolted Structural Joints of the Engineering
Foundation, Specifications for Assembly of Structural Joints Using High-
Strength Bolts, originally issued 1951, latest edition; Research Council on
Structural Connections, Specification for Structural Joints Using ASTM A325 or
A490 Bolts, 1985.
1.5 Industrial Fasteners Institute, Fastener Standards, 5th ed., Industrial Fast
eners Institute,
Cleveland, Ohio, 1970.
8 Introduction
1.6 ASCE-Manual 48, Bibliography on Bolted and Riveted Joints, Headquarters of t
he
Society, New York. 1967.
1.7 Deutscher Stahlbau-Verband, Preliminary Directives for the Calculation, Desi
gn and
Assembly of Non-Slip Bolted Connections, Stahlbau Verlag, Cologne, 1956.
1.8 A. E. R. de Jonge, Bibliography on Riveted Joints, American Society of Mecha
nical
Engineers, New York, 1945.
1.9 American Society for Testing and Materials, Heat-Treated Steel Structural Bo
lts,
150 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength, ASTM Designation A490-84, Philadelphia,
1985.
1.10 American Society for Testing and Materials, Carbon Steel Externally Threade
d
Standard Fasteners, ASTM Designation A307-83a, Philadelphia, 1983.
1.11 American Society for Testing and Materials, Quenched and Tempered Alloy Ste
el
Bolts, Studs and Other Externally Threaded Fasteners, ASTM Designation
A354-84b, Philadelphia, 1985.
1.12 American Society for Testing and Materials, Steel Structural Rivets, ASTM
Designation A502-83a, Philadelphia, 1985.
1.13 J. W. Fisher and J. H. A. Struik, Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and R
iveted
Connections, Wiley, New York, 1974.
Chapter Two
General Provisions
2.1 STRUCTURAL STEELS
Knowledge of the material properties is a major requirement for the analysis of
any
structural system. The strength and ductility of a material are two characterist
ics
needed by the designer. These material properties are often described adequately
by
the stress versus strain relationship for the material. Figure 2.1 shows the str
ess
versus strain relationship that is characteristic of many steels for structural
applications. The figure shows the four typical ranges of behavior: the elastic
range, the plastic range (during which the material flows at a constant stress),
the
strain-hardening range, and the range during which necking occurs, terminating i
n
fracture. Generally the initial elastic and yield segments are the most importan
t
portions. The following points can be noted in Fig. 2.1:
1. Over an initial range of strain, stress and strain are proportional. The slop
e
of the linear relationship is Young’s modulus, E.
2. After the initiation of yield there is a flat plateau. The extent of the yiel
d
zone (or “plastic range”) can be considerable.
3. At the end of the plateau, strain-hardening begins, with a subsequent increas
e
in strength.
Structural steel can undergo sizeable permanent (plastic) deformations before
fracture. In contrast to a brittle material, it will generally show signs of dis
tress
through permanent, but noncatastrophic, plastic deformation. The energy absorbed
during the process of stretching is proportional to the area under the stress ve
rsus
strain curve. The ductility is essential in various ways for the proper function
ing of
steel structures and is particularly important in the behavior of connections.
Structural steels can be classified as follows:
1. Structural carbon steel with a specified yield stress between 33 and 36 ksi
(228 and 248 MPa). Typical examples are A36 and Fe37 steels.
9
10 General Provisions
Fig. 2.1. Stress versus strain curve. (a) Stress versus strain curve for structu
ral carbon steel;
(b) initial portion of stress versus strain curve.
2. High-strength steel with a specified yield stress between 42 and 50 ksi
(290 and 345 MPa). A typical example in this category is A588 steel.
3. High-strength low-alloy steels with a specified yield stress ranging from
40 to 65 ksi (276 to 448 MPa). This category comprises steels such as
A242, A441, A572, A588, and Fe52.
4. Quenched and tempered carbon steel with a specified yield stress between
50 and 60 ksi (345 and 414 MPa). A537 steel is a typical example.
General Provisions 11
Fig 2.2 Typical stress versus strain curves for structural steels.
5. Quenched and tempered alloy steel with a specified yield stress ranging
from 90 to 100 ksi (621 to 689 MPa). Materials in this category are
covered by ASTM A514 and A517.
Typical stress versus strain curves for these steels are given in Fig. 2.2. The
curves shown are for steels having specified minimum tensile properties. The
corresponding properties of these steels are listed in Fig. 2.3.
Steel Type
Minimum Yield
Stress (ksi)
Tensile Strength
(ksi)
Minimum
Elongation
In 8 in.b (%)
A36-84a
A242-84
A441-84
A572-84
A588-84
A537-84
A514-84a
36
42-50a
40-50 a
42-65 a
42-50 a
45-60 a
90-100 a
58-80
63-70 a
60-70 a
60-80 a
63-70 a
70-100 a
100-130 a
20
18
18
15-20 a
18
18-22 a
17-18 a
Fig 2.3 Minimum specified properties for structural steels. aDepending of thickn
ess. b 2 in.
for A514 Steel and for A537 Class 2 steel.
2.2 TYPES OF CONNECTIONS
Mechanically fastened joints are conveniently classified according to the type o
f
forces to which the fasteners are subjected. These classes are (1) shear, (2) te
nsion,
and (3) combined tension and shear. Under category 1 the fasteners are loaded
either in axial or eccentric shear. If the line of action of the applied load pa
sses
through the centroid of the fasteners group, then the fasteners are loaded in ax
ial
shear. In eccentric shear the shear force does not pass through the centroid of
the
fastener group. This results in a torsional moment on the fastener group that in
creases
the fastener shear stresses. This loading condition is referred to as eccentric
shear.
The simplest type of structural connection subjecting fasteners to axial shear i
s
the flat plate-type splice. Typical examples are shown in Fig. 2.4a, b, and c. T
he
butt splice is the most commonly used because symmetry of the shear planes
prevents bending of the plate material. The load is applied through the centroid
of
the fastener group. Because two shearing planes cross the fastener, the fastener
s act
in double shear.
Instead of a symmetric butt splice, the shingle splice (Fig. 2.4b) may be used
when the main member consists of several plies of material. A more gradual
transfer of load in the plate occurs with this staggered splice than if all main
plates
are terminated at the same location.
Other examples of joints in which the fasteners are subjected to axial shear are
gusset plate connections. Depending on the joint geometry, the fasteners are
subjected to either double or single shear, as illustrated in Fig. 2.4c. General
ly
bending is prevented even though the fasteners are in single shear, because of
symmetry of the two shearing planes.
In the lap plate splice shown in Fig. 2.4d the fasteners act in single shear. Th
e
eccentricity of the loads pulling on the connected members causes bending as the
loads tend to align axially. Because of these induced bending stresses, this typ
e of
connection is only used for minor connections.
Often situations arise in which the line of the force acting on a connection doe
s
not pass through the centroid of the fastener group. This implies that the faste
ner
groups are subjected to eccentric shear forces. Typical examples in this categor
y
are bracket connections and web splices of plate girders as shown in Figs. 2.4e
and f.
A hanger type connection (Fig. 2.4g) is one of the few examples where
mechanical fasteners are used in direct tension. More often the fasteners are
subjected to the combined action of tension and shear. This commonly occurs in
building frames and bridge deck systems when the connections are required to
transmit moments to ensure continuous structural action. The amount of continuit
y
depends on the ability of the connection to resist moments. Moment connections
may produce conditions where the upper fasteners are being loaded in shear by th
e
vertical reaction and loaded in tension by the end moment. Some examples of fram
e
connections are given in Fig. 2.4h. (The connectors that may be in combined tens
ion
Fig. 2.4. Typical riveted and bolted connections. (a) Symmetric butt splice; (b)
shingle
splice; (c) single plane construction (top); double plane construction (bottom);
(d) lap
splice; (e) bracket connection; (f) girder web splice; (g) hanger connection. (h
) frame
connection; (1) diagonal brace connection.
13
Fig 2.4 (Continued).
14
Fig 2.4 (Continued).
15
and shear are those passing through the column flanges.) Another type of
connection in which the fasteners are subjected to combined tension and shear is
the diagonal brace shown in Fig. 2.4i. (The fasteners that transmit the force fr
om
the angle to the web of the tee are in shear only.)
The behavior, analysis, and design of the four major categories of
connections—fasteners loaded in axial shear, eccentric shear, tension, or combined
tension and shear—are discussed in the following chapters.
2.3 LOADS
The loads and forces acting on a structure may be divided into two broad categor
ies:
(1) dead loads and (2) live loads or forces. Dead loads are static, gravitationa
l forces.
For a building this usually includes the weight of the permanent equipment and t
he
weight of the fixed components of the building such as floors, beams, girders, a
nd the
like. In a bridge it includes the weight of the structural frame, wearing surfac
es,
lighting fixtures, and such.
As contrasted to the dead loads on a structure, the magnitude of live loads is
generally variable with time. Also, most dead loads are static loads, whereas li
ve loads
often are at least partially dynamic. In many situations the dynamic nature of t
he
forces has only minor influence on the stress distribution and these loads can b
e
treated as statically applied loads. Live loads can be subdivided into vertical
and
lateral live loads. The loads on a building due to its occupancy, as well as sno
w
loads on roof surfaces, are regarded as vertical live loads. These load provisio
ns
are usually specified in local building codes. Live loads on bridges depend on
usage and are specified in the relevant codes such as the AREA2.1 code for railw
ay
bridges and the AASHTO2.2 specifications that are applicable to highway bridges.
If live loads are dynamic in nature, such as moving vehicles on a bridge or a
hoisting machine in a building, it is necessary to account for their dynamic or
impact effects. It is well known that the momentum of the load produces internal
forces above the static values. In such situations the design load is equal to t
he
sum of the dead load D, and live load L, and the impact load I. The total effect
of
live load and impact load is usually evaluated by multiplying the live load L by
an
impact factor p, where p is larger than 1.0. The fraction of p in excess of 1.0
accounts for the load increase because of the dynamic nature of the live load. T
he
impact factor p depends on the type of member, its dimensions, and its loading
condition. The factor p is usually prescribed in relevant codes. Lateral live lo
ads
include earth or hydrostatic pressure on the structure and the effects of wind a
nd
earthquakes. They also include the centrifugal forces caused by moving loads on
curved bridges.
Wind is normally treated as a statically applied pressure, neglecting its dynami
c
nature. This is justified mainly on the basis of lack of significant periodicity
in the
fluctuating wind. However, experience has shown this procedure to be unacceptabl
e in
certain types of structures, such as suspension bridges and other flexible struc
2.4
Factor of Safety—Load Factor Design 17
tures or members. Special consideration of dynamic wind effects is essential in
these cases.
An earthquake is a ground motion caused by a sudden fracture and slidings
along the fractured surface of the earth crust. Earthquakes are volcanic or tect
onic
in origin. The forces developed during an earthquake are inertial forces resulti
ng
from the tendency of the structure to resist motion. The structure should be cap
able
of resisting these forces with a sufficient margin of safety against distress, t
hat is.
full or partial failure or excessive deformations. Some codes, such as the SEAOC
2.3
code, present practical minimum earthquake design procedures for typical
structures. In special types of structures a more elaborate analysis of the dyna
mic
response of the structure may be required.
Member forces can also result from temperature effects and support
settlements. Consideration must also be given during the design to erection load
s.
2.4 FACTOR OF SAFETY—LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
Failure of a structural connection occurs when the externally applied loads exce
ed
the load-carrying capacity (ultimate load). The capacity of a connection can be
based on strength or performance criteria. In the first case, loads in excess of
the
ultimate load lead to a complete or partial collapse of the connection. If
performance is the controlling factor, the connection may lose its serviceabilit
y
before its load capacity is reached because of excessive deformations, fatigue,
or
fracture. In this respect, unrestricted plastic flow in a structural component i
s often
regarded as determining the useful ultimate load of the member.
Structural members and connections are designed to have a reserve beyond their
ordinary service or working load. Allowance must be made for factors such as the
variation in quality of materials and fabrication, possible overloads, secondary
stresses due to errors introduced by design assumptions, and approximations in
calculation procedures. In allowable stress design procedures, a factor of safet
y is
usually employed to provide for these uncertainties. The stress (or load) expect
ed
to produce failure is reduced by a factor of safety. This method does not accoun
t
directly for the statistical nature of the design variables. The expected maxima
of
loading and the minima of strength not only are treated as representative
parameters for design, but also are assumed to occur simultaneously. Neglecting
the magnitude and frequency relationships for loads and strengths usually leads
to
conservative designs. It also results in different reliabilities for the same sa
fety
factor.
A different approach to the problem of structural safety can be made by
employing the concept of failure probabilities. 2.4, 2.13, 2.17-2.19 Knowing the
distributions
of the resistance and the load effects, structural safety may be determined from
the
probability that the effect of the loads will exceed the resistance of the membe
r, as
illustrated in Fig. 2.5. The shaded area indicates a finite probability of failu
re. As
the overlap increases, the shaded area, and consequently the failure probability
,
increases proportionally. Hence, changes in failure probability accompany change
s
in the load effect-resistance distribution overlap. By employing the
Fig. 2.5 Probability of failure.
failure probability concept, a uniform reliability throughout the structure can
be
achieved.
The failure probability of a structural component is considered in a simplified
way by the load factor design method.2.22, 2.23 An expression for the maximum
strength of a connection can be equated to the strength required to resist the
various forces to which it will be subjected. The forces are increased by suitab
le
factors intended to offset uncertainties in their magnitude and application. Thu
s
) ( I L D R + + = γ α φ
where R represents the ver e strenth, D equ ls the de d lo d, nd L + I is th
e
summ tion o the live lo d nd imp ct lo d on the connection. The ctor φ rel tes
to uncert inties in the strenth o the connection, where s the ctors α nd γ rel
te
to the ch nce o n incre se in lo d. The ctor φ is ev lu ted rom strenth
distribution curve. The ctors α nd γ re determined rom the distribution curves
or de d lo d nd the summ tion o live lo d nd imp ct, respectively.
The desin recommend tions iven in the ollowin ch pters h ve been
developed considerin both the ctor o s ety concept nd the prob bilistic
ppro ch used in lo d ctor desin.
2.5 BOLTED AND RIVETED SHEAR SPLICES
In Section 2.2 di erent types o connections were cl ssi ied ccordin to the t
ype o
orces to which the steners re subjected. I the steners in joint re sub
jected to
she r lo ds, urther cl ssi ic tion b sed on connection per orm nce is o ten m
de.
This is illustr ted by the beh vior o the symmetric butt joint shown in Fi. 2.
6. The
steners c n be rivets or bolts, with the cl mpin orce provided by
2.5 Bolted nd Riveted She r Splices 19
Fi. 2.6. Typic l lo d versus elon tion curve o symmetric l butt joint. ( ) Sy
mmetric butt joint;
(b) lo d versus elon tion.
tihtenin the bolts or shrink e o the rivets due to coolin. I the joint is
subjected to
n in-pl ne lo d throuh the centroid o the steners roup, our ch r cteristi
c lo din
st es exist, s illustr ted in Fi. 2.6. In the irst st e, st tic riction pr
events slip;
in the second st e, the lo d h s exceeded the riction l resist nce, nd the jo
int
slips into be rin; in the third st e, the steners nd pl tes de orm el stic
lly, nd
consequently the lo d versus de orm tion rel tionship rem ins line r; in the ou
rth
st e, yieldin o pl tes, steners, or both occurs nd results in pl te r ctu
re or
complete she rin o the steners. It should be noted th t the initi l cl mpin
orce present in the steners h s usu lly been completely dissip ted by the tim
e
joint ilure occurs; the r ther sm ll stener elon tions th t produced the pr
elo d
h ve been rele sed by she r de orm tion nd pl te yieldin. Overl ppin e ects
m y m ke the distinctions between the v rious st es less cle r-cut th n depicte
d;
however, in m ny tests these st es c n be reconized cle rly.
20 Gener l Provisions
In splices subjected to she rin lo ds, two methods o lo d tr ns er re possibl
e:
(1) by riction, nd (2) by she r nd be rin.
I the lo d on the connection is completely tr ns erred by the riction l
resist nce on the cont ct sur ces, it is slip-resist nt joint. Since slip doe
s not
occur, these connections re ppropri te in situ tions where slip o the connect
ion
is not ccept ble, or ex mple in c ses involvin repe ted reversed lo d conditi
ons
or in situ tions where slip would result in undesir ble mis linment o the
structure. In slip-resist nt joints, the steners re not ctu lly stressed in
she r,
nd be rin is not consider tion.
I slip is not considered critic l ctor, lo d tr ns er by she r nd be rin
is
ccept ble. Dependin on the v il ble slip resist nce, joint slip m y occur be
ore
the workin lo d o the connection is re ched. Slip brins the connected p rts t
o
be r inst the sides o the steners, nd the pplied lo d is then tr nsmitte
d
p rti lly by riction l resist nce nd p rti lly by she r on the steners, depe
ndin
on joint eometry.
Hih-strenth bolts re very suit ble or use in slip-resist nt joints, since th
e
m nitude o the xi l bolt cl mpin orce, which ects directly the riction
l
resist nce o the connection, c n be controlled. This is not true or rivets. Al
thouh
cl mpin orce m y be developed, it is not reli ble. There ore, riveted joints
re
usu lly considered s be rin-type joints.
2.6 FATIGUE
M ny structur l members m y be subjected to requently repe ted cyclic l lo ds.
Experience h s shown th t members nd connections under such conditions m y
eventu lly il rom tiue or st ble cr ck rowth even thouh the m ximum
pplied stress is less th n the yield stress. In ener l, tiue ilures occur
when
the nomin l cyclic stress in the member is much lower th n the el stic limit. Th
ese
ilures ener lly show little evidence o de orm tion. Bec use o this l ck o
de orm tion, tiue cr cks re di icult to detect until subst nti l cr ck row
th h s
occurred.
A tiue r cture sur ce norm lly presents ch r cteristic ppe r nce, with
three distinct nd reconiz ble reions. The irst reion corresponds to slow st
ble
cr ck rowth. This h s visu lly smooth sur ce. The second reion is rouher i
n
texture s the dist nce nd r te o rowth rom the nucleus o the tiue cr ck
incre ses. The third reion is the in l r cture, which m y be either brittle o
r
ductile, dependin on circumst nces. Fiure 2.7 shows the di erent st es o
tiue cr ck.
For mech nic lly stened joints, tiue cr ck rowth usu lly st rts on the sur
ce
t point o stress concentr tion such s hole, notch, sh rp illet, po
int o
rettin, nd so on. Notches nd other discontinuities c use stress risin e ec
ts
immedi tely round the notch nd decre se the tiue strenth. The el stic stre
ss
concentr tion ctor or n in initely wide pl te with circul r hole nd subje
cted to
uni xi l uni orm tension is equ l to 3.0. Reducin the width o the
2.6 F tiue 21
Fi. 2.7. Typic l tiue r cture sur ce.
pl te s well s tr nsmittin the lo d into the pl te throuh pin-type lo din
t
the hole incre ses the stress concentr tion ctor sini ic ntly. Hence, ch n
e o
sh pe results in reduction in cross-section l re nd the type o lo d tr ns
er,
both o which re sini ic nt ctors th t in luence the m nitude o stress
concentr tions.
The tiue li e o p rticul r det il c n be obt ined either n lytic lly, usi
n
r cture mech nics, or by c rryin out tiue tests under controlled conditions
. I the
r cture mech nics ppro ch is used, knowlede o both the size nd sh pe o t
he
initi l l w nd the stress r dient t the l w re required; in most civil en
ineerin
pplic tions this is not pr ctic l. Most o the knowlede o the tiue li e o
structur l
steel members nd their connections h s been obt ined by testin represent tive
det ils2.24. This work h s shown th t stress r ne is the domin nt stress v ri b
le
c usin cr ck rowth, nd th t tiue strenth is l rely independent o the r
de o
steel 2.14, 2.15, 2.21.
It h s urther been shown th t the rel tionship between stress r ne (∆σ) and the
number of cycle to failure (N) i linear when each variable i expre ed in
logarithmic form.2.5-2.7 If ufficient data are available, a mean ∆σ-N curve can be
determined, a illu trated in Fig. 2.8. Thi line repre ent the 50% urvival pr
obability
of all pecimen . The tolerance limit of the ∆σ-N curve can be developed
22 General Provi ion
Fig 2.8 ∆σ-N curve and corre ponding urvival probability curve .
from the variation and urvival probability. The de ired level of urvival
probability can be u ed to develop de ign tre e for any number of applied tr
e
cycle . Such a procedure i u ed in Section 5.4 to evaluate de ign recommendatio
n
for bolted joint ubjected to repeated loading .
In recent year the fracture mechanic of table crack growth ha confirmed
the uitability of an exponential relation hip between cycle life and applied t
re
range.2.14, 2.15 The tool i of con iderable help in evaluating the fatigue beha
vior of
joint .
2.7 FRACTURE
A the temperature decrea e , an increa e i generally noted in the yield tre
and
ten ile trength of tructural teel . In contra t, the ductility u ually decrea
e with a
decrea ing temperature. Furthermore, there i u ually a temperature below which
a
pecimen ubjected to ten ile tre e may fracture by cleavage; little or no pl
a tic
deformation i ob erved, in contra t to hear failure, which i u ually preceded
by a
con iderable amount of pla tic deformation. Both type of failure urface are
hown in
Fig. 2.9. Fracture that occur by cleavage are commonly referred to a brittle f
ailure
and are characterized by the propagation of crack at very high velocitie . Ther
e i little
vi ible evidence of pla tic flow, and the fracture urface often appear to be g
ranular
except for thin portion along the edge .
Brittle fracture may be initiated at relative low nominal tre level provide
d
certain other condition are pre ent, uch a (1) a flaw (a fatigue crack or a
fabrication crack due to punched hole , etc.), (2) a ten ile tre of ufficien
t
inten ity to cau e a mall deformation at the crack or notch tip, and (3) a tee
l that
exhibit low toughne at the ervice temperature.
To under tand brittle fracture one mu t look at the effect of tre concentrat
ion
accompanied by con traint that prevent pla tic redi tribution of tre . Thi i
the
condition that exi t in the axially loaded notched bar hown in Fig. 2.10. The
23
Fig 2.9 Typical ductile and brittle fracture urface . (a) Ductile fracture urf
ace with hear lip; (b) tran ition fracture
urface; (c) brittle fracture urface with flat cleavage urface.
Fig 2.10 State of tre at the root of a notch under axial loading. Note: σy indu
ce σz and σx
tre e . The latter one i not hown in thi figure.
tre concentration effect of the notch or crack tip cau e high longitudinal
tre e at the apex of the crack. The e tre e decrea e a di tance from the
apex
increa e . In accordance with the Poi on effect, lateral contraction mu t
accompany the e longitudinal tre e , but the lateral contraction in the width
and
thickne direction of the highly tre ed material at the apex of the notch i
re trained by the maller lateral contraction of the lower tre ed material.
Con equently, ten ile tre e are induced in the width and thickne direction
(x
and z) o that a evere triaxial tate of tre i pre ent near the crack tip.
Under
the e condition a cleavage- or brittle-type failure may occur.
With decrea ing temperature , the tran ition from ductile behavior at the crack
tip
to cleavage behavior occur within a narrow temperature range. U ually, the Char
py Vnotch
te t i u ed to evaluate the u pectibility of a teel to brittle fracture. Howe
ver, in
thi approach, important factor uch a the flaw ize and the tre concentrat
ion
factor are not taken into account. The e factor can be accounted for if a frac
ture
analy i or fracture diagram i u ed.2.8 The fracture diagram combine fracture
mechanic , tre concentration factor , and flaw ize with the tran ition tempe
rature
te t approach. A detailed de cription of thi concept i given in Ref . 2.8 thro
ugh 2.10.
Con iderable work i in progre to a i t with the development of fracture mech
anic
procedure that can be u ed to define fracture in tability condition . A correla
tion
between the Charpy V-notch and KIC, the plane- train tre inten ity factor at
the on et
of un table crack growth, ha been ugge ted.2.20
Reference 25
It i apparent that pecial attention mu t be directed to de ign the fabrication
detail of mechanically fa tened connection o that brittle fracture will be
avoided. A tructural teel with a table crack growth rate under ervice condit
ion
hould be elected.
One of the critical detail in a bolted or riveted tructure i the fa tener hol
e.
Punching the hole cau e train-aging and work-hardening of the material around
the hole. Minute crack radiating from the hole may form in the work-hardened
material, re ulting in a notch in a region of high ten ile tre e .2.16
To eliminate the e point of potential crack initiation, hole hould either be
drilled
or ubpunched and then reamed in order to eliminate mall urface crack and wor
khardened
material if brittle fracture i po ible under ervice condition . Furthermore,
geometrical di continuitie uch a abrupt change in cro - ection hould be av
oided.
REFERENCES
2.1 American Railway Engineering A ociation, Specification for Steel Railway
Bridge , Chicago, 1985.
2.2 American A ociation of State Highway and Tran portation Official , Standard
Specification for Highway Bridge , 12th ed., Wa hington, D.C., 1984.
2.3 Structural Engineer A ociation of California, Recommended Lateral Force
Requirement and Commentary, Sei mology Committee SEAOC, San
Franci co, 1980.
2.4 E. B. Haugen, Probabili tic Approache to De ign, Wiley, New York, 1968.
2.5 W. Weibull, Fatigue Te ting and Analy i of Re ult , Pergamon, New York,
1961, pp. 174-178, 192-201.
2.6 American Society for Te ting and Material , A Guide for Fatigue Te ting and
Stati tical
Analy i of Fatigue Data, ASTM Special Technical Publication 91-A, Philadelphia,
1963.
2.7 H. S. Reem nyder, “Procurement and Analy i of Structural Fatigue Data,”
Journal of the Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 95, ST7, July 1969.
2.8 W. S. Pellini, “Principle of Fracture Safe De ign,” Welding Journal, Vol. 50, N
o. 3 and
4, March—April 1971.
2.9 American Society for Te ting and Material , Fracture Toughne Te ting, ASTM
Special
Technical Publication 381, Philadelphia, 1965.
2.10 S. T. Rolfe and J. M. Bar om, Fatigue and Fracture Control in Structure —Appl
ication
of Fracture Mechanic . Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliff , N.J., 1977.
2.11 American In titute of Steel Con truction, Specification for the De ign,
Fabrication, and Erection of Structural Steel for Building , AISC, Chicago,
1980.
2.12 T. R. Gurney, Fatigue of Welded Structure , Cambridge Univer ity Pre ,
Cambridge,U.K., 1979.
2.13 J. R. Benjamin and C. A. Cornell, Probability, Stati tic , and Deci ion for
Civil
Engineer , McGraw-Hill, New York, 1970.
2.14 American Society for Te ting and Material , Fatigue Crack Propagation.
ASTM Special Technical Publication 415, Philadelphia, 1967.
2.15 P. C. Pari , “The Fracture Mechanic Approach to Fatigue,” Proceeding of the
10th Sagamore Conference, Syracu e Univer ity Pre , Syracu e, N.Y., 1965, p.
107.
2.16 R. D. Stout, S. S. Tör, and J. M. Ruzek, “The Effect of Fabrication Proce e o
n
Steel U ed in Pre ure Ve el ,” Welding Journal, Vol. 30, September 1951.
2.17 A. M. Freudenthal, “Safety, Reliability and Structural De ign,” Tran action
ASCE, Vol. 127, 1962, Part H.
2.18 A. H-S. Ang, “Structural Safety—A Literature Review,” Journal of the
Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 98, ST4, April, 1972.
2.19 N. C. Lind, “Con i tent Partial Safety Factor ,” Journal of the Structural
Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 97, ST6, June 1971.
2.20 J. M. Bar om and S. T. Rolfe, “Correlation between KIC and Charpy V-Notch
Te t Re ult in the Tran ition-Temperature Range,” ASTM STP466, Impact
Te ting of Metal , 1970.
2.21 J. W. Fi her, K. H. Frank, M. A. Hirt, and B. M. McNamee, Effect of Weldmen
t on
the Fatigue Strength of Steel Beam , National Cooperative Highway Re earch
Program Report 102, Wa hington, D.C., 1970.
2.22 M. K. Ravindra and T. V. Galambo , “Load and Re i tance Factor De ign for
Steel,” Journal of the Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 104, ST9, September
1978.
2.23 G. S. Vincent, Tentative Criteria for Load Factor De ign of Steel Highway
Bridge , AISI Bulletin No. 15, American Iron and Steel In titute, Wa hington,
D.C., 1969.
2.24 J. W. Fi her, Bridge Fatigue Guide-De ign and Detail , American In titute o
f
Steel Con truction, Chicago, 1977.
Chapter Three
Rivet
3.1 RIVET TYPES
Riveting i among the olde t method of joining material , dating back a far a
the
u e of metal in con truction practice.1.8 Rivet were the mo t popular fa tener

during the fir t half of thi century, but their u e ha declined teadily ince
the
introduction of the high- trength bolt . At the pre ent time they are rarely u e
d in
either field or hop connection ; either high- trength bolt or weld are u ed a
lmo t
exclu ively in new work. Neverthele , the increa ing importance of evaluation a
nd
retrofitting of exi ting tructure will require that the de igner be knowledgea
ble
about riveted connection .
Pre ent pecification (1986) recognize three tructural rivet teel , namely
ASTM A502 grade 1, carbon rivet teel for general purpo e , ASTM A502 grade 2,
carbon-mangane e rivet teel uitable for u e with high- trength carbon and high
trength
low-alloy tructural teel , and ASTM A502 grade 3, imilar to grade 2
but with enhanced corro ion re i tance.1.12
It i required that the rivet head be identified a to grade and manufacturer b
y
mean of uitable marking . Marking can either be rai ed or depre ed. For grad
e
1, the numeral 1 may be u ed at the manufacturer’ option, but it i not required.
The u e of the numeral 2 or 3 to identify A502 grade 2 or grade 3 rivet i
required.
Rivet teel trength i pecified in term of hardne requirement . The
hardne requirement are applicable to the rivet bar tock of the full diameter
a
rolled. Figure 1.6 ummarize the hardne requirement for A502 rivet teel .
There are no additional material requirement for trength or hardne in the dr
iven
condition.
3.2 INSTALLATION OF RIVETS
The riveting proce con i t of in erting the rivet in matching hole of the pi
ece to
be joined and ub equently forming a head on the protruding end of the hank. Th
e
hole are generally 1/16 in. greater than the nominal diameter of undriven rivet
.
The head i formed by rapid forging with a pneumatic hammer or by continuou
27
28 Rivet
queezing with a pre ure riveter. The latter proce i confined to u e in hop
practice, wherea pneumatic hammer are u ed in both hop and field riveting. In
addition to forming the head, the diameter of the rivet i increa ed, re ulting
in a
decrea ed hole clearance.
Mo t rivet are in talled a hot rivet , that i , the rivet i heated to
approximately 1800°F before being in talled. Some hop rivet are driven cold, a
practice that i permi ible if certain procedure are followed.
During the riveting proce the enclo ed plie are drawn together with in tallat
ion
bolt and by the rivet equipment. A the rivet cool , it hrink and queeze th
e
connected plie together. A re idual clamping force or internal ten ion re ult
in the
rivet. The magnitude of the re idual clamping force depend on the joint tiffne
,
critical in tallation condition uch a driving and fini hing temperature, a w
ell a the
driving pre ure. Mea urement have hown that hot-driven rivet can develop
clamping force that approach the yield load of a rivet. A con iderable variatio
n in
clamping force i generally ob erved.3.3, 3.6, 3.7 Al o, a the grip length i
increa ed, the
re idual clamping force tend to increa e.3.7
Re idual clamping force are al o ob erved in cold-driven rivet .3.6 Thi re ult

mainly from the ela tic recovery of the gripped plie after the riveter, which
queezed
the plie together during the riveting proce , i removed. Generally, the clamp
ing
Fig 3.1. Sawed Section of driven rivet . (Courte y of Univer ity of Illinoi .)
3.3 Behavior of Individual Fa tener 29
force in cold-formed rivet i mall when compared with the clamping force in i
milar
hot-driven rivet .
The re idual clamping force contribute to the lip re i tance of the joint ju t
a do
high- trength bolt . However, the clamping force in the rivet i difficult to co
ntrol,
i not a great a that developed by high trength bolt , and cannot be relied u
pon.
Upon cooling, the rivet hrink diametrically a well a longitudinally. The amo
unt
of hole clearance that re ult al o depend on how well the rivet filled the hol
e prior to
hrinkage. Sawed ection of three hot-formed, hand pneumatic driven rivet are
hown in Fig. 3.1.3.2 Studie have indicated that the hole are almo t completel
y
filled for relatively hort grip rivet . A the grip length i increa ed, cleara
nce
between rivet and plate material tend to increa e. Thi tendency i due to the
difference in working the material during driving.3.2 Figure 3.1 how ome
clearance for the longer grip rivet .
In tallation of hot-driven rivet involve many variable , uch a the initial o
r
driving temperature, driving time, fini hing temperature, and driving method. Ov
er
the year inve tigator have tudied the e factor , and, where appropriate, the
e
re ult are briefly di cu ed in the following ection.
3.3 BEHAVIOR OF INDIVIDUAL FASTENERS
Thi ection di cu e briefly the behavior and trength of a ingle rivet ubje
cted
to either ten ion, hear, or combined ten ion and hear. Only typical te t data
are
ummarized in thi chapter. No attempt i made to provide a comprehen ive
evaluation and tati tical ummary of the publi hed te t data.
3.3.1 Rivet Subjected to Ten ion
Typical tre ver u train curve for A502 grade 1 and grade 2 or grade 3 rive
t
teel are hown in Fig. 1.3. The ten ile trength hown in Fig. 1.3 i about 60
k i
for grade 1 and 80 k i for grade 2 or grade 3 rivet . The e are typical of the v
alue
expected for undriven rivet material .
The ten ile trength of a driven rivet depend on the mechanical propertie of
the rivet material before driving and other factor related to the in tallation
proce . Studie have been made on the effect of driving temperature on the ten
ile
trength. The e te t indicated that varying the driving temperature between 180
0
and 2300°F had little effect on the ten ile trength.3.1–3.3 It wa al o concluded o
n
the ba i of the e te t re ult that, within practical limit , the oaking time,
that i ,
the heating time of a rivet before driving, had a negligible effect on the ultim
ate
trength.3.2
Driving generally increa e the trength of rivet . For hot-driven rivet it wa
ob erved that machine driving increa ed the rivet ten ile trength by about 20%.
The increa e wa about 10% for rivet driven by a pneumatic hammer. The e ame
increa e were ob erved when the ten ile trength wa determined from full- ize
driven rivet and from pecimen machined from driven rivet .3.1 A con iderable
reduction in elongation wa ob erved to accompany the increa e in trength.
30 Rivet
Te t al o indicated that train hardening of cold-driven rivet re ulted in an
increa e in trength.3.1 Although only a few te t are available; they indicate
that
the increa e in trength of cold-driven rivet i at lea t equal to the increa e
in
trength of imilar hot-driven rivet .3.1, 3.4
Mo t ten ion te t of driven rivet howed a tendency to decrea e in trength
a the grip length wa increa ed. Two factor contribute to thi ob ervation. Fi
r t,
there i a greater “up etting” effect, ince the driving energy per unit volume for
a
hort rivet i more favorable. Second, trength figure are ba ed on the full ho
le
area, which implie that the driven rivet completely fill the hole. A wa note
d in
Fig. 3.1, thi i not true for longer grip rivet , ince the gap increa e with
increa ing
grip length.3.1, 3.2 For practical purpo e , the difference in trength of
hort and longer rivet i neglected
It wa reported in Ref. 3.2 that the re idual clamping force in driven rivet ha

no influence on their trength. Yielding of the rivet minimize the effect of th
e
clamping force and doe not affect the ultimate trength. A imilar conclu ion w
a
reached for preloaded high- trength bolt .4.5–4.7
3.3.2 Rivet Subjected to Shear
Many te t have been performed to evaluate the hear capacity of a rivet. It i
common practice to expre the hear trength of a rivet in term of it ten ile
trength.3.1, 3.2, 3.5 An average hear trength to ten ile trength ratio of ab
out 0.75
ha been reported.3.1, 3.2 The grade of the rivet material, a well a whether t
he te t
wa performed on driven or undriven rivet , had little effect on thi average va
lue.
Some of the data reported in Ref . 3.1 and 3.2 indicated that the hear to ten i
le
trength ratio varied from 0.67 to 0.83. Thi wide variation i attributed to
difference in te ting method , driving procedure , and te t pecimen . Figure 3
.2
how typical load ver u deformation curve for double- hear te t on A502 grad
e
1 rivet .3.8 Te t re ult of two different grip length are hown. A expected,
in the
initial load tage the longer rivet how a larger deformation, largely due to
bending effect . The hear trength wa not affected, however.
Some data indicate a light decrea e in trength for rivet in ingle hear a
Fig 3.2. Shear ver u deformation curve for A502 Grade 1 rivet .
3.3 Behavior of Individual Fa tener 31
compared with the double hear loading condition. Thi i cau ed by out-of-plane
force and econdary tre e on the rivet due to the inherent eccentricity of t
he applied
load. In mo t ingle hear te t joint , the rivet i not ubjected to a pure he
ar load
condition. When a ingle hear pecimen i re trained o that no econdary tre
e and
out-of-plane deformation are introduced, the difference in the ingle and doubl
e hear
trength i in ignificant.3.2
Since driving a rivet increa e it ten ile trength, the hear trength i incr
ea ed a
well.3.1, 3.2 If the average ten ile trength of undriven A502 grade 1 and A502
grade 2
or grade 3 rivet material i taken a 60 or 80 k i, re pectively, hear trengt
h
between 45 and 60 k i for grade 1 rivet and between 65 and 80 k i for grade 2 o
r
grade 3 rivet can be expected.
3.3.3 Rivet Subjected to Combined Ten ion and Shear
Te t have been performed to provide information regarding the trength and beha
vior
of ingle rivet ubjected to variou combination of ten ion and hear.3.2
ASTM A141 rivet (comparable to A502 grade 1 rivet ) were u ed for the tudy.
The trend ob erved in thi te t erie are believed to be applicable to other g
rade
of rivet a well.
Among the te t variable tudied were variation in grip length, rivet diameter,
driving procedure, and manufacturing proce .3.2 The e variable did not have a
ignificant influence on the re ult . Only the long grip rivet tended to how a
decrea e
in trength. Thi wa expected and wa compatible with rivet ubjected to hear
alone.
A the loading condition changed from pure ten ion to pure hear, a ignificant
decrea e in deformation capacity wa ob erved. Thi i illu trated in Fig. 3.3 w
here
Fig 3.3. Typical fracture at four hear-ten ion ratio . (Courte y of Univer ity
of Illinoi .)
Shear-Ten ion ratio: 1.0:0.0, 1.0:0.577, 0.577:1.0, 0.0:1.0.
32 Rivet
Fig 3.4. Interaction curve for rivet under combined ten ion and hear.
typical fractured rivet are hown for different hear to ten ion load ratio . N
ote
that the character of the fracture and the deformation capacity changed
ub tantially a the loading condition changed from hear to combined hear and
ten ion finally to ten ion.3.2
An elliptical interaction curve wa fitted to the te t re ult .3.5 Thi defined
the
trength of rivet ubjected to a combined ten ion and hear loading a where x
i
the ratio of the hear tre on the hear plane to the ten ile trength of the
rivet
( τ / σ u) and y repre en he ra io of he en ile re o he en ile reng h
(σ /σu).
The hear re and en ile re were de ermined on he bai of he applied

load . The en ile reng h and hear reng h were
ba ed on he rive capaci
y
when ubjec ed o en ion or hear only. The e re ul are compared wi h he
ellip ical in erac ion curve provided by Eq. 3.1 in Fig. 3.4 and how good
agreemen .
0 . 1
75 . 0
2
2
2
= + y x ( ) 1 . 3
Reference 33
3.4 BASIS FOR DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS
The behavior of individual rive ubjec ed o differen ype of loading condi
ion
form he bai forde ignrecommenda ion . Thi ec ion briefly ummarize
rive reng h for he mo ignifican loading condi ion .
3.4.1 Rive Subjec ed o Ten ion
The
en ile capaci y Bu of a rive i equal o he produc of he rive cro - e
c ional
area Ab and i en ile reng h σu. The cro ec ion i generally aken a he
undriven cro ec ion area of he rive .2.11 Hence,
u b u A B σ =( )2 . 3
Depending on he ype of rive ma erial,
driving
me hod, grip leng h, and uch, σu
may exceed
he undriven rive rengh by 10 o 20%. A rea onable lower bound
e ima e of he rive en ile capaci y σu i 60 k i for A502 grade 1 rive and 80
k i
for A502 grade2 or grade 3 rive . Since ASTM pecifica ion do no pecify
en ile capaci
y, he evalue can be u ed.
3.4.2 Rive Subjec ed o Shear
The ra io of he hear reng h τu o he en ile reng h σu of a rive wa found
o
beindependen of he rive grade, in alla ion procedure, diame er, and grip le
ng h.
Te indica e he ra io o beabou 0.75. Hence,
The hear re i ance of a rive i direc ly propor ional o he available hear
area
and he number of cri ical hear plane . If a o al of m cri ical hear plane p
a
hrough he rive , he maximum hear re i ance Su of he rive i equal o
where Ab i he cro- ec ion area of undriven rive .
3.4.3 Rive Subjec ed o Combined Ten ion and Shear
The ellip ical in erac ion curve given by Eq. 3.1 adequa ely define he reng
h of
rive under combined en ion and hear( ee Fig. 3.4). Equa ion 3.1 rela e he
hear
re componen o he cri ical en ile re componen . The produc of
ul ima e re and he undriven rive area yield he cri ical hear and en il
e load
componen for he rive .
REFERENCES
3.1 L.Schenker,
C. G. Salmon, and B. G. John on, S ruc ural S eel Connec ion ,
Depar men
of Civil Engineering, Univer i y of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1954.
u u σ τ 75 . 0 =
u b u mA S σ 75 . 0 =
( ) 3 . 3
( ) 4 .3
34 Rive
3.2 W. H. Mun e and H. C. Cox, The S a ic S reng h of Rive Subjec
ed o
CombinedTen ion and Shear, Engineering Experimen S a ion Bulle in 437,
Univer i y of llinoi , Urbana, 1956.
3.3 R. A. Hech man, A Sudy of he Effec of Hea ing and Driving Condi ion on
Ho -Driven S ruc ural S eel Rive , Depar men of Civil Engineering,
Univer i y of llinoi , Urbana, 1948.
3.4 W. M.Wil on and W. A. Oliver, Ten ion Te of Rive , Engineering
Experimen S a ion Bulle in 210, Univer i y of Illinoi , Urbana, 1930.
3.5 T. R. Higgin and W. H. Mun e, “How Much Combined S re Can a Rive
Take?,” Engineering New -Record, Vol. 149, No. 23, Dec. 4,1952.
3.6 F. Baron and E. W. Lar on, Jr., The Effec of Grip on he Fa igue S reng h o
f
Rive ed and Bol ed Join , Re earch Repor C 110, The Technological In i u e,

Nor hwe ern Univer i y, Evan on, Illinoi , 1952.
3.7 F. Baron and E. W.Lar on, Jr., Compara ive Behavior of Boled and Rive ed
Join , Re earch Repor C 109, The Technological In i u e, Nor hwe ern
Univer i y, Evan on, Illinoi , 1952.
3.8 J. W. Fi herandN. Yo hida, “Large Bol ed and Rive ed Shingle Splice ,”
Journal
of he S ruc ural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 96, ST9, Sep ember 1969.
Chap er Four
Bol
4.1 BOLT TYPES
The ype of bol u ed in connec ing ruc ural eel componen in building a
nd
bridge can be ca egorized a follow
(ee Sec ion 1.3):
1. Low carbon eel bol and o her fa ener , ASTM A307, grade A
2. High- reng h medium carbon eel bol , ASTM A325, plain fini h,
wea hering eel fini h, or galvanized fini h.
3. Alloy eel bol , ASTMA490.
4. Special ype ofhigh reng h bol uch a in erference body bol ,
wedge bol , and o her ex ernally hreaded fa ener or nu wi h pecial
locking device , ASTM A449 and ASTM A354 gradeBD bol .
The only marking requiremen for ASTM A307 bol
i ha he manufac urer’

ymbol appear on op of he head of he bol .1.10 A307 bol are manufac ured wi
h
ahexagonal head and nu and ei her a regular or heavy head, depending on he bo
l
diame er. Nu do no need o be marked. The bol are produced in diame er
ranging from ¼ o 4 in., have a pecified minimum en ile reng h of 60 k i, and
may be galvanized.

ion, A307 bol and nu are
In applica igh ened o ha ome axial force i
pre en ha will preven movemen of he connec ed member in he axial direc i
on
of he bol . Proper igh ening al o preven loo ening of he nu . The ac ual fo
rce
he bol i no clo ely con rolled and may vary ub an ially from bol o bo
in
l .
Becau e of he mall axial force , li le fric ional re i ance i developed, an
d in
mo i ua ion he bol will lip in o bearing. Thi re ul in hear re e
in he
bol and con ac re e a hepoin of bearing.
High- reng h bol are hea rea ed by quenching
and
empering. The mo
widely
u ed are A325 high- reng h carbon eel bol 1.3 and A490 alloy eel
bol .1.9
The A325 bol i manufac ured in diame er ranging from ½ o 1½ in. and i
35
36 Bol
provided
a Type 1 (made
of medium carbon eel), Type 2 (low-carbon mar en i e
eel), or Type 3 (a mo pheric corro ion-rei an eel). Type 1 and 2 can be
galvanized. The pecified minimum en ile reng h for all hree ype i 120 k
i
for bol diame er up o and including 1 in. and 105 k i for diame er from 1 1/
8 o
1½ in. The bol head of all ype mu be marked A325 and hall al o have he
manufac urer’ ymbol. Addi ional marking di ingui h among he hree bol ype
( ee Fig.4.1). Nu and wa her marking are hownin Fig. 4.1. A me ric
pecifica
ioni alo available for ASTM A325 bol .4.30
Bol
manufac ured o ASTM Specifica ion A490 can al o be one of hree
ype . Type 1 bol are made from alloy eel, Type 2 are of low-carbon mar en i
e
eel, and Type 3 areof a mo pheric corro ion-re i an eel. The bol are
manufac ured in diame er ranging from ½ o 1½ in. for all hree ype , and he

pecifiedminimum en ile reng h i 150 k i for all bol made under hi
pecifica
ion. A490 bol hould no be galvanized ince hey become u cep ible
o re corro ion cracking and hydrogen
embri
lemen .
Fig 4.1. Bol marking for high- reng h bol .
4.1 Bol Type 37
The marking for A490 bol are al o hown in Fig. 4.1. Bol head mu be
marked wih bo h A490 and he manufac urer’ ymbol. O her mark , dependen on
bol ype, alo appear.
he
Nu for A325 bol mu beheavy hex and are required o mee ASTM
Specifica ion A563. For bol Type 1 and 2, plain (uncoa ed) nu grade C, plain
fini h, hould be u ed. Forbol Type 1 and 2, galvanized, nu grade DH,
galvanized, i required. Nu grade C3 i o be u ed wi h bol Type 3. Grade 2 a
nd
2H nu , a pecified in ASTM A194, and grade D and DH nu , a pecified in
ASTM A563, are accep able al
erna
ive for grade C nu . Grade
2H nu (ASTM
A194) are an accep able al erna ive for grade DH nu , and ype DH3 nu can be
u ed in place of C3 nu .
Heavy hex nu are al o required for A490 bol .GradeDH heavy hex nu
hall be furni hed for u ewi h Type 1 and 2 bol , bu grade 2H heavy hex nu
(ASTM A194) are alo accep able. Type 3 A490 bol require grade DH3 (ASTM
A563)
heavy hex nu .
Nu
are marked in variou way , a hown in Fig. 4.1. I hould al o be no ed
ha bo h ASTM pecifica ion for high- reng h bol , A325 and A490, ipula e
ha hey are in ended for u e in ruc ural connec ion ha conform o he RCS
C
Specifica ion.1.4

In addi ion o he andard A325and A490 bol hrough 1½ in. er, hor
diame
hread heavy head ruc ural bol above 1 in. diame er and o her ype of fa e
ner
and fa ener componen are available. The e are covered by he general bol ing
pecifica
ion A449 and A354. Specifica ion A449 cover ex ernally hreaded
fa ener produc wi h mechanical proper ie
imilar o A325. The A354 grade BD
cover ex ernally hreaded fa ener par ha exhibi mechanical proper ie im
ilar
o A490.
Among
he pecial ype of fa ener orfa ener componen are he
in erference
body bol , wedge bol , en ion-con rol bol , and bol and nu
combina ion in which he nu have pecial locking device . The in erference bo
dy
bol ( ee Fig. 4.2) mee he reng h requiremen of heA325 bol and ha an
axially ribbed hank ha develop an in erference fi in he holeand preven
exce ive lip. A wedge bol , hown in Fig. 4.3 con i of a fa ener pin made
from medium carbon eel and a locking collar of low carbon eel. The pin ha a
erie of annular locking groove , a breakneck groove, and pull groove . The col
lar
i cylindrical in hape and i waged in o he locking groove in he en ioned
pin
by a hydraulically opera ed driving ool ha engage he pull groove on he pi
n
andapplie a en ile force o he fa ener. Af er he collar i fully waged in
o he
locking groove, he pin ail ec ion break a he breakneck groove when i
preload capaci y i reached.
Like he wedge bol , he en ion-con rol bol i in alled by working from one
ide only, and
only one per
on i required
o in all he bol . A pecial
wrench
con ain a wo-par ocke ha bo h urn he nu and hold he bol by mean o
f a
plined bol end. The pline i pre en oward he end of an ex en ion of he bo
l
haf beyond he nu end. Thi ex en ion al o con ain a circular no ch (“ orque

con rol groove”) ha i calibra ed o hear a a orque ha will en ure ha he
Fig 4.2. In erference
body bol . (Cour e y of Be hlehem S eel Corp.)
Fig 4.3 High en ile wedge bol .
38
4.2 Behaviorof Individual Fa ener 39
required bol en ion i reached. In alla ion i quie er han ha for a conven
ional

bol (elec ric wrenche ra her han air-operaed impac wrenche are u ed).
In pec ion i vi ual and i imply an ob erva ion ha he ip have been heare
d
off. Bol co are higher han for conven ional high- reng h bol , however, a
nd
po al of he heared
di ip may pre en afe y problem .
I hould be no ed ha bo h wedge bol and en ion-con rol bol could be
difficul o remove in i ua ion where a ruc ure wa being al ered or di man
led
becau e hey u e a rounded head on he bol .
4.2 BEHAVIOR
OF INDIVIDUAL FASTENERS
Connec
ion are generally cla ified according o he manner of re ing he fa
ener
( ee Sec ion 2.2), ha i , en ion, hear or combined en ion and hear. Typica
l
example of connec ion ubjec ing fa ener o hear are plice and gu e pla
e in
ru e. Bol in en ion are common inhanger connec ion and in beam- o-column
connec ion . Some beam- o-column may
connec ion al o ubjec he bol o
combined en ion and hear. I i apparen
ha , before a connec
ion can be
analyzed, he behavior of he componen par of he connec ion mu be known.
Therefore, he behavior of a ingle bol ubjec ed o he ypical loading condi
ion
of en ion, hear,or combined en ion and hear i di cu ed in hi ec ion.
4.2.1 Bol Subjec ed o Ten ion
Since he behavior of a bol ubjec ed o an axial load i governed by he perfo
rmance
of i hreaded , load ver u elonga
par ion charac
eri ic of abol are more
ignifican han he re ver u rain rela ion hip of he fa ener me al i
elf.
In he 1985 ASTM pecifica ion for high- reng h bol , bo h he minimum en il
e
reng h and proof load are pecified.1.3, 1.9 The proof load i abou equivalen
o he
yield reng h of he bol or he load cau ing 0.2% off e . To de ermine he ac
ual
mechanical proper ie of a bol , ASTM require a direc en ion e of mo iz
e
and leng h offull- ize bol .In pracice, he bol preload force i u ually
in roduced by igh ening he nu again he re i ance of he connec ed ma eria
l.
A hi orque i applied o he nu , he por ion no re i ed by fric ion be we
en he
nu and he gripped ma erial i ran mi ed o he bol and, due o fric ion be
ween
bol and nu hreading, induce or ional re e in o he hank. Thi igh eni
ng
procedure re ul in a combined en ion- or ional re condi ion in hebol .
Therefore,
he load ver u elonga ionrela ion hip ob erved in a orqued en ion
e differ from he rela ion hip ob ained from a direc en ion e . Specific
ally,
orquing
a bol un il failure re ul in a reduc ion in bo h ul ima e load and u
l ima e

deforma iona compared wi h he corre ponding value de ermined from a direc
en ion e . Typical load ver u elonga ion curve for direc en ion a well a

orqued en ion e are hown in Fig. 4.4 for A325
bol and A490 bol . In
orquing a bol o failure, a reduc ion in ul ima e reng h of be ween 5 and 25
%
wa experienced in e on bo h A325 and A490 bol .4.1– 4.3 The average reduc io
n
Fig 4.4. (a) Load ver u elonga ion rela ion hip and frequency di ribu ion of A
325bol
e ed in orqued en ion and direc en ion; (b) A490 bol .
40
4.2 Behavior of Individual Fa ener 41
i equal o 15%. Frequency di ribu ion of he ra io T/Tu for bo h A325 and A49
0
bol are al o hown in Fig. 4.4.
A well a having a higher load, a bol loaded o failure in direc en ion al o
ha
more deforma ion capaci y han one ha i failed in orque en ion.4.1– 4.3 Thi
i vi ible

in he wo pecimen hown in Fig. 4.5. The difference in hread de-forma ion a
nd
necking of he cri ical ec ion in he hreaded par of he bol are readily ap
paren.
To de ermine whe her pecified minimum en ile requiremen are me,
pecifica ion require direc en ion e on full- ize bol if he bol are
longer
han hree diame er or if he bol diame er i le han 1¼ in. for A325 bol or
1
in. for A490 bol . Bol larger in diame er or hor er in leng h hall preferab
ly be
e ed in full ize: however, onlong bol en ion e on pecimen machined
from uch bol are allowed. Bol horer han hree diame er need only mee
minimum
and maximum hardne
requiremen
. Te have illu ra ed ha he
ac ual en ile reng h of produc ion bol exceed
he minimum
requiremen

con iderably. An analy i of da a ob ained from en ile e on bol how ha

A325 bol in ize hrough 1 in. exceed he minimum en ile reng h required b
y
18%. The andard devia ion i equal o 4.5%. For larger diame er A325 bol (½ o
1½ in.),
he range of ac ual en ile reng hexceed heminimumbyan even
grea
er margin. A imilar analy i of da a ob ained from en ile e on A490 b
ol
how an average ac ual reng h 10% grea er han he minimum pre cribed.
The
andard varia ion i equal o 3.5%. Frequency di ribu ion curve of he ra io
Tu/T pec are hown in Fig. 4.4a for A325 and in Fig. 4.4b for A490 bol . Compar
ed
wi
h he A325, he A490 bol how a maller margin
beyond he pecified en ile
reng h becau e pecifica ion require he ac ual reng h of A490 bol o be
wi hin he range of 150 o 170 k i, wherea for A325 only a minimum reng h i
pecified.
Loading
abol in direc en ion af er having preloaded i by igh ening he nu
( orqued
en ion) doe no ignifican ly decrea e he ul ima e en ile reng h
of he
bol , a illu ra ed in Fig . 4.6 and 4.7. The or ional re e induced by or
quing
he bol apparen ly have a negligible effec on he en ile reng h of he bol
. Thi
mean ha bol in alled by orquing can u ain direc en ion load wi hou
any

apparen reduc ion in heir ul ima e en ile reng h.4.1, 4.2
Mean load ver u elonga ion curve for 15 regular head, 7/8-in. dia. A325 bol
of
variou grip are plo ed in Fig. 4.8.4.2 The hickne of he gripped ma erial
varied
from approxima ely 4¾ o 6¾ in., and he leng hof hread under he nu variedfrom ¾
o 1 in. No y ema ic varia ion exi ed among he load ver u elonga ion rela i
on hip
for he differen grip condi ion . Mo of he deforma ion occur in he hreade
d
por ion be ween he under ide of he nu and he un hreaded par of he bol . Be
cau e
hi leng h i rela ively con an , he grip leng h ha no appreciable effec on
he load
ver u elonga ion re pon e. The behavior hown in Fig. 4.8 for he direc en io
n e
wa al o ob erved during orqued en ion e . Wi h hor er grip leng h , he e
ffec of
bol leng h i more pronounced.
Figure 4.8 al o how , wi hin he ela ic range, he elonga ion increa e
Fig 4.5. Compari on of orqued en ion and
direc en ion failure .
Fig 4.6. Re erve en ile reng h of orqued A325 bol .
42
4.2 Behavior of Individual
Fa ener 43
Fig 4.7. Reerve en ile reng h of orqued A490 bol .
ligh ly wi h an increa e in grip. A he load i increa ed beyond he ela ic l
imi ,
he hreaded par , which i approxima ely of uniform leng h, behave pla ically
,
while
he hank remain e en ially ela ic. Hence, when here i a pecific amo
un
of hread under he nu , grip leng h ha li le effec on he load ver u elonga
ion
rela ion hip beyond he propor ional limi . For hor bol , nearly all deforma
ion
occur in he hreaded leng h, wi h are ul an decrea e in ro a ional capaci y.
Fig 4.8. Effec of grip leng h, direc en ion.
44 Bol
A325 bol wi h heavy hex head demon ra e behavior imilar o ha of bol wi
h
regular head for grip ranging from 4 o 8 in. and wi h hread leng h under h
e nu
ranging
from ⅛ o ¾ in. Similar ob erva ion have al o been made abou A490
bol .4.1, 4.3 (Bo h A325 and A490 bol are cu omarily furni hed wi h heavy
hexagonalhead unle oher dimen ional requiremen have been
agreed
on.)
Since
mo of he elonga ion occur in he hread , he leng h of hread be ween
he
hread
run-ou and he face of he nu will affec he load ver u elonga ion re
la ion hip.
heavy head bol ha a hor hread leng h, wherea he regular head bol ha
The
he
normal ASA hread leng h pecified by ANSI andard . A a re ul , for a given
hickne of gripped ma erial, he heavy head bol how a decrea e in deforma i
on
capaci y,a illu ra ed in Fig. 4.9.4.2
4.2.2 Bol Subjec ed o Shear
Shear loadver u deforma ion rela ion hip have been ob ained by ubjec ing
fa ener
o hear induced
by pla e ei herin en ion or compre ion. Typical
re ul of hear e on A325 and A490 bol are hown in Fig. 4.10. A expec e
d,
he increa ed en ile reng h of A490 bol a compared wi h A325 bol re ul
in
ed hear reng
an increa h for ha fa ener.A ligh decrea e in deforma ion
capaci y i eviden a he reng h of he bol increa e .4.4
The hear

reng h i influenced
by he ype of e . The fa ener can be
ubjec ed o hear by pla e in en ion or compre ion, a illu ra ed in Fig. 4
.11.
The influence
of he ype of e on he bol hear and deforma ioncapaci y i
illu ra ed in Fig. 4.12, where ypical hear re ver u deforma ion curve a
re
compared for bol from he ame lo ha were e ed in bo h en ion and
compre ion jig .4.4
Fig 4.9. Compari on of regularand heavy head A325 bol .
4.2 Behavior of Individual Fa ener 45
Fig4.10. Typical hear load ver u deforma for A325 andA490bol .
ion curve
Te re ul how ha he hear reng h of bol e ed in A440 eel en ion
jig i
6 o 13% lower han bol e ed in A440 eel compre ion jig .4.4 The ame re
nd
wa ob erved in con ruc ional alloy eel jig where he reduc ion in hear r
eng h
of imilar varied
bol from 8 o 13%. The average hear reng h for A325 and
A490* bol e ed in en ion jig were 80.1 and 101.1 k i, re pec ively. The e
hear reng h corre pond o abou 62% of he re pec ive ac ual en ile reng
h
ingle
of bol . The ame bol grade e ed in compreion jig yielded hear
reng h of 86.5 and 113.7 k i, re pec ively (68% of he bol en ile reng h)
.4.4
The lower hear reng h of a bol ob erved in a en ion ype hear e a
compared wi h a compre ion ype e ( ee Fig. 4.12) i he re ul of lap pla e
prying

ac ion, a phenomenon ha end o bend he lap pla e of he en ion jig ou war
d.4.4, 4.25
Becau e of he uneven bearing deforma ion of he e bol , he re i ing force

doe
no ac a he cen erline of he lap pla e. Thi produce a momen ha end o
bend
helap pla e away from he main pla e and hereby cau e en ile force in he
bol .
Ca enary ac ion, re ul ing from bending in bol , may al o con ribu e o he
e in bol en ion near ul ima e load. However, i i believed ha hi e
increa
ffec
i mall in compari on wi h he en ion induced by lap pla e prying ac ion.4.25
In
any ca e, he ca enary ac ion i pre en in bo h he en ion and compre ion jig
.
The en ion jig i recommended a he preferred e ing device becau e i produc
e
a lower bound hear reng h. Bol in en ion plice are ubjec ed o hear in
a
imilar
manner. The en ion jig hear e al o yield he mo con i en e
re ul .
Anexamina ion of available e da a indica e ha he ra io of he hear re
ng h
*Ac ually, A354 grade BD bol were u ed in ead of A490 bol becau e of heir
imilari y
in mechanical proper ie . A he ime of he e , he A490 bol wa ill unde
r developmen .
Fig. 4.11. Schema ic of e ing jig for ingle bol .

Fig 4.12 Typical hear load ver u deforma ion curve ; A354 BC bol e ed in A
440

eel en ion and compre ion jig .
46
4.2Behavior
of Individual
Fa ener 47
o he en ile reng h i independen of he bol grade, a illu ra ed in Fig.
4.13.
The hear reng h i plo ed ver u he en ile reng h for variou lo of A3
25
and
A490 bol . The average hear reng h i approxima ely 62% of he en ile
reng h.
The variance of he ra io of he hear reng h o en ile reng h, a ob ained
from
ingle bol en ion hear jig , i hown in Fig. 4.14. A frequency curve of
he

ra io of hear reng h o en ile reng h wa developed from e da a acquire
d a
he Univer i yof Illinoi and Lehigh Univer i y. The average value i equal o
wi h a andard
0.62, devia ion of 0.03.

Te on bol ed join indica ed ha he ini ial clamping force had no ignific
an
effec on he ul ima e hear reng h.4.5–4.7 A number of e were performed on
A325 and
A490 bol orqued o variou degree of igh ne and hen e ed o failure in
double
hear. The re ul of e wi hA490 bol are hown in Fig.
Fig 4.13. Shear reng h ver u en ile reng h. No e: Each poin repre en h
e average
value of a pecific bol lo . The hear reng h i compu ed on he relevan ar
ea,depending
on heloca ion of he hear plane.
48 Bol
Fig. 4.14. Frequency di ribu ion of ra io of hear reng h o en ile reng h
for A325 and
A490 Bol . Number of e , 142; average value, 0.62, andard devia ion,
0.03.

4.15.4.4 The lower por ion how he rela ion hip be ween bol hear reng h an
d
he ini ial bol elonga ion af er in alla ion. The bol preload wa de ermined
from
meaured elonga ion and he orqued en ion
rela ion hip given in he upper
por
ion of Fig. 4.15. The re ul confirm ha no ignifican varia ion of hear
reng h occurred when he ini ial bol preload wa varied. There are wo ource
of
en ile load in he bol ha hould, heore ically, in erac wi h he hear loa
d and
re ul in a failure load ha i le han ha from hear alone. The e are (1)
he bol
preload induced during he in alla ion procedure, and (2) bol en ion re ul in
g
from prying ac ion in he plae .
Mea uremen
of he in ernal en ion in bol in join have hown ha a
ul ima e load here i li le preload lef in he bol .4.6, 4.7, 4.25 The heari
ng
deforma
ion ha have aken place in he bol prior o i failure have he eff
ec of
relea ing he ra her mall amoun of axial deforma ion ha wa u ed o induce
he
bol
preload during in alla ion.
A any level of load producing hear in he bol , prying ac ion of he pla e
can al o produce an axial en ile load in he bol . In mo prac ical i ua ion
,

however, he en ile re induced by prying ac ion will be con iderably below
he
yield
re of he bol ; herefore, i ha only a minor influence. S udie of b
ol
under combined
en ion
and hear have hown ha en ile re e equal
o 20 o
30% of he en ile reng h do no ignifican ly affec he hear reng h of h
e
bol .4.8
The hear re i ance of high- reng h bol i direc ly propor ional o he avai
lable
hear area.
The available hear area in he hreaded par of a bol i equal o
he roo
area and i le han he area of he bol hank. For mo commonly u ed bol ,
he
roo area i abou 70% of he nominal area. The influence
of he hear plane
loca ion on he load ver u deforma ion charac eri ic of A325 and A490 bol i

repor ed in Ref. 4.4. Figure 4.16 how he influence of he hear plane
4.2 Behavior ofIndividual Fa ener 49
Fig 4.15. Effec of bol preload on hear reng h of A490 bol .
loca ion on he load ver u di placemen behavior of A325 bol . When bo h hear
lane pa ed hrough he bol hank, he hear load and deforma ion capaci y wer
e
maximized. When bo h hear plane pa ed hrough he hreaded por ion, he lowe

load and deforma ion capaci y were ob ained. All available e indica e
hear
ha
he hear
re i ance of bo h A325 and A490 bol i governed by he available
50 Bol
Fig 4.16. Shear load ver u deforma ion curve for differen failure plane.
hear area. The uni hear reng h wa unaffec ed by he hear plane loca ion,
however.
4.2.3 Bol Subjeced o CombinedTen ion and Shear
To provide informa ion regarding
he
reng h and behavior charac eri ic of
ingle high- reng h bol ubjec ed o variou combina ion of en ion and hea
r,

e were performed a he Univer i y of Illinoi .4.8 Two ype of high- reng
h
bol , A325 and A354 grade BD, were u ed in he inve iga ion. Since he
mechanical
proper ie of A354 grade BD and A490 bol are nearly iden ical, he
da a are al o direc lyapplicable
o A490 bol .
Cer ain o her fac or ha migh influence he performance of high- reng h bol

under combined loading of en ion and hear were al o examined in he e prog
ram.
The e included (1) bol grip leng h, (2) bol diame er, (3) ype of bol , and (4
) ype
of ma erial gripped by he bol . In addi ion, he influence of he loca ion of
he
hear plane wa examined.
The Illinoi
e indica ed ha an increa e in bol grip end o increa e he
ul ima e load of a bol ubjec ed o combined en ion and hear. Thi increa e i
n
i ance i mainly cau ed by he grea er bending ha can develop in a long bo
re
l
a compared wi h a hor grip bol . A high load he hor grip bol pre en ed
a
circular hear area, wherea he long grip bol , becau e of bending, pre en ed a
n
ellip ical cro - ec ion wi h a larger hear area.

I wa concluded, however, ha nei her he e block ma erial
nor he bol

diame er had a ignifican effec on he ul ima e load capaci y of he bol . Fig
ure 4.17
ummarize e re ul of bol ubjec ed o combined en ion and
4.2 Behaviorof Individual
Fa ener 51

Fig 4.17. In erac ion curve for high- reng h bol under combined en ion and
hear.
A325 A54BD
Thread in hear plane
Shank in hear plane
∆
▲
○
●
she r.4.8 The tensile strenth (in kilopounds per squ re inch) w s used to
nondimension lize the she r nd tensile stresses due to the she r nd tensile
components o the lo d. The tensile stress w s computed on the b sis o the stre
ss
re , where s the she r stress is dependent on the loc tion o the she r pl ne.
An
elliptic l inter ction curve c n be used to provide ood represent tion o the
beh vior o hih-strenth bolts under combined tension nd she r; n mely,
0 . 1
) 62 . 0 (
2
2
2
= + y x
) 1 . 4 (
where x is the r tio o the she r stress on the she r pl ne to the tensile stren
th nd y is
the r tio o the tensile stress to the tensile strenth (both computed on the st
ress re ).
Fiure 4.17 lso indic tes th t neither the bolt r de nor the loc tion
52 Bolts
o the she r pl ne in luence the ultim te x/y r tio. This is comp tible with the
beh vior o bolts in pure she r.
4.3 INSTALLATION OF HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS
North Americ n pr ctice prior to 1985 h d been to require th t ll hih-strenth
bolts
be inst lled so s to provide hih level o prelo d, re rdless o whether it
w s
needed (bolts in slip-resist nt connection or in connection subject to tensi
on) or
not needed (bolts in be rin-type connection). The dv nt es in such n

rr n ement were th t st nd rd bolt inst ll tion procedure w s provided or l
l
types o connections nd th t slihtly sti er structure prob bly resulted. Th
e
dis dv nt es were economic: the cost o inst ll tion o bolts th t do not h ve
to
be prelo ded w s incre sed nd the inspection o these inst lled bolts w s unnec
ess rily
complic ted.
As w s noted in Subsection 4.2.2, the ultim te she r strenth o hih-strenth b
olts
is not dependent upon the mount o prelo d in the bolts. There h ve been numb
er o
speci ic tions th t h ve reconized this in the p st,4.31– 4.33 p rticul rly in Eu
rope
but lso includin the Intern tion l St nd rds Or niz tion dr t speci ic tions
or
steel structures.4.34 These speci ic tions permit the use o non-prelo ded hihs
trenth
bolts in be rin-type connections when lo d revers ls re not present. In
1985, the RCSC introduced sini ic nt rel x tion o the rule th t h d been in
previous editions o the speci ic tion, n mely, th t ll hih-strenth steners
be
inst lled so s to provide prelo d equ l to 70% o the minimum speci ied tensi
le
strenth o the bolt. The requirement now is th t only steners th t re to be
used
in slip-critic l connections or in connections subject to direct tension need to
be
prelo ded to this level. Bolts to be used in be rin-type connections need only
be
tihtened to the snu-tiht condition.
To provide the desired level o prelo d or bolts used in slip-critic l
connections or in connections subjected to tension, the RCSC Speci ic tion1.4
continues to require th t in these c ses the hih-strenth bolts be tihtened su
ch
th t the resultin bolt tension (prelo d) is t le st 70% o the minimum speci i
ed
tensile strenth o the bolt. The resultin required minimum bolt tension, or
v rious bolt di meters, is iven or both A325 nd A490 bolts in T ble 4.1.
When the hih-strenth bolt w s irst introduced, inst ll tion w s prim rily by
methods o torque control. Approxim te torque v lues were suested or use in
obt inin the speci ied minimum bolt tension. For ex mple, e rly versions o the
council speci ic tion provided v lue o torque th t w s supposed to produce th
e
required bolt tension (0.0167 lb- t per inch o bolt di meter per pound tension
or
st nd rd w ter-soluble lubric ted bolts nd nuts). However, tests per ormed by
M ney,4.12 nd l ter by P uw nd How rd,4.13 showed the re t v ri bility o the
torque-tension rel tionship. Bolts rom the s me lot yielded extreme v lues o b
olt
tension 30% rom the me n tension desired. The ver e v ri tion w s in ener l
10%. This v ri nce is c used m inly be the v ri bility o the thre d conditions,
sur ce conditions under the nut, lubric tion, nd other ctors th t c use ener
y
4.3 Inst ll tion o Hih-Strenth Bolts 53
T ble 4.1. F stener Tension
Minimum F stener Tension in Thous nds o
Pounds (ksi)
Bolt Size (in.) A325 Bolts A490 Bolts
½
5/8
¾
7/8
1
11/8
1¼
13/8
1½
12
19
28
39
51
56
71
85
103
15
24
35
49
64
80
102
121
148
Equ l to 70% o speci ied minimum tensile strenths o bolts, rounded o to th
e ne rest kip.
dissip tion without inducin tension in the bolt. Experience in ield use o hi
hstrenth
bolts con irmed the err tic n ture o the torque versus tension rel tionship.
RCSC speci ic tions prior to 1980 permitted hih-strenth bolts to be tihtened
by
usin c libr ted wrenches, by the turn-o -nut method, or by use o direct tensio
n
indic tors.1.4 The l st two procedures depend on str in or displ cement control,
s
contr sted to the torque control o the c libr ted wrench method. The 1980 editi
on o
the RCSC speci ic tion removed pprov l or the use o c libr ted wrenches,
however. (No doubt, m ny inst ll tions were still m de usin this method. In 197
9
it w s estim ted th t bout 36% o the bolt inst ll tions in the United St tes w
ere
m de usin c libr ted wrenches, but th t it w s sc rcely used t ll in C n d .4
.35)
In 1985 the RCSC speci ic tion in permitted use o the c libr ted wrench meth
od o
inst ll tion, but with cle rer st tement o the requirements o the method nd
its
limit tions.
In the c libr ted wrench method the wrench is c libr ted or djusted to shut o
when the desired torque is re ched. In pr ctice, sever l bolts o the lot to be
inst lled
re tihtened in c libr tin device th t directly re ds the tension in the bol
t. The
wrench is djusted to shut o t bolt tensions th t re minimum o 5% re ter
th n the required prelo d. To minimize the v ri tion in riction between the
underside o the turned sur ce nd the ripped m teri l, h rdened w shers must
be
pl ced under the element turned in tihtenin. A minimum o three bolts o e ch
di meter must be tihtened t le st once e ch workin d y in c libr tin devic
e
c p ble o indic tin ctu l bolt tensions. This check must lso be per ormed e
ch
time sini ic nt ch nes re m de in the equipment or when sini ic nt
di erence is noted in the sur ce conditions o the bolts, nuts, or w shers.
The c libr ted wrench method h s number o dr wb cks. Bec use the
method is essenti lly one o torque control, ctors such s riction between th
e nut
nd the bolt thre ds nd between the nut nd w sher re o m jor import nce. The
54 Bolts
w ter-soluble lubric nt supplied on the bolts c n be der ded by r in or moistur
e
or thre ds c n become cont min ted with dirt or re se. The result is n err tic
torque-tension rel tionship, nd this is not re lected in the c libr tion proced
ure.
This method o inst ll tion lso presents ield problems when more th n one bolt
lenth is used in iven joint bec use the wrench must be c libr ted or e ch
lenth. (In J p n, the nuts nd w shers o so-c lled Qu lity A hih-strenth bol
t
sets re ener lly tre ted with chemic l co tin in order to overcome some o

these problems. The co tin reduces the riction l resist nce between nut nd bo
lt
thre ds nd between nut nd w sher. However, this co tin is sometimes ected
by time or temper ture.4.35)
To overcome the v ri bility o torque control, e rly e orts were m de to develo
p
more reli ble tihtenin procedure. The Americ n Associ tion o R ilro ds (AAR),
ced with the problem o tihtenin bolts in remote re s without power tools,
conducted l re number o tests to determine i the turn-o -nut could be used
s
me ns o controllin bolt tension.4.14, 4.15 These tests led to the conclusion t
h t one
turn rom iner-tiht position produced the desired bolt tension. In 1955 the
RCRBSJ dopted one turn o the nut rom h nd-tiht position s n ltern tive
method to inst ll tion.
Experience with the one ull turn method indic ted th t it w s impr ctic l to us
e
iner or h nd tihtness s reli ble point or st rtin the one turn. Bec use
o out-o l tness,
thre d imper ections, nd dirt ccumul tion, it w s di icult nd time
consumin to determine the h nd-tiht position. Bethlehem Steel Corpor tion
developed modi ied “turn-o -nut” method, usin the AAR studies nd ddition l
tests o their own.4.16, 4.17 This method c lled or runnin the nut up to snu

position usin n imp ct wrench r ther th n the inertiht condition. From the
snu position the nut w s iven n ddition l ½ or ¾ turn, dependin on the lenth
o the bolt. The snu condition w s de ined s the point t which the wrench
st rted to imp ct. This occurred when the turnin o the nut w s resisted by ri
ction
between the ce o the nut nd the sur ce o the steel. Snu-tihtenin the bo
lts
induces sm ll cl mpin orces in the bolts. In ener l, t the snu-tiht condit
ion
the bolt cl mpin orces c n v ry consider bly bec use elon tions re still wit
hin
the el stic r ne. This is illustr ted in Fi. 4.18 where the r ne o bolt cl m
pin
orce nd bolt elon tion t the snu tiht condition is shown or 7/8 in. di .
A325
bolts inst lled in n A440 steel test joint. The ver e cl mpin orce t the s
nutiht
condition w s equ l to bout 26 kip. The bolts in this test joint were snu
tihtened by me ns o n imp ct wrench. This modi ied turn-o -nut method w s
eventu lly incorpor ted into the 1960 speci ic tion o the council.
For bolts equ l to or re ter th n bout ¾ in. di ., snu position provided by n
imp ct wrench is pproxim tely equ l to the tihtness tt ined by the ull e or
t o
m n usin n ordin ry spud wrench. For loner or l rer di meter bolts, the orc
e
produced by this snu lo d will be less th n th t or the “st nd rd” c se, nd or
shorter or sm ller di meter bolts it will be more. These di erences re
ccommod ted in the speci ic tion by prescribin the s me de inition o snu ti
ht
Fi 4.18. Bolt elon tion “snu” nd ter ddition l one-h l turn o nut. Type o
joint
7/8 in. di . A325 bolts; A440 steel.
or ll c ses but v ryin the deree o rot tion required beyond snu or di er
ent
situ tions. As seen in T ble 4.2, the current RCSC speci ic tion requires one-h
l turn
rom snu or bolts whose lenth rom the underside o the he d to the extreme e
nd
o the bolt is over our but less th t eiht bolt di meters. I this dimension i
s less th n
our bolts di meters, only one-third turn is required, nd i it is re ter th n
eiht
di meters, two-thirds turn is required. Test results re not v il ble or bolts
loner
th n 12 di meters, nd so n upper limit is noted in the t ble. (The de inition
o bolt
lenth s iven previously nd in T ble 4.2 should not be bused. It is ssumed
th t
only modest projection o bolt beyond the top o the nut will be present. I ,
or
some re son, l re projection is present, the use o T ble 4.2 should be b sed
on n
djusted bolt lenth r ther th n on the ctu l bolt lenth. The lenth between t
he
underside o the bolt he d nd the top o the nut would be
56 Bolts
T ble 4.2. Nut Rot tion rom Snu-Tiht Condition
Disposition o Outer F ces o Bolted P rts
Bolt Lenth ( s
Me sured rom
underside o he d to
extreme end o point)
Both F ces
Norm l
to Bolt Axis
One F ce Norm l
to Bolt Axis nd
Other F ce Sloped
Not More Th n
1:20 (bevel
w sher not used)
Both F ces Sloped
Not More Th n
1:20 rom Norm l
to Bolt Axis (bevel
w shers not used)
Up to nd includin
4 di meters
Over 4 di meters but
not exceedin 8
di meters
Over 8 di meters but
not exceedin 12
di meters
1/3 turn
1/2 turn
2/3 turn
1/2 turn
2/3 turn
5/6 turn
2/3 turn
5/6 turn
1 turn
Nut rot tion is rel tive to bolt, re rdless o the element (nut or bolt) bein
turned. For bolts
inst lled by 1/2 turn nd less, the toler nce should be 30o; or bolts inst lled
by 2/3 turn or
more, the toler nce should be 45o. All m teri l within the rip o the bolt must
be steel.
b No rese rch work h s been per ormed by the council to est blish the turn-o -nu
t procedure
when bolt lenths exceed 12 di meters. There ore, the required rot tion must be
determined by
ctu l tests in suit ble tension device simul tin the ctu l conditions.
suit ble choice.) In ll c ses, c re must be exercised to ensure th t the nut
does
not encounter the thre d run-out.
Controllin tension by the turn-o -nut method is prim rily str in control. I
the elon tion o the bolt rem ins within the el stic r ne, both the st rtin p
oint
(i.e., snu tiht) nd the mount nd ccur cy o the nut rot tion beyond snu t
iht
will be in luenti l in determinin the prelo d. However, in the inel stic reion
the
lo d versus elon tion curve is rel tively l t, with the consequence th t v ri
tions
in the snu-tiht condition result in only minor v ri tions in the prelo d o th
e
inst lled bolt. This inel stic beh vior will be ch r cteristic o pr ctic lly
ll
inst lled bolts. It results rom loc l yieldin o the short lenth o thre d be
tween
the underside o the nut nd the ripped m teri l. It h s no undesir ble e ect
on
the subsequent structur l per orm nce o the bolt. Fiure 4.18 illustr tes these
points.
Rese rch in the 1960s indic ted th t one-h l turn o the nut rom the snu-tih
t
condition w s dequ te or ll lenths o A325 bolts th t were then commonly use
d. 4.2,
4.5–4.7,4.9 B sed on this experience, the 1962 edition o the council speci ic tio
n required
only one-h l turn, re rdless o bolt lenth.
In 1964 the council incorpor ted the A490 bolt into its speci ic tion. In order
to
m ke the speci ic tion pplic ble to both the A325 nd the A490 bolts, the turn-
o -nut
method w s modi ied in. Tests o A490 bolts h d indic ted th t when
the rip lenth w s incre sed to bout eiht times the bolt di meter, somewh t
re ter nut rot tion (two-thirds turn) w s needed to re ch the required minimum
bolt tension. Althouh the ddition l rot tion w s not needed or A325 bolts, th
e
two-thirds turn provision h s been pplied to the A325 bolts s well in the inte
rest
o uni ormity in ield pr ctice.
C libr tion tests o A325 bolts with rips more th n 4 di meters or 4 in. showed
th t the one-h l turn o the nut rot tion produced consistent bolt tensions in
the
inel stic r ne.4.2 These tests lso showed su icient m rin o s ety ins
t r cture
by excessive nut rot tion. Bolts with rips o more th n 4 in. or 4 di meters n
d short
thre d lenth under the nut c n be iven one-h l turn o the nut nd h ve su
icient
de orm tion c p city to sust in two ddition l h l turns be ore ilure. Bolts
with lon
thre d lenths in the rip c n sust in three to ive ddition l h l turns, s i
llustr ted in
Fi. 4.19. Simil r tests conducted on A490 bolts llow the comp rison with A325
bolts shown in Fi. 4.20. A325 nd A490 bolts ve subst nti lly the s me lo d
versus nut rot tion rel tionships up to the el stic limit.4.1, 4.3, 4.9 At one-h
l turn
rom the snu position, the A490 bolts provided pproxim tely 20% re ter lo d
th n A325 bolts bec use o the incre sed strenth o the A490 bolt. However, the
hiher strenth o the A490 bolts results in sm ll decre se in nut rot tion
c p city s comp red with the A325 bolt. These studies show th t the ctor o
s ety inst twist-o or bolt inst lled to one-h l turn rom snu is bou
t three
nd one-h l or A325 bolts nd bout two nd one-h l or A490 bolts. Moreover,
it must be reconized th t the only source o ddition l rot tion ter bolt i
s
inst lled would h ve to be v nd lism. Bec use o the hih torque required to
produce ddition l rot tion, even this source is unlikely. Studies on short rip
bolts (lenth less th n or equ l to our bolt di meters) h ve shown th t their
ctor o s ety inst twist-o w s less th n two when one-h l
Fi 4.19. E ect o thre d on rot tion c p city o A325 bolts.
58 Bolts
Fi 4.20. Comp rison o bolt lo d versus nut rot tion rel tionships o A490 nd
A325 bolts.
turn w s used. This resulted in the doption in 1974 o one-third turn or bolts
whose lenth w s less th n our di meters. More c re needs to be t ken in their
inst ll tion in order to void twist-o .
Fiure 4.21 shows lo d versus elon tion curves or 7/8 in. di meter A325
bolts 2¼ in. lon.4.36 Some tests were done on low h rdness bolts nd some on hih
h rdness bolts, nd there were either 1½ or 2½ thre ds unen ed below the nut.
It is cle r th t both p r meters h d n in luence on the ductility o these bolt
s. Hih
h rdness me ns hih strenth nd reduced ductility. Bec use most o the bolt
elon tion is occurrin in the thre ded portion below the nut, n incre se in th
is
lenth lso incre sed ductility. However, it c n be noted th t in ll c ses the
speci ic tion requirement o one-third turn beyond snu produced prelo d re t
er
th n the speci ied minimum v lue.
It should be pp rent th t short rip A490 bolts will be potenti lly less ductil
e
th n A325 bolts. L re di meter, short rip bolts will lso be o concern bec us
e
the r tio o tensile stress re to ross re decre ses s bolt di meter incre
ses.
Fiure 4.22 shows unpublished test results on l re di meter, short rip A490
Fi 4.21. Bolt lo d versus elon tion or short rip A325 bolts.
bolts.4.37 Bec use o the rel tively l re lenth o unen ed thre d below the
nut (7/8
in.), these bolts showed re son ble ductility or both low h rdness nd hih h r
dness
c ses. However, or the s me re son, one-third turn beyond snu w s not su icie
nt
to produce the speci ied prelo d in the bolts. Users o l re di meter hih-stre
nth
bolts, especi lly A490 bolts, should be w re th t the RCSC speci ic tion
requirement or inst ll tion o short rip bolts m y not produce the required
prelo d. I such bolts re to be used in slip-resist nt joint, c libr tion tes
ts in
lo d-indic tin device re dvis ble.
The 1985 speci ic tion o the RCSC permits ltern te desin bolts to be used
nd the inst ll tion o st nd rd hih-strenth bolts by me ns o lo d-indic tin
w shers. Altern te desin bolts include the swede bolts nd tension-control bol
ts
described in Section 4.1. The most common direct tension indic tor used is
speci l w sher with projections rr ned circum erenti lly on one l t ce. The
p cre ted between the projections nd the sur ce o the steel bein cl mped w
ill
be closed s the prelo d is introduced into the bolt. Me surements o the size o
the
p c n be rel ted to the prelo d. Bec use o the time required to me sure the
p,
only spot me surements re usu lly t ken, nd c re must be exercised to ensure
th t the protrusions be r inst h rdened sur ce nd do not turn s the nut
is
turned onto the bolt.
60 Bolts
Fi 4.22. Bolt lo d versus elon tion or rip A490 bolts.
The council speci ic tion cont ins requirements or veri ic tion o lo d i eith
er
ltern te desin bolts or direct tension indic tors re used. Tension-control bo
lts (see
Section 4.1) should be included in this c teory.
The c libr ted wrench method o bolt inst ll tion is the most common method
used in J p n.4.35 As n ltern tive, some inst ll tions re m de by method th
t
detects irst yield o the bolt thre ds. An electric lly oper ted wrench usin
direct
current motor is used. Bec use the torque in direct current motor is directly
rel ted to the current dr wn, it c n be used to monitor the bolt tension. A moni
tor
in the wrench is used to detect the irst nonline rity o the oper tion, nd ur
ther
tihtenin is prevented. Since the speci ied minimum tension is below the onset
o
irst yield, this method is s tis ctory.
4.4 Rel x tion 61
Speci ic tions require th t the slope o sur ces o bolted p rts in cont ct wit
h the
bolt he d or nut sh ll not exceed 1:20 with respect to pl ne norm l to the bol
t xis.
Rese rch c rried out t the University o Illinois determined the in luence o b
eveled
sur ces (1:20 slope) when bevel w shers were omitted.4.9 A325 bolts re ductile
enouh to de orm to this slope. Gre ter slopes re undesir ble since they ect
both strenth nd ductility.
From these tests it w s concluded th t the inclusion o bolted connections with
1:20 slope in the rip nd without beveled w shers requires ddition l nut rot t
ion to
ensure th t tihtenin will chieve the required minimum tension.4.9 I one ce
is
norm l to the lonitudin l xis o the bolt but the other h s bevel o up to 1
:20,
the usu l one-h l turn should be incre sed to two-thirds turn. I both ces r
e
sloped t 1:20, ive-sixths turn should be used. T ble 4.2 shows the mount o n
ut
rot tion or shorter nd loner rips when bevelled sur ces re present. O cou
rse,
bevel w shers c n be used to elimin te the slopes nd thereby lso elimin te the
need or ddition l turns bove the st nd rd c ses.
4.4 RELAXATION
Bec use o the hih stress level in the thre ded p rt o n inst lled bolt, some
rel x tion will occur th t could ect the bolt per orm nce. To ev lu te the in
luence
o this rel x tion, studies were per ormed on ssemblies o A325 nd A354 r de
BD
bolts in A7 steel.4.9 The bolts were tihtened by turnin the nut inst the r
ipped
m teri l. The bolt tension versus time w s reistered throuhout the study.
From these tests it w s evident th t immedi tely upon completion o the
torquin there w s 2 to 11% drop in lo d. The ver e loss w s 5% o the
m ximum reistered bolt tension. This drop in bolt tension is believed to result
rom the el stic recovery th t t kes pl ce when the wrench is removed. Creep nd
yieldin in the bolt due to the hih stress level t the root o the thre ds mi
ht
result in minor rel x tion s well.
The rip lenth s well s the number o plies re believed to be mon the ct
ors
th t in luence the mount o bolt rel x tion. Althouh no experiment l d t re
v il ble, it seems re son ble to expect n incre se in bolt orce rel x tion s
the
rip lenth is decre sed. Simil rly, incre sin the number o plies or const
nt
rip lenth miht le d to n incre se in bolt rel x tion. Rel tively l re losse
s in
bolt prelo d h ve been reported or very short rip (i.e., ½ to 1 in. rip) lv n
ized
bolts.
Rel x tion tests on A325 nd A354 BD bolts showed n ddition l 4% loss in
bolt tension ter 21 d ys s comp red with the bolt tension me sured 1 min. t
er
torquin.4.9 Ninety percent o this loss occurred durin the irst d y. Durin t
he
rem inin 20 d ys the r te o ch ne in bolt lo d decre sed in n exponenti l
m nner.
Rel x tion studies on ssemblies with hih-strenth bolts were per ormed in
62 Bolts
J p n nd showed simil r results.4.10 By extr pol tin the test d t , it w s
concluded th t the rel x tion ter 100,000 hr (11.4 ye rs) could be estim ted
t
bout 6% o the bolt lo d immedi tely ter tihtenin.
The rel x tion ch r cteristics o ssemblies o lv nized pl tes nd bolts were
ound to be bout twice s re t s pl in bolts nd connected m teri l.4.19 The
mount
o rel x tion ppe red to be rel ted to the thickness o the lv nized co tin.
It w s
concluded th t the incre sed bolt rel x tion occurred bec use o the creep or l
ow o
the zinc co tin under sust ined hih cl mpin pressures. As with pl in un lv n
ized
bolts, the lv nized bolts experienced most o the creep nd rel x tion immedi
tely
upon completion o the tihtenin process.
B sed on tests per ormed t Lehih University, it w s concluded th t, within
cert in limits, oversize or slotted holes do not sini ic ntly ect the losses
in bolt
tension with time ollowin inst ll tion.4.26 The loss in tension w s bout 8% o
the
initi l prelo d. A more det iled discussion on this is iven in Ch pter 9.
4.5 REUSE OF HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS
Since the turn-o -nut method is likely to induce bolt tension th t exceeds the
el stic
limit o the thre ded portion, repe ted tihtenin o hih-strenth bolts m y be
undesir ble. Tests were per ormed to ex mine the beh vior o hih-strenth bolts
ter
torquin one-h l turn, loosenin, nd then retorquin.4.1, 4.2 The record o on
e such
test on A325 bolt is summ rized in Fi. 4.23. It is pp rent th t the cumul ti
ve pl stic
de orm tions c used decre se in the A325 bolt de orm tion c p city ter e ch
succeedin one-h l turn. However, A325 bolts c n be reused
Fi 4.23. Repe ted inst ll tion A325 bolts.
4.6 G lv nized Bolts nd Nuts 63
Fi 4.24. Repe ted inst ll tion o A490 bolts.
once or twice, providin th t proper control on the number o reuses c n be
est blished.
As-received hih-strenth bolts h ve liht residu l co tin o oil rom the
m nu cturin process. This co tin is not h rm ul, nd it should not be removed
. Such
s-received A325 bolts ener lly do h ve dequ te nut rot tion c p city to llow
or
limited reuse provided either th t the oriin l lubric nt is still on the bolt o
r oil,
re se, w x, nd so on is pplied subsequently. Reuse o co ted A325 bolts is no
t
recommended, however. Tests h ve indic ted th t the nut rot tion c p city o
bolt is ener lly reduced by providin co tin (see Section 4.6).4.19, 4.27 Th
ere ore,
unless experiment l d t indic te otherwise, reuse o co ted A325 bolts should n
ot
be permitted.
Fiure 4.24 shows typic l results o one lot o A490 bolts repe tedly inst lled
with
thre ds s-received. Note th t the minimum required tension w s chieved only du
rin
the irst nd second cycle. Subsequent cycles showed sh rp decre se in induced
bolt tension. Test results h ve indic ted th t bolts rom the s me lot when w xe
d
h d consider bly improved ch r cteristics.4.1 However, whether the thre ds were
w xed or s-received, m rked incre se in inst ll tion time w s noted or
successive cycles. The beh vior o A490 bolts under repe ted torquin seems to b
e
more critic l th n A325 bolts. There ore, reuse o A490 bolts is not recommended
.
4.6 GALVANIZED BOLTS AND NUTS
At the present time, wide r ne o structures re bein tre ted with protect
ive
sur ce co tin to prevent corrosion nd reduce m inten nce costs. G lv nizin i
s
widely used procedure nd provides n excellent corrosion-resist nt protection
.
The beh vior o lv nized bolts m y di er rom the beh vior o norm l, unco te
d
hih-strenth bolts.4.18, 4.19 This di erence in beh vior is c used prim rily b
y
the zinc l yer on the bolt thre ds. G llin o this zinc l yer m y t ke pl ce,
64 Bolts
nd the nut m y seize when the bolt is tihtened. Occ sion lly, this m kes it di
icult to
re ch the desired bolt tension without experiencin prem ture torsion l ilur
e o the
bolt.
The zinc co tin on the sur ce o bolt does not ect the bolt st tic stren
th
properties. C libr tion studies showed th t neither the tensile strenth, s det
ermined rom
direct tension test, nor the she r strenth o the bolt were ected by the l
v nizin
process.4.18, 4.19 However, i bolt tension is induced by turnin the nut ins
t the ripped
m teri l, bec use o seizure unlubric ted lv nized bolts experienced re ter
reduction in
the m ximum bolt tension s comp red with torqued un lv nized bolts or properly
lubric ted lv nized bolts. This reduction w s up to 25% more th n th t or pl
in bl ck
bolts, dependin on the thre d conditions nd thickness o the zinc l yer.
Besides this reduction in torqued tension strenth, the dded riction l resist
nce on the
thre ds o the lv nized bolts c used consider ble decre se in ductility, s
illustr ted in
Fi. 4.25. This e ect o hih riction l resist nce c n be reduced subst nti ll
y by employin
lubric nts on the thre ds o lv nized bolts. Tests indic ted no ppreci ble di
erence in
the torqued tensile strenth o pl in bolts s received nd lv nized bolts lub
ric ted with
either beesw x, cetyl lcohol, or commerci l w x.4.11, 4.27 Some reduction in du
ctility o the
lv nized bolts w s observed. C libr tion tests per ormed on lv nized A490 bo
lts
showed results simil r to the results o A325 bolts.4.18
A hih tendency or strippin-type ilures w s observed in torqued tension
tests o lv nized hih-strenth bolts.4.19 This c n be ttributed to sever l
ctors. As
Fi 4.25. Comp rison o bolt lo d versus elon tion rel tionships between 1–in. bl
ck nd
lv nized A325 bolts.
4.7 Use o W shers 65
the bolt is torqued, the thre ded section within the rip necks down nd the nut
spre ds.
This, lon with the overt ppin o the nut th t is necess ry when lv nizin,
m y
c use disen ement o some o the thre ds in the nut nd incre se the ch nce
or
strippin ilures. To reduce the possibility o n undesir ble strippin ilur
e, h rder
nuts should be used or lv nized bolts (nuts o qu lity DH or 2H). In order to
ensure
th t the lv nized bolt nd nut nd the lubric nt provided on the nut or bolt t
hre ds
will provide bolt prelo d in excess o the speci ied minimum tension with
rot tion l reserve, speci l tests re required by the ASTM A325 speci ic tion. I
t
must be demonstr ted th t the lv nized ssembly c n be subjected to 360o
rot tion rom snu without ilure. This test requirement ensures th t the toler
nces
nd lubric nt re dequ te.
Althouh lv nizin does provide n excellent protection inst corrosion o
the bolt, it m y incre se its susceptibility to stress corrosion nd hydroen st
ress
cr ckin. This pplies especi lly to lv nized A490 bolts. There ore, it w s
concluded th t lv nized A490 bolts should not be used in structures.4.23, 4.24
4.7 USE OF WASHERS
Oriin lly the hih-strenth structur l bolt ssembly included bolt with nut
nd
two h rdened w shers. The w shers were thouht necess ry to serve the ollowin
purposes:
1. To protect the outer sur ce o the connected m teri l rom d m e or
llin s the bolt or nut w s torqued or turned
2. To ssist in m int inin hih cl mpin orce in the bolt ssembly
3 To provide sur ces o consistent h rdness so th t the v ri tion in the
torque-tension rel tionship could be minimized
When the turn-o -nut method or tihtenin hih-strenth bolts w s dopted,
procedure w s introduced th t provided me ns o obt inin the required bolt
tension without reli nce upon torque-tension control. Hence, it w s desir ble to
determine whether h rdened w shers were needed in the bolt ssembly. Tests
showed th t h rdened w sher w s not needed to prevent minor the bolt rel x tio
n
resultin rom the hih stress concentr tion under the bolt he d or nut o A325
bolts.4.9 It w s lso concluded th t ny llin th t m y t ke pl ce when nuts
or
A325 bolts re tihtened directly inst the connected p rts is not detriment l
to
the st tic or tiue strenth o the joint.
As result o these indins, the council speci ic tions in ener l do not requ
ire
the use o w shers when A325 bolts re inst lled by the turn-o -nut method. I b
olts
re tihtened by c libr ted wrench method, th t is, by torque control, w she
r
should be used under the turned element, the nut or the bolt he d. W shers re
required under both the he d nd nut o A490 bolts when they re used to connect
m teri l with yield point o less th n 40 ksi. This prevents llin nd
66 Bolts
brinellin o the connected p rts. In hih-strenth steel they re only required
to
prevent llin o the turned element.
When bolts p ss throuh be m or ch nnel l ne th t h s slopin inter ce,
bevel w sher is o ten used to compens te or the l ck o p r llelism. Speci ic t
ions
require the use o beveled w shers when n outer ce h s slope re ter th n 1
:20.
A325 bolts re ductile enouh to de orm to this slope.4.9 Gre ter slopes re und
esir ble
s they ect both strenth nd ductility.
As noted in Section 4.3, when slopes o up to 1:20 re present in the ripped
m teri l, bolts require ddition l nut rot tion to ensure th t tihtenin will
chieve
the required minimum prelo d.
There re speci l requirements or w shers when oversize or slotted holes re
present; these re described in Ch pter 9.
4.8 CORROSION AND EMBRITTLEMENT
Under cert in conditions, corrosive environments m y be detriment l to the
service bility o co ted hih-strenth bolts subjected to sust ined stresses.
Hydroen stress cr ckin s well s stress corrosion m y c use del yed, “brittle”
r ctures o hih-strenth bolts. Althouh both processes h ve been studied
extensively, no completely ccept ble mech nism or expl inin either
phenomenon h s been developed.
In m ny respects the two r cture mech nisms h ve number o simil rities. Both
m y c use del yed, brittle-type r ctures o bolts. However, there ppe r to be
sini ic nt di erences. For ex mple, stress corrosion t le st in p rt involves
electrochemic l dissolution o met l lon ctive sites under the in luence o t
ensile
stress. Hydroen stress cr ckin occurs s the result o combin tion o hydro
en
in the met l l ttice nd tensile stress. The hydroen produces h rd m rtensite
structure th t is susceptible to cr ckin. Atomic hydroen bsorption by the ste
el is
necess ry or this type o ilure to occur. Since corrosion requently is
ccomp nied by the liber tion o tomic hydroen, hydroen-stress cr ckin m y
occur in corrosive environments. However, in m ny situ tions combin tion o
both r cture p tterns develops.
The cr ck sur ce o iled bolt th t experienced stress corrosion cr ckin is
shown in Fi ure 4.26. The thumbn il-sh ped m rkins t the bottom o the

photor ph corresponds to corrosion b nds ter cr ck extension nd exposure to
w ter. The microscopic ppe r nce o the cr ck sur ce ne r the oriin is shown
in
Fiure 4.27 t 2000x. This shows interr nul r cr ckin th t is ch r cteristic o

stress corrosion cr ckin.
L bor tory tests h ve shown th t both phenomen in luence the li e o hihstren
th
bolts.4.22 – 4.24 The beh vior o A325 s well s A490 bolts under di erent
environment l conditions w s studied. From these test results, it bec me pp ren
t th t
the hiher the strenth o the steel, the more sensitive the m teri l becomes to
both
stress corrosion nd hydroen stress cr ckin. The study indic ted hih
4.8 Corrosion nd Embrittlement 67
Fi 4.26. M croscopic ppe r nce o the cr ck sur ce (Courtesy o Bethlehem Ste
el
Corp.)
susceptibility o lv nized A490 bolts to hydroen stress cr ckin. It w s
concluded th t this w s c used by bre k in the zinc ilm, which promoted the
entry o tomic hydroen into the met l. I there were no bre ks in the co tin,
ilures were not likely to occur. The study lso indic ted the desir bility o
limitin the h rdness o A490 bolts. Sever l unco ted bolts were observed to i
l
when hih h rdness nd strenth were present. Bec use o this observ tion, the
m ximum permissible tensile strenth w s decre sed by the ASTM.
On the b sis o these tests, it w s concluded th t properly processed bl ck nd
lv nized A325 bolts, he t tre ted within presently speci ied h rdness limits,
will
beh ve s tis ctorily with re rd to hydroen stress nd stress corrosion cr cki
n
in most corrosive environments.4.23 P rticul r ttention should be iven to the
prep r tion o the bolts or lv nizin. Improper picklin procedures could ind
uce
hydroen embrittlement. It w s urther concluded th t lv nized A490 bolts
should not be used in structures. The tests did indic te th t bl ck A490 bolts c
n be
used without problems rom “brittle” ilures in most environments.
A b sic study o the e ects o electropl ted nd hot-dip zinc co tins on the
r cture o low- lloy steel AISI 4140 b rs in h rdness r nes o Rc 33 to 49 w s
68 Bolts
Fi 4.27. Interr nul r r cture sur ce t the cr ck oriin. 2000x. (Courtesy o

Bethlehem Steel Corp.)
conducted by Townsend.4.38 Electropl ted nd hot-dip zinc co tins decre sed the
resist nce to stress corrosion cr ckin directly in rel tion to the threshold st
ress
intensity, Ksc. This e ect w s ttributed to n incre sed equilibrium hydroen
ctivity t the cr ck-tip sur ce c used by the lv nic e ect o the s cri ici
l
co tins. Fiure 4.28 shows the me sured critic l stress intensity s unction
o
Rc h rdness. Althouh ll h rdness levels showed stress corrosion susceptibility
,
the hiher h rdness levels showed n incre sed susceptibility.
It w s suested th t the condition in bolt thre ds w s directly comp r ble to t
he
stress intensity or notched b r, th t is,
π σ =
D
d f D K
For bolt , f(d/D) varie from 0.25 to 0.23 a the hank diameter D varie from ½ t
o 2
in. and the minor thread diameter d varie from 0.40 to 1.71 in. Thi aroximat
e
fracture mechanic analy i redict overly con ervative re ult . No failure we
re
ob erved in actual bolt tudied by Boyd and Hyler 4.23 at the lower hardne le
vel
redicted by thi tudy.
4.9 Effect of Nut Strength 69
Fig 4.28. Critical Stre inten itie in re ence of corro ive environment; ○ Kx,
ll sur ces;
+ Ksc, unco ted; ● Ksc , hot-dip Al-Zn; ▲ Ksc , electropl ted zinc; ■ Ksc, hot-dip zin
c. (From
Re . 4.38)
4.9 EFFECT OF NUT STRENGTH
The beh vior o bolt ssemblies m y v ry when tihtened to ilure. In some c se
s,
ilure is in tension throuh the bolt thre ds; in other inst nces, the thre ds
o the
nut nd/or bolt strip. A tensile ilure o the bolt is e sily detected; however
,
strippin ilure develops with imperceptible reduction in torque nd is di icu
lt to
identi y since some tension rem ins in the bolt. There ore, when ilure by
overtihtenin occurs or is imminent, tensile ilure o the bolt is pre er bl
e. To
provide or this, nuts re speci ied to h ve somewh t hiher proo lo d th n t
he
bolts with which they re to be used.
As nut is tihtened inst the resist nce o the ripped m teri l, the bolt
lenthens within the rip. I the ripped m teri l nd the thre ds were complete
ly
riid, one turn o the nut would c use the bolt to elon te one pitch. This does
not
70 Bolts
h ppen, bec use some thre d de orm tions occur in the bolt nd nut. This diminis
hes
the theoretic l bolt elon tion in the thre ded portion.
Since the de orm tions o the thre ds re directly ected by the h rdness o t
he
nut or the bolt nd the number o thre ds within the depth o the nut, c libr ti
on tests
were per ormed on A325 hih-strenth bolts with minimum nd m ximum strenth
levels nd ssembled with hex nuts nd with the thicker he vy hex nuts h vin
v rious h rdness v lues.4.20 These tests showed th t, with incre sin nut h rdne
ss,
the strippin strenth o the connection lso incre ses until the mode o ilur
e
ch nes to tensile ilure in the bolt thre d. The bolt tension t one-h l tu
rn rom
snu-tiht condition lso incre sed with n incre se in nut h rdness, nd hih
er
bolt lo ds were observed in ssemblies usin hih h rdness bolts. For ll bolt
nd
nut combin tions used in this study, the ver e bolt tension t snu-tiht plus
oneh l
turn w s consider bly bove the required minimum tension.
On the b sis o these tests,4.21 s well s other in orm tion, the council
speci ic tion in 1972 st rted to require the use o he vy hex on l nuts or A32
5
nd A490 bolts. Bec use he vy hex nuts h ve the s me dimension cross the l ts
s the bolt he d, their use h s the ddition l dv nt e th t sinle wrench is
pplic ble to both nut nd he d.
4.10 BASIS FOR DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS
The beh vior o individu l steners subjected to di erent types o lo din or
ms
b sis or developin desin recommend tions. This section summ rizes the
individu l stener strenths th t re used in subsequent ch pters to develop de
sin
recommend tions.
4.10.1 Bolts Subjected to Tension
The tensile c p city o stener is equ l to the product o the stress re As
nd its
tensile strenth σu
. However, it i convenient for de ign uro e to ecify
ermi ible force and tre e on the ba i of the nominal area of the bolt Ab
rather
than on the tre area A . Such a tran formation i readily erformed becau e
the
ratio of the tre area to the nominal bolt area only varie from 0.75 for ¾-in.
diameter bolt to 0.79 for l 1/8-in. diameter bolt . The maximum ten ile load Bu
of
a fa tener i given a
u u A B σ = ( ) 2 . 4
Exre ed in term of the nominal bolt area and u ing the lower bound,
u u A B σ 75 . 0 = ( ) 3 . 4
For mo t bolt diameter , Eq. 4.3 yield a lightly con ervative e timate of the
ten ile caacity of a bolt.
4.10 Ba i for De ign Recommendation 71
4.10.2 Bolt Subjected to Shear
The ten ion-tye hear te t wa ob erved to rovide a lower bound hear trength
.
The hear trength (in kiloound er quare inch) of a fa tener wa found to be
indeendent of the bolt grade and equal to 62% of the ten ile trength of the bo
lt
material; hence
u u σ τ 62 . 0 = ( ) 4 . 4
The hear re i ance of a bol i direc ly propor ional o he available hear a
nd he
number
of hear plane . If a o al of m hear plane pa hrough he bol hank
, he
maximum hear re i ance Su of he bol i equal o
u b u mA S σ ) 62 . 0 (= ( ) 5. 4
When hear plane pa hrough he hreaded por ion of he bol , he hear area
i
equal o he roo area of he bol , which i abou 70 o 75%of he nominal bol
area. A lower bound o he maximum hear capaci y of he bol can be expre ed a

u b u mA S σ ) 62 . 0 ( ) 70 . 0 ( = ( ) 6 . 4
or
u b u mA S σ ) 43 . 0 ( = ( ) 7 . 4
If one hear plane pa e hrough he hank of he bol and one pa e hrough
he
hread , he o al hear area i equal o he um of he individual componen .
4.10.3 Bol Subjec o Combined Ten ionand Shear
ed
An ellip ical in erac ion curve wa found o repre en adequa ely he behavior o
f
high- reng h bol under combined en ion and hear. The equa ion 4.1 wa given
in Sec ion 4.2 a
0 . 1
) 62 . 0 (
2
2
2
= + y x
where
x i he ra io of he hear re on he hear plane o he en ile ren
g h and

y i he ra io of he en ile re o he en ile reng h (bo h compu ed on
he

re area). Equa ion 4.1 rela e he hear re componen o he cri ical e
nile
re componen . The produc of ul ima e re and he appropria e area yield
he

hear and en ile load componen .
cri ical
72 Bol
REFERENCES
4.1R. J. Chri opher, G. L. Kulak, and J. W. Fi her, “Calibra ion of Alloy S eel
Bol ,”
Journal of he S ruc ural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 92, ST2. April 1966.
4.2 J. L. Rumpf and J. W. Fi her, “Calibra ion of A325 Bol ,” Journal of he S ruc
ural
Divi ion, ASCE,
Vol. 89, ST6, December 1963.
4.3 G. H. S erling, E. W. J. Troup, E. Che on, Jr., and J. W. Fi her, “Calibra io
n Te of
High-S reng h Bol ,” Journal of he S ruc ural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 91, ST5,
A490
Oc ober 1965.
4.4 J. J. Wallaer and J. W. Fi her, “Shear S reng h of High-S reng h Bol ,” Journa
lof he
S ruc ural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 91, ST3, June 1965.

4.5 R. T. Foreman and J. L. Rumpf, “S a ic Ten ion Te of Compac Bol ed Join ,”
Tran ac ion ASCE, Vol. 126, Par 2, 1961, pp. 228—254.
4.6 R. A. Bendigo, R. M. Han en, and J. L Rumpf, “Long Bol ed Join ,” Journal of h
e
S ruc ural Divi ion, Vol. 89, ST6, December 1963.
J. W.Fi her, P. Ram eier, and L. S. Beedle, “S reng h of A440 S eel Join Fa
4.7
ened wi h
A325 Bol ,” Publica ion , IABSE, Vol. 23, 1963.
4.8E. Che on, Jr., N. L. Fau ino, and W. H. Mun e, “High-S reng h Bol Subjec
ed o
Ten ion and Shear,” Journal of he S ruc ural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 91, ST5, Oc obe
r
1965.
E. Che on, Jr. and W. H. Mun e, S udie of he Behavior of High-S reng h Bo
4.9
l and
Bol ed Join , Engineering Experimen Bulle in 469, Univer i y of Illinoi , Urba
na, 1965.
4.10 J. Tajima, “Effec of Relaxa ion and Creep on he Slip Load of High S reng h
Bol ed
Join ,” S ruc ural De ign Office, Japane e Naional Railway , Tokyo, June 1964.
4.11 P. C. Birkemoe and D. C. Herr chaf , “Bol ed Galvanized Bridge —Engineering
Accep ance Near,” Civil Engineering,
April 1970.
4.12 G. A. Maney, “Predic ing Bol Ten ion,” Fa ener , Vol.
3,No.5, 1946.
4.13 A. Pauw and L. L. Howard, “Ten ion Con rol for High-S reng h S ruc ural Bol
,”
Proceeding , American
In i u e of
S eel ruc ion, April 1955.
Con
4.14AREA Commi ee on Iron and S eel S ruc ure , “U e of High-S reng h S ruc ural
Bol in
S eel Railway Bridge ,” American Railway
Engineering
A ocia ion, Vol. 56, 1955.
4.15 F. P. Drew, “Tigh ening High-S reng h Bol ,” Proceeding Paper 786, ASCE, Vol.
81,
Augu 1955.
E. F. Ball and J. J. Higgin , “In alla ion and Tigh ening of High-S reng h B
4.16
ol ,”
Tran ac ion , ASCE, Vol. 126, Par 2, 1961.
4.17 M. H. Frincke, “Turn-of-Nu Me hod for Ten ioning Bol ,” Civil Engineering, Vo
l. 28,
No. 1, January 1958.
4.18 G. C. Brookhar , I. H. Siddiqi, and D. D. Va arhelyi, “Surface Trea men of H
igh

S reng h Bol ed Join ,” Journal of he S ruc ural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 94, ST3, M
arch
1968.
4.19 W. H. Mun e, “S ruc ural Behavior of Ho Galvanized Bol ed Connec ion ,” Procee

ding
8 h In erna ional Conference on Ho Dip Galvanizing, London, June 1967.
Reference 73
E. Che on, Jr., W. H. Mun e, R. L. Dineen, and J. G. Viner, “Performance of
4.20
Nu
on High-S reng h Bol ,” Fa ener , Vol. 21, No. 3, 1967.
4.21
C. F. Krickenberger, Jr., E. Che on, Jr., and W. H. Mun e, Evalua ion of N
u for U e
wi h High-S reng h Bol , S ruc ural Re earch Serie , No. 128, Univer i y of Ill
inoi ,
Urbana, January 1957.
4.22 J. N. Macadam, Re earch on Bol Failure in Wolf-Creek S ruc ural Pla e Pip
e, Re earch
Cen er Armco S eel Corpora ion, Middle own, Ohio, 1966.
4.23 W. K. Boyd and W. S. Hyler, “Fac or Affec ing Environmen al Performance of H
igh-

S reng h Bol ,” Journal of he S ruc ural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 99, ST7, July 1973
.
4.24 Subcommi ee on Bol S reng h, “Delayed Frac ure of High-S reng h Bol ,” Socie
y of
S eel Con ruc ionof Japan, Vol. 6, No. 52, Tokyo, June 1970.
4.25 J. J. Wallaer and J. W. Fi her, “Wha Happen o Bol Ten ion in Large Join
,”
Fa ener , Vol. 20, No. 3, 1965.
4.26 R. N. Allan and J. W. Fi her, “Bol ed Join wi h Over ize and Slo ed Hole ,”
Journal
of
he S ruc ural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 94, ST9, Sep ember 1968.
4.27 W. H. Mun e, The Ca e for Bol ed Galvanized Bridge , American Ho Dip Galva
nizer
A ocia ion, Inc., Wa hing on, D. C., May 1971.
4.28 J. H. A. S ruik, A. 0. Oyeledun, and J. W. Fi her, “Bol Ten ion Con rol wi h
a Direc
Ten ion Indica or,” Engineering Journal, AISC, Vol. 10, No. 1, 1973.
4.29 W. S. Hyler, K. D. Humphrey, and N. S. Cro h, An Evalua ion of he High Ten
ile Huck-

Fa ener for S ruc ural Applica ion , Repor 72, Huck Manufac uring Co., De
Bol
roi ,
Michigan, March 1961.
4.30 American
Socie y for Te ing and Ma erial , High-S reng h Bol for S ruc u
ral and S eel
Join [Me ric] , ASTM De igna ion A325M-84a,
Philadelphia, 1985.
4.31 European Conven ion for Con ruc ional eelwork
S (ECCS), European

Recommenda ion for Bol ed Connec ion in S ruc ural S eelwork, 4 h Ed., Bru el
,
November 1983.
4.32 Commi ion of European Communi ie (CEC), Eurocode 3, Common Unified Code o
f
Prac ice for S eel S ruc ure , Bru el , November 1983..
4.33 Swi Socie
y of
Engineer and Archi
ec , SIA S eel Sruc ure , Zürich
161,
4.34 In erna ional S andard Organiza ion, S eel Con ruc ion—Ma erial and De ign
,
Documen ISO/TC 167/SCI N132, Geneva, 1986.
4.35 J. W. Fi her, B. Ka o, H. M. Woodward, and K. H. Frank, Field In alla ion
of
High
S reng h Bol in Nor h America and Japan, IABSE Survey S-8/79, IABSE, Zurich,
1979.
4.36 “Shor Grip High-S reng h Bol ,” unpubli hed repor , Univer i y of Illinio , U
rbana,
May 1979.
4.37 J. W. Fi her, Priva e communica ion, April 1984.
4.38 H. E. Town end, Jr., “Effec of Zinc Coa ing on he S re Corro ion Cracki
ng and
Hydrogen Embri lemen of Low-Alloy S eel,” Me allurgical Tran ac ion A, Vol.
6A, April 1975.
Chap er Five
Symme ric Bu Splice
5.1 JOINT BEHAVIOR UP TO SLIP
5.1.1 In roduc ion
A lip-rei an join (al o called a fric ion- ypejoin) i one ha ha a low
probabili y of lip a any ime during he life of he ruc ure. I i u ed whe
re any
occurrence of a major lip would endanger he erviceabili y of he ruc ure an
d
herefore
ha o beavoided. I hould beempha ized ha he lip-re i an
connec ion i u ed o mee a erviceabili y requiremen
. Thu , in load fac or
de ign, he de ign of a lip-re i an connec ion i o be carried ou under he

working load , no he fac ored load ; he join mu no lip in ervice. (The
erm
“working
load” i u ed hroughou hi book o repre en ha load pecified by he
au hori y having juri dic ion for he ruc ure. The erm “charac eri ic load” or
“ pecified load” are of en
u ed el
ewhere o mean he ame hing.)
In a lip-re i an join , he ex ernal applied load
u ually ac in a plane
perpendicular o he bol axi . The load i comple ely ran mi
ed by fric ional
force
ac ing on he con ac area of he pla e * fa ened by he bol . Thi fri
c ional
re i ance i dependen on he bol preload and lip re i ance of he faying
urface . The maximum capaci y i a umed o have beenreachedwhen he
fric ional re i ance i exceeded and overall lip of he join occur ha brin
g he
pla e in o bearing
again he bol .
Slip-re i an join are of en u ed in connec ion ubjec ed o re rever al
,
evere re fluc ua ion , or in any i ua ion wherein lippage of he ruc ur
e in o
bearing
would produce in olerable
geomeric change .
In hefollowing ec ion , he differen fac or influencing he lip load of a
connec ion are di cu ed.
5.1.2 Ba ic Slip Re i ance
The lip load of a imple en ion plice, a hownin Fig. 5.1, i given
by
*Thi erm i u ed here o mean no only pla e bu any connec ed par uch a
angle , channel ,
and o on.
74
5.1 Join Behavior up o Slip 75
Fig. 5.1. Symme ric hear plice.
∑=
=
n
i
i lip T m k P
1 ( ) 1 . 5
where k = lip coefficien
m = number of lip plane
= ∑=
n
i
i T
1
umof bol en ion
If he bol en ion can be a umed o be equal in all bol , hi reduce o
i lip mnT k P= ( ) 2 . 5
where n repre en he number of bol in he join .
Equa ion 5.2 how clearly ha for a given number of lip plane and bol , he
lip load of he join depend on he lip coefficien and bol clamping force.
For a
given
geome ry, he lip load of he connec ion i propor ional o he produc o
f he
lip
coefficien k and bol en ion Ti.
Bo h he lip coefficien
(k ) and he clamping force(Ti) how con iderable
varia ion from heir mean value . The lip coefficien varie from join o join
and,
al hough a pecified minimum preload i u ually pre cribed, bol preload are al
o
known o vary con iderably,
generally exceeding he pre cribed minimum value.

The e varia ion in he ba ic parame er de cribing he lip load mu be aken
in o

accoun whendeveloping cri eria forjoin de ign.
5.1.3 Evalua ion ofSlip Charac eri ic
The lip coefficien k corre ponding o he urface condi ion can only be de er
mined
experimen
ally. In he pa , lip e have u ually been performed on ymme ric
bu
join loaded in en ion un il lip of he connec ion occur . The bol preload,
induced

by he igh ening proce , i de ermined before he e i ar ed. Once he l
ip load of
he connec ion i known, he lip coefficien can be evalua ed from Eq. 5.2.
76 Symme ric Bu Splice
i
lip
mnT
P
k =
( )3 . 5
Mo of he work done o de ermine he lip coefficien ha been on ymme ric bu

join of he ype hown in Fig. 5.2. Bo h a wo bol pecimen, ype A, and a fo
ur
bol pecimen, ype B, have been u ed. The wo andard e pecimen wi h
dimen ion given in Fig. 5.2 are recommended for u e wi h A325 a well a A490
bol . Nearly iden ical pecimen
have been
recommended in Europe by he
European Conven ion for con ruc ional S eelwork.5.30
Of cour e, in
fabrica ing
and preparing he e pecimen , care mu be aken o en ure ha he ma erial
and
urface condi ion of he e join are repre en a ive of condi ion ha occu
r in
he field.
I i apparen from Eq. 5.3 ha he value of he bol clamping force Ti i of p
rime
impor ance when de ermining he value of lip coefficien k . Since he early
age of
high- reng h bol ing, much a en ion ha been direc ed o de ermine he axial f
orce
in a bol in alled in a join . Up o he ime of publica ion, no preci e me hod
i
available. The be available me hod i o calibra e he bol u ed in he e
pecimen
.4.2 Thi require ha each bol be calibra ed prior o in alla ion i
n
he
e join . The bol clamping force hould be wi hin he ela ic range ifan
Fig. 5.2. Te pecimen for de ermining he lip coefficien . Bol diame er, d;
hole diame er,
d + 1/16in.
5.1 Join Behavior
up o Slip 77
accura e evalua ion i made. Con equen ly, he bol can be u ed more han once
a
a he grip leng h i no al ered. If he bol arc igh ened beyond he el
long
a ic
limi load, permanen pla ic bol deforma ion will occur. In uch ca e an ave
rage
bol load ver u elonga ion curve for he lo o be u ed in he e join ha
obe
deermined from a repre en a ive ample of bol . The elonga ion of he bol i
n he
e join can be rela ed o he clamping force hrough hi average bol calibr
a ion
curve. Becau e of inela ic deforma ion , he bol can only be u ed once.

A de cribed inChap er 4, load-indica ing device uch a enion
con rol bol
and load indica ing wa her are available for e abli hing ha he bol preload
mee
or exceed he pecified minimum value. Whe her uch device would provide a
ufficien ly accura e mea ure of he preload for purpo e of he lip e would
have
o be evalua edon a ca e-by-ca e ba i .
More recen ly, he RCSC ha developed a andard e for de ermina
ion of he
lip coefficien when coa ing are u ed in bol edjoin . The “ andard” pecimen in
hi ca e i a hree-pla e pecimen (one main pla e and wo lap pla e ) loaded i
n
compre
ion and con aining
a ingle fa ener. The fa ener de cribed
in he e
me hod i ac ually a hreaded rod and nu arrangemen ha permi applica ion o
f a
known load by mean of acen er hole ram. Al erna ive mean of applying
he
clamping force are permi ed, including u e of a high- reng h bol , a long a
he
magni ude of he force in he bol can be e abli hed o wi hin 1%. A en ion- y
pe
e i al o permi ed, and he pecifica ion provide rule for e abli hing h
e
performance
of connec ion under u ained load (creep). The lip behavior of
bol ed join when coa ing are u ed on he faying urface i di cu ed in Chap
er
12.
Regardle
of which ype of pecimen i u ed o carry ou he lip e , in a h
or
erm
a ic e he e pecimen are ubjeced o gradually or incremen ally
increa ing en ile load . The di placemen be ween poin a and c ( ee Fig. 5.2
)
houldbe recorded a elec ed in erval of loading
.
In mo lip e on pecimen wi hou a pro ec ive coa ing on he lip urface
,
udden lip occur when he lip re i ance of he connec ion i exceeded. Coa
a
ed
pecimen of en do no exhibi udden lip; he lipping build up con inuou ly
a
evidenced by cumula ive micro lip . In he e i ua ion he load corre ponding
o a
pre cribed amoun of lip, u ually 0.02 in., can be u ed o define he lip load
.
O her han major lip, creep of a connec ion migh impair he erviceabili y of
a
join a well. A creep e can be performed o evalua e he influence of u ai
ned
loading level on he di placemen of a join . A con an load level i applied
for a
long period in a creep e , and he ob erved di placemen are evalua ed. The R
CSC
pecifica
ion for de ermina ion of lip load can be con ul ed for de ail of a
ui able
creep e .
5.1.4 Effec of join Geome ry and Number of Faying Surface
The effec of join geome ry have been examined in numerou experimen al udie
.
The ignificance of he influence of fac or uch a number of bol in a line a
nd
whe her he bol are arranged in compac pa ern ha no been de ermined.
An analy i of he lip coefficien in large bol ed join having clean mill ca
le urface
yield an average lip coefficien 0.33 wi h a andard devia ion of 0.07. For
mall
join he e value were 0.34 and 0.07, re pec ively. In hi compari on, a larg
e bol ed
join wa defined a having a lea wo line of bol parallel o he direc io
n of he
applied
load, wi h each line con i ing of a lea hree bol . Ba ed on he re
ul of
hi analy i , i wa concluded ha he number of bol in a join doe no hav
e a
ignifican influence on he lip coefficien
.
The lip re i ance of a bol ed join i al o propor ional o he number of fayi
ng
urface . Hence, a mul ilap join can re i lip wi h grea efficiency. Te h
ave hown
ha he lip coefficien i no affec ed by he number of faying urface , howe
ver.5.34
5.1.5 Join Siffne
In lip-re i an join he main pla e and lap pla e are compre ed la erally
by he
ini ial clamping force. No rela ive di placemen of he con ac poin on he u
rface
ake place, and he join may be con idered equivalen o a olid piece of me a
l wi h a
cro - ec ion equal o he o al area of he main and lap pla e .
iffne of he join , charac erized by he lope of he load ver u deform
The
a ion
curve, will decrea e ignifican ly if yielding occur in ei her he ne or gro
cro ec ion.
Yielding will no
occur under working load level becau e he working load i
much le han he yield load of he connec ion. Since, under ei her allowable
re
de ign or load fac or de ign, he lip-re i an connec ion i deigned u ing
he
working load , i iffne will no be affec ed by yielding up o he load lev
el for
which he de ign i applicable.

5.1.6 Effec ofType of S eel, Surface Prepara ion, and Trea men on he
Slip Coefficien

One of he ignifican fac or influencing he lip re i ance of a connec ion i
he lip
coefficien k a defined by Eq. 5.3. Becau e of i ignifican influence, much
re earch
ha been done in he Uni ed S a e , Europe, Japan, and el ewhere o de ermine h
e
magniude of k for differen eel , differen urface
rea men , and urface
condi ion .4.5–4.7, 4.26, 5.1–5.17 The re ul of he e udie have been u ed o ev
alua e he
lip coefficien for anumber of urface condi ion.
I i clear ha o de ermine a reliable value of he lip coefficien k , an ac
cura
e
e ima e of he ini ial clamping force mu be known. Therefore, only e wher
e he
ac ual clamping force
in he bol wa mea uredwere con idered in he following
analy
i . Da a ob ained from e in which bol were in alled u ing orque co
n rol
were no con idered.
In many ca e ruc ural member are bol ed oge her wi hou pecial rea men o
f

he faying urface . A na ural faying urface i provided by clean mill cale. O
nly he
loo e mill cale and dir i removed by hand wire bru hing. Grea e origina ing f
rom he
fabrica ion proce i removed wi h a olven . An analy i of he available da a
how

ha he clean mill cale condi ion for A7, A36, and A440 ruc ural eel yiel
d an
average
lip coefficien
k of 0.33, wi h a andard devia5.1
Join Behavior up o Slip 79
ion of 0.06.(S eel manufac uredinaccordance wi h ASTM A7 i no longer
available, bu many of he early e re ul for lip coefficien were ob ained
u ing
hi eel. The lip charac eri ic of join made u ing A7 eel are con idere
d o
be comparable o ho e ob ained uing A36 eel.) Te performed inEurope on
Fe37 and Fe52 eel , comparable o A7, A36, and A440 eel , exhibi ed imilar
re ul . If all he available da a on A7,A36. Fe37, A440, and Fe52
eel are
con idered,
an average value of k equal o 0.33 i ob ained,
wi h a andard
devia
ion of 0.07. Fig. 5.3 how he frequency di ribu ion of he lip coeffic
ien
a derivedfrom he 327 e .
Some lip e re ul are available
for a newer
eel, A588, a weahering eel
u ed mainly for bridge ruc ure .5.55 The da a from 31 e how ha he lip
coefficien for hi eel in he clean mill cale condi ion i 0.23, wi h a a
ndard
devia ion of 0.03. The e e re ul fall on he low ide of he ca er hown
in
Fig. 5.3. Di ribu ion of lip condi ion for clean mill cale urface . Clean mi
ll cale: A7, A36,
A440, Fe37, and Fe52 eel, number of e , 327; average, 0.33; andard devia
ion, 0.07.
Fig. 5.3. However,
he re ul do no differ ignificanly from o her udie
ained wi hin Fig. 5.3. For example. Ref. 4.26 repor ed a mean lip coefficie
con
n
0.25 and a andard devia ion of 0.04 for A440 eel pecimen . In Ref. 5.15,
of
he
lip coefficien repor ed for A36 eel wa 0.27, wi h a andard devia ion of 0
.05.
If he mill cale i removed by bru hing wi h apower ool. a hiny
clean

urface i formed
ha decrea e he lip re i ance. Join
e ed a Lehigh
Univer i y wi h uch emipoli hed faying urface indica ed a decrea e in fric i
on
re i ance of 25 o 30% a compared wi h normal hand bru hing mill cale
urface .5.6 Thi decrea e i mainly due o he poli hing effec of he power o
ol:
he urface irregulari ie , which are e en ial for providing he fric ional re
i ance,
are reduced,
cau ing adecrea ein k .
Many e have hown ha bla cleaning wi h ho or gri grea ly increa e he
lip re i ance of mo eel a compared wi h he clean mill cale condi ion.5
.5, 5.11
An analy i of available da a yielded an average value k equal o 0.51 for A7,
A36, and Fe37 eel wi h bla -cleaned urface . The frequency di ribu ion of
he
e re ul i hown in Fig. 5.4. I i apparen ha he frequency di ribu io
n i
omewha kewed. Thi i rea onable, ince he higher value could be influenced
by yielding of he eel. The fric ion coefficien for bla -cleaned A440 and Fe
52

eel hould no differ from he value repor ed for bla -cleaned A7, A36, and F
e37

eel urface .
The magniude of k for ho-bla ed urface i grea ly affec ed by he ype
and condi
ionof gri or ma erial ha i employed o clean he urface. The
condi ion of he cleaning ma erial de ermine whe her he urface are poli hed
or
lef wi h a rough ex ure ha i more lip re i an .
Fig. 5.4. Di ribu ion of lip condi ion for bla -cleaned urface . Bla -clean
ed urface :
A7, A36, Fe37 eel, number of e , 186; average, 0.51; andard devia ion, 0.
09.
5.1 Join Behavior up oSlip 81
The mean lip coefficien of he hree udie con ained wi hin Fig. 5.4 varied
from
0.49 o 0.55,wi h andard devia ion of be ween 0.06 and 0.09. A limi ed
udyu ing ST52 eel yielded a mean lip coefficien
of 0.65
and a andard
devia ion of 0.08. Difference in he lip re i ance from he differen udie
may
be due o differen bla -cleaning procedure in u e a he ime he udie wer
e
under aken. I hould alo be no ed ha he andard devia ion of he lip
coefficien
of he bla -cleaned urface doe no differ appreciably from he
varia
ion ob ervedforclean mill cale urface .
Te on A514 con ruc ional
alloy eel howed an average lip coefficien
of
0.33 for eel gri -bla ed urface
. Al
hough
no much experimen al evidence i
available,
he e re ul how ha gri bla ing of quenched and empered alloy
eel
a compared wi h lower reng h eel ha le effec on he lip coefficien . T
hi
indica e ha he hardne of he urface influence he roughne achieved by
he
bla cleaning.
In mo field i ua ion , ruc ural member are expo ed o he a mo phere for
a period of ime before erec ion. During hi period unpro ec ed -cleaned
bla
urface are highly u cep ible o urface corro ion. To imula e hi field
condi ion, e were performed in which he bla -cleaned urface were ored
in
he open air for differen period before being a embled and e ed.5.11, 5.15
Thee
e pecimen were bol edup wi hou wire bru hing or o herwi e di urbing he
ru ed urface . The reul indica ed ha he rela ively high lip coefficien

ob ained by ho or gri bla ing i decrea ed wi h increa ed expo ure ime. Af
er
12 mon h expo ure o a humid, indu rial
a mo phere,
he lip coefficien wa
abou
he ame a he high end of he e re ul for clean mill cale. Removin
g he
ru by wire bru hing improved he lip re i ance. If i can be en ured ha h
e
bla -cleaned urface will be expo ed only for a hor ime, he rela ively hig
h lip
coefficien of 0.51 ( ee Table 5.1) can be u ed for uch eel a A36, Fe37, an
d
Fe52.
A di inc ion mu be made in ome ca e beween urface bla -cleaned wi h
ho or gri and ho e cleaned by and bla ing. Quenched and empered eel , l
ike
A514, which have a low coefficien of lip if hey have been cleaned u ing ho ,
di play a much higher coefficien if and ha been u ed. The e re ul for a
ndbla ed

A572 and A514 eel can be included wi h A7 and A36 e re ul . A
een in Table 5.1, he average lip coefficien for hi group i 0.52, wi h a
andard
devia ion of 0.09.
If ru forming on he bla -cleaned faying urface canno be olera ed,
a
pro
ec ive coa ing can be applied o he urface . The e pro ec ive rea men a
l er
he lip charac
eri ic
of bol ed join o varying degree .Te have been
performed o evalua e he behavior of bol ed join in which
he faying urface
were galvanized, cold zinc pain ed, me allized, rea ed wi h vinyl wa h or lin e
ed
oil, or rea ed wi h ru preven ing pain .5.5, 5.9, 5.11, 5.13, 5.18, 5.36, 5.3
7 The re ul of
he e e are ummarized in Table 5.1. Some of he value li ed in hi umma
ry
were de ermined from a ra her mall number of e . Theyprovide only an
indica
ion of he magni ude of he lip coefficien . Chap er 12 de cribe in gre
a er
de ail he influence of urface coa ing on he lip re i ance of bol ed join
.
Table 5.1. Summary of Slip Coefficien
TypeS eel
Trea men
Average

S andard

Devia ion
Number
Of Te
A7, A36, A440
A7, A36, A440,
Fe37, Fe52
A588
Fe37
A36, Fe37, Fe52
A514
A36, Fe37
A36, Fe37, Fe52
A7, A36, A514,
A572
A36, Fe37
A7, A36
A36
Clean mill cale
Clean mill cale
Clean
mill cale
Gri Bla ed
Gri Bla ed
Gri Bla ed
Gri Bla ed, expo ed
( hor
period)

Gri Bla ed, expo ed
( hor period)

Bla ed
Sand
Ho -dip galvanized
Semipoli hed
Vinyl wa h
Cold
zinc pain ed
Me allized
Galvanized and and

bla ed
Sandbla ed and
rea ed wi h lin eed
oil (expo ed)
Red lead pain
0.32
0.33
0.23
0.49
0.51
0.33
0.53
0.54
0.52
0.18
0.28
0.28
0.30
0.48
0.34
0.26
0.06
0.06
0.07
0.03
0.07
0.09
0.04
0.06
0.06
0.09
0.04
0.04
0.02
--
--
--
0.01
--
180
327
31
167
186
17
51
83
106
27
12
15
3
2
1
3
6
5.1.7 Effec
of Varia ion in
Bol Clamping
Force
Be ide he lip coefficien k , he ini ial bol clamping force Ti i one of h
e major

fac or governing he lip load of a connec ion, a i apparen from Eq. 5.2. A

varia ion in he ini ial clampingforce direc ly affec he lip load of he
connec ion. Experience ha hown ha he ac ual bol en ion in a join u uall
y
exceed
he minimum en ion required by pecifica ion . Thi re ul from differe
n
igh ening mehod and variaion in he mechanical proper ie of he bol .
Bol can be igh ened by eiher he urn-of-nu me hod or wi h calibra ed
wrenche . The urn-of-nu me hod i primarily ba ed on an elonga ion con rol, wh
erea
he calibra ed wrench me hod i ba ed on con rolling he applied orque. The wo
me hod do no nece arily yield he ame bol en ion, a illu ra ed in Fig. 5
.5. Here
he influence
of he igh ening me hod on he bol en ion achieved i hown for
wo bol lo having
differen
mechanical proper
ie . When he calibra
ed wrench

me hod i u ed, he bol en ion TiC i abou he ame for bo h lo ince he
wrench i adju ed foreach lo . However, if he urn-of-nu me hod i
5.1 Join Behavior up oSlip 83
Fig. 5.5. Influence of ighening me hod on he bol for differen bol lo .
employed, he average elonga ion of he bol will be abou he ame for bo h lo
.
Con equen ly he bol en ion TiA and TiB will differ, a illu ra ed in Fig. 5
.5.
i. Turn-of- he-Nu Me hod. Figure 5.5 illu ra e ha he en ile reng h of
he
bol i a ignifican fac or influencing he induced bol en ion when he urn-
of-nu

me hod i u ed. An increa e in en ile reng h lead o an increa e in ini ial
bol
enion in an in alled bol . An analy i of he da a ob ained from everal bol
lo
u edin join and calibra ion e a Lehigh Univer i yindica
e ha he
rela ion hip be ween he en ile reng
h and ini ial bol en ion canbe
approxima
ed by he raigh line rela ion hip given in Fig. 5.6. The en ile
reng h
of a bol wa de ermined from a ic en ion e on repre en a ive ample . Th
e
induced bol en ion a one-half urn from he nug po i ion can be derived from

he mea ured average en ile force in bol in alled in join or by orquing
he
bol in an hydraulic
calibra
da a plo ed in Fig. 5.6 how
or. The clearly ha
orquing a bol one-half urn from he nug po i ion in gripped ma erial uch a
a
join lead o a higher en ion re han ob ained by orquing he bol one-ha
lf
urn in an hydraulic calibra or. Thi i mainly due o he difference in iffne
of
he gripped ma erial a compared wi h he hydraulic calibra or.4.1 Ba ed on a le
a
quare fi of all he da a plo ed in Fig. 5.6, he rela ion hip be ween σ i and σ
u
wa de ermined a
u i σ σ 80 . 0 = ( ) 4 . 5
Fig. 5.6. Ti ver u Tu in Lehigh e . ○ D t rom c libr tion tests; ∆ d t rom t
est joints.
Most o the d t obt ined rom c libr tion tests in n hydr ulic c libr tor yiel
d
sm ller bolt tensions comp red with the d t obt ined rom test joints (see Fi.
5.6). Hence, includin the bove d t tends to yield conserv tive estim te o
the
ver e bolt tension in joint b sed on the ver e tensile strenth o the bol
ts.
The ctu l bolt tension usin the turn-o -nut method m y exceed subst nti lly
the required minimum tension. This is illustr ted in Fi. 5.7 where test d t
obt ined rom joints ssembled with A325 bolts inst lled to one-h l turn rom
snu re shown. The bolt tension on the horizont l xis is plotted s percent
e
o the minimum required bolt tension. The ver e bolt tension in these joints w
s
bout 20% re ter th n the required minimum tension. In joints ssembled with
A490 bolts, inst lled to one-h l turn rom snu, n ver e bolt tension o 26%
re ter th n the required minimum tension w s observed. The bolts used in these
tests were purposely ordered to minimum strenth requirements o the pplic ble
ASTM speci ic tion. Althouh the ctu l tensile strenth o the bolts exceeded t
he
required tensile strenth (3% or A325 nd 10% or the A490 bolts), it w s less
th n the ver e tensile strenth o production bolts.4.5, 4.6, 5.12, 5.25
Since the ver e tensile strenth o A325 bolts is
speci ied u ure l 183 . 1 σ = σ
5.1 Joint Behavior u to Sli 85
Fig. 5.7. Di tribution of initial bolt force in te t joint with A325 bolt in t
alled to ½ turn
from nug. Number of te t , 81; average value 120.2%; tandard deviation, 9.1%.
and the average claming force i about 80% of the actual ten ile trength, it
follow that the in talled bolt ten ion σi i about equal to 0.95 σu ecified . Pre
ent
ecification require minimum bolt ten ion to equal or exceed 70% of the
ecified ten ile trength. Hence, the average actual bolt ten ion will likely e
xceed
the required minimum bolt ten ion by aroximately 35% when the turn-of-nut
method (one-half turn from nug) i u ed to in tall the bolt .
A imilar analy i of A490 bolt in talled to one-half turn from nug how
that the average initial bolt ten ion can be exected to exceed the minimum
required bolt ten ion by aroximately 26%.
Te t on hort gri length high- trength bolt in talled to one-third turn from
nug yield imilar value .5.52 The re ult are hown in Fig. 5.8. The average bo
lt
ten ion for hort-gri A325 bolt wa 26% greater than the required minimum
ten ion. The re ult for hort-gri A490 bolt how an even greater increa e, bu
t
the number of data are very mall. Other te t on hort-gri A325 bolt in talle
d to
one-third turn from nug in coated joint indicated an average bolt ten ion 20%
greater than that required.5.53
To characterize the frequency di tribution of the ratio Ti /Ti ecified the ta
ndard
deviation a well a the average value of the ratio are required. The e have b
een
e timated for both A325 and A490 bolt from te t re ult . Data obtained at the U
niver ity
of Illinoi , Lehigh Univer ity, and the Univer ity of Texa howed that the tan
dard
deviation of the ratio Ti /Ti ecified from average value wa between 6 and 12
% for A325
and A490 bolt . By a uming a normal di tribution, the frequency di tribution cu
rve of
the ratio Ti/Ti ecified can be defined. Figure 5.9 how
86 Symmetric Butt Slice
Fig. 5.8. Joint with A325 or A490 bolt in talled to 1/3 turn from nug.
the e curve for A325 and A490 bolt . The figure how that bolt in talled by t
he
turn-of-nut method will rovide a bolt ten ion that exceed the minimum required
ten ion.
It wa noted earlier that the average ten ile trength of roduction A325 bolt
exceed the required ten ile trength by aroximately 18%. Thi wa ob erved fo
r
bolt ize u to 1-in. diameter. For A325 bolt greater than 1 in., the range of
actual
over ecified minimum ultimate trength i even more favorable. The extra
trength of bolt larger than 1 in. wa not con idered.
ii. Calibrated Wrench Method. A variation in mechanical roertie of bolt
doe not affect the average in talled bolt ten ion when the calibrated wrench i
u ed.
However, ince thi method i e entially one of torque control, factor uch a
friction between the nut and the bolt and between the nut and wa her are of majo
r
imortance. An analy i of 231 te t in which ingle bolt were ubjected to a
con tant redetermined alied torque howed that the tandard deviation of the
recorded bolt ten ion equaled 9.4% of the recorded value.4.13, 5.35, 5.36 It wa
ob erved that the variation of the average claming force for a joint decrea e
deending on the number of bolt in the joint. For a joint having five bolt , th
e
tandard variation of the average bolt claming force become 5.6% of the requir
ed
mean value.
5.1 Joint Behavior u to Sli 87
Fig. 5.9. Di tribution of Ti /Ti ec for different in tallation rocedure .
Becau e variation in bolt ten ion do occur a a re ult of variation in thread
mating, lubrication, and re ence or ab ence of dirt article in the thread ,
ecification
u ually require that the wrench be adju ted to tall at ten ion 5 to 10%
greater than the required reload.
Te t have indicated that in talling a bolt in a joint lead to a higher bolt te
n ion a
comared with torquing the bolt in a hydraulic calibrator. Thi difference i ab
out
equal to 5.5%. Con equently the average claming force in a five-bolt joint,
with bolt in talled by the calibrated wrench with a etting 7.5% greater than t
he
required reload, i equal to
u u σ σ 796 . 0 ) 055 . 1 )( 5 . 107 )( 7 . 0 ( =
or 1.13σ ec. min. . The tandard deviation i equal to about 6%. The corre ondin
g
frequency di tribution curve of the ratio Ti /Ti ecified for bolt in talled b
y the
calibrated wrench method i al o hown in Fig. 5.9.
Fig. 5.10. Di tribution of Ti /Ti ec for A325 ten ion-control bolt .
5.2 Joint Behavior after Major Sli 89
iii. Alternate Bolt . The u e of alternate bolt , load-indicating wa her , or ot
her
non tandard method for introducing and monitoring the bolt reload will not
nece arily lead to the ame level and di tribution of reload a de cribed he
re for
bolt in talled by the turn-of-nut method or by a calibrated wrench. Data are av
ailable
for the ten ion-control tye bolt de cribed in Chater 4. The re ult hown in
Fig. 5.10
are for ¾ -in., 7/8-in., and 1-in. dia. A325 quality bolt obtained from three dif
ferent
ulier . Di tinct difference in the ratio of real initial ten ion to ecifie
d minimum
ten ion can be een, deending uon the ulier. U ing all the te t re ult , th
e mean
value of the ratio i 1.22, about the ame a that for A325 bolt in talled to o
ne-third
turn from nug tight. The tandard deviation from the mean i lightly larger fo
r the
ten ion-control bolt than for the normal A325 bolt .
5.1.8 Effect of Gri Length
The gri length of bolt doe not have a noticeable influence on the behavior of
friction-tye joint . The only oint of concern i the attainment of the de ired
claming
force. When the bolt length in the gri i greater than about eight time the di
ameter,
one-half turn from the nug o ition may not rovide the required reload. The g
reater
bolt length require an increa ed amount of deformation. To rovide thi increa
ed bolt
elongation, an additional increment of nut rotation i required. A wa de cribe
d in
Section 4.1, the RCSC ecification require that the turn-of-nut be increa ed f
rom
one-half turn to two-third turn in order that at lea t the minimum bolt ten ion
be
reached in bolt with long gri .
Bolt with hort gri are not likely to have le than the de ired reload if
in talled by the turn-of-nut method. A noted in Section 4.1, they can, however,
have a
reduced rotational re erve if one-half turn i attemted. The RCSC ecification
re cribe one-third turn for bolt who e length i le than four diameter in
order that
the reload be develoed and the rotational re erve maintained.
5.2 JOINT BEHAVIOR AFTER MAJOR SLIP
5.2.1 Introduction
When the frictional re i tance of a joint i exceeded, a major li occur betwe
en the
connected element . Movement i toed when the hole clearance i taken u and
the
bolt are in bearing. From thi tage on, the load i mainly tran ferred by mean
of
hear and bearing. Thi ha led to the concet of a “bearing-tye” joint. In bearing
-tye
joint , the hear trength of the fa tener and the local bearing tre e in th
e late
around the fa tener are the critical arameter , not the bolt reload. A wa n
oted in
Sub ection 4.2.2, the ultimate hear trength of high- trength bolt i not dee
ndent
uon the amount of reload in the bolt .
5.2.2 Behavior of Joint
The alied load in bearing-tye joint may he tran ferred either by friction or
by
hear and bearing, deending on the magnitude of the load and the faying urface
90 Symmetric Slice
condition. In mo t joint a combination of both effect i likely to occur under
normal ervice load .
Initially, the load i tran ferred by friction force at the end of the joint .
Thi
i known from both ela tic tudie and from exerimental inve tigation .5.5 A t
he
load i increa ed, the zone of friction extend toward the center of the joint a

illu trated in Fig. 5.11. Eventually, the maximum frictional re i tance i excee
ded
at the end , and mall di lacement of contact oint on the faying urface ta
ke
lace. Thi i illu trated chematically in Fig. 5.11 a ca e 2. A load on the
connection i increa ed, the li zone roceed inward from the end toward the
center of the joint. When the alied load exceed the frictional re i tance ove
r the
entire faying urface of the connection, large relative di lacement occur. Thi

movement, called major li, theoretically may be equal to two hole clearance .
Fig. 5.11. Di tribution of friction force for ca e 1 to 3.
In ractical term it i ob erved to be much le than thi . In laboratory te t
it i
u ually about one-half a hole clearance, and mea ured value in the field arc ev
en
maller.4.6, 4.7, 5.6, 5.12, 5.25, 5.45
When major li occur , only the end bolt may come into bearing again t the
main and lice late . A the alied load i increa ed, the end bolt and hole

deform further until the ucceeding bolt come into bearing. Thi roce contin
ue
until all of the bolt are in bearing, a illu trated for ca e 3 in Fig. 5.11.
Further alication of load cau e each bolt to deform in roortion to the
force it tran fer . The deformation of a bolt during thi tage deend on the
difference in late elongation (main late and la late ) between any two
adjacent tran ver e row of bolt . Becau e the differential elongation are grea
ter
at the end of the joint (e.g., the main late may have yielded while the la l
ate
are till ela tic), the end bolt are carrying greater load than the interior b
olt . A
leveling out occur if the bolt have good hear ductility, a i illu trated in
Fig.
5.12a. Eventually the end itche have uch a large di lacement and differentia
l
elongation that the end bolt fail in hear.
In hort connection , with only a few fa tener in line, almo t comlete
equalization of load i likely to take lace before bolt failure occur . Failure
in thi
ca e aear a a imultaneou hearing of all the bolt .
In longer joint , the end fa tener will reach their critical hear deformation
and
fail before the full trength of each fa tener can be achieved. The large heari
ng
deformation of the end bolt and the greater elongation of the end hole i ho
wn
Fig. 5.12. (a) Bolt force after major li; (b) awed end ection of bolted jo
int.
Fig. 5.12. (Continued)
in Fig. 5.12b. The remaining bolt are u ually not caable of taking much
additional load without incurring failure them elve in a equential fa hion. Th
e equential
failure of fa tener in long connection i called “unbuttoning.” Thi
henomenon i redicted by theoretical analy i and ha been witne ed in te t
of
long bolted and riveted joint .4.6, 4.7, 5.6, 5.12, 5.21, 5.25
Figure 5.13 how load ver u formation curve for two A7 teel (σy = 33 k i)
joint connected with A325 bolt . Figure 5.13a i the te t curve of a joint with
Semioli hed faying urface . A gradual li occurred a load wa alied. The
econd joint had clean mill cale urface and exhibited a udden li, a illu
trated
in Fig. 5.l3b.
High- trength bolt are u ually laced in hole that are nominally 1/16 in. larg
er
than the bolt diameter. Therefore, the maximum li that can occur in a joint i
Fig. 5.13. Tyical load ver u deformation curve for different urface conditio
n . (a)
Semioli hed Surface ; (b) clean mill cale urface .
equal to 1/8 in. However, field ractice ha hown that joint movement are rare
ly
a large a 1/8 in. and average le than 1/32 in.5.45 In many ituation the jo
int will
not li at all under live load becau e the joint i often in bearing by the ti
me the
bolt are tightened. Thi might be due to mall mi alignment inherent to the
fabrication roce . In addition, li may have occurred under the dead load bef
ore
the bolt in the joint were tightened. Generally, li under live load are o
mall
that they eldom have a eriou effect on the tructure.
Bolt reload i obtained by the introduction of a relatively mall axial elongat
ion
of the bolt a the nut i turned. A a bolt loaded in hear aroache it ultim
ate load,
the relatively large hearing deformation that have occurred have the effect of
relea ing the axial elongation that wa u ed to obtain bolt reload. Thu , there
i
ractically no reload in the bolt at time of failure by hear ruture.4.6, 4.7
A a
con equence, there i al o negligible frictional re i tance at the time the ulti
mate
load i reached.
5.2.3 Joint Stiffne
The tiffne of a bearing-tye joint i equal to the tiffne of imilar li-
re i tant
joint until li occur . Sli of the connection bring one or more bolt into b
earing
and re ult in motion of the la late with re ect to the main late . The ti
ffne
of the joint, characterized by the loe of the load ver u elongation curve, i
not
affected by li. Thi i illu trated in Fig. 5.14. Only yielding of the gro a
nd net
ection cau ed a ignificant change in the loe of the load ver u elongation
curve.
The load ver u deformation curve hown in Fig . 5.13b and 5.14 how a
di tinct li. In mo t ituation the li are o mall that they have no igni
ficant
effect on the tructure. The joint tiffne of a bearing-tye joint i about th
e ame
a the tiffne of a imilar li-re i tant joint if the joint i erected in be
aring.
5.2.4 Surface Prearation and Treatment
The level of li re i tance doe not influence the ultimate trength of a hear
lice ( ee Fig. 5.13). Con equently, the urface condition of the connected la
te
i not critical excet for li-critical joint . Hence, aint, galvanization, or
other
urface condition that may re ult in a low li coefficient do not influence th
e
ultimate trength of bolted joint .
The li re i tance i an imortant factor influencing the joint behavior under
Fig. 5.14. Tyical load ver u deformation curve of high- trength bolted joint.
reeated loading . Deending on the ratio between the li re i tance and alie
d
load, failure may occur through either the net or gro ection area. A more
detailed di cu ion on thi i given in Section 5.3.
5.2.5 Load Partition and Ultimate Strength
Theoretical tudie of mechanically fa tened joint have been made ince the beg
inning
of thi century. A linear, ela tic relation hi between load and deformation
wa a umed in early tudie . However, ince the early 1960 , mathematical
model that e tabli h the relation hi between deformation and load throughout
the ela tic and inela tic range for comonent art of joint have been
develoed.5.21 The method of analy i i ummarized briefly in thi ection for
a
double hear ymmetrical butt joint. For uro e of analy i , the joint i divi
ded
into gage tri , and it i a umed that all gage tri are identical in behavi
or. Te t
re ult have indicated that thi i a rea onable aroximation.
The theoretical olution of the load artition at ultimate load i ba ed on the
following major a umtion : (1) the fa tener tran mit all the alied load by
hear and bearing once major li ha occurred, and (2) the frictional force ma
y be
neglected in the region for which the olution i intended, that i , the region
between major li and ultimate load.
The olution i obtained by formulating the following two ba ic condition : (1)
ati fying the condition of equilibrium, and (2) a uring that continuity will b
e
maintained throughout the joint length for all load level . The e condition ,
couled with initial value con ideration uch a the ultimate trength of the
late
and the ultimate trength and deformation caacity of the critical fa tener, yie
ld the
olution.
The equilibrium condition can be vi ualized with the aid of Fig. 5.15a. The
load er gage tri in the main late between bolt i and i + 1 i equal to the
total
load on thi tri, PG , minu the um of the load on all bolt , ∑RI , receding
the
art of the joint con idered, that i , between i and i + 1:
∑=
+ − =
i
i
i G i i R P P
1
1 ,
( ) 5 . 5
The load per gage in the lap plates between bolts i and i + 1 is equal to the su
m of
the loads transmitted to the lap plate by all the bolts preceding the part of th
e joint
considered. Hence
∑= +
=
i
i
i i i R Q
1
1 ,
( ) 6 . 5
The compatibility equations can be formulated by considering the deformations
illustrated in Fig. 5.15b. As a result of the applied load, the main plate will
have
elongated so that the distance between the main plate holes is p + ei,i + 1 . Th
e lap
plates will also have elongated, and the distance between the lap plate holes is
Fig. 5.15. Idealized load transfer diagrams and deformations in bolts and plates
. (a) Load
transfer; (b) deformations in bolts and plates.
96
5.2 Joint Behavior after Major Slip 97
p+ e‘
i,i+1 . The bolts will have undergone deformations ∆i, which include the
e ects o she r, bendin, nd be rin o the stener nd the loc lized e ect
o
be rin on the pl tes. It is ssumed th t the de orm tions o the stener, ∆I ,
re
the s me whether considered t the whole ede ( stener sur ce) or the center l
ine
o the stener. A urther, det iled, n lysis o the p r meters included in ∆i n
d
∆i+1 is iven in Re s. 5.21 nd 5.22.
The comp tibility condition between points i nd i + 1 yields
1 , 1
'
1 , + + + + ∆ = + ∆ i i i i i i e e ( ) 7 . 5
I the pl te elon tions re expressed s unctions o lo d in the sements o t
he
joint between steners, nd the stener de orm tions s unctions o the ste
ner
lo ds, Eq. 5.7 c n be written s
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( 1 , 1 1 , + + + Φ + = Ψ + i i i i i i P R Q R f ( ) 8 . 5
in which f(Ri) and f(Ri+1 ) represent the bolt deformations, Φ(Pi,i+1) the main pl
ate
elongation, and ψ(Qi,i+1) the lap plate elongation.
Equation 5.8 can be written for each section of the joint, giving n – 1 simultaneo
us
equations. These, with the equation of equilibrium,
∑=
= −
n
i
i G R P
1
0
( ) 9 . 5
ma be solved to give the loads acting on the fastener when the relationships
between the load and elongation for the various components are known.5.21,5.22
With this information, the total load acting on the joint can be found for a giv
en
end fastener deformation. The ultimate strength, the load at failure, can be fou
nd
b setting the deformation of the end fastener equal to its ultimate deformation
.
The solution of the equilibrium and compatibilit equations is length and
laborious, especiall for long joints with man fasteners. Obviousl, such solut
ions
are not practical for design purposes. However, the theoretical solution for the
ultimate strength and load partition has been accomplished b computer studies
and verified b comparing the theoretical results with the results of tests of l
arge
steel joints with ield strengths ranging from 33 to 100 ksi.4.6, 5.6, 5.12 In a
ll cases,
the theor and test results were in good agreement. ig. 5.17 shows the
experimental and theoretical load versus deformation curve for a bolted joint wi
th
two lines of ten 7/8 in. diameter A325 bolts per line. The ield stress of the p
late
material was about 44 ksi, and the ratio of the net section area to the gross se
ction
area, denoted as the An /Ag ratio, was 1.10 for this particular joint. The theor
etical
loads carried b each fastener at two stages of loading are shown in ig. 5.17.
The

end fasteners are obviousl the critical ones.
ig. 5.16. Load partition in joint with 10 fasteners in a line.
ig. 5.17. Comparison of theoretical and experimental results
98
5.2 Joint Behavior after Major Slip 99
5.2.6 Effect of Joint Geometr
B means of the theoretical solution summarized in Subsection 5.2.5, it is possi
ble
to stud the effect of material and geometrical parameters that govern the joint
behavior. In this article the significance of a number of parameters such as the
joint
length, the pitch, the relative proportions between the net tensile area of the
plate
and the total bolt shear area (An / As ratio), the tpe of connected material, t
he
An / Ag ratio, and the fastener pattern are examined briefl. A more detailed
analsis of these parameters is presented in Refs. 5.21 and 5.23. All the
hpothetical studies are based on minimum strength plate and fasteners and
provide a lower bound to the joint strength.
i. Effect of Joint Length. Theoretical as well as experimental studies have
shown that the joint length is an important parameter that influences the ultima
te
strength of the joint. Depending on factors such as tpe of plate material and
fastener deformation capacit, a simultaneous shearing of all the bolts or a seq
uential
failure (unbuttoning) of all the bolts ma occur, depending on the joint
length.
or a given number of fasteners, the joint length is a function of the fastener
spacing (pitch). A constant pitch of 3½ in. and a ratio of bolt shear area to net
tensile area equal to 1.10 were used in theoretical studies to illustrate the ef
fect of
joint length. The joint material has a ield strength of 36 ksi and it is fasten
ed b
7/8 in. dia. A325 bolts. If the design stress of the plate material is taken as
24 ksi,
then an An/Ag ratio of 1.10 ields an average shear stress of about 22 ksi for t
he
fasteners.
The results of the theoretical studies are summarized in ig. 5.18, where the
average fastener shear at ultimate load is plotted as a function of the joint le
ngth.
The longer joints showed a significant decrease in average bolt shear strength a
s
compared with the shear strength of a single fastener. Short or “compact” joints
were affected to a negligible extent. Joints up to 10 in. in length provided abo
ut the
same average shear strength as a single fastener. As the number of fasteners was
increased, ig. 5.18 indicates that a decrease in the average strength occurred
at a
decreasing rate.
The reason for thedecrease in shear strength with increased length of the joint
is illustrated in igs. 5.19, 5.20, and 5.21. The computed shear stresses in eac
h bolt
at two different loading stages are shown for joints having 4, 10, and 20 fasten
ers
in a line. The two stages are (1) onset of ielding in the gross section of the
plate
(designated b the end of the open portion of the bar), and (2) bolt stress at
ultimate load (designated b the top of the shaded portion). igure 5.19 shows t
hat
almost complete redistribution of bolt forces has taken place in the four bolt j
oint,
since all fasteners are carring about the same load at ultimate. As joint lengt
h is
increased, igs. 5.20 and 5.21 show that the fasteners near the center of the jo
int
carr onl about half the forces carried b the end fasteners. Consequentl, the
average shear stress on the fastener is significantl reduced.

100 S mmetric Butt Splice
ig. 5.18. Effect of joint length on ultimate strength.
Theoretical investigations to determine the influence of joint length on the loa
d
distribution in joints of steel with a ield stress other than 36 ksi have been
made.5.23 – 5.25 Steels with a ield stress ranging from 36 to 100 ksi, as well as
hbrid steel joints, were examined, and the results indicated a load distributio
n
similar to the one described previousl for a 36 ksi ield stress plate material
.
ii. Effect of Pitch. The pitch is the distance between centers of adjacent
fasteners along the line of principal stress. To determine the effect of the fas
tener
pitch, analtical studies were made for joints with different fastener spacings,
bolt
grades, and connected material.5.6, 5.21 The results of an analsis of a 36 ksi
ield

stress plate material connected b 7/8 in. diameter A325 bolts are summarized in
ig. 5.19. Load partition in joint with four fasteners in line. Plate material σy
= 36 k i.
Fa tened by 7/8-in diameter A325 bolt .
Fig. 5.20. Load artition in joint with 10 fa tener in line. Plate material σy =
36 k i.
Fig. 5.22. Three different fa tener acing , three, four, and even time the b
olt
diameter, were examined. The curve indicate that the change in hear trength
with length i not greatly influenced by the itch of the fa tener . If a joint
with a
given number of fa tener in a line i hortened by reducing the itch between
bolt , equal or greater trength re ult from the decrea e in length. The e tud
ie
have hown that itch length, er e, i not an imortant variable. For a given
An /A
ratio, the hear trength i controlled by total joint length rather than by it
ch
length.
Fig. 5.21. Load artition in joint with 20 fa tener in line. Plate material σy =
36 k i.
Fig. 5.22. Effect of itch on the ultimate trength of teel joint . Plate mater
ial σy = 36
k i. An/A = 1.10. 7/8. dia. A325 bolt .
iii. Effect of Variation in Relative Proortion of Shear and Ten ile
Area . There are two o ible mode of fracture in a bearing-tye connection
ubjected to a ten ile load. If the differential late train near the end of
a joint
are high a comared with tho e in the central ortion, the hear failure of a
ingle
end fa tener can occur. The re ulting di tribution of load from the failed conne
ctor
to tho e remaining u ually cau e a equential failure or unbuttoning, and littl
e, if
any, additional trength i available. When the ten ile caacity of the late at
it
net ection i le than the hear caacity of the fa tener , failure will obvio
u ly
occur by fracture of the late.
E tabli hing the late failure-fa tener failure boundary line cannot be done
directly, ince joint length and the ratio of hear to net area both influence t
he
hear trength. When the bolt hear trength and the late caacity converge, a
oint on the boundary i determined. Thi roce can be reeated for variou jo
int
length until the comlete curve ha been defined, a hown in Fig. 5.23. For
comarative uro e , curve for teel with a yield tre of 50 and 100 k i ar
e
hown.
It ha been theoretically redicted and exerimentally verified that, a the
An/ A for a joint i increa ed for any given joint length, the average hear t
rength
al o increa e .5.23 Figure 5.24 ummarize the re ult of analytical tudie on
joint
of a late material having a 36 k i yield tre and fa tened with A325 bolt . A
n
increa e in the An/ A corre ond to an increa e in the net ten ile area. The i
deal
ca e of equal load di tribution among fa tener occur when An/ A = ∞ . Thi
rere ent a erfectly rigid joint. For any le er value of An/ A , the fa tener
carry
unequal load, deending on the joint length. Figure 5.25 how the effect of a
variation in the An/ A ratio for joint fa tened by A490 bolt . A yield tre
of 100
k i wa a umed for the late material.
Both Fig . 5.24 and 5.25 illu trate that, with an increa e in the net late area
, the
average hear trength of the fa tener for the longer joint i greater. For
Fig.5.23. Failure
mode boundary (τ v . L).
hor er join , pla e failure may occur before bol failure. Only an increa e in
join
leng h can cau e bol failure.
Thi examina ionha illu ra ed ha i i no po ible o main ain a uniform
condi
ion for bo h bol and pla e . When join are hor , he u ual pla e geom
e ry
will
cau e pla e failure o occur. A join leng h i increa ed, a balanced cond
i ion
Fig. 5.24. Effec of varia ion of An/A ra io: ruc ural carbon eel fa ened
by A325 bol .
Fig.5.25. Effec of varia ion of An/A ra io: quenched and empered alloy eel
fa ened by
A490 bol .
can occur for a pecified leng h. For longer join , bol failure will be he
governing mode. For de ign, he achievemen of a proper balance be ween he e
failure condi ion i required.
iv. Effec of Varia ion in GageWid h and An /Ag Ra io. In evalua ing he
performance of any ruc ure, i i u ually con idered de irable for he y em
o have
he capaci y for di or ion or geome rical adju men before failure by frac ure
. In an
axially loaded ruc ure, hi mean ha , if a all po ible, he connec ion
hould
permi
yielding o occur in he gro cro - ec ion of he member before he joi
n
fail hrough he ne ec ion.5.23 Thi requiremen i a i fied if
u
y
g
n
A
A
σ
σ
≥
() 10 . 5
I i apparen ha , depending on he ype of eel, Eq. 5.10 lead o differen

minimum An /Ag ra io . Ba ed on he pecified minimum yield and en ile reng h

for
he ype of eel, he An /Ag ra ioha o equal orexceed 0.60 or 0.69 for
ruc ural carbon eel and high- reng h eel, re pec ively, o achieve yieldi
of
ng
he gro ecion before failure of he ne ec ion occur . For join made of
quenched and empered alloy eel, he minimumAn/Agra io i equal o 0.87.
The e An /Ag requiremen are a i fied in mo ruc ure of carbon or high re
ng
h
eel. However, i ha been hown ha for A514 eel (yield re 90 o 100
k i) en ion member , curren prac ice commonly will lead o he i ua ion where
in
he member will fail hrough he ne ec ion before yielding i reached in he g
ro

ecion, unle pecial provi ion ucha up e end or o her change in cro
ec ion are made o en ure yielding of he gro ec ion before he ne ec ion
5.2 Join Behavior af er Major Slip 105

fail .5.23, 5.38 If yielding in he gro ec ion canno be achieved, a grea er
margin
again ul ima e i needed.
The An /Agra io depend on fac or ucha he gauge wid h of he join and he
hole diameer. For a con an hole diame er, an increa e in he gauge wid h g
increa e he An /Ag ra io; herefore, gro ec ion yielding i more likely o
occur
before failure of he ne ec ion. An increa e in gauge wid h al o end o decr
ea e
ligh ly he en ile reng h of he ne ec ion. However, hi i no cri ical,
ince
gro ec ion yielding
of he member can he expec ed.
When a duc ile meal bar i loaded and he re ul ingnominal re e are
plo ed a a func ion of he rain, he charac eri ic rela ion hip hown in Fi
g. 5.26
i ob erved. If a imilar e i conduc ed on a en ile pecimen wi h hole , h
e
re - rain rela ion hip i modified, a al o illu ra ed in Fig. 5.26. For h
e ocalled
pla e calibra ion coupon,
he average rain be ween he wo hole ha been
u ed.
The ul ima e reng h of perfora ed pla e a he ne ec ion i higher h
an he
coupon ulima e reng h. Thi re ul becau e free la eral con rac ioncanno
develop;
increa e i a ribu
he ed o he “reinforcemen ” or biaxial
re
effec
crea ed by he hole .5.46 A he gauge i increa ed, hi effec i le no icea
ble.
Figure. 5.27 illu ra e hi behavior for differen eel . The ra io σu / σu coup
i
plo ed a a func ion of bo h he g/(g - d) ra io and i reciprocal, An /Ag . F
rom hi
plo i can be concluded ha a decrea e in he g/(g - d) ra io (hence an increa
e in
he An /Ag ra io) end o decreae he ul ima e reng h of he ne ec ion.
v.Effec of Type of Connec ed Ma erial. The yield re of he connec ed
ma erial i known o influence he ul ima e reng h of a join . For a given loa
d and
re ul ing number of bol , he bol hear area i con an , wherea he ne and
gro
area will change depending on he ype of eel u ed in he join . For a given
load,
anincrea e in yield re of he pla e ma erial re ul in a decrea e in he p
la e
area. Since differen pla e area are required, he An /A ra io of a join i a
ffec ed.
The
influence of an increa e in yield re of he pla e ma erial on he ul ima
e
join reng h i illu ra ed in Fig. 5.28. The allowable hear re on A325 b
ol i
a umed o be 30 k i, and he allowable en ile re for he pla e i aken a
22
or 30 k i for eel wi h a yield re of 36 or 50 k i, re pec ively. Employing
he
higher
reng h eel reduce he ne area of he join by a fac or 22/30. Since
he

bol hear area remain con an , he An /A ra io i reduced by he ame fac or
and
for
hi par icular join become equal o 1 .0.
I i apparen from he compari on made in Fig. 5.28 ha an increa e in eel
reng h ligh ly decrea e he join reng h becau e of he decrea e in he An
/A

ra io. The difference
i no large,however, and he lower bound provided by he
higher reng h eel can be u ed o develop de ign cri eria.
vi. Fa ener
Pa ern
and Ne Sec ion S reng h. De igning
a en ion member
require he elec ion of a ec ion wi h ufficien ne area o carry he workin
g load
(allowable re de ign) or he fac ored load (load fac or de ign) wi hou
exceeding he pre cribed permi ible re e . Be ide mee ing hi requiremen ,
Fig. 5.26. Compari on of andard bar and pla e calibra ion coupon.
106
5.2 Join Behavior af er Major Slip 107
Fig. 5.27. Effec of An/A ra io on ul ima e reng h of en ion pecimen.
i ba ed on reng h of he connec ion, i i u ually con idered de irable
which
ha
en ion member yield on he gro ec ion before failure occur a he ne ec
ion.
The An /Ag ra io reflec hi requiremen .
One of heparame er ha influence he ne i he hole pa ern. Of en a
area
imple rec angular pa ern of fa ener i all ha i nece ary. However, in ma
ny
Fig. 5.28. Effecof ype of connec ed ma erial.
Fig.
5.29. S aggered
fa ener pa ern.
i ua ion a aggered hole pa ern, a hown in Fig. 5.29, i required o a i
fy he
An /Ag requiremen and increa e he join efficiency. For he rec angular pa er
n
hown in Fig. 5.30a, failure i likely o occur hrough ec ion A-A. The reduc i
on in
area will be direc ly rela ed o he diame er of he wo hole . If he cri ical
cro
ec ion i analogou o ca e c, failure will occur a ec ion C-C, and he reduc
ion
in area will be cau ed by only one hole. I i more likely ha he ac ual failu
re will
be bounded
by hee wo condi ion . Cae b repre en hi in ermedia e
reduc ion in join capaci y. The area o be deduc ed i a func ion of he agge
r
Fig 5.30. Po ible failure
pa h for differen hole pa ern .
5.2 Join Behavior af er Major Slip109
and he gauge g.The followingfunc ion wa developed by Cochrane in 1922 and i
widely u ed for he de ign of en ion connec ion :
+ − = ∑ g
s nd W t A g n 4
2
( ) 11 . 5
where Wg describes the gross width of the member.5.26 With this equation the net
section of a flat plate tpe joint with a staggered hole pattern can be evaluate
d with
reasonable accurac.5.27–5.29
If a tension member is to ield on the gross section before failure occurs at th
e
net section, the following equation must be satisfied
g u n A A σ φ σ ≥
( ) 12 . 5
where σu and σy rere ent the ten ile trength of the net ection and the yield tre

of the material at the gro ection: φ is reduction ctor to ensure th t yield
in o
the ross section develops be ore the tensile c p city o the net section is re
ched.
For desin purposes it is convenient to express Eq. 5.12 s
u
y

n
A
A
σ
σ
≥
( ) 13 . 5
It i hown in Fig. 5.27 that the ten ile trength of a late with hole deend
on the An /Ag ratio a well a on the tye of teel; for the ractical range of
An /Ag
ratio , the ten ile trength σu of the net ection will exceed the late couon te
n ile
trength by about 7 or 8%. Con equently, u ing the couon trength σu in Eq. 5.13
yield a con ervative An /Ag ratio for a rectangular fa tener attern. If a tag
gered
hole attern i u ed, the net ection i determined from Eq. 5.11. Since Eq. 5.1
1 i
ba ed on te t re ult , the con training effect of the hole attern i automatica
lly
included.
To en ure that yielding on the gro ection doe occur before failure of the ne
t
ection and al o to rovide a minimum factor of afety again t a net ection ten
ile
failure, a reduction factor φ is required; φ lso prevents yieldin o the net secti
on
under workin lo ds.
This ex min tion indic tes th t the net section need not to be considered s the
critic l desin section i Eq. 5.13 is s tis ied. When Eq. 5.13 c nnot be s tis
ied,
the desin must ensure s tis ctory m rin inst ilure o the net section.
Most
o the quenched nd tempered lloy steel joints do not meet the requirements o
Eq.
5.13 nd re to be desined on the b sis o dequ te net section strenth.
5.2.7 Type o F stener
O ten situ tions rise where the type o stener m y be v ri ble; th t is, eith
er
A325 or A490 bolts c n be used. A ch ne in bolt type corresponds to ch ne in
the An /A r tio when the net re o the joint is m int ined, since the require
d
110 Symmetric Butt Splices
number o bolts must ch ne. The e ect o ch nin the bolt type is illustr ted
in
Fi. 5.31. Fiure 5.31 corresponds to llow ble bolt she r stresses o 22 nd 3
2 ksi
or A325 nd A490 bolts, respectively, Fiure 5.3lb corresponds to llow ble she
r
stresses o 30 nd 40 ksi or the s me bolts. (The bolt she r stresses used in F
i.
5.31 re those th t were permitted or workin stress desin in the 1973 RCRBSJ
speci ic tion. The v lues used in Fi. 5.31b re those permitted in the 1985 RCS
C
speci ic tion or the s me c se.) The yield stress o the pl te m teri l
Fi. 5.31. E ect o type o stener. ( ) Beh vior or 1973 desin stresses. (b
) Beh vior
or 1985 desin stresses.
5.2 Joint Beh vior ter M jor Slip 111
w s ssumed to be equ l to 50 ksi; this resulted in n llow ble stress o 30 ks
i or
the pl te m teri l. By employin A490 inste d o A325 bolts, the bolt she r re
is
sini ic ntly reduced, nd consequently the An /As r tio is incre sed. The incre
se
in the An /As r tio, provides more vor ble condition or the loner joints.
The
incre se in e iciency is not s sini ic nt or shorter joints.
Besides the incre se in the An /As r tio ch ne rom A325 to A490 bolts lso
reduces the joint lenth or iven desin lo d. This o ten provides more v
or ble
joint condition.
5.2.8. E ect o Grip Lenth
For joints with up to 6 in. o ripped m teri l, test results re in close ree
ment
with the n lytic l solution. Joints with l rer rips nd loner bolts tend to
ive
hiher ultim te lo ds th n predicted.5.25
A qu lit tive expl n tion or this observed beh vior c n be developed rom the
she red bolts shown in Fi. 5.32. She r tests o sinle bolts yield she r pl nes
t
lmost 90° to the bolt xis when riid pl te elements re used, where s the bolt
rom joint with l re rip ils lon n inclined she r pl ne. In joints
stened
with lon bolts, the individu l pl tes djust to the lo ds they c rry, nd the b
olts
ssume the curved sh pe shown in Fi. 5.33. This results in n incre sed she rin

re nd incre ses the ultim te lo d nd de orm tion c p city o the bolt. Hence
.
the end stener in joint with lon bolts de orms more th n expected nd permi
ts
the interior bolts to c rry more lo d.
The extent to which bolt bends is ected by the slipp e o the pl tes with
respect to one nother. Furthermore, the number o plies within the rip lenth
o the
steners is n import nt ctor in developin stener bendin. For joints with
hih
An /As r tios, the bendin is more pronounced in more bolts, s illustr ted in
Fi. 5.32. Comp rison o she red bolts.
Fi. 5.33. S wed sections o joints showin bolt bendin.
Fi. 5.33. This results in n incre sed joint strenth i ilure occurs in the
steners.
5.2.9 Be rin Stresses nd End Dist nce
F ilure o bolted or riveted joint occurs i the pplied lo d exceeds (1) the
tensile
c p city o the critic l net section, (2) the she r c p city o the steners, o
r (3) the
be rin strenth o the m teri l. The net section strenth s well s the sten
er
she r strenth were ex mined e rlier. This section de ls speci ic lly with ilu
res
rel ted to hih be rin stresses on the stener nd the pl te m teri l.
A ter m jor slip h s occurred in connection, one or more steners re in be r
in
inst the side o the hole. A be rin stress is developed in the m teri l dj
cent to
the hole nd in the stener, s shown in Fi. 5.34 . Initi lly, this stress is
concentr ted t the point o cont ct. An incre se in lo d c uses yieldin nd th
e
embedment o the bolt on l rer re o cont ct, nd this results in the more
uni orm stress distribution indic ted in Fi. 5.34b. Althouh the ctu l be rin
stress distribution is not known, uni orm stress distribution c n be ssumed
s
indic ted in Fi. 5.34c. The nomin l be rin stress c n be expressed s
dt
P
b = σ
( ) 14 . 5
where P denote the load tran mitted by the fa tener, t the late thickne , and
d
the nominal bolt diameter. Although the fa tener it elf i ubjected to the ame
Fig. 5.34. Bearing tre e . (a) Ela tic. (b) Ela tic-la tic. (c) Nominal.
magnitude of comre ive force a tho e acting on the ide of the hole, te t h
ave
alway hown that the fa tener i not critical.5.31, 5.32, 5.39, 5.40
The actual failure mode in bearing deend on uch geometrical factor a the
end di tance, the bolt diameter, and the thickne of the connected late materi
al.
Either the fa tener lit out through the end of the late becau e of in uffici
ent
end di tance, a illu trated in Fig. 5.35a, or exce ive deformation are develo
ed
in the material adjacent to the fa tener hole, a indicated in Fig. 5.35b. Often
a
combination of the e failure mode will occur.
The end di tance required to revent the late from litting out can be
e timated by equating the maximum load tran mitted by the end bolt to the force
that corre ond to hear failure in the late material along the da hed line i
n Fig.
5.35c. The maximum hear caacity of a ingle bolt i equal to
b
u b
b
mA P τ = ( ) 15. 5
where m i equal o he number of hear plane . The load on he fa ener i al o
repre en ed a
b
b
d P σ = () 16 . 5
lower bound o he hear re i ance developed along he da hed line (Fig. 5.35c
)
can be expre ed a
P
u
b

d L P τ
− =
2
) 2 (
( ) 17 . 5

114 S mmetric Butt Splices
ig. 5.35. ailure modes. (a) astener splits out through end zone. (b) Large de
formations
and material upset in front of the fastener.
where τu
P repre en he hear reng h (in
kilopound
per quareinch) of he pla e
ma erial.For mo commonly u ed eel , he hear reng
h i abou 70% of he
en ile reng h. Hence Eq. 5.17 can be ran formed in o
( ) P
u
P

d L P σ 7 . 0
2
) 2 (
− =
( ) 18 . 5
where σu
P rere ent the ten ile trength of the late material and L the end
di tance of the fa tener. A lower bound to the L/d ratio that will revent the
fa tener from litting out of the late material i obtained from Eq . 5.16 and
5.18, namely
P
u
b
d
L
σ
σ
715 . 0 5 . 0 + ≥
( ) 19 . 5
Thi equation relate the bearing ratio σb / σu
P to the end di tance rere ented by the
L/d ratio.
Figure 5.36 how the analytical olution rovided by Eq. 5.19 a comared with
te t re ult . Included in the te t are one, two, and three bolt ecimen and o
ne rivet
or three rivet ecimen .5.31, 5.32, 5.39, 5.40, 5.53 The bolted ecimen were
untightened
(finger tight) or tightened, a noted. In mo t ca e the out ide late of the e
butt
joint were critical, but in a few ca e the inner ly wa critical. It hould b
e noted
that the bearing ratio ha been lotted a a function of L/d for all ca e exce
t for
the two-bolt ecimen (nontightened) that failed on the enclo ed ly. In thi
ituation, the arameter L wa relaced by ( - 0.5d), where i the bolt itch
.
Fig. 5.36. Influence of tye of ecimen on the bearing. ● One rivet (or bolt) spe
cimen
(non-tihtened); ○ one-bolt specimen (tihtened); ▲ two-bolt specimen (non-tihtened
);
∆ two-bolt specimen (tihtened); ■ three-rivet (or bolt) specimen; □ three-bolt specim
en
(tihtened). Note: All specimens were critic l on enclosed ply except those symb
olized
with d sh symbol. Those specimens h d outside pl tes critic l.
There is re son bly ood reement between the prediction provided by Eq.
5.19 nd the test results over most o the r ne. However, the n lytic l soluti
on
nd the test results tend to divere t the l rer L/d r tios. This is expected
bec use
n incre sin L/d r tio will r du lly ch ne the ilure mode. For hih L/d r t
ios,
ilure will not occur by she rin out the pl te m teri l in the end zone, s w
s
ssumed in the n lytic l solution. F ilure will occur by the m teri l pilin up
s
indic ted in Fi. 5.35b.
A closer ex min tion o the d t represented in Fi. 5.36 will show individu l
di erences dependin upon the type o test specimen. One bolt specimens (one bo
lt on
either side o the splice) re more critic l th n two bolt or three bolt specime
ns, or
ex mple. It is lso pp rent th t providin cl mpin orce in the bolt le ds t
o n
incre se in the ultim te be rin r tio. This indic tes th t the lo d is p rti ll
y
tr nsmitted by riction l resist nce on the yin sur ces. Consequently, the r
e l
be rin stress is less th n the “ultim te” be rin stress computed on the b sis o
the tot l pplied lo d. Most the d t summ rized in Fi. 5.36 were obt ined rom
tests on symmetric butt joints. F ilure lw ys occurred in the m in pl te in the
se. I
the l p pl tes re rel tively thin comp red with the m in pl te, then ilure m
y
occur in the l p pl tes, however. Test results h ve indic ted th t in these situ
tions
be rin ilures re in luenced by “c ten ry ction,” which c uses bend116
Symmetric Butt Splices
in in the l p pl tes.5.31, 5.40 The thin l p pl tes bend outw rds nd decre se
the
ultim te be rin strenth o the connection. A series o tests in which very thi
n l p
pl tes were used is cont ined within the results presented in Fi. 5.36. In this
pror m, ¼-in. thick l p pl tes were used in conjunction with 2-in. thick m in
pl te. The end dist nce used w s 9 in., which exceeds by sini ic nt m rin th
e
m ximum permissible end dist nce permitted by most speci ic tions. Nonetheless,
the results re still in re son ble reement with other test results where the
enclosed
plies re critic l.
5.3 JOINT BEHAVIOR UNDER REPEATED LOADING
5.3.1 B sic F ilure Modes
The beh vior o bolted connection under repe ted lo din is directly in luence
d
by the type o lo d tr ns er in the connection. The pplied lo d c n be tr ns er
red
either by riction on cont ct sur ces, by she r nd be rin o the bolts, or by
both,
dependin on the direction o the pplied lo d, the m nitude o the cl mpin
orce, the condition o the yin sur ces, nd the possible occurrence o m jo
r
slip. Tests h ve shown th t e ch lo d tr ns er mech nism develops its own
ch r cteristic ilure p ttern under repe ted lo dins.5.18 These ch r cteristic
conditions re best expl ined nd illustr ted by ex minin the stress distributi
on
throuhout the joint.
Fiure 5.37 shows schem tic lly n ide lized l p joint subjected to cyclic, in
pl ne
orce. Assumin th t no m jor slip occurs, hence th t the extern l lo d is
Fi. 5.37. B sic ilure modes. ( ) Gross section ilure. (b) Net section ilu
re.
5.3 Joint Beh vior under Repe ted Lo din 117
completely tr nsmitted by riction on the yin sur ces, implies hih

concentr tion o she r stresses t point A. This results rom the l r e di eren
ces in
str in between the l p nd m in pl tes. The inter ce would be required to tr ns
mit
hihly concentr ted she r orce t A i it were not relieved by microslip t t
h t
point. In m ny tests it w s observed th t, under these conditions, cr ck initi t
ion
nd rowth usu lly occurred in the ross section, in ront o the irst bolt hol
e, s
indic ted schem tic lly in Fi. 5.37 . The cr cks initi ted on the yin sur c
es o
the connected pl tes. This phenomen is o ten re erred to s rettin: it occurs
t
the inter ce between met llic sur ces th t re in cont ct nd th t slip minute
mounts rel tive to e ch other under the ction o n oscill tin orce.5.41 Eve
n the
sm ll rel tive displ cements between the l p nd the m in pl tes t point A (see
Fi. 5.39) m y be su icient to initi te rettin ilure. The obvious e ect
o
rettin is to d m e the yin sur ces. Stress concentr tions re lso introd
uced,
which in m ny c ses le d to cr ck initi tion nd urther reduction in tiue

stren th.
Tests h ve indic ted th t hih cont ct pressures only exist in sm ll re rou
nd
the bolt hole.5.47, 5.48 The norm l stress due to the cl mpin orce decre ses r
pidly rom
m ximum condition t the ede o the hole. The reion where the norm l stress
cts depends on such eometric l ctors s the pl te thickness nd bolt di mete
r.
Usu lly, the circul r pressure re lls within twice the di meter o the bolt.
For
this re son, the cr ck initi tes t section between the end o the l p pl te
nd the
bolt hole where the combin tion o microslip nd norm l pressure is more critic
l.
A typic l rettin ilure is shown in Fi. 5.38.Discontinuities o the mill sc
le,
Fi. 5.38. Typic l rettin-type ilure in ross section. (Courtesy o Universi
ty o Illinois.)
the e ective cl mpin zone o the bolt, nd the riction l resist nce ll in lu
ence
the point where rettin is initi ted. Frettin is o ten pp rent durin tiue
testin. A powdery rust nd mill sc le dust usu lly works out rom between the
pl tes durin testin.5.20
The other m jor type o tiue ilure th t occurs in bolted or riveted she rty
pe
splices is illustr ted in Fi. 5.37b. The cr ck initi tes t the ede o the hol
e
nd rows in the reion o the net section. This condition occurs when most o t
he
lo d is tr nsmitted by she r nd be rin, situ tion th t requently develops i
n
joints where the pplied lo d exceeds the slip resist nce o the yin sur ces
.
This results in hiher net section stresses, nd the ede o the hole becomes th
e
point o cr ck initi tion. F ilure is brouht bout by r cture o the net secti
on, s
shown in Fi. 5.39.
Both types o ilure h ve been observed in tests. O ten the two types o
ilure occur simult neously in the s me joint, s illustr ted in Fi. 5.40. Fin
l
ilure occurs p rtly throuh the net section nd p rtly throuh the ross secti
on.
Besides the bolt rel x tion norm lly experienced ter inst ll tion, some dditi
on l
rel x tion (5%) w s observed durin cyclic lo din.5.18 Tests h ve indic ted th
t
the tot l loss o bolt tension w s r rely more th n 10% o the initi l bolt
tension.4.9, 5.18, 5.20
5.3.2 F tiue Strenth o Bolted Butt Joints
The stress versus li e rel tionship is best described by lo rithmic tr ns orm
tion
o cycle li e nd m ximum stress or stress r ne.2.5–2.7 There ore, d t rom ti
ue
tests re ener lly described usin the rel tionship
r S B A N lo lo + = ( ) 20 . 5
where N represents the number o cycles, Sr the m ximum stress or stress r ne,
nd A nd B re const nts. Plotted on lo-lo sc le, Eq. 5.20 results in str

i ht
line. Work on both welded nd mech nic lly stened connections h s suested
th t knowlede o the type o det il present nd the stress r ne to which it is
subjected re su icient to dequ tely describe the tiue li e (number o cycl
es)
o steel structures.5.56 The li e is independent o the r de o steel used.
Since two b sic types o cr ck rowth were observed in bolted joints, one in
the ross section nd the other in the net section, the test results h ve been
correl ted with the stresses ssoci ted with both re s. I no m jor slip develo
ped
durin the li e o specimen nd hih cl mpin orces re present, ilure occu
rs
in the ross section. There ore, n ex min tion o the test d t usin the stres
s
r ne on the ross re seems re son ble. Net section stresses depend on
eometric l ctors such s the rr nement o the bolts in the joint. This c us
es
l re v ri tion in stress nd is p rtly responsible or the l re sc tter in tes
t d t
when ross section ilures re correl ted on the b sis o net section stresses.
This
is illustr ted in Fi. 5.41 where test results rom three di erent types o joi
nts re
comp red.5.5 The joint eometry is iven in Fi. 5.42. M jor slip did not occur
Fi 5.39. F ilure t net section o be rin-type joint (Courtesy o University o
Illinois.)
bec use o the desin conditions. Ne rly ll ilures were throuh the ross sec
tion
re . The test d t indic te subst nti l v ri tion in tiue strenth or the t
hree
di erent eometric l conditions. Fiure 5.43 shows the s me d t plotted on the
b sis o the ross section stresses. These iures illustr te th t the use o th
e ross
re decre ses the sc tter in the test results sini ic ntly.
M jor tiue work on bolted nd riveted connections w s per ormed t the
University o Illinois 4.9, 5.20, 5.42, Northwestern University,3.6, 3.7, 5.19
nd in Ger120
Symmetric Butt Splices
Fi. 5.40. Cr ck initi tion nd rowth t net section due to rettin. (Courtesy
o U.S. Steel
Corp.)
m ny.5.18 Fiure 5.44 shows some results o tests on bolted slip-resist nt joint
s
subjected to repe ted lo din. Since m jor slip did not occur in these joints,
ilure
w s c used by cr ck rowth in the ross section. There ore, the ross section r
e
w s used to determine the stress r ne, Sr, when ev lu tin the v il ble test d
t .
Most o the d t were obt ined rom tests on steel specimens with yield stress
between 34 nd 60 ksi. D t re v il ble on joints bric ted rom quenched nd
Fi. 5.41. Experiment l Sr – N curve b sed on net re stress.
Fi.5.42. Test specimen.
tempered lloy steel (A514) s well.5.20 The yield stress (t ken s the 0.2% o
set)
o the A514 steel w s bout 120 ksi. Althouh the d t plotted in Fi. 5.44 show
consider ble sc tter, they indic te th t the yield stress o the m teri l does n
ot
sini ic ntly in luence the tiue beh vior o bolted joints.
F tiue tests on slip-resist nt joints in which the pplied lo d on the specimen
w s reversed (R < 0) re shown in Fi. 5.45. The stress r ne includes the ull
compressive portion o the stress cycle. A comp rison between the d t plotted i
n
Fis. 5.44 nd 5.45 indic tes th t, or iven stress r ne, slihtly hiher
li e
w s observed or the specimens subjected to stress revers l condition s comp re
d
with the zero-to-tension (R = 0) specimens. This seems re son ble in view o
cr ck rowth studies which indic te th t, when residu l tensile stresses re not
present, the compression stress cycle is not s e ective in extendin the cr ck
s
Fi. 5.43. Experiment l Sr – N curve b sed on ross re stress.
Fi. 5.44. Test results or slip-resist nt joints (R = 0).
Fi. 5.45. Test results or slip-resist nt joints (R < 0).
122
the tensile component.5.43 Considerin the ull stress r ne e ective results i
n
conserv tive estim te o the tiue strenth o bolted joints.
Joints with low slip resist nce s result o less cl mpin orce or low slip
coe icients re subjected to hiher stresses on the net section i the slip res
ist nce
o the joint is exceeded by the pplied lo d. When subjected to repe ted lo din
conditions, cr ck initi tion nd rowth occurs in the net section o such joints
.
Consequently, their per orm nce under these lo din conditions is rel ted to the
m nitude o stresses on the net section.
I the slip resist nce o joint is exceeded, the connection slips into be rin
,
nd the pplied lo d is tr nsmitted p rtly by she r nd be rin on the stener
s
well s by riction on the yin sur ces. Tests h ve indic ted th t the tiu
e li e
determined rom pl te with hole provides lower bound estim te o the ti
ue
strenth o bolted joints th t h ve slipped into be rin.5.18, 5.19 The improved
beh vior o bolted joints s comp red with the pl te specimens with hole is
ttributed prim rily to the in luence o the cl mpin orce in the steners. A
more
vor ble stress condition exists in the joint bec use p rt o the lo d is tr ns
mitted
by riction on the yin sur ces, nd bec use compressive stresses re introdu
ced
round the hole.
All v il ble test results on bolted joints bric ted rom steels with yield
stress v ryin rom 36 to 120 ksi re plotted in Fi. 5.46. Most o the results
re
rom tension-type specimens or tension members, but ew re the results o tes
ts
on bolted cover pl te ends in lexur l members.5.54 The stress r ne used to plo
t the
test d t w s computed on the b sis o the net or ross section re , dependin
on
whether or not joint slip occurred. It is pp rent rom Fi. 5.46 th t both be r
intype
nd slip-resist nt joints subjected to revers l-type lo din provide hih tiu
e
strenth.
The d t plotted in Fi. 5.46 show sini ic nt sc tter even within the
individu l c teories o joint types nd lo din conditions. This is m inly
ttributed to the ct th t the d t oriin ted rom v rious sources nd re lect
ed the
v ri bility in the hole bric tion, bolt cl mpin orce, joint con iur tion,
nd
other v ri bles. Also, di erent tihtenin techniques were used to inst ll the
steners, nd this m y h ve resulted in sini ic nt v ri tions in cl mpin orc
es o
the steners. These v ri tions s well s di erences in joint eometry nd hol
e
prep r tion used in the v rious test series tend to incre se the n tur l sc tter
o the
d t .
Except or ew tests on A514 steel joints, most o the test d t obt ined rom
xi lly lo ded specimens were cquired t stresses th t exceeded the yield point
on
the net section nd o ten ppro ched or exceeded the yield point on the ross
section. However, the d t rom A514 steel joints re in ood reement with the
other results in Fi. 5.46. The d t rom specimens th t exceeded the yield poin
t by
l re m rins were not considered since they re not represent tive o the
conditions th t occur in ctu l structures.
Most o the d t shown in Fi. 5.46 re concentr ted in stress r ne b nd
between bout 25 nd 45 ksi. Addition l in orm tion in the short li e reion nd
or
very l re number o cycles is needed or better underst ndin o the tiu
e
strenth in these r nes.
Fi. 5.46. Summ ry o test results o bolted joints.
Further ex min tion o the d t in Fi. 5.46 shows th t both be rin-type nd
slip-resist nt connections th t re subject to lo d revers l (R < 0) h ve re te
r
tiue lives s comp red with tension-only lo din. Fiure 5.47 is plot o th
ose
c ses rom Fi. 5.46 in which lo d revers l occurs. However, the stress r ne us
ed
in Fi. 5.47 w s t ken s the lebr ic di erence between the m ximum (tensile)
stress nd 60% o the minimum (compressive) stress. In this w y, n ttempt w s
m de to reconize th t in mech nic lly stened joints not ll o the compressiv
e
portion o the stress cycle is s d m in s the tension portion. This is bec u
se,
unlike welded det ils, hih tensile residu l stresses re unlikely to be present
in the
bolted det il.
For desin purposes, the d t on bolted joints w s comp red with the 95%
con idence limits used to de ine c teory B or tiue speci ic tions.5.51 Alth
ouh
c teory B w s derived rom tests on pl in welded be ms, it w s pp rent th t th
e
Fi. 5.47. F tiue strenth o bolted joints under lo d revers l.
proposed desin rel tionship provided re son ble lower bound to the test d t
on
bolted joints. The use o this lower bound or bolted joints results in conserv
tive
desin rel tionships. It is pp rent th t slip-resist nt joints desined on the
b sis o
ross section nd be rin-type joints desined on their net section provide bou
t
the s me tiue strenth. For members under revers l o lo d, the use o
reduction ctor, such s 60%, or the compression portion o the cycle c n be u
sed
to reduce the mount o conserv tism in selectin C teory B.
The test d t shown in Fis. 5.44 to 5.46 were developed rom symmetric butt
joints with m ximum o three steners in line p r llel to the direction o
the
pplied lo d. Only ew test results o loner joints h ve been reported.5.44 T
ests o
hih-strenth bolted joints with two, our, or six steners in line indic ted
no
sini ic nt in luence o the number o bolts on the tiue strenth. These test
s did
show th t the riction l resist nce o the yin sur ces does ect the ti
ue
strenth. An incre se in slip resist nce improved the tiue beh vior.
5.4 DESIGN RECOMMENDATlON
5.4.1 Introduction
The m them tic l model presented in Section 5.2 provides re son ble prediction
o joint beh vior under either workin lo ds ( llow ble stress desin) or ctor
ed
lo ds (lo d ctor desin). However, it is not suit ble directly or desin bec
use o
its complexity. The results o n lyses c rried out usin this “ex ct” solution re
used to orm the b sis or the desin recommend tions th t ollow. They re
presented in such w y th t they c n be used in either workin stress desin or
lo d ctor desin speci ic tions.
Current desin pr ctice th t is ounded on n llow ble stress orm t tre ts
mech nic lly stened be rin-type joints on the b sis o llow ble stresses ct
in
on either the ross or net re o the member nd on the ver e stresses in the
steners. Most desin speci ic tions do reconize, however, th t the ssumption
th t e ch stener c rries n equ l sh re o the lo d becomes less nd less ccu
r te
s joint lenth incre ses. The ccommod tion or this e ect is ener lly pplie
d in
step-wise shion (usu lly just one reduction in llow ble she r stress with
lenth), lthouh m ny Europe n speci ic tions provide line rly v ryin
reduction with joint lenth. Speci ic tions th t use lo d nd resist nce desi
n
orm t tre t the desin o the steners in the s me w y; th t is, the ver e
stener lo d is ener lly pplied, nd the e ect o joint lenth is reconized
or
loner joints.
In either c se o llow ble stress desin or lo d ctor desin, once the member
orces re known rom structur l n lysis, the required number o steners c
n be
determined on the b sis o the permissible she r stress or the stener, includ
in
consider tion or the e ect o joint lenth. Hence, the lo d tr nsmitted by b
olted
joint with n steners nd m possible she r pl nes per bolt throuh the bolt sh
nk
c n be expressed s
b bA mn P τ = ( ) 21 . 5
where τb
repre en he permi ible hear re on he fa ener (allowable re
de ign or load fac or de ign, a appropria e), and Ab repre en he nominal bol

area. If he hear plane pa hrough he hreaded par of he bol , Eq. 5.21
i
modified o
b b A mn P τ 70 . 0= ( ) 22 . 5
a dicu ed in Sec ion 4.10.
The reng h of a lip-re i an join ed in i mo baic form,
can be expre
Eq. 5.2, in which a lip coefficien i u ed. Al erna ively, al hough he bol
are no
ac ually ubjec ed o hearing force , an equa ion uch a Eq. 5.21 can be u ed.
In
hi forma , an equivalen
permi ible hear re i calcula ed, bu i
5.4De ign Recommenda ion
127
mu be remembered ha he load i ac ually ran ferred by he fric ional re i
ance

on he faying urface .
Deign cri eria for connec
ion can be ba ed
upon performance, reng h, or
bo h. In a lip-re i an join , un a i fac ory behavior would re ul if a major
lip
occurred:
a performance
cri erion. The func ion of he ruc ure may be impaired

due o mi alignmen or o her un a i fac ory condi ion
ha may ul from he
re
lip. However, mo lip i minor and will no be de rimen al o he performance
of
he join . In he e ca e , reng h i he fac or ha hould govern he de ign;

i i
iden ified a he hear re on he fa ener, he bearing re in he ma eri
al
adjacen o he fa ener, or a he en ile re on he ne or gro cro - ec
ion of
he member.

The ul ima e capaci y of bo h lip-re i an andbearing- ype bol ed join i
limi ed by failure of one or more componen of he join . Join reng h provid
e
an upper bound forei her join ype. Hence,
in allowable re deign, he
permi ible reng h of a lip-re i an join can, a be , equal he capaci y
of
an
e comparable bearing ype connec ion. In o her word , o de ign a lipre
o herwi
i an
join , he lip re i ance of he join i de ermined on he ba i of fac or
uch a he urface condi ion, he bol ype, he igh ening procedure, he numb
er of
, and he number of lip plane . Thi lip re i ance i hen compared wi h
bol
he

bol hear capaci y of he join ba ed upon he number of hear plane per bol
and
heir loca ion ( hrough he hank or hrough he hreaded par of he bol ) and
he
number of bol in he join a well a he bol quali y. Of cour e, he maller
value

of he hear reng h and he lip rei ance
i governing.
In load fac orde ign, he
ul ima e reng h of he member or connec ion i
checked again he effec of he fac ored load . The fac ored load i de ermine
d by
mul iplying he working load by a fac or ha i grea er han 1.0. In addi ion,
i i
nece ary for he member, join , and ruc ure a a whole o be “ erviceable”
a he
working load level. Thi mean ha con idera ion mu be given
o con rol of
deflec ion , deforma ion, and fa igue of he ruc ure a i ervice or working
load
level.
To mee he requiremen of load fac or deign, he ulima e reng h of a
bearing- ype boled join i checked direc ly again he effec of he fac ored
load . Unle fa igue i a fac or, he o her requiremen for erviceabili y are
no
opera ive ince, by defini ion, any mall lip ha may occur are judged no o
be

de rimenal.
On he o her hand, a lip-rei an connec ion deigned under load and
re i ance fac or de ign mu be checked under bo h ervice (working) load level

and fac ored load level . The obviou requiremen i ha he connec ion no li
p
under working load . In addi ion, however, i i ill a requiremen ha he ul
ima e
reng hof he connec ion load be checked under facoredload .
A connec ion ha i ubjec ed o fa igue loading mu mee exac ly he ame
requiremen a ho e de cribed for lip-re i an join under ei her working
re
de ign or load and re i ance facor deign, a appropria e. Of cour e, he
governing permi ible re for he fa igue ca e i u ed o evalua e he re i
ance
of he join he working load .
under
5.4.2 De ign Recommenda ion —Fa ener

i. Allowable S re De ign Bol ed Join . The balanced deign concep ha
been u ed o develop de ign cri eria for mechanically fa ened join in he pa
. Thi
ign philo ophy re ul in wide varia ion in he fac or of afe y for he bol
de
becau e
he ra io of he yield poin o he en ile reng h change wi h variou ype
of

eel.5.49
For example, he 1972 pecifica ion 1.4 provided ra io of en ile
reng h
o allowable en ile re equal o 2.64, 2.48, and 2.00 for A36, A440, and A51
4
eel , re pec ively. Furhermore, he balancedde ign concep ha no meaning
when applied
o long join becau e he end
fa ener may “unbu
on” before
he
pla e ma erial can a ain i full reng h or before he in erior bol can be
loaded

up o heir full rengh. Thi “long join ” effec depend on he ype of join
ma erial a wella on he ype of fa ener.
All of he e fac or re ul ed in a variable fac or of afe y, a illu ra ed in
Fig.
5.48. The fac or of afe y again failure of he join i plo ed a a func ion
of join
leng h for everal eel fa ened wi h A325 bol . An allowable hear re of
22
k i wa u ed o propor ion he fa ener . Thi wa he allowable hear re
pre cribed
in he RCSC pecifica
ion up o 1974. The allowable en ile re on
he ne ec
ion of he join wa aken a 60% of he yield re
or 50% of he
en ile reng h of he pla e ma erial, whichever wa maller. I wa apparen
ha a
differen approach i de irable: one ha would provide bo h a ra ional me hod o
f
de ermining he allowable re e and a uniform, or a lea a more con i en ,
Fig. 5.48. Fac or of afe y ver u join leng h for A325 bol .
5.4 De ign Recommenda ion129
Fig. 5.49. Fac or of afe y for ruc ural carbon eel join fa ened by A325
bol .
fac or of afe y. I appeared ha a more logical cri erion o e abli h allowab
le

re e for he fa ener wa o con ider he fa ener reng h over he full r
angeof
join behavior.
To de ermine he magni ude of he fac or of afe y deemed adequa e for he
fa ener , wo a pec can be con idered: (1) wha he fac or of afe y ha been
in
hepa , and (2) wha i ough o be. If pa prac ice for rive ed or bol ed
ruc ural
carbon eel join i udied, he fac or of afe y again hear failure of h
e
fa ener i found o vary from approximaely 3.3 for compac join * o
approxima ely 2.0 for join wi h a leng h in exce of 50 in. Thi i illu ra
ed in
Fig. 5.48 for A325 bol . The lower facor of afe yfor he longer wa
join
apparen ly adequa e in he pa . In fac , according o pa prac ice, he large
and
of en mo impor an join have probably
had he lowe fac or of afe y.
Experience
ha hown ha hi fac or of afe y ha provided
a afe de ign
condi
ion.
Thi indica ed ha a minimum fac or of afe y of 2.0 ha been
a i fac ory; he ame margin i al o u ed for fa ener in en ion. In addi ion
, i
wa recognized
ha pecified minimum mechanical proper ie of bo h he bol and
pla e ma erial were u ed o de ermine he e lower bound condi ion . Ma erial

ac ually u ed a componen of he join u ually provide reng h ha exceed

pecified minimum proper ie . Thi re ul in an increa ed fac or of afe y. Fin
ally,

i can be no ed ha a minimum fac or of afe y equal o 2.0 for bol in hear
i no
in line wi h he fac or of afe y u ed for bol in en ion, bu he ame f
only
ac or
of afe y again ul ima e i al o provided by quenched and empered alloy eel
en ion member
.2.11
*A compac
join i defined a a join in which he average fa ener hear re
a he
ul ima e load level i equal o, or almo equal o, he hear reng h of a in
gle fa ener.

The “unbu oning” effec i negligible in he e join .
Fig. 5.50. Fac or of afe y for high- reng h eel join fa ened by A325 bol
.
In Fig. 5.49 he fac or of afe y i plo ed a a func ion of he join leng h f
or
differen
allowable hear re e in 7/8-in. dia. A325 bol , in alled in ru
c ural
carbon
eel wi h a yield re of 36 k i and a en ile reng h of 58 k i. Joi
n
lengh i defined a he leng h required o ran fer he load from he main pla
e in o
he plice pla e . Hence, for a ymme ric bu plice, he join leng h i equal
o
half he o al leng h of he lap pla e. For a ingle lap join i i equal o h
e overall

leng h of he join . Figure 5.50, 5.51, and 5.52 how plo for o her combina i
on
of pla e ma erial and bol grade . A minimum fac or of afe y of 2.0i
provided when he 30 k i allowable hear re i u ed for A325 bol in alled
Fig. 5.51. Fac or of afe y for high- reng h eel join fa ened by A490 bol
.
5.4 De ign Recommenda
ion131
Fig. 5.52. Fac or of afe y for quenched and empered alloy eel join fa ene
d by A490
bol .
in ruc ural carbon eel up o a join leng h of 60 in. High- reng h eel wi
h a
en ile reng h of 66 k i and fa ened by A325 bol provide a minimum fac or
of
afe y of 2.0 up o a join leng h of abou 50 in. Figure 5.51 and 5.52 how h
a a
40 ki allowable
hear re for A490 bol would
provide
he needed marginfor
join leng h up o abou 50 in. For join wi h a leng
h exceeding 50 in., he
allowable hear re in he bol mu be reduced o en ure a minimum fac or o
f
afe y of 2.0. A 20% reduc ion in he allowable hear re provide hi margi
n
for join leng h be ween 50 and 90 in., a illu ra ed in Fig . 5.49 o 5.52.
De ign Recommenda ion for Bol ed Join
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
Shear S re e for High- reng h Bol
ba ic
a βτ τ =

where asic τ = 30 ksi –

A325 ol s
asic τ = 40 ksi – A490 ol s
β = 1.0
unlessjoin leng h exceeds 50 in., in which case β = 0.8.
Allowa le Join Loads

1. Shear planes pass hrough ol shank

aA mn Pτ =
132 Symme ric Bu Splices

2. Shear planes pass hrough ol hreads

a A mn P τ70 . 0 =
ii. Load
Fac or Design
Bol ed
Join s. In loadfac or design, he
connec ions
and s ruc ural mem ers are propor ioned so ha he produc of
maximum s reng h and a reduc
ion
fac or is a leas equal o he effec of he
applied
design
loads mul iplied y
heir respec ive
load fac ors.
The
reduc ion
fac
or is in roduced o assure ha he maximum s reng h of a s ruc ure is limi
ed y

hecapaci y of i s mem ers
ra her
han y prema
ure
failure connec
ions. The
fac or also accoun s for he varia ili y in s reng h of a connec ion. A uniform φ
ctor o 0.80 h s been suested or mech nic l steners lo ded in she r.5.50
The she r strenth o sinle stener is bout 60% o its tensile strenth (se
e
Section 4.2). A φ ctor o 0.80 yields she r stresses comp r ble to those obt ine
d
by ctorin the suested workin llow ble she r v lues by 1.6. The s me φ
ctor is pplic ble to A307 bolts nd to A502 rivets. The ultim te she r c p ci
ty
o hih-strenth bolted connection is ected by the loc tion o the she r pl
nes.
I pl ne intersects the bolt thre ds, only the root re is e ective in resis
tin the
she r. This reduces the joint she r c p city by bout 25% (see Section 4.10).
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR BOLTED JOINTS
Lo d F ctor Desin—She r Lo din
Desin strenth F φ =
where F – ver e she r strenth = 0.60 u σ
φ– reduction ctor =
0.80
I joint lenth exceeds 50 in. φ= 0.64.
F ctored Joint Lo ds
1. She r pl nes p ss throuh bolt sh nk
b FA mn P φ =
2. She r pl nes p ss throuh bolt thre ds
b FA mn P φ 70 . 0 =
iii. Slip-Resist nt Joints. I it is ssumed th t equ l cl mpin orces re pres
ent
throuhout joint, then the slip resist nce o connection c n be expressed s
s i s k mnT P = (5.23)
5.4 Desin Recommend tion 133
For iven joint eometry, the slip resist nce is directly proportion l to the
product o the initi l cl mpin orce, Ti , nd the slip coe icient, ks. Both
qu ntities h ve consider ble v ri nce, nd this must be considered when
determinin desin criteri or slip-resist nt joints. Since the requency
distributions or ks , nd Ti , re known or di erent sur ce conditions, bolt
types,
nd tihtenin procedures (see Subsections 5.1.5 nd 5.1.6), the joint requency
distribution or the product ksTi c n be determined5.33 nd suit ble desin
expressions ormul ted. As n ltern tive to Eq. 5.23, n equiv lent llow ble bo
lt
she r stress c n be developed.
Considerin Eq. 5.23, it will be desir ble to re ormul te this expression so th
t
deterministic v lues c n be used or Ti nd ks . Over nd bove this, it will be
ppropri te to provide desin in orm tion or di erent levels o slip prob bili
ty
(the prob bility th t the lo d predicted by Eq. 5.23 m y be exceeded) in order t
h t
the desiner miht h ve the option o selectin slip prob bility level suit bl
e or
this structure. Equ tion 5.23 c n be written s
s ispec s k T mn P α =
( ) 24 . 5
where
Sme n ispeck DmnT = α
( ) 25 . 5
nd Tispec is the speci ied minimum bolt tension. In urther step, Eq. 5.24 wi
ll be
expressed s
sme n ispec s k DmnT P =
( ) 26 . 5
where D is multiplier th t provides the rel tionship between ksme n nd ks ,
incorpor tes α , nd re lects the slip prob bility level selected.
The requency distribution curve or the product o the two v ri bles in Eq. 5.2
3,
th t is, Ti nd ks is shown in Fi. 5.53 or A325 bolts stenin m teri l in t
he cle n
mill sc le condition nd inst lled by the turn-o -nut method. Simil r curves c n
be
constructed or other stener nd yin sur ce conditions. A cumul tive
requency curve constructed rom this in orm tion is shown in Fi. 5.53b. I
very hih v lue o ksTi , rel tive to the v lue ctu lly present in the joint, w
ere to
be selected by the desiner, then there would lmost cert inly be slip. On the o
ther
h nd, i very low v lue o ksTi were selected s the desin level, there would
be
very little likelihood o slip.
Two o the slip prob bility levels th t miht be chosen, 5% nd 10%, re
shown in Fi. 5.53b. The 5% slip prob bility (or 95% con idence level)
corresponds to p st pr ctice or slip-resist nt connections. I lower slip
prob bility is desired, the 1% level could be chosen; i hiher slip prob bili
ty c n
be justi ied, 10% could be used.
In orm tion like th t iven in Fi. 5.53b c n be t bul ted. T ble 5.2 ives v lu
es
o D or use in Eq. 5.26 or either A325 or A490 bolts inst lled by turn-o -nut
nd
correspondin to v rious slip prob bility levels. The slip coe icients
Fi. 5.53. Slip resist nce. ( ) Frequency distribution. (b) Cumul tive requency
curve.
listed (me n v lues) re 0.20, 0.25, 0.33, 0.40, 0.50, nd 0.60. The st nd rd
devi tions used with these v lues in order to develop the t ble were 0.07 or me
n
v lues between 0.20 nd 0.40 nd 0.09 or the rem inder. T ble 5.3 ives simil r
in orm tion or A325 or A490 bolts inst lled usin the c libr ted wrench method.
A comp rison o T bles 5.2 nd 5.3 indic tes th t slip-resist nt connections
usin bolt inst lled by the turn-o -nut method will h ve slihtly re ter resi
st nce
th n i the bolts were inst lled by c libr ted wrench. For ex mple, t the 5% sl
ipprob bility
level, A325 bolts inst lled by turn-o -nut in premium o bout 14%
over A325 bolts inst lled by c libr ted wrench. The di erence re lects the hih
er
prelo ds obt ined in bolts inst lled by the turn-o -nut method. For A325 or A490
T ble 5.2 Slip F ctor D or use in Eq. 5.26: Turn-o -Nut Inst ll tion
Slip Prob bility
A325 Turn-o -Nut A490 Turn-o -Nut
ks (me n) 1 % 5% 10 % 1 % 5% 10 %
0.20
0.25
0.33
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.253
0.383
0.590
0.696
0.702
0.772
0.551
0.677
0.820
0.896
0.899
0.947
0.728
0.831
0.942
1.001
1.002
1.040
0.243
0.376
0.568
0.671
0.672
0.738
0.520
0.642
0.776
0.848
0.850
0.895
0.684
0.782
0.887
0.942
0.944
0.979
bolts inst lled by c libr ted wrench, α is 1.13, where s it is 1.35 or A325 bolts
or
1.26 or A490 bolts inst lled by ½ turn-o -nut, respectively.
The s me in orm tion represented by Eq. 5.26 nd T bles 5.2 nd 5.3 c n be
expressed in terms o permissible she r stress. (This is convenience only; i
t must be
remembered th t the stener in slip-resist nt connection is not ctu lly cti
n in
she r.) Equ tin the slip resist nce (Eq. 5.3) to n equiv lent she r orce ive
s
b b s i A mn k mnT τ =
(5.27)
where
τ

is he equivalen shear s ress and A is he nominal ol area. Using α (Eq.
5.25) nd expressin the speci ied bolt tension s
T ble 5.3 Slip F ctor D or use in Eq. 5.26:
C libr ted Wrench Inst ll tion
Note: St nd rd devi tion o ks (me n) t ken s 0.07 or ks ≤ 0.4 nd s
0.09 otherwise.
Slip Prob bility
A325 or A490
C libr ted Wrench
ks (me n) 1 % 5 % 10 %
0.20
0.25
0.33
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.235
0.372
0.547
0.639
0.643
0.702
0.478
0.594
0.718
0.784
0.787
0.829
0.622
0.714
0.810
0.862
0.864
0.897
uspec s ispec A T σ 7 . 0 =
( ) 28 . 5
where A i the tre area of the bolt, then Eq. 5.27 can be rewritten a
b u ec b A A k σ τ 7 . 0 =
( ) 29. 5

The ra io of he s ress area o he nominal ol area varies from only 0.736 for
5/8-

in. diame er ol up o 0.774 for a 1-in, diame er ol . An average value of 0.7
6

will e used herein. The minimum specified ensile s reng h for A325 ol s in si
zes

hrough 1 in. diame er is 120 ksi. Su s i u ing hese values in o Eq. 5.29 yield
s
α τ s k 8 . 63 =( )30 . 5
Equa ion
5.30 rela es he equivalen shear s ress on he fas ener o he known
parame ers α nd ks ( s described in Section 5.1). An expression simil r to Eq. 5.
30 c n
be developed or A490 bolts; only the multiplier ch nes (to 78.7).
O course, the requency distribution nd cumul tive requency distribution
curves correspondin to Eq. 5.29 look just the s me s those shown in Fi. 5.53
nd b. T ble 5.4 ives the equiv lent permissible she r stresses or slip-resist
nt
joints usin A325 or A490 bolts inst lled by the turn-o -nut method, nd T ble 5
.5
presents the s me in orm tion or use when c libr ted wrench inst ll tion is use
d.
The slip coe icients selected (ks me n) nd their st nd rd devi tions re the s
me s
those used in T bles 5.2 nd 5.3.
In ev lu tin conditions or A325 bolts, the speci ied minimum tensile strenth
w s presumed to be 120 ksi. The speci ied tensile strenth or A325 bolts in siz
es over
1 in. di meter is in ct 105 ksi. Experience h s shown th t the ctu l strenth
o
A325 bolts over 1 in. di meter usu lly r nes rom 20 to 34% bove the
minimum speci ied tensile strenth. Furthermore, the As /Ab r tio or these size
s is
T ble 5.4 Equiv lent She r Stress or Use in Slip-resist nt Connections:
Turn-o -Nut Inst ll tion
Slip Prob bility
ks (me n) 1 % 5% 10 % 1 % 5% 10 %
0.20
0.25
0.33
0.40
0.50
0.60
3.23
6.11
12.42
17.75
22.39
29.56
7.03
10.80
17.27
22.85
28.67
36.24
9.29
13.25
19.84
25.53
31.98
39.79
3.82
7.40
14.74
21.12
26.44
34.82
8.18
12.63
20.16
26.70
33.44
42.28
10.77
15.39
23.03
29.66
37.14
46.23
T ble 5.5 Equiv lent She r Stress or Use in Slip-resist nt Connections:
C libr ted Wrench Inst ll tion
Slip Prob bility
ks (me n) 1 % 5% 10 % 1 % 5% 10 %
0.20
0.25
0.33
0.40
0.50
0.60
3.00
5.93
11.52
16.31
20.51
26.87
6.10
9.47
15.11
20.01
25.09
31.73
7.94
11.39
17.06
22.00
27.56
34.33
3.70
7.32
14.21
20.12
25.29
33.15
7.52
11.69
18.64
24.69
30.95
39.14
9.79
14.05
21.04
27.14
33.99
42.35
bout 0.81 s comp red with the v lue 0.76 or sizes less th n 1 in. di meter. A
n
incre se in the As/Ab r tio incre ses the she r stress, s is pp rent rom Eq.
5.29.
Hence, the v lues listed in T bles 5.2 throuh 5.4 re ssumed pplic ble to ll
commonly used A325 bolt sizes.
A reduction ctor must be pplied to ccount or the e ect o bric tion
ctors on the slip resist nce o joints; or ex mple, dependin on the mount o

oversize o the hole or the direction o the slotted holes with respect to the
expected slip direction, reduction in slip resist nce m y result. Ch pter 9 de
ls
speci ic lly with oversize nd slotted holes nd discusses in re ter det il the
in luence o these bric tion ctors on the slip resist nce o joint.
Strenth s well s per orm nce must be considered in the desin o slipresist n
t
joints. As mentioned in Subsection 5.4.1, the permissible lo d o slipresist n
t
connection must not exceed its c p city b sed on consider tions o
strenth. In other words, the permissible lo d or joint ev lu ted on the b si
s o
its strenth c p city ( s overned by she r o the bolts or be rin o the conne
cted
p rts) orms the upper bound or the desin o slip-resist nt connection. Slip
resist nt
connections overned by this upper bound re likely to be only those in
which the slip coe icient is hih or the prob bility o slip selected is hih,
or some
combin tion both o these. For ex mple, joint with ksme n v lue o 0.50 usin

A325 bolts inst lled by turn-o -nut will h ve permissible equiv lent she r str
ess
o 32.0 ksi when desined inst slip resist nce. However, its c p city when
checked s be rin-type connection will be b sed on permissible she r stress
o
only 30.0 ksi (Subsection 5.4.1). Thus, the l tter overns even thouh this w s
connection desined s slip resist nt.
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SLIP-RESISTANT JOINTS
Slip-resist nt joints m y be proportioned in ccord nce with either Altern tive
A
or Altern tive B, s iven below. The result will be the s me in either c se.
Altern tive A
where D is obt ined rom T ble 5.2 or 5.3
Altern tive B
b s A mn P τ
=

where a τ is o ained from Ta le 5.4 or 5.5 and

A is he cross-sec ional area
corresponding
o he nominal diame er of he ol .

Ifslo ed or oversize holes
are used,

he join
capaci y calcula
ed y ei her
Al erna
ive A orAl erna iveB mus e reduced y mul iplying y 0.70. See
Chap er 9 for de
ailson slo ed and oversizeholes.
In ei her allowa le s ress design or load fac or design, he resis ance descri e
d

using
ei her Al erna ive A or Al erna ive B is o e compared wi h he effec of
he
working
loads (some imes called specified loads in load fac
or design.) In
allowa le s ress design, he slip-resis an join mus also e checked agains i
s

shear capaci y (Su sec ion 5.4.2i) and i s earing capaci y (Su sec ion 5.4.4i).
In

load fac or design, he slip-resis an join mus likewise e checked agains i
s

shear capaci y (Su sec ion 5.4.2ii) and i s earing capaci y (Su sec ion 5.4.4ii
)
using fac ored loads.
5.4.3
Design
Recommenda
ions—Connec
ed Ma erial

I was no ed in Sec ion 5.2 ha is was desira le ha yielding hrough he gros
s

cross-sec ion of a mem er occur prior o failure a he ne cross-sec ion in ord
er

ha he mem er ehavior
e duc
ile. Tha requiremen
is includedin he design

recommenda ions ha follow. I includes a mul iplier ha reflec s he fac ha

,

while he ac ual yield and ul ima e sreng hs can o h e expec ed o egrea er
han heirspecified minimum values, he margin on yield is usually grea er han
ha on ul ima e.
i. S a ic
Loading

a).
Allowa le S ress Design.
In allowa le s ress design,
prac
ice in he Uni ed
S a es since 1978 has een o place a limi on he s ress a he gross cross-sec
ion

of he mem er, es a lished a 60% of he yield s reng h of he ma erial,and
o
require in addi ion ha he s ress on he ne cross-sec ion of he join no e
in
excess of 50% of he ensiles reng h of he ma erial. This provides

a fac orof
safe y of 1.67 agains unres ric ed plas ic flow of he main mem er and a fac or
of

safe y of 2.0 agains frac ure. I will e recalled ha he allowa le shear s r
esses

for
ol s in earing- ype connec ions were es a lished so ha he fac or of saf
e y

agains fas ener failure was a leas 2.0. Thus, i can e expec ed ha he en
sion

mem er will reach i s ul ima e load prior o any (po en ial) failure of he ol
s ha
make up i s connec ion.
5.4 Design Recommenda ion 139
DESIGN
RECOMMENDATIONS

Allowa le s resses
Through gross cross-sec ion a connec ion,
y a σ σ 60 . 0 =
Or, through net cro - ection at connection,
y a σ σ 50 . 0 =
But,
u
y
g
n
A
A
σ
σ
9 . 0
≥
Thu , the allowable load on the member i the le er of
g y A P σ 60 . 0 1 =
Or
n u A P σ 50 . 0 2 =
b). Load Factor De ign. The limit of trength of a ten ion member i it
caacity a e tabli hed by fracture at the net ection. Thi caacity hould be
comared with the effect of the factored load . A reduction ( φ) will be pplied t
o
this nomin l c p city (An σu) to reflect the o ibility of under ize of member,
accuracy of analy i , and actual material roertie . For a afety index of 3.0,
which i the value u ed for beam , column , and beam-column , a value of φ =
0.90 is ppropri te. It is worth notin th t the s ety index est blished or
mech nic lly stened connections5.50 is 4.5, re lectin the desire th t connect
ions
do not re ch ilure be ore the ultim te strenth o the member h s been tt ine
d.
In ddition to strenth, nother limit st te exists or tension members. This is
unrestricted pl stic low o the m in member, th t is, yieldin throuh the ros
s
cross-section o the member. This could occur t lo ds only slihtly re ter th
n
the workin lo d level i only the strenth limit were pplic ble. Thus, it is n
ecess ry
th t second limit be pplied, s noted below.
As w s the c se or tension members desined under the llow ble stress
method, the ductility o the member must lso be ensured.
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS
Member c p city under ctored lo ds sh ll be t ken s the lesser o
n n A P σ φ =
or
y A P σ φ =
where φ= 0.90
But,
u
y

n
A
A
σ
σ
9 . 0
≥
.
ii. Reeated Loading. Re ult of fatigue te t on li-re i tant a well a
other tye of bolted joint were di cu ed in Section 5.3. It wa hown that th
e
tye of failure wa related to the manner in which the alied load wa carried
by
the joint. If tran mitted by frictional re i tance on the contact urface alone
,
failure wa through the gro ection. When li occurred and art of the load w
a
tran mitted by bearing and hear, failure generally occurred through the net
ection. The fatigue trength at the gro ection of li-re i tant joint wa
about
equal to the fatigue trength at the net ection of joint that had lied into
bearing
under nonrever ible loading.
De ign category B, which wa derived from te t on lain welded beam ,5.51
rovide a rea onable lower bound e timate for the tre range ver u life
relation hi of bolted joint . The allowable tre range determined from thi
tre range ver u life relation hi for different loading condition are umma
rized
in Table 5.6. A tre range of 16 k i wa e timated for a life of 2 million cyc
le or
more.
For the de ign of high- trength bolted joint under cyclic loading, the
ugge ted tre range can be alied to: (1) the gro ection area of li-re
i tant
joint with a li robability of 5% or le , and (2) the net ection area for o
ther
bolted joint . Thi rovide de ign tre e for clean mill cale condition tha
t are
in rea onable agreement with current ractice. Joint ubjected to rever al of
tre
hould alway be de igned a li-re i tant joint in order to revent exce ive
movement of the connected art .
The tre range on the net ection area govern the de ign of bolted joint tha
t
have a li robability greater than 5%. The e joint hould not be u ed in itu
ation
Table 5.6 Allowable Range of Stre for the Plate
Material
De ign Load Cycle Stre Range for 95 % Survival (k i)
20,000 – 100,000
100,000 – 500,000
500,000 – 2,000,000
Over 2,000,000
45.0
27.5
18.0
16.0
5.4 De ign Recommendation 141
where rever al of load occur . However, li in the direction of the maximum
alied load i not critical unle the load i rever ed.
Alication of the tre range given in Table 5.6 rovide a con ervative
de ign for both li-re i tant and bearing-tye bolted joint . Better e timate
of the
tre range-life relation hi may be develoed when additional exerimental dat
a
become available.
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR JOINT MATERIAL UNDER
REPEATED LOADING
Sli-Re i tant Joint
Calculate tre range on gro ection area if the li robability i le tha
n
or equal to 5%.
Other Bolted joint
Calculate tre range on the net area if the li robability i greater than 5
%.
Stre rever al i not ermitted. Allowable tre range for both tye i given
in
Table 5.3
iii. Bearing Stre e . In Section 5.2.9 it wa hown that the lower bound
L/d ratio that revent a ingle fa tener from litting out of the late materi
al can
be exre ed a :
P
u
b
d
L
σ
σ
715 . 0 5 . 0 + ≥
( ) 31 . 5
Butt joint with a ingle fa tener were more critical than joint with multile
fa tener in a line. The claming force in a high- trength bolt al o ha a favor
able
influence on the bearing trength of the connection. Hence, de ign
recommendation ba ed on te t re ult of finger-tight ingle fa tener ecimen
rovide a con ervative e timate of the required end di tance.
The te t re ult indicate that Eq. 5.31 rovide an accetable lower bound
olution to the trength of the end zone for an L/d ratio u to 3.0 a illu trat
ed in
Fig. 5.54. When the L/d ratio exceed 3.0, the failure mode change gradually fr
om
a “ hearing-tye” failure to one in which large hole and material deformation
occur .
An alternative relation hi can be u ed which directly relate the L/d ratio to
the bearing tre -ten ile trength ratio:
P
u
b
d
L
σ
σ
≥
( ) 32 . 5
Thi relation hi i al o lotted in Fig. 5.54 and it i al o in good agreement
with
the te t data.
Fig. 5.54. Comari on of de ign recommendation for allowable de ign with te t r
e ult .
a. Allowable Stre De ign. If a minimum factor of afety with re ect to
ultimate load of 2.0 i elected, the required L/d ratio become
P
u
b
d
L
σ
σ
43 . 1 5 . 0 + ≥
( ) 33 . 5
A i hown in Fig. 5.54, Eq. 5.31 define the L/d ratio u to a bearing tre t
en ile
trength ratio of about 3.0. The ugge ted factor of afety of 2.0 again t
bearing failure i comarable to the factor of afety again t hear or ten ion
failure of the fa tener and the ten ile trength of the net ection.
If the alternate formulation i u ed, the required L/d ratio become :
P
u
b
d
L
σ
σ
2 ≥
( ) 34 . 5
To roerly in tall a bolt or rivet, a minimum di tance from the center of the
fa tener to any edge of the member mu t be maintained. A minimum L/d ratio of 1.
5 i
ugge ted ince thi conform to current ractice.
The de ign region hown in Fig. 5.54 i further bounded by a vertical line at a
bearing tre -ten ile trength ratio of 1.5. Thi revent u e of bearing tre
e
that may lead to exce ive hole deformation and the u etting of material in fr
ont
of the fa tener. Although the trength in uch a ituation i till adequate, la
rge
deformation may limit u efulne . Furthermore, a high σb
/ σu
P ratio corre ond to
a large ratio of bolt diameter to the late thickne . Thin late that may defo
rm
out of their lane due to in tability of the end ection may limit the ultimate
caacity of the end zone. The e condition may ari e if the la late of a butt
joint
are critical in bearing. Due to “catenary action,” the end of the la late tend t
o
bend outward. A high comre ive force on the end anel may cau e a di hing-tye
failure and decrea e the ultimate bearing trength.
5.4.4 DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR BEARING STRESSES
i Allowable Stre De ign
Bearing tre σb
= P/dt
σu
P = ten ile trength late material.
Following condition are to be ati fied:
1. P
u
b
d
L
σ
σ
43 . 1 5 . 0 + ≥ ; alternatively, P
u
b
d
L
σ
σ
2 ≥
2. 5 . 1 ≥
d
L
3. 5 . 1 ≥ P
u
b
σ
σ
ii Load Factor De ign. A lower bound to the hear re i tance of the end zone
behind the fa tener wa exre ed a ( ee Sub ection 5.2.9):
) 7 . 0 (
2
) 2 ( P
u
d L t F σ
− = ( ) 35 . 5
A φ ctor o 0.85 is believed dequ te to ccount or the uncert inties in the
strenth o the end zone. Hence the she r strenth o the end zone p nel or lo
d
ctor desin becomes
P
u t d L F σ φ
−
=
2
) 4 . 1 )( 85 . 0 ( ( ) 36 . 5
A minimum L/d ratio equal to 1.5 is desired for installation. In order to limit
deformations of the hole, the bearing ratio σb
/ σu
P hould not exceed 3.0 at the
factored load level.
A φ ctor o 0.85 provides be rin stresses on the stener th t re equ l to
those obt ined by ctorin the llow ble be rin stress v lues iven by Eq. 5.3
3.
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR BEARING STRESSES
Lo d F ctor Desin
She r strenth end zone
P
u t d L F σ
− =
2
) 4 . 1 (
Reduction factor φ = 0.85
Followin conditions re to be s tis ied
1. Desin Lo d x lo d F ctor ≤ φF; ltern tivley, L/d ≥ 1.7 P
u b σ σ
2. L/d ≥ 1.5
3. P
u b σ σ ≤ 3.0
REFERENCES
5.1 W. H. Laub and J. R. Philli . The Effect of Fa tener Material and Fa tener
Ten ion on
the Allowable Bearing Stre e of Structural Joint , Reort 243.2. Fritz Enginee
ring
Laboratory, Lehigh Univer ity, Bethlehem, Penn ylvania, June 1954.
5.2 R. A. Hechtman, J. R. Flint, and P. L. Koe ell, Fifth Progre Reort on Sl
i of
Structural Steel Double La Joint A embled with High Ten ile Steel Bolt , Dea
rtment
of Civil Engineering. Univer ity of Wa hington, Seattle, February 1955.
5.3 R. A. Hechtman, D. R. Young, A. G. Chin, and E. R. Savikko, “Sli Joint Under
Static Load ,” Tran action ASCE, Vol. 120, 1955, . 1335—1352.
5.4 A. A. van Douwen, J. de Back, and L. P. Bouwman, Connection with High Stren
gth
Bolt , Reort 6-59-9-VB-3, Stevin Laboratory, Deartment of Civil Engineering, D
elft
Univer ity of Technology, Delft, the Netherland , 1959.
5.5 O. Steinhardt and K. Möhler, Ver uche zur Anwendung Vorge annter Schrauhen
Stahlbau, Teil II, Bericht de Deut chen Au chu e für Stahlbau, Stahlbau-Verlag
Gmbh, Cologne, Germany, 1959.
5.6 G. H. Sterling and J. W. Fi her, “A440 Steel Joint Connected by A490 Bolt ,”
Journal of the Structural Divi ion, ASCE. Vol. 92, ST3. June 1966.
5.7 J. R. Divine, E. Che on, Jr., and W. H. Mun e, Static and Dynamic Proertie
of Bolted
Galvanized Structure , Deartment of Civil Engineering, Univer ity of Illinoi ,
Urbana,
Aril 1966.
5.8 A. Kueru , The Ratio Between the Sli Factor of Fe 52 and Fe 37, C.E.A.C.M.
X-6-27,
Stevin Laboratory, Deartment of Civil Engineering, Delft Univer ity of Technolo
gy,
Delft, the Netherland , 1966.
5.9 G. C. Brookhart, I. H. Siddiqi. and D. D. Va arhelyi, The Effect of Galvaniz
ing and
Other Surface Treatment on High Ten ile Bolt and Bolted Joint , Deartment of C
ivil
Engineering, Univer ity of Wa hington, Seattle, Setember 1966.
5.10 J. H. Lee and J. W. Fi her. The Effect of Rectangular and Circular Filler
on the
Behavior of Bolted Joint , Reort 318.6, Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh
Univer ity, Bethlehem, Penn ylvania, June 1968.
Reference 145
5.11 J. H. Lee, C. O’Connor, and J. W. Fi her, “Effect of Surface Coating and Exo
ure on
Sli,” Journal of the Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 95, ST 11, November 1969.
5.12 G. L. Kulak and J. W. Fi her, “A514 Steel Joint Fa tened by A490 Bolt ,” Journ
al of
the Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 94. ST1O, October 1968.
5.13 J. R. Divine, E. Che on, Jr., and W. H. Mun e, Static and Dynamic Proerti
e of Bolted
Galvanized Structure , Deartment of Civil Engineering, Univer ity of Illinoi ,
Urbana,
Aril 1966.
5.14 C. C. Chen and D. D. Va arhelyi, Bolted Joint with Main Plate of Differen
t
Thickne e , Deartment of Civil Engineering, Univer ity of Wa hington, Seattle,
January 1965.
5.15 D. D. Va arhelyi and K. C. Chiang, “Coefficient of Friction in Joint of Vari
ou
Steel ,” Journal of the Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 93, ST4, Augu t 1967.
5.16 U. C. Va i hth, Z. A. Lu, and D. D. Va arhelyi, “Effect of Fabrication Techn
ique .”
Tran action ASCE, Vol. 126, 1961, . 764—796.
5.17 M. Ma eide and A. Selberg, High Strength Bolt u ed in Structural Connectio
n ,
Divi ion of Steel Structure , Technical Univer ity of Norway, Trondheim, Norway,
January 1967.
5.18 K. Kloel and T. Seegcr, Sicherheit und Beine ung Von H. V. Verbindungen
Au
ST37 und ST52 Nach Ver uchen unter Dauerbela tung und Ruhender Bela tung,
Techni che Hoch chule, Darm tadt, Germany, 1965.
5.19 N. G. Han en, “Fatigue Te t of Joint of High Strength Steel ,” Journal of the
Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 85, ST3, March 1959.
5.20 P. C. Birkemoe, D. F. Meinheit, and W. H. Mun e, “Fatigue of A514 Steel in Bo
lted
Connection ,” Journal of the Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 95, ST 10, October 19
69.
5.21 J. W. Fi her and J. L. Rumf, “Analy i of Bolted Butt Joint ,” Journal of the
Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 91, ST5. October 1965.
5.22 J. W. Fi her, “Behavior of Fa tener and Plate with Hole ,” Journal of the Str
uctural
Divi ion, ASCE. Vol. 91, ST6, December 1965.
5.23 G. L. Kulak, “The Analy i of Con tructional Alloy Steel Bolted Plate Slice
,”
Ph.D. Di ertation, Lehigh Univer ity. Bethlehem, Penn ylvania. June 1967.
5.24 R. Kormanik and J. W. Fi her “Bearing Tye Bolted Hybrid Joint ,” Journal of th
e
Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 93, ST5, October 1967.
5.25 J. W. Fi her and G. L. Kulak, “Te t of Bolted Butt Slice ,” Journal of the
Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 94, ST1 1. November 1968.
5.26 V. H. Cochrane, “Rule for Rivet Hole Deduction in Ten ion Member ,” Engineerin
g
New -Record, Vol. 80, November 16, 1922.
5.27 W. 0. Brady and D. C. Drucker, “Inve tigation and Limit Analy i of Net Area
in
Ten ion,” Tran action ASCE, Vol. 120, 1955, . 1133-1154.
5.28 W. H. Mun e and E. Che on, “Riveted and Bolted Joint : Net Section De ign,”
Journal of the Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 89, ST1, Part 1, February 1963.
5.29 E. Che on and W. H. Mun e, “Riveted and Bolted Joint : Tru -Tye Ten ile
Connection,” Journal of the Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 89, STI, Part 1, Febru
ary
1963.
5.30 Euroean Convention for Con tructional Steelwork, Euroean Recommendation
for
Bolted connection in Structural Steelwork, ECCS-TI0-83-80, 4th Ed., Bru el , N
ov.
1983. Bru el .
5.31 W. H. Mun e, The Effect of Bearing Pre ure on the Static Strength of Rivet
ed
Connection , Bulletin 454, Engineering Exeriment Station, Univer ity of Illinoi
,
Urbana, July 1959.
5.32 J. Jone , “Bearing-Ratio Effect on Strength of Riveted Joint ,” Tran action AS
CE. Vol.
123, 1958, . 964—972.
5.33 L. A. Aroian, “The Probability Function of the Product of Two Normally Di tri
buted
Variable ,” Annal of Mathematical Stati tic , Vol. 18, . 265, 1947.
5.34 K. C. Chiang and D. D. Va arhelyi, The Coefficient of Friction in Bolted J
oint Made
with Variou Steel and with Multile contact Surface , Deartment of Civil Engi
neering.
Univer ity of Wa hington, Seattle, February 1964.
5.35 R. A. Bendigo, R. M. Han en. and J. L. Rumf, A Pilot Inve tigation of the
Fea ibility of
Obtaining High Bolt Ten ion U ing Calibrated Imact Wrenche , Reort 200.59. l6
6A,
Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh Univer ity, Bethlehem, Penn ylvania, Novemb
er
1959.
5.36 J. de Back and L. P. Bouwman, The Friction Factor Under Influence of Differ
ent
Tightening Method of the Bolt and of Different Condition of the Contact Surfa
ce ,
Stevin Laborator , Reort 6-59-9-VB-3, Delft Univer ity of Technology, Delft, th
e
Netherland , Augu t 1959.
5.37 S. Hojarczyk. J. Ka in ki. and T. Nawrot. “Load Sli Characteri tic of High
Strength
Bolted Structural Joint Protected from Corro ion by Variou Srayed Coating ,”
Proceeding , Jubilee Symo ium on High Strength Bolt , the In titution of Struct
ural
Engineer , London, 1959.
5.38 G. L. Kulak, “The Behavior of A514 Steel Ten ion Member ,” Engineering Journal
AISC. Vol. 8, No. 1, January 1971.
5.39 J. de Back and A. de Jong, Mea urement on Connection with High Strength B
olt ,
Particularly in View of the Permi able Arithmetical Bearing Stre , Reort 6-68
-3,
Stevin Laboratory, Deift Univer ity of Technology. Delft, the Netherland , 1968.
5.40
M. Hirano, “Bearing Stre e in Bolted Joint ,” Society of Steel Con truction of
Jaan, Vol. 6, No. 58, Tokyo, 1970.
5.41 K. L. John on and J. J. O’Connor, Mechanic of Fretting,” Proceeding of the In
titution
of Mechanical Engineer , Vol. 178, Part 3J, London 1963 - 1964.
5.42 P. C. Birkemoe and R. S. Sriniva an, “Fatigue of Bolted High Strength Structu
ral Steel,”
Journal of the Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 97, ST3, March 1971.
5.43 T. R. Gurney, “The Effect of Mean Stre and Material Yield Stre on Fatigue
Crack
Proagation in Steel,” Metal Con truction and Briti h Welding Journal, Vol. 1, No.
2.
February 1969.
5.44 J. Tajima and K. Tomonaga, Fatigue Te t on High-Strength Bolted Joint , St
ructural
De ign Office, Jaane e National Railway , Tokyo, 1963.
5.45 E. Che on, Jr., “Bolted Bridge Behavior During Erection and Service,” Journal
of the
Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 91, ST3, June 1965.
5.46 A. Nadai, Theory of Flow and Fracture of Solid , Vol. 1, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hi
ll, New
York. 1950, . 229.
5.47 I. Fernlund, A Method to Calculate the Pre ure Between Bolted or Riveted
Reference 147
Plate , Reort 17. In t. Machine Element , Chalmer Univer ity of Technology,
Gothenburg, Sweden, 1961.
5.48 J. W. Carter, K. H. Lenzen, and L. T. Wyly, “Fatigue in Riveted and Bolted Si
ngle-La
Joint .” Tran action ASCE, Vol. 120, 1955.
5.49 J. W. Fi her and L. S. Beedle, “Criteria for De igning Bearing-Tye Bolted Jo
int ,”
Journal of the Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 91, ST5, October 1965.
5.50 J. W. Fi her. T. V. Galambo , G. L. Kulak, and M. K. Ravindra, “Load and Re i
tance
Factor De ign Criteria for Connector ,” Journal of the Structural Divi ion ASCE, V
ol.
104, ST9, Setember 1978.
5.51 J. W. Fi her, P. Albrecht, B. T. Yen, D. J. Klingerman. and B. M. McNamee,
Fatigue
Strength of Welded Beam , NCHRP Reort 147, Highway Re earch Board National
Academy of Science , 1974.
5.52 W. H. Mun e, Addendum to Preliminary Reort on Short-Gri High-Strength Bol
t ,
Deartment of Civil Engineering, Univer ity of Illinoi , Urbana, February 1974.
5.53 K. H. Frank and J. A. Yura, An Exerimental Study of Bolted Shear Connectio
n , Reort
No. FHWA/RD-81/148, Federal Highway Admini tration, U.S. Deartment of
Tran ortation, Wa hington, D.C., December 1981.
5.54 A. H. Sahli, P. Albrecht, and D. W. Vannoy, “Fatigue Strength of Retrofitted
Cover
Plate ,” Journal of the Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 110, No. 6, June 1984.
5.55 J. A. Yura, K. H. Frank, and L. Caye , “Bolted Friction Connection with
Weathering Steel,” Journal of tile Structural Divi ion, ASCE. Vol. 107, ST 11,
November 1981.
5.56 J. W. Fi her, Bridge Fatigue Guide, American In titute of Steel Con tructio
n, Chicago,
1977.
Chater Six
Tru -Tye Connection
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Chater 5 ummarized the trength, behavior, and de ign of flat late joint . Th
e
common feature of uch joint are that (1) all hear lane in the joint are a
rallel
to one another and (2) all material in the joint i adjacent to a hear lane. I
n
ractice, mo t tructural member do not con i t olely of late ; they may be
ingle rolled hae , combination of rolled hae , or combination of rolled
hae and late . If the joint are to be fabricated by mean of welding, it ma
y be
o ible to connect one member directly to another. However, when bolted
connection are u ed, it i u ually nece ary to tran fer the load by mean of g
u et
late . Figure 6.la how how a light built-u member con i ting of two angle
u e a gu et late in one lane to tran fer the load out of the member. In Figu
re
6.lb two gu et late are u ed at the end of a ingle rolled hae to tran fer
the
load. (The e ca e are more fully deicted in Fig. 2.4c.) Note that in each itu
ation
the amount of material directly connected i le than 100% of the amount of the
main member cro - ectional area.
In comaring the tye of connection hown in Fig. 6.1 with the flat late
joint di cu ed in Chater 5, it i evident that two di tinct difference have
been
introduced; the amount of connected material may be le than 100% of the area o
f
the main member, and a new comonent i re ent, namely, the gu et late. In th
i
chater, the trength of the member a affected by thi tye of connection will
be
di cu ed. The de ign and behavior of the gu et late i examined in Chater 15
.
6.2 BEHAVIOR OF TRUSS-TYPE CONNECTIONS
6.2.1 Static Loading
Member in tru y tem are ubjected to either comre ion or ten ion force .
Unle buckling govern , ten ion i more critical becau e the trength of both t
he
member and it connection will be governed by the net cro - ectional area. In t
he
di cu ion that follow , only member loaded in ten ion will be con idered.
148
62 Behavior of Tru -Tye Connection 149
Fig. 6.1. (a) Single and (b) double gu et late connection.
In butt lice made for late member , the center of gravity of the force in
the lice late are clo e enough to the center of gravity of the force in the
main
member that they can be con idered coincident. In member of the tye hown in
Fig. 6.1, thi a umtion i no longer valid, and the effect of the di tance be
tween
the center of gravity of the variou comonent mu t be taken into account. In
the
ca e of the member built u from angle (Fig. 6.la), the effect i that re ultin
g from
the di tance between the centroid of each of the angle and the centroid of the
gu et. In the ingle comonent member in which the force i taken out by two
gu et late (Fig. 6.1b), it i the effect of the di lacement of the centroid
of the
gu et late with re ect to that of the main member.
Te t have indicated that the net ection efficiency of member in which le th
an
the total cro - ectional area of the member i connected how a ignificant
variance.5.28, 5.29, 6.3 In addition to the non-alignment of centroid , other va
riable affect
thi efficiency. The e include the ductility of the material being joined, the m
ethod of
making the bolt hole (unched, ubunched and reamed, or drilled), and the rati
o of
hole gage to hole diameter. However, it i the o ition of the hear
150 Tru -Tye Connection
lane relative to the variou art of the cro - ection of the member that ha
the
greate t influence.5.28, 5.29
All member comonent are a umed to be uniformly tre ed at ome di tance
from the connection region. Mea urement have hown thi to be a rea onable
a umtion.6.4 However, for member like tho e hown in Fig. 6.1, a nonuniform
tre di tribution i created in the connection region becau e not all member
comonent are connected to the gu et late . For in tance, whatever load i in
the
out tanding leg of the angle hown in Fig. 6.1a mu t be tran ferred through the
fa tener laced in the other leg of the angle. Similarly, the load in the web o
f the
member hown in Fig. 6.lb mu t be tran ferred to the gu et through the fa tener

in the flange . Thi generally re ult in higher tre e in the comonent that
are
attached directly to the gu et late . Deending on joint geometry and material
characteri tic , thi may re ult in a decrea e in efficiency of the net ection
in the
connection region becau e the e comonent tend to reach their ultimate trength
before the comlete net ection caacity ha been develoed. Similar re ult wer
e
ob erved in te t of angle welded to a gu et late.6.5 Thi lo of efficiency
a a
re ult of the di tribution of cro ection material relative to the gu et lat
e i
referred to a “ hear lag.”
Mun e and Che on have examined the ten ile behavior of variou cro
ection . They ob erved that the lo in efficiency at the net ection due to h
ear
lag wa related to the ratio of the length L of the connection and the eccentric
ity x
from the face of the gu et late to the center of gravity of the connected
comonent ( ee Fig. 6.2a).5.28, 5.29 The arameter L x account for the effectiv
ene
of the cro - ection material with re ect to the hear lane between the
member and the gu et late. The ignificance of thi factor i di cu ed hereaf
ter.
The unequal di tribution of fa tener load in a butt joint wa di cu ed in
Chater 5. A imilar load di tribution occur among the fa tener in joint of t
he
tye hown in Fig. 6.1. Hence, relatively high load are tran ferred by the end
fa tener . A a re ult, fa tener failure imilar to the one ob erved in long
ymmetric butt joint have been ob erved in member connected by gu et late
a well.5.28, 5.29, 6.3
The length L of the connection not only affect the load di tribution among the
fa tener but al o influence the hear lag in a connection. Mun e and Che on
concluded that a decrea e in joint length increa e the hear lag effect. Thi c
onclu ion
wa ba ed on te t re ult from connection of the tye a hown in Fig. 6.2b, wh
ich
were te ted to failure with either 5 or 10 A325 bolt in line in the connection
region.5.29
In either ca e, failure of the member occurred in the net ection at the fir t
line of
fa tener , a illu trated in Fig. 6.3. The member with five bolt in a line had
le
trength (about 18%) at the net ection comared with the longer joint with 10 b
olt in
a line. The fa tener were not the critical comonent for either te t joint. Si
nce the
geometry of both joint wa the ame excet for the joint length, it wa conclud
ed that
the efficiency of the net ection increa e with a decrea e in the ratio of L x
.5.28, 5.29
Hence, an increa e in joint length generally increa e the effectivene of the
net
ection but decrea e the effectivene of the fa tener .
6.2 Behavior of Tru -Tye Connection 151
Fig. 6.2. Schematic of eccentricity in joint .
To aroximate the efficiency of the net ection by taking into account joint le
ngth
and joint geometry, Mun e and Che on ugge ted that the actual net area be redu
ced
to an effective net ection area by alying a reduction factor V to account for
the
hear lag.5.28, 5.29 The reduction factor V wa defined by the following emiric
al
relation hi
− =
L
x V 1 ( ) 1 . 6
where L is the joint length and x is the eccentricit between the shear plane an
d the
centroidal axis of the connected component (see ig. 6.2). Hence, the effective
net
section area of a built up member is equal to
effective area
− =
L
x An 1 ( ) 2 . 6
where An is the net area of the connected member, calculated in accordance with
Eq. 5.11 (the s2/4g rule). The definition of x is generall straightforward and
is
illustrated in ig. 6.2. It should be noted that for rolled shapes ( ig. 6.2c) o
r built152

Truss T pe Connections
ig. 6.3. Angle failure in built up section. (Courtes of Universit of Illinois
.)

up shapes ( ig. 6.2b), the distance is to be referred to the center of gravit o
f the
material ling to either side of the centerline of smmetr of the cross section
. In
the case illustrated in ig. 6.2b, this center of gravit would be that of two a
ngles
and one half of the web plate. or the member shown in ig. 6.2c, the “connected
component” is equivalent to a T section.
Although shear lag is the major factor that reduces the efficienc of the net
section, it has been noted that other factors such as ductilit of the material,
the
ratio of the fastener gauge g to the fastener diameter d, and fabrication proced
ures
also influence the efficienc of the net section. In addition, ig. 5.28 showed
that
the An/Ag ratio influences the tensile strength of the material of planar tensio
n
specimens. Generall, an increase in tensile strength accompanied a decrease in
An/Ag.
In the case of members for which less than the entire cross section is connected
to
gusset plates, onl the connected portions are subject to a variation in strengt
h with
changes in the An/Ag ratio. Therefore, the influence of the An/Ag ratio on the n
et section
of the member is less pronounced than in butt tpe connections joining plate ele
ments.
6.2 Behavior of Truss Tpe Connections 153
Ductilit of the member material affects the net section strength as well as the
load distribution among the fasteners. An increase in ductilit tends to increas
e the
net section strength and provides a more uniform load transfer among the fastene
rs.
It was pointed out in Section 2.7 that punched holes should be reamed to
remove the work hardened material that exhibits low ductilit and ma contain

small cracks as a result of the fabrication process. or these reasons, joints w
ith
punched holes often show a decreased efficienc when compared with similar
sections with punched and reamed holes or drilled holes. This condition can be
more critical if substantial shear lag exists as well.5.28
Munse and Chesson developed empirical relationships to account for these
factors mentioned above. The first compared the observed efficienc of test dat
a
with the efficienc of a member computed on the basis of the net section without
ac counting for the influence of factors such as shear lag, and such. As expect
ed, a
significant scatter of the data resulted, as shown in ig. 6.4a. The scatter of
data
was significantl reduced when the observed test efficienc was compared with a
computed efficienc that accounted for such factors as shear lag, ductilit of t
he
ig. 6.4. Correlation of theoretical and test efficiencies. (a) Based on net are
a. (b) Based
on effective net area.

154 Truss T pe Connections
ig. 6.4. (Continued).
material, fastener spacing, and fabrication procedure. This is illustrated in i
g.
6.4b. The concluded that, for most of the connections examined, shear lag was t
he
major factor causing the difference between experimental and predicted
efficiencies. The application of Eq. 6.2 presents some difficulties in practice.
Given
the member load, the designer must first select a cross section on a trial basis
and
then design the connection in order to use Eq. 6.2. After establishing the effec
tive
net area according to Eq. 6.2, he must again examine the trial section to see if
it is
adequate. Several iterations ma be required. After an extensive examination of
the
test data (more than 1000 tests are represented in ig. 6.4) and man more

h pothetical cases, it was concluded b a Task Committee of AISC that a simpler
specification of effective net area was possible. These rules, contained in the
current AISC specification,2.11 are as follows:
n t e A C A = ( ) 3 . 6
where An is the net area calculated according to the s2/4g rule and Ct is a redu
ction
coefficient given as follows:
1. Ct = 0.90 for W, M, or S shapes with flange widths not less than 2/3 the
6.2 Behavior of Truss Tpe Connections 155
depth, and structural tees cut from these shapes. Connection must be made to the
flanges and there must be no fewer than three fasteners per line in the directio
n of
the force in the member.
2. Ct = 0.85 for W, M, or S shapes that do not meet the requirements of 1,
structural tees cut from these shapes, and all other shapes, including built up
crosssections.
Connection must be made to the flanges, and there must be no fewer than
three fasteners per line in the direction of the force in the member.
3. Ct = 0.75 for all members whose connections have onl two fasteners per
line in the direction of the force in the member.
In the case described b 1, the flange area predominates; x is therefore
relativel small, and the efficienc, (1 — x /L), is relativel high. Case 2 cover
s the
range 0.67—0.90 of (1 — x /L) and is the mean value. In both cases 1 and 2 it is
required that there be at least three fasteners per line in the direction of the
force in
the member. If this requirement is not met, the shear lag is more severe, and a
lower value of Ct is provided for all cross sections for this case 3.
6.2.2 Repeated Loading
The fatigue strength of built up structural shapes, especiall in the connection
region, has been the concern of man engineers as experience has shown this to b
e
a critical factor for repeatedl loaded structures. Several failures of riveted
members in truss bridges constructed of built up sections were attributed to
fatigue.6.4 A detailed analsis of all the factors involved is not possible, but
some
guidance can be obtained from an examination of these failures.
A surve of the fatigue failures observed in riveted bridges showed that the
fatigue cracks in members often initiated from the side of a rivet hole at the e
dge of
the gusset plate or splice plates (see ig. 6.5). When cracks occurred in the gu
sset
plate, the started at the sides of the rivet holes at the end of the members, a
s
indicated in ig. 6.5. Severe stress concentrations provided b geometr and she
ar
lag in combination with the initial flaw conditions at those points made those
ig. 6.5. Critical sections for a joint in a built up section subjected to fatig
ue loading conditions.
156 Truss Tpe Connections
locations susceptible to crack growth. The initial flaw condition for these join
ts is
basicall not different from conditions encountered in other bolted or riveted
splices. Small microcracks at the sides of the hole are present as a result of t
he
fabrication process. The stress concentration in connections of built up or roll
ed
shape members is likel to be more severe than encountered in smmetric butt
splices because of the resulting eccentricities and shear lag. This is more seve
re in
riveted joints, because the clamping force is not as great as in bolted joints,
and
more localized bearing occurs. Stress concentrations at the end rivet holes are
further aggravated b the unequal load distribution among the fasteners.
Sometimes these conditions ma not significantl influence the static strength o
f
the connection, but the ma adversel affect the fatigue strength.
The fatigue strength is improved when rivets are replaced b high strength
bolts. This procedure has been used to overcome fatigue related problems in
existing riveted bridge joints. The high clamping force in the bolt results in a
much
better stress condition at the critical sections at the fastener holes. If suffi
cient slip
resistance is provided, bearing stresses are eliminated and crack initiation and
growth is not as critical at fastener holes.
Because
of smmetr and the existence of a web plate, the connections shown
in ig. 6.1 do not develop severe secondar stresses from out of plane bending.
When eccentricall loaded members are used and these secondar deformations are
not prevented b proper lacing or diaphragms, the member tends to align, and thi
s
results in additional bending stresses. Although the static strength is not grea
tl
affected,6.2, 6.5 severe reductions in fatigue strengths have been observed.6.2
Net
section as well as gross section fatigue failures developed prematurel in
eccentricall loaded members and depended on the loading at the joint geometr.
Reductions in life up to 80% were observed when compared with the data obtained
from tests on similar smmetric butt splices.6.2 This reduction is due to severe
stress conditions caused b the secondar stresses resulting from out of plane
deformations. These tests indicated clearl the need for proper restraints of th
e
connection if the possibilit of fatigue failure is to be minimized. When restra
ints
to out of plane bending are provided, the fatigue strength of bolted connection
s in
built up truss members is comparable to the fatigue strength of similar butt joi
nts.
6.3 DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS
The design recommendations given in Section 5.4 for bolts in slip resistant and
bearing tpe joints are also applicable in those cases where the shear planes of
the
various components are not coincident with the centers of gravit of the connect
ed
parts. Although the load distribution among the fasteners in joints for built up
sections is not identical to plate butt splices, the difference is considered ne
gligible
for practical purposes.
The static strength of the net section of a tension member was shown to be
affected b several factors.5.28, 5.29 However, the dominant factor has been sho
wn to
be the influence of shear lag, and its significance should be considered in the
References 157
design process. The empirical formula proposed b Chesson and Munse5.28, 5.29
provides a reasonable wa of calculating the effective net area. This formula is
After calculating the effective net area, the rules provided in subsection 5.4.3
for member design can be used, replacing the net area in the design equations b
the effective net area. If desired, the simplified net area rules given in the A
ISC
specification2.11 and described in Section 6.2 can be used in place of Eq. 6.4.
Present AASHTO specifications incorporate shear lag effects in tension
members consisting of single angles or T sections b assuming the effective net
section area to be equal to the net area of the connected leg or flange plus one
half
of the area of the outstanding leg.2.2 Additional requirements regarding the
effective net section are provided for some other joint geometries. These
requirements have greater applicabilit when members are subjected to cclic
loading.
When fatigue is to be considered in the design of a joint or net area for a buil
tup
section, sufficient restraints should be provided to prevent secondar stresses
from developing. Slip resistant joints are preferred for high fatigue strength.
The
design recommendations given in Chapter 5.4 for butt tpe joints are applicable
to
these tpes of joints when secondar stresses are minimized. The governing net
section stress should be evaluated on the basis of an effective net section in o
rder
toaccount for the stress raising effects due to shear lag and other factors.
RE ERENCES
6.1 AREACommittee on Iron and Steel Structures, “StressDistribution in Bridge
rames loorbeam Hangers,” Proceedings, American Railwa Engineering
Association, Vol. 51, 1950, pp. 470 503.
6.2 K. Kloppel and T. Seeger, “Dauerversuche Mit Einschnittigen HV Verbindugen
Aus ST37,” Der Stahlbau, Vol. 33, No. 8, August, and No. 11, October 1964.
6.3 E. Chesson, Jr., and W. H. Munse, “Behavior of Riveted Truss Tpe Connections,”
Transactions, ASCE, Vol. 123, 1958, pp. 1087 1 128.
6.4 L. T. Wl, M. B. Scott, L. B. McCammon, and C. W. Lindner, A Stud of the
Behavior of loorbeam Hangers, American Railwa Engineering Association
Bulletin 482, September, October 1949.
6.5 G. J. Gibson and B. T. Wake, “An Investigation of Welded Connections for Angle
Tension Members,” Journal of the American Welding Societ, Vol. 7, No. 1, Januar
1942.
− =
L
x A A n e 1
( ) 4 . 6
Chapter Seven
Shingle Joints
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In contrast to butt tpe splices, the main components of the members of shingle
joints
are spliced at various locations along the joint. B terminating the main plates
at
different locations, the continuation plate can also serve as a cover plate over
several
regions of the joint (see ig. 7.1). This tpe of connection provides a more gra
dual
transfer of load in the plates throughout the joint. The connection is often use
d where
the main member consists of several plies of material. Tpical examples are the
builtup
box sections of chord members of truss bridges.
Shingle joints result in less joint thickness than butt joints, since butt joint
requires
all the force to be transferred into the lap plates. In a shingle joint the load
is carried b
the lap plates as well as b the continuous main plates at each plate discontinu
it.
Shingle joints can also facilitate the connection of various bridge components i
n a truss

bridge. or example, plate A in ig. 7.1 ma also serve as a gusset for other me
mbers
framing into the chord.
Shingle joints are most often used where reversal of stress is unlikel to occur
because of the large dead load. Hence, most shingle joints are not slip critical
, and joint
strength, rather than slip, is the governing criteria. Because special situation
s ma
require a design to be slip resistant, design recommendations for both tpes of
load
transfer are given.

7.2 BEHAVIOR O SHINGLE JOINTS
igure 7.2 shows a tpical load versus deformation curve for a shingle joint.7.1
This
particular joint consisted of three regions with six 7/8 in. dia. A325 bolts in
each
region. The plates had a clean mill scale surface condition and the ield streng
th of the
plate material was about 50 ksi. The load versus deformation curve shown in ig.
7.2
indicates that in the earl load stages the load is completel carried b the fr
ictional
forces acting on the faing surfaces. Tests have demonstrated that shingle joint
s often
exhibit two distinct load levels at which major slip occurs. At the first slip l
oad,
movement develops mainl along the shear plane
158
7.2 Behavior
of Shingle Joints 159
ig. 7.1. orce flow in a tpical triple plate shingle joint.
adjacent
to the main plate terminations. This slip plane is depicted as plane A
in ig.
7.2. At first, little slip or no movement is observed along the second slip plan
e,
indicated as plane B in ig. 7.2. Upon increasing the load, a second major slip
occurs,
with slip developing along the second slip plane (plane B in ig. 7.2). At the s
ame time
some additional slip develops along the first slip plane (plane A).
It has been observed in tests on shingle joints that the total amount of slip te
nds to
be less than the hole clearance.7.1, 7.5 This is especiall true for large and c
omplex bolted
joints, mainl because of unavoidable misalignment tolerances during the fabrica
tion
process.
After major slip, the behavior of shingle joints is in man respects similar to
the
behavior of smmetric butt joints. Because the fasteners are bearing against the
plate
material, fastener deformations are developed in proportion to the load transmit
ted b
each fastener. At high load levels the load versus deformation relationship
ig. 7.2. Load versus deformation behavior of shingle joint.
160 Shingle Joints
ig. 7.3. Load versus deformation behavior of a shingle joint.
of the joint becomes nonlinear because of plastic deformations in the fasteners
and the
plates. Depending on the joint geometr and the mechanical properties of the
constituent parts, failure occurs either b shearing of the fasteners or b frac
ture of the
plates. Both tpes of failures have been experienced in tests.7.1, 7.5 Character
istic load
versus deformation curves are shown in igs. 7.2 and 7.3.
Although both shingle and s mmetric butt joints ield similar load versus deform

ation
relationships, the deformation pattern of
the individual fasteners is usuall
quite different. This is illustrated in ig. 7.4 where a sawed section of a thre
e region
joint is shown after the joint was tested to failure.* The end fastener has shea
red off,
and it is visuall apparent that the bolt deformation decreased rapidl from the
end
fastener toward the fasteners in the middle of the joint. An apparent double she
ar
condition existed in the first six or seven fasteners of region 1, as indicated
b the
deformation along both shear planes. Thereafter, the fasteners resisted the load
in
single shear, transferring the load primaril to the lap plates adjacent to the
main plate
cutoffs. Although the fasteners in a smmetric butt joint are loaded in double s
hear, the
fasteners in a shingle joint ma be loaded either in single or double shear, dep
ending on
their location within the joint.
*In order to use the same bolt lot in all tests it was necessar (see ig. 7.4)
for the bolts in this
particular joint to have less than full thread engagement for the nuts. Control
tests indicated that
the full bolt shear capacit was obtained even with less than full thread engage
ment. This
practice is not recommended for field installations, however.
7.2 Behavior of Shingle Joints 161
ig. 7.4. Sawed section of a three region shingle joint after loading to failure
.
Tests on riveted shingle joints showed an overall behavior that was comparable t
o
the behavior of bolted shingle joints.3.8, 7.3 Riveted joints exhibited less sli
p than the
bolted joints, because there is less hole clearance. When fastener failure is th
e
governing failure mode, the overall deformation of large riveted shingle joints
is likel
to exceed the comparable deformation of an otherwise identical bolted joint.7.2
This is
primaril because of the different load versus deformation characteristics of ri
vets as
compared with high strength bolts.
162 Shingle Joints

7.3 JOINT STI NESS
The stiffness of a joint is characterized b the slope of its load versus deform
ation
diagram. igures 7.2 and 7.3 indicate that the total load is transferred initial

l b
friction on the faing surfaces of the joint. It is also apparent that the stiff
ness of
shingle joints is not significantl affected b a slip of the connection. Onl
ielding of
the gross or net section causes a decrease in joint stiffness. Since the working
load level
does not exceed the ield strength of the net section, the joint stiffness ma b
e
considered to be reflected b the full cross section, with an area equal to the
total gross
area of the main and lap plates. A comparable condition was observed with smmet
ric
butt joints.
7.4 LOAD PARTITION AND ULTIMATE STRENGTH
The analtical solution for load partition and ultimate strength of shingle join
ts is based
on a mathematical model that is similar to that used for smmetric butt joints a
s
described earlier. The butt joint is a special case of a shingle joint.7.2 The s
ame basic
assumptions which are discussed in subsection 5.2.5 still appl. In addition, it
is
assumed that the transfer of load between the lap plates and the main plate take
s place
along the two planes that are common to the main plate core as illustrated in i
g. 7.5.
Thus, no relative movement between the various plies of the lap plate or between
the
various plies of the main plate is considered. Each segment of the lap plate and
main
plate between consecutive fasteners is assumed to function as a unit with proper
ties that
are the aggregate of the constituent plies. The model assumes the top and bottom
lap
plates to be a single plate of variable thickness, comparable to the main plate.
This
idealization results in regions of variable length with uniform plate properties
within
each region.
The force versus displacement relationships for plies of uniform width as well a
s
for the fasteners, are those empiricall developed in Ref. 5.22. The solution is
comparable to the solution for a smmetrical butt splice.7.2 The theoretical res
ults were
in good agreement with the experimental data on bolted shingle joints.7.1 It was
concluded that the load partition and ultimate strength can be predicted within
acceptable limits if double shear behavior is assumed in the first region and si
ngle
shear behavior in the interior regions of the shingle joints. This assumption is
examined
greater detail in Section 7.5.
in
ig. 7.5. Idealized model of a shingle joint.
7.5 Effect of
Joint Geometr 163
7.5 E ECT O JOINT GEOMETR
The theoretical solution was used to stud analticall the effects of various j
oint
geometries on the ultimate strength.7.1 The nondimensionalized ratio of the pred
icted
ultimate strength to the working load of the joint, Pu / Pw, was used as an inde
x of joint
behavior. The working load was either based on the fastener shear area or on the
net
area of the main plate. Two possible assumptions for evaluating the total fasten
er shear
in a joint were examined, namel (1) double shear of the fasteners throughout th
e joint,
and (2) double shear in the first region and single shear in the other regions.
In the analtical stud the ield stress and tensile strength of the plate mater
ial
were assumed as 60 and 88 ksi, respectivel, resulting in a 35 ksi allowable ten
sile
stress for the plate material. The joints were fastened b 7/8 in. dia. A325 bol
ts of
minimum specified mechanical properties. The fastener pitch was held constant at
3 in.
The variables studies were (1) the An / As ratio, defined as the ratio of the ne
t main
plate area in the first region to the total effective fastener shear area; (2) t
he total
number of fasteners in a joint; (3) the number of fasteners per region; and (4)
the
number of regions.
7.5.1 Effect of Variation in An / As Ratio and Joint Length
igure 7.6 shows the change in joint strength with length for different An / As
ratios
ranging from 0.375 to 1.00 for shingle joints with three equal length regions. T
he
fasteners were assumed to act in double shear in all three regions for one serie
s of
studies, and the results are indicated b the open dots. Each curve represents a
different
allowable shear stress. or example, an An / As ratio of 0.625 corresponds to an
allowable shear stress of 22 ksi for double shear. Test results have indicated t
hat the
joint strength is likel to be overestimated for joints with high An / As ratios
. This was
primaril due to the single shear behavior observed in the interior regions.7.1,
7.3
The analsis was also made assuming single shear behavior of the fasteners in th
e
interior regions. These results are also shown in ig. 7.6. It is apparent that
for lower
An / As ratios it does not matter whether double or single shear is assumed in t
he interior

regions. or these joints the fasteners in the first region are the critical one
s, as is
illustrated in ig. 7.7. At higher levels, the load carried b the interior fast
eners was
greater, and a reduction in effective shear area had a more pronounced influence
on
joint strength (see ig. 7.6). This was confirmed b the experimental results.7.
1
7.5.2 Number of asteners per Region
The effect of varing the number of fasteners in each region was studied analti
call
b shifting an equal number of fasteners from each interior region into the firs
t region.
The total number of fasteners in the joint as well as the plate areas were not c
hanged.
Double shear behavior of the fasteners was assumed in the first region, and sing
le shear
behavior was assumed in the interior regions. The results are
164 Shingle Joints
ig. 7.6. Effect of assuming single shear in interior regions. °Analtical predict
ion assuming
double shear in region; •Analtical prediction assuming double shear. Single shear
in interior
regions.
summarized in ig. 7.8. Sometimes a fastener failure was predicted in the interi
or
regions when the fasteners were rearranged.7.1 At the 0.75 An /As level, this on
l
occurred in the short joints when four fasteners were shifted into the first reg
ion. No
variation in strength occurred in the longer joints.
At the 1.125 An/ As level, slight increases in strength were predicted b shifti
ng
fasteners intothe first region.
rom this stud it was concluded that the predicted strength of shingle joints o
f a
given length was not greatl influenced b rearranging the fasteners. This trend
was
also confirmed b the test data reported in Ref. 7.1.
7.5.3 Number of Regions
The effects of varing the number of main plate terminations was studied b corn
paring
the strengths of joints with one, two, and three regions. All joints had the sam
e
total number of fasteners and the same plate areas. In the case of multiple regi
on joints,
an equal number of fasteners was provided per region. Double shear behavior of t
he
fasteners was assumed in the first region, with single shear in the interior reg
ions. The
one region joints were smmetrical butt joints having the total main plate area
terminated at one location.
igure 7.9 shows the change in ratio Pu /Pw to the variation in the number
7.6 DesignRecommendations 165
ig. 7.7. astener shear distribution assuming single or double shear in interio
r regions. or
An /As = 0.50, double shear assumed in all regions, Pu = 930 kips. or An /As =
0.75, double
shear in first region, single shear in interior regions, Pu = 927 kips.
of regions, single shear in interior region of regions. Note that the An /As rat
io increases
as the number of regions increases. This results from the assumed shear behavior
of
the fasteners in the interior regions. As indicated in ig. 7.9, for the joints
represented
b the solid dots (An /As ratio is equal to 0.50 for the single region joint) th
ere was no
appreciable change in strength as the number of regions was changed. At the high
er An
/As ratios , indicated b the open dots in ig. 7.9, the two and three region j
oints were
less efficient. Greater variation was apparent for the shorter lengths. However,
it is
doubtful that short joints will be shingled.
At higher An /As ratios, the distribution of load to interior fasteners was grea
ter than
at lower An /As ratios. Thus, terminating the main plates at different locations
and
reducing the effective shear area resulted in a reduction in strength.
7.6.1 Approximate Method of Analsis
Like other tpes of connections, shingle joints are staticall indeterminant; th
us, the
distribution of forces depends on the relative deformations of the component
ig. 7.8 Effects of rearranging fasteners. ■▲ Denote ilure in interior reions.
Fi. 7.9. E ect o number o reions. ▲∆ One reion joint (double she r is ssumed)
. ■□
Two-reion joint: double she r in irst reion nd sinle she r in interior rei
ons. ●○
Three-reion joint; An /As = 0.50 open symbols or the sinle reion joint; An /
As = 0.75,
solid symbols or the sinle reion joint.
166
7.6 Desin Recommend tions 167
members nd steners. The condition is urther complic ted in shinle joints by
the
unsymmetric positionin o m in pl te termin tions. An lytic l el stic solutions
th t
predict the distribution o lo d in the m in nd splice pl tes o shinle joints
h ve been
developed.7.5 The solution h s been extended into the pl stic r ne to predict t
he
ultim te strenth o the connection.7.2 These theoretic l n lyses, however, re
too
cumbersome nd impr ctic l or ordin ry desin pr ctice. Simpli yin ssumptions
must be m de th t reduce the solution or desin to one b sed prim rily on equil
ibrium.
There re sever l existin methods or estim tin the distribution o orce in t
he m in
nd l p pl tes o shinle splice. Two o the most popul r methods re:7.4
1. Forces in splice pl tes re inversely proportion l to their dist nces rom th
e
member bein spliced.
2. Forces in e ch member t section throuh splice re proportion l to their
re s.
In method 1, it is ssumed th t t e ch discontinuity the mount o orce
distributed to the l p pl tes is proportion l to the re o the member bein
termin ted. The orces in the continuous m in members re ssumed to rem in
unch ned. This is illustr ted schem tic lly in Fi. 7.l0 . The tr ns er o lo d
is
m de in the reion directly precedin the point o termin tion, nd it is ssume
d
th t the oriin l lo d is restored to the spliced member in the reion ollowin
termin tion. In method 2 (see Fi. 7.l0b), the tot l pplied lo d is ssumed to
be
distributed to ll continuous members t the position o m in pl te termin tio
n in
proportion to their re s. No direct ssumption is m de re rdin the mount o
lo d tr ns erred to the splice pl tes in p rticul r reion s in method 1. I
the l p
pl tes re o equ l re , method 2 predicts th t the she r tr ns er is equ l lo
n the
top nd bottom she r pl nes in the irst reion, re rdless o their positions w
ith
respect to the member bein termin ted.
Previous shinle joint tests h ve shown th t t e ch pl te discontinuity, there
w s sudden pick-up o lo d in the dj cent pl te elements.3.8, 7.5 Another
pproxim te method o n lysis w s developed on the b sis o these observ tions
nd test results. This method, re erred to s method 3 nd illustr ted in Fi. 7
.l0c,
ssumes th t the tot l lo d is distributed to ll members t section throuh t
he
joint in proportion to their re s, irst considerin the termin ted members s
bein
continuous. The lo d ssumed to be c rried by termin tin member is then
distributed to the two dj cent pl tes in proportion to their re s. Hence, tw
ost e
distribution is used.
Fiure 7.11 comp res the me sured pl te orces in three-reion test joint with
the three desin methods.7.1 The p rtition o lo d w s determined rom the me su
red
pl te str ins t di erent cross-sections lon the lenth. The comp risons were
t the
workin lo d levels s determined by the m in pl te net re s. It is pp rent r
om
Fi. 7.11 th t method 1 underestim ted the tot l tr ns er o lo d in the irst
nd
second reion. Lo ds subst nti lly re ter th n those estim ted by
168 Shinle Joints
Fi. 7.10. Illustr tions o desin methods. ( ) Method 1. (b) Method 2. (c) Meth
od 3.
method 1 were me sured in the bottom l p pl tes. Test results indic ted th t the
orce
in the top nd bottom pl tes were ne rly equ l in the irst reion.
The distribution o lo d in the m in pl tes o the joint s determined by method
2
w s in ood reement with the me sured orces. Sliht v ri tion between the
theoretic l distribution nd test results occurred in the top nd bottom l p pl
tes. It w s
ound th t this method slihtly underestim tes the orces in the pl tes dj cent
to
pl te termin tion.
The distributions o orce determined by method 3 provided the best correl tion
with the test results, s shown in Fi. 7.11. The method provided re son ble e
stim te
o the orce distributions in ll joint components nd ccur tely predicts mor
e
e ective use o the steners in the interior reions, thus requirin less st
eners th n
the other methods. This method is there ore recommended or desin purposes.
Fi. 7.11. Comp rison o desin methods with test results.
For desin it is recommended th t method 3 be used to pproxim te the lo d
distribution in the pl tes nd steners. With this method, it is lso recommend
ed th t
the irst reion o shinle splices h ve double l p pl tes o equ l re . This r
educes the
critic l she r tr ns er lon the pl te dj cent to the irst pl te termin tion.
170 Shinle Joints
Where pr ctic l, it is lso recommended th t the top nd bottom l p pl tes h ve
equ l lenths in the irst reion. As shown in Fi. 7.4, equ l de orm tion w s o
bserved
lon both she r pl nes t ilure. It is believed th t equ l lenth splice pl t
es would
more e ectively utilize the critic l end steners.
With the introduction o usset into the splice s in truss joint, however,
ddition l steners re required lon the she r pl ne dj cent to the usset t
o tr ns er
lo d rom di on l members. Since these steners re not required lon the bot
tom
she r pl ne, it is believed th t the bottom l p pl tes c n be shorter th n the t
op l p pl te
in the irst reion i n dequ te number o steners is still provided.
7.6.2 Connected M teri l
Once the lo d distribution throuhout the pl tes is determined, the pl te dimens
ions c n
be obt ined. The desin recommend tions iven in subsections 5.4.3, nd 5.4.4 o
r the
connected pl tes re lso pplic ble to shinle joints.
7.6.3 F steners
A ter the lo d p rtition h s been est blished, the required number o steners
per
reion c n be determined. The di erence in pl te lo d between two dj cent pl t
es is
tr nsmitted by she r o the steners. An ex min tion o ll possible she r pl n
es in
e ch reion results in one or more critic l she r pl nes or e ch reion. The nu
mber o
steners is re dily determined rom the she r resist nce o the steners.
The desin recommend tions iven in subsection 5.4.2 or slip-resist nt nd othe
r
bolted joints subjected to st tic lo din conditions re lso pplic ble to the
desin o
slip-resist nt nd other bolted shinle joints. The desin she r stress or shin
le joints
depends on the bolt qu lity s well s on the joint lenth. Since the irst rei
on is the
critic l one in most shinle joints, the desin she r stress or non-slip-critic
l shinle
joints should be reduced by 20% i the lenth o the irst reion exceeds 50 in.
All
other desin recommend tions iven in Subsection 5.4.2 re pplic ble to shinle
joints.
REFERENCES
7.1 E. Power nd J. W. Fisher, “Beh vior nd Desin o Shinle Joints,” Journ l o t
he
Structur l Division, ASCE, Vol. 98, ST9, September 1972.
7.2 S. C. Des i nd J. W. Fisher, An lysis o Shinle Joints, Fritz L bor tory R
eport 340.5,
Lehih University, Bethlehem, Pennsylv ni , 1970.
7.3 E. D vis, G. B. Woodru , nd H. E. D vis, “Tension Tests o L re Riveted Joi
nts,”
Tr ns ctions, ASCE, Vol. 66, No. 8, P rt 2, pp. 1193–1299, 1940.
7.4 W. J. Yus v e (Ed.), Simple Sp n Deck Truss Bride, M nu l o Bride Desin
Pr ctice, 2nd ed., St te o C li orni , Hihw y Tr nsport tion Aency, Dep rtmen
t o
Public Works, Division o Hihw ys, S cr mento, 1963.
7.5 U. River nd J. W. Fisher, Lo d P rtition nd Ultim te Strenth o Shinle
Joints,
Fritz L bor tory Report 340.6, Lehih University, Bethlehem, Pennsylv ni , 1970.
Ch pter Eiht
L p Joints
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In contr st to bolts in symmetric butt splices, steners in l p splices h ve on
ly one
she r pl ne. Dependin on the eometry o the joint nd the lo din conditions,
the
beh vior o l p joints m y di er sini ic ntly rom the beh vior o symmetric b
utt
joints with the steners lo ded in double she r.
The simplest type o l p splice is shown in Fi. 8.l . Such joints re simple to
bric te nd erect but re usu lly voided bec use o concern with the inherent
eccentricity th t results in de orm tions such s those shown in Fi. 8.l . Thes
e e ects
o bendin m y be minimized by providin restr inin di phr ms or sti eners th
t
restrict the rot tion nd out-o -pl ne displ cement o the joint. Such restr int
s m y be
n inter l p rt o the member. O ten situ tions rise in which the restr ints
re
provided by the connected member itsel ; typic l ex mple is the h ner connect
ion
shown in Fi. 8.lb or the l ne splices o irder (Fi. 8.1c). Bec use o sym
metry o
the she rin pl nes nd di phr m ction o the web, bendin o the l p splice d
oes not
occur in ny sini ic nt mount, lthouh the steners re in sinle she r co
ndition
nd n eccentricity o the lo d exists.
F steners in l p splice re m inly subjected to she r. However, dependin on
joint eometry nd lo din conditions, bendin c n result in n ddition l tensi
le
component in the stener. As noted in the ollowin sections, this tensile comp
onent is
o ten o minor import nce nd does not ect sini ic ntly the ultim te strent
h o the
connection.
8.2 BEHAVIOR OF LAP JOINTS
In discussion o the beh vior o l p joints it is convenient to de ine two c t
eories o
l p joints s ollows:
1. Joints in which restr ints re provided so th t bendin c n be nelected
(Fi.8.1b nd c).
171
Fi. 8.1. Typic l l p splices with steners subjected to sinle she r. ( ) L p
splice connection.
(b) Typic l connection in truss-type bride. (c) Girder splice.
172
8.2 Beh vior o L p Joints 173
2. Joints th t re not restr ined inst bendin. In these joints second ry
bendin stresses re developed due to the eccentricity o the lo d.
St tic tension tests o l p joints with restr int inst out-o -pl ne de orm ti
on
exhibit lo d versus de orm tion beh vior th t is essenti lly comp r ble to the
beh vior observed or symmetric butt joints (see Fi. 8.2). The slip resist nce
nd
the ultim te strenth o sinle she r l p splices w s ound to equ l one-h l th
e
double she r resist nce provided by butt joint. As expected, the “unbuttonin”
beh vior ( s discussed in Ch pter 5) w s lso observed in lon l p joints.4.6, 8
.1
The lo d versus de orm tion beh vior o l p joints th t were not restr ined
inst out-o -pl ne displ cement h s been ex mined with sm ll joints with two o
r
three steners in line.6.2, 8.2, 8.3 Since restr ints were not provided, the
joints
showed consider ble de orm tion due to the eccentricity o the lo d, s shown in
Fi. 8.3. It is evident th t the e ects o bendin re m inly con ined to the r
eions
where pl te discontinuities occur. Obviously, s the joint lenth incre ses, ben
din
will become less pronounced, nd the in luence on the beh vior o the connection
should decre se. The in luence o bendin is most pronounced in splice with on
ly
sinle stener in the direction o the pplied lo d. In such joint the st
ener is
not only subjected to sinle she r, but second ry tensile component m y be
present s well. Furthermore, the pl te m teri l in the direct vicinity o the s
plice is
subjected to hih bendin stresses due to the eccentricity o the lo d. However,
this
h s little in luence on the lo d c p city, since the m teri l will str in-h rden
nd
c use yieldin on the ross re o the connected pl te.
Tests on sinle bolt l p splices showed th t the slip resist nce w s not notice
bly
ected by the ddition l bendin.8.2, 8.3 She r ilures o the steners were
observed
t n ver e stener she r stress th t w s bout 10% less th n observed in
symmetric butt joints with simil r m teri l properties. Hence, the bendin tende
d
to decre se slihtly the ultim te strenth o short connections. The she r stren
th
Fi. 8.2. Typic l lo d versus de orm tion curve or l p joints in which restr in
ts inst
bendin re provided.
174 L p Joints
Fi. 8.3. Sinle she r specimen ter test. (Courtesy o U.S. Steel Corp.)
o loner l p joints with no restr ints inst bendin should not be s ecte
d by the
e ects o bendin.
L p joints m y be subjected to repe ted type lo din s well. The critic l joi
nt
component under such lo din conditions is not the stener but the pl te m teri
l. A
severe decre se in the pl te tiue strenth is pp rent in unrestr ined l p jo
ints when
comp red with butt joints.6.2 The bendin de orm tions c use l rer stress r ne
s to
occur t the discontinuities o the joint. The bendin stress combines with the
norm l
stress nd results in hih loc l stresses th t reduce the tiue strenth. The
reduction in
tiue strenth depends on the joint eometry nd the m nitude o the second r
y
bendin. Hence, sinle she r splices subject to stress cycles should not be used
unless
the out-o -pl ne bendin de orm tions re prevented.6.2
When desinin l p joints, both the steners nd the pl te m teri l should be
considered. Consider tion should lso be iven to the type o lo din nd whethe
r outo -
pl ne de orm tion will dversely ect the joint per orm nce.
Re erences 175
8.3.1 St tic Lo din Conditions
It w s concluded e rlier th t the ver e she r strenth o the steners t ult
im te lo d
nd the slip resist nce o l p joints re in re son ble reement with the beh v
ior
observed on comp r ble symmetric butt joints. There ore, the desin recommend ti
ons
iven in Ch pter 5 re pplic ble to l p joints or st tic type lo din conditio
ns.
Bendin o the joint does not sini ic ntly in luence the slip resist nce or str
enth.
Hence, the provisions provided in Ch pter 5 or both bolts nd pl te m teri l r
e
pplic ble.
8.3.2 Repe ted-Type Lo din
Since the pl te is the critic l element under repe ted lo ds, l p joints should
only be
used under repe ted lo din conditions when second ry bendin stresses re preve
nted
or minimized. This requires suit ble sti enin or joint eometry which will pre
vent
out-o -pl ne movement. L p connections th t re susceptible to out-o -pl ne
movements should not be used under repe ted lo din conditions. The desin
recommend tions iven in Ch pter 5 or the pl te m teri l o symmetric butt join
ts re
pplic ble s well to the desin o l p joints th t re not subjected to bendin
e ects.
REFERENCES
8.1 R. A. Bendio, J. W. Fisher, nd J. L. Rump , St tic Tension Tests o Bolted
L p Joints,
Fritz Enineerin L bor tory Report 271.9, Lehih University, Bethlehem, Pennsyl
v ni ,
Auust 1962.
8.2 Z. Shoukry nd W. T. H isch, “Bolted Connections with V ried Hole Di meters,”
Journ l o the Structur l Division, ASCE, Vol. 96, ST6, June 1970.
8.3 K. D. Ives, Ev lu tion o Oversize Holes in Friction-Type Sinle She r Joint
s, Bulletin
Applied Rese rch L bor tory, U.S. Steel Corpor tion, Pittsburh, Pennsylv ni , J
une
1971.
Ch pter Nine
Oversize nd Slotted Holes
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Since the irst pplic tion o hih-strenth bolts in 1947, bolt holes 1/16 in.
l rer
th n the bolts h ve been used or ssembly. A simil r pr ctice w s dopted in
Europe nd J p n, where hole di meter 2 mm re ter th n the nomin l bolt
di meter bec me st nd rd pr ctice.9.1
Restrictin the nomin l hole di meter to 1/16 in. in excess o the nomin l bolt
di meter c n impose riid linment conditions between structur l members,
p rticul rly in l re joints. Sometimes erection problems occur when the holes i
n
the pl te m teri l do not line up properly bec use o mism tchin. Occ sion lly,
steel bric tors must pre ssemble structures to ensure th t the joint will li
n
properly durin erection. With l rer hole size, it is possible to elimin te t
he
pre ssembly process nd s ve both time nd money. To determine the e sibility o

oversize holes, it w s necess ry to ev lu te the per orm nce o bolted connectio
ns
with re ter mounts o oversize.
An oversize hole provides the s me cle r nce in ll directions to meet
toler nces durin erection. However, i n djustment is needed in p rticul r
direction, slotted holes c n be used, s shown in Fi. 9.l nd b. Slotted holes
re
identi ied by their p r llel or tr nsverse linment with respect to the directi
on o
the pplied lo d (see Fi. 9.1 nd b).
When oversize nd slotted holes re used, ddition l pl te m teri l is removed
rom the vicinity o hih cl mpin orces. The in luence o this condition on th
e
beh vior o connections h s been investi ted experiment lly.4.26, 8.2, 8.3, 9.1
, 9.3 The
e ect o oversize nd slotted holes on such ctors s the loss in bolt tension
ter
inst ll tion, the slip resist nce, nd the ultim te strenth o she r splices h
s been
ex mined. Tihtenin procedures were studied s well. Provisions b sed on these
indins re now included in speci ic tions.1.4
9.2 EFFECT OF HOLE SIZE ON BOLT TENSION AND INSTALLATION
The lo d versus de orm tion ch r cteristics o joints ssembled with hih-stren
th
bolts inst lled in oversize or slotted holes depend, mon other ctors, on the
bolt
176
9.2 E ect o Hole Size on Bolt nd Inst ll tion 177
Fi. 9.1. Slotted holes. ( ) P r llel slotted holes. (b) Tr nsverse slotted hole
s.
cl mpin orce. Hence, it is necess ry to ex mine the e ect o v ryin hole
di meters on the bolt inst ll tion. This includes the deree o scourin round
the
hole nd the cl mpin orce induced by st nd rd inst ll tion procedures. These
ctors re o prim ry interest when slip-resist nt joints re used.
Tests h ve indic ted th t oversize nd slotted holes c n sini ic ntly
in luence the level o bolt prelo d when bolts re inst lled in ccord nce with
common pr ctice.4.26 This is illustr ted in Fi. 9.2, where the observed bolt
tension ter inst ll tion by the turn-o -the-nut method is shown or sever l
di erent hole cle r nces.4.26 The 1-in. di . A325 bolts inst lled in 1¼-in. di .
holes, th t is, with ¼-in. cle r nce, showed th t the ver e bolt tension w s
bout the s me irrespective o whether or not w sher w s used under the nut.
The bolt tension tt ined w s bout 118% o the required minimum tension.
This is bout 15% lower th n the ver e tension th t is observed in joints with
the norm l 1/16-in. cle r nce (Subsection 5.1.7). Depressions in the pl te
occurred under the bolt he ds durin tihtenin nd were re ter th n the
depressions observed with the usu l 1/16-in. hole cle r nce. Severe llin o
both pl te nd nut occurred with oversize holes when w shers were omitted
rom under the turned element, s is illustr ted in Fis. 9.3 nd 9.4.4.26 Onein
ch
di meter bolts inst lled with only one w sher under the turned
Fi. 9.2. R ne o bolt tensions or norm l, oversize, nd slotted holes.
Fi. 9.3. Severe llin o pl te under turned element (1/4 in. cle r nce, no w
sher).
178
9.2 E ect o Hole Size on Bolt nd Inst ll tion 179
Fi. 9.4. Pl te re under element in which w sher w s used (1/4 in. cle r nce).
element in 1 5/16-in. di meter holes (not shown in Fi. 9.2) iled to chieve t
heir
minimum required tension. The bolt he ds h d recessed severely into the pl te
round the holes. When w shers were pl ced under both the nut nd bolt he d, the
r ne o bolt tension chieved r ned rom 110 to 144% o the minimum required
tension, with n ver e v lue o 125%. In other, unpublished, tests, l re di m
eter
(1 1/8-in.) A490 bolts were inst lled in 5/16-in. oversize holes. St nd rd w she
rs
were used under both the nut nd the bolt he d. Althouh scourin w s observed,
it
w s princip lly dishin o the w shers under the very hih prelo d th t prevente
d
the speci ied minimum prelo d rom bein tt ined. Only when thicker w shers
were used (5/16 in.) could the speci ied minimum prelo d be obt ined in these
tests.
The depression o the bolt into the pl te or the dishin o the w sher me ns
th t prescribed rot tion o the nut m y not produce the required mount o bolt
elon tion. Consequently, the bolt prelo d m y be less th n th t speci ied. In t
he
c libr ted wrench procedure, i the de orm tion ch r cteristic o the c libr tor
is
sti er th n th t o the joint with oversize holes, the s me problem c n rise.
Assumin th t the be rin pressure developed under the l t re s o the bolt he
ds
with ¼-in. cle r nce holes is the m ximum permitted on A36 steel pl te,
theoretic l m ximum hole cle r nce or ny size bolt c n be determined. The re
o the pl te rem inin under the l t o the bolt he d must be su icient so th
t this
180 Oversize nd Slotted Holes
T ble 9.1Hole Cle r nce or Di erent Hole Sizes
Bolt Size
M ximum Hole
Di meter (in.)
Amount o
Cle r nce
½
5/8
¾
7/8
1
1 1/8
1¼
1¾
1½
11/16
13/16
15/16
1 1/16
1 1/4
1 7/16
1 9/16
1 11/16
1 13/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
1/4
5/16
5/16
5/16
5/16
pressure is not exceeded. The results o such comput tions re summ rized in
T ble 9.1. The hole di meters h ve been rounded o to the ne rest sixteenth o
n
inch. All o the v il ble test results subst nti te th t the speci ied minimum
prelo d c n be re ched or exceeded or A325 bolts i the hole nd bolt di meter
combin tions shown in T ble 9.1 re used. As h s lre dy been noted, ddition l
prec utions in the orm o thicker w shers will be necess ry or l re di meter
A490 bolts. Bolts inst lled by the turn-o -nut method in slotted holes lso show
ed
decre se in the me n bolt tension when comp red with simil r bolts inst lled in
st nd rd holes with 1/16 in. oversize.4.26 Hence, the use o either oversize o
r
slotted holes is likely to reduce slihtly the me n cl mpin orce in the sten
er.
Immedi tely ter bolt is tihtened, loss in bolt tension occurs. This is
thouht to result rom creep nd pl stic de orm tion in the thre ded portions n
d
pl stic low in the steel pl tes under the he d nd the nut. These de orm tions
result in n el stic recovery nd subsequent loss in bolt tension. Studies on bo
lts
inst lled in holes with st nd rd hole cle r nce re summ rized in Re . 4.26 n
d in
Ch pter 4. In ener l, the tot l loss in prelo d w s bout 5 to 10% o the initi
l
prelo d, dependin on rip lenth (3 to 6 in.) nd whether w shers were used.
Most o the loss in prelo d occurred within short time ter the bolt w s
tihtened.
A ew rel x tion tests h ve been conducted on bolts inst lled in oversize holes
nd re reported in Re . 4.26. It w s observed th t none o the v ri tions in th
e hole
di meter or the presence o slots h d ny sini ic nt e ect on this loss. Virtu
lly
ll o the losses occurred within 1 week ter inst ll tion, s w s lso observe
d
with e rlier studies. The loss in tension w s observed to be bout 8% o the ini
ti l
prelo d. This is directly comp r ble to e rlier studies on reul r size holes wi
th
st nd rd cle r nce o 1/16 in.
9.3 JOINT BEHAVIOR
9.3.1 Slip Resist nce
Fiure 9.5 shows typic l lo d versus slip rel tionships o joints with oversize
or
slotted holes.4.26 The response is lmost line r until the lo d ppro ches the m
jor
9.3 Joint Beh vior 181
Fi. 9.5. Typic l lo d versus slip di r ms. ( ) Joint with oversize holes. (b)
Joint with
slotted holes.
slip lo d. The initi l slip w s lw ys observed to be less th n the mount o ho
le
cle r nce. Subsequent lo din o the joint ter m jor slip h d occurred produce
d
sm ll slips until the joint c me into be rin. These sm ll slips occurred t lo
ds ne r
the m jor slip lo d. The test results shown in Fi. 9.5 were obt ined usin doub
le
she r splices like those illustr ted in Fi. 9.1.4.26 The steners were 1-in. d
i . A325
bolts, nd the connected m teri l w s A36 steel in the cle n mill sc le conditio
n. A
summ ry o the observed slip coe icients s unction o the hole eometry or
both
oversize nd slotted hole conditions is shown in Fi. 9.6. It w s
Fi. 9.6. Comp rison o ver e slip coe icients.
concluded th t the ver e slip coe icient or joints with up to ¼-in. hole
cle r nce did not ch ne with v ryin oversize. The joints with 5/16-in. cle r n
ce
holes showed 17% decre se in the slip coe icient or cle n mill sc le yin
sur ces. The slip coe icient or joints with slotted holes showed 22 to 33%
decre se when comp red with test specimens with hole cle r nce o 1/16 in. A
decre se in slip resist nce with the remov l o pl te m teri l rom round the b
olt
w s expected bec use o the resultin hih cont ct pressures in the re round
the
bolt. Remov l o the pl te c uses extremely hih cont ct pressures dj cent to t
he
bolt holes th t tends to l tten the sur ce irreul rities nd thereby reduces
the slip
resist nce o the joint.
The slip resist nce is lso ected by the decre sed cl mpin orce th t h s
been observed in joints with oversize nd slotted holes. The combined e ects o
the ch ne in slip coe icient nd the reduction in the cl mpin orce on the sl
ip
resist nce is estim ted to c use 15% reduction in slip resist nce or oversize
holes nd 30% reduction or p r llel nd tr nsverse slotted holes.4.26
M jor slip o the connection is termin ted when one or more bolts come into
be rin inst the pl tes. The mount o slip exhibited be ore be rin occurs
depends on the v il ble cle r nce nd bric tion toler nces. Joints with overs
ize
holes or p r llel slotted holes m y undero subst nti l displ cements i the sli
p
resist nce o the joint is exceeded.
Studies h ve lso been c rried out to ev lu te the in luence o oversize holes u
pon
the slip resist nce o bl st-cle ned nd co ted sur ces.9.3 This work showed th
t, or
holes up to ¼ -in. re ter in di meter th n the bolt di meter, there w s no sini
ic nt
e ect o hole oversize on the slip coe icient. (Further work with s nd-bl sted
sur ces
showed th t the sur ce rouhness o the A572 steel sur ces did not sini ic nt
ly
ect the slip coe icient, nd th t s ndbl stin time did not ect
the slip coe icient or A36, A572, nd A514 steels tested. These tests were c r
ried
out usin joints with holes o norm l cle r nce.)
The p inted sur ces ex mined included or nic zinc primer, with or without
n epoxy topco t, nd inor nic zinc primer with vinyl topco t. The speci ied
primer thickness w s 6 mils nd th t o the topco t w s 3 mils. This p rt o the
study in ound th t holes up to ¼ in. re ter in di meter th n the 7/8-in.
di meter bolts did not ect the slip resist nce o the joints.
Althouh joints with slotted holes were not ex mined in this study, it is
re son ble to expect th t their slip beh vior would be simil r to th t displ yed
by
the co ted or bl st-cle ned sur ces cont inin oversize holes.
9.3.2 Ultim te Strenth
The ultim te strenth o connection is overned by either the she r c p city o

the bolts or the tensile c p city o the pl tes. The e ect o oversize holes or
slotted
holes on the ultim te strenth c n be ev lu ted by ex min tion o the limitin c
se,
tr nsverse slotted holes. Tests h ve shown th t the presence o tr nsverse slott
ed
holes does not result in reduction o the tensile strenth o the pl tes or o
the
she r strenth o the steners.4.26 Hence, the ultim te strenth o joint c n
be
ssumed to be un ected by either oversize or slotted holes.
Since the ultim te strenth o joint with oversize or slotted holes is the s m
e s
the ultim te strenth o simil r st nd rd type connection with identic l bolt
nd
pl te re s, the desin recommend tions iven in Ch pter 5 re pplic ble. The
provisions iven there or both pl te m teri l nd bolts o be rin-type she r
splices re pplic ble lso to joints with oversize or slotted holes. C re must
be
exercised when usin oversize or slotted holes to ensure th t excessive de orm t
ion
will not occur t workin lo ds. The slots should be oriented so th t l re
displ cements c nnot result. Tr nsverse slotted holes re pre er ble, since they
limit the slip to the s me m nitude th t c n be experienced with st nd rd hole
cle r nces.
Desin recommend tions or slip-resist nt joints with oversize or slotted holes
must re lect the reduced slip resist nce. Hole di meters th t do not exceed thos
e
iven in T ble 9.1 do not sini ic ntly lter the slip coe icient. However, the
cl mpin orce is reduced by bout 15%, nd this must be re lected in the slip
resist nce nd desin conditions. A ctor 0.85 c n be used to provide or the
reduced cl mpin orce nd its e ect on the slip resist nce. For slip-resist nt
joints
with slotted holes, reduction ctor o 0.70 will ccount or the loss in slip
resist nce c used by either p r llel or slotted holes.
To prevent the use o extremely l re slotted holes, present speci ic tions limi
t
the lenth o slotted holes to 2 times the bolt di meter. (These re de ined s
lon
slotted holes.) The width o the hole should not exceed the bolt di meter by mor
e
th n 1/16 in. Short slotted holes re lso used. Short slotted holes re 1/16 in
. wider
th n the bolt di meter nd h ve lenth th t does not exceed the llow ble
oversize di meter or th t bolt size by more th n in. Joints with short slotted
holes
will develop the s me slip resist nce s joints with oversize holes. There ore,
the
desin o joints with oversized or short slotted holes is the s me.
To chieve n dequ te cl mpin orce in the bolts, w shers should be used
under both the bolt he d nd the nut when oversize or slotted holes occur in the
outside pl tes o joint. Speci l requirements re necess ry or l re di meter
A490 bolts.
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR OVERSIZE AND SLOTTED
HOLES
H rdened w shers re to be inserted under both the he d nd the nut i oversize
or
slotted holes re pl ced in the outside plies o connection. A490 bolts with
di meters re ter th n 1 in. should h ve t le st 5/16-in. thickness m teri l un
der
both the he d nd the nut in order to bride over slotted or oversize hole. (U
se o
multiple w shers to m ke up the thickness will not be s tis ctory.) I this
ddition l m teri l is h rdened, no w shers will be necess ry. However, i ordin
ry
structur l steel pl te is used, st nd rd h rdened w shers should be dded under
both the nut nd bolt he d.
Slip-Resist nt Joints
's
P = 0.85 Ps or oversize nd short slotted holes not exceedin the dimension
iven in T ble 9.2
's
P = 0.70 Ps or lon slotted holes not exceedin the dimensions iven in
T ble 9.2
where Ps is the slip lo d described in Subsection 5.4.2 or joints usin holes o

norm l cle r nce.
For co ted sur ces, the desin recommend tions iven in Section 12.5 should
be simil rly modi ied i slotted or oversize holes re present.
T ble 9.2St nd rd, Oversize, nd Slotted Hole Dimensions
Hole Dimensions
Bolt
Di m
St nd rd
(Di m)
Oversize
(Di m)
Short Slot
(Width x Lenth)
Lon Slot
(Width x Lenth)
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
1
≥1 1/8
9/16
11/16
13/16
15/16
1 1/16
d + 1/16
5/8
13/16
15/16
1 1/16
1 1/4
d + 5/16
9/16 x 11/16
11/16 x 7/8
13/16 x 1
15/16 x 1 1/8
1 1/16 x 1 5/16
(d + 1/16) x (d +3/8)
9/16 x 1¼
11/16 x 1 9/16
13/16 x 1 7/8
15/16 x 2 3/16
1 1/16 x 2 1/2
(d + 1/16) x (2.5 x d)
Re erences 185
REFERENCES
9.1 Europe n Convention or Construction l Steelwork, Speci ic tions or Assembl
y o
Structur l Joints Usin Hih Strenth Bolts, 3rd ed., Rotterd m, The Netherl nds
,
April 1971.
9.2 O. Steinh rdt, K. Möhler, nd G. V ltin t, Versuche zur Anwendun Voresp nnte
r
Schr uben im St hlb u, Teil IV, Bericht des Deutschen Auschusses ür St hlb u,
St hlb u-Verl Gmbh, Colone, Germ ny, Febru ry 1969.
9.3 K.H. Fr nk nd J.A. Yur , An Experiment l Study o Bolted She r Connections,
Report No. FHWA/RD-81/148, U.S. Dep rtment o Tr nsport tion, W shinton,
D.C., December 1981.
Ch pter Ten
Filler Pl tes Between Sur ces
10.1 INTRODUCTION
O ten splices re symmetric nd consist o identic l structur l components on e
ch
side o the splice. The joint components sh re number o common she r pl nes,
nd splice pl tes re used to tr ns er the lo d cross the splice. In other c se
s,
however, it m y be necess ry to connect members o di erent dimensions, or ps
m y be intention lly cre ted in order to provide or e sier erection. In these c
ses,
the joint must be illed out in its thickness dimensions so th t there re commo
n
yin sur ces nd she r pl nes on e ch side o the joint nd there re no
sini ic nt joint eccentricities. This p ckin is ccomplished by me ns o ille
r
pl tes. The be m or irder splice with di erent depth members on e ch side o t
he
joint, s illustr ted in Fi. 10.1, is typic l ex mple o joint usin iller
pl tes.
Filler pl tes re lso requently encountered in splices o xi lly lo ded built
-up
members in truss brides.
The in luence o iller pl tes on the lo d tr ns er throuh splice comprisin
one
or more iller pl tes is discussed in this ch pter. There re not re t de l o

experiment l d t v il ble, but tests h ve been c rried out to determine both t
he slip
resist nce nd the ultim te strenth o bolted joints in which illers re prese
nt. A
series o tests w s c rried out in Enl nd in 1965 on sinle bolt joints with 1/
8-in.
thick w shers inserted between yin sur ces.10.1 Tests were lso reported by
Lee nd
Fisher on our bolt joints with bl st-cle ned sur ces nd illers.5.10 The ill
er thickness
v ried rom 1/16 to 1 in. Yur et l. 10.2
h ve reported on tests th t used both two nd
three bolts in line, illers o v rious thicknesses, both tiht nd loose iller
s, nd the use
o multiple plies s comp red with sinle thickness illers. Their work provided
in orm tion on both the slip beh vior nd the ultim te strenth o the joints. A
lthouh
the v il ble d t re r ther limited, they provide re son ble indic tion o t
he
beh vior o joints with iller pl tes.
10.2 TYPES OF FILLER PLATES AND LOAD TRANSFER
Filler pl tes re cl ssi ied s “loose” or “tiht” illers. In the c se o loose illers
,
the pl tes re solely used s p ckin pieces. Their only unction is to provide
186
10.2 Types o Filler Pl tes nd Lo d Tr ns er 187
Fi. 10.1 Be m or irder splice with iller pl tes.
common she r pl ne on e ch side o the splice, s shown in Fi. 10.2 . Tiht il
lers
re lso used s p ckin pieces, but the illers re extended beyond the splice
pl tes
nd the joint is m de loner. As with loose illers, tiht illers lso unction
to
provide common she r pl ne on e ch side o the joint. However, s shown in Fi
.
10.2b, tiht illers re connected by ddition l steners outside the m in spli
ce,
nd they become n inter l p rt o the connection. Tiht illers re s id to be
“developed” i they extend r enouh beyond the m in splice so th t uni orm
stress p ttern occurs throuh both the connected m teri l nd the iller pl te.
In slip-resist nt joints, the lo d is tr ns erred by riction l orces ctin on
the
cont ct sur ces. Hence, the steners re not lo ded in direct she r, s they
re in
be rin-type joint. There ore, loose illers re dequ te or slip-resist nt joi
nts
when the sur ce condition o the joint components provides dequ te slip
resist nce, nd the orces c n ll be tr ns erred on the yin sur ces. Test r
esults
reported in Re s. 10.1 nd 5.10 support this conclusion. The tests reported in R
e .
Fi. 10.2 Types o iller pl tes. ( ) Loose illers. (b) Tiht illers.
188 Filler Pl tes between Sur ces
10.1 re summ rized in Fi. 10.3. All specimens h d two bolts in line, p cked wi
th
1/8-in. thick w shers o v ri ble di meter in order to control the cont ct re .
It is
re dily pp rent rom Fi. 10.3 th t the insertion o 1/8-in. thick “loose” illers
between the joint yin sur ces did not sini ic ntly ect the slip resist n
ce.
This w s observed to be true or both cle n mill sc le nd bl st-cle ned yin
sur ces.
The tests reported by Lee nd Fisher were on our bolt joints with bl stcle ned
sur ces.5.10 The illers were symmetric lly pl ced on both yin sur ces
nd v ried in thickness rom 1/16 to 1 in. Fiure 10.4 shows the joint rr neme
nt
s well s some typic l test results. There seems to be no sini ic nt v ri tion
in
the slip resist nce with di erent thicknesses o the illers. Furthermore, s s
hown
in Fi. 10.5, the observed slip coe icients v ried between 0.47 nd 0.57, which
is
well within the 95% con idence limits or bl st-cle ned sur ces summ rized in
T ble 5.1.
In the slip tests done by Yur et l. 10.2, specimen th t h d two bolts on one
side
o the splice loc tion nd three on the other w s used. All yin sur ces were
cle n
mill sc le, but the iller m teri l w s A36 steel where s ll other joint
Fi. 10.3 Slip coe icient–cont ct re rel tionship or tests by Dorm n Lon nd
Comp ny.
Fi. 10.4 Lo d versus slip beh vior o joints with iller pl tes.
Fi. 10.5 Comp rison o slip coe icients.
189
nd splice components were o A5l4 steel. Two iller pl te conditions were used.
In one c se, sinle ¼-in. iller w s used under e ch splice pl te, nd in the ot
her,
three ¼-in. illers were used under e ch splice pl te. On the two-bolt side o the
joint the illers were loose, where s on the three-bolt side they were developed
by
the ddition o one ddition l stener pl ced beyond the m in splice pl te. A
control specimen th t used no iller pl tes w s lso p rt o the pror m. Two
specimens were tested or e ch o the con iur tions described.
There re no slip coe icient d t or A514 steel in the cle n mill sc le
condition outside the two tests done by Yur et l. Since these produced n ver
e
slip coe icient o 0.33, it c n be ssumed th t these sur ces cted like those
o
lower r de steels in the cle n mill sc le condition (see T ble 5.1). When one
iller
pl te o ¼-in. thick A36 steel w s inserted, me n slip coe icient o 0.27 w s
obt ined, nd when three ¼-in. plies o A36 steel were used, the slip coe icient
w s 0.18. These results m y be s id to demonstr te decre sin slip resist nce
with iller pl te thickness nd, possibly, n e ect with respect to the number
o
plies used. It is interestin to note th t no slips were recorded on the three-b
olt
side o these joints, even thouh th t side w s subjected to ex ctly the s me lo
d s
the two-bolt side. For these tests, the three-bolt side never slipped, even up t
o the
she r ilure lo d o the two bolt side.
There is con lict between the results o Lee nd Fisher5.10 nd Yur et l.10.
2
The ormer showed th t iller pl te thicknesses up to 1 in. h d no e ect on the
slip
lo d, where s the l tter showed decre sed slip coe icient when one ¼-in. thick
ply w s used nd n even l rer decre se when three ¼ -in. plies were used. In
ssessin the test results o Yur , et l., it must be noted th t ll “slips” record
ed
were extremely sm ll. For ex mple, the movement t the slip lo d in one o the
specimens with three ¼-in. plies w s only bout 0.02 in. (0.5 mm). This is
pproxim tely one-third o the nomin l hole cle r nce, nd such sm ll mount o

movement would not be c use or concern unless lo d revers l were present.
Furthermore, ll o the Yur et l. test results except one were within two st n
d rd
devi tions o the me n slip coe icient or cle n mill sc le sur ces, con ide
nce
limit o 95%.
B sed on these limited d t , it is concluded th t iller pl tes with sur ce
condition simil r to th t o the other components o the joint do not sini ic n
tly
ect the slip resist nce o bolted joint.
V s rhelyi nd Chen tested bolted butt joints with slihtly di erent thickness
m in pl tes on e ch side o the joint.10.3 Filler pl tes were not used, nd
consequently ull sur ce cont ct could not be obt ined dj cent to the end o t
he
thinner m in pl te. Gener lly, decre se in slip resist nce w s observed when
comp red with the control joints with m in pl tes o equ l thickness. They
suested th t the slip resist nce could be improved by incre sin the dist nce
rom the pl te ede to the irst row o bolts. This would provide more lexibili
ty in
the l p pl tes nd llow more cl mpin orce to be used e ectively or lo d
tr ns er.
There is no doubt th t the presence o loose iller pl tes h s the potenti l or
reducin the bolt she r strenth. Fi. 10.6 shows the ide lized lo din o bol
t
10.2 Types o Filler Pl tes nd Lo d Tr ns er 191
Fi. 10.6 In luence o iller pl tes on bolt strenth.
in she r splice ter the slip lo d h s been exceeded. No iller pl tes re pr
esent
in the joint shown in Fi. l0.6 . The loc tion o the potenti l she r pl nes is
well
de ined, nd this constitutes the st nd rd she r strenth c se described in Ch p
ter
5. Fi. 10.6b shows the ide lized lo din or bolt cont ined in joint th t u
ses
loose iller pl tes. The loc tion o the potenti l she r pl nes is no loner cle
r, nd
it is obvious th t bolt bendin c n occur. The extent o the bendin nd its
in luence on the bolt she r strenth will depend on the thickness o the iller
pl tes.
So r s is known, the tests conducted by Yur et l.10.2 re the only ones to
h ve
explored this beh vior. In ddition to the specimens or which the slip resist n
ce
w s obt in, specimens usin sinle 0.075-in. thick iller pl te nd sinle ¾-i
n.
thick iller pl te were lso tested.
When no illers were present, the two-bolt side o the joints iled t 1.003
times the she r strenth o sinle bolts t ken rom the s me lot. This r tio w s
0.974, 0.991, 0.877, nd 0.863 or the c ses o sinle 0.075-in. iller, sin
le ¼-
in. iller, sinle ¾-in. iller, nd three ¼-in. illers, respectively. (Two joint
s were
tested in e ch c teory, nd the ver e results re quoted herein. There w s cl
ose
reement between p irs o test results.) A reduction in bolt she r strenth c p
city
is pp rent or the l rer iller pl te thicknesses. The mount o bolt bendin
will
be ected by the mount o be rin de orm tion in the pl tes immedi tely
dj cent to the holes. (This de orm tion c n be seen in Fi. 5.33.) Bec use thes
e
tests used A514 steel pl tes or the connected m teri l, the mount o be rin
de orm tion c n be expected to be somewh t less th n th t which would occur in
joints usin lower yield strenth steels. Thus, the she r strenth reductions
determined in the Yur et l. tests miht represent minimum v lues.
The she r strenth reduction with incre sin iller pl te thickness th t w s obs
erved
in the Yur et l. study must be the result o tensile orces in the bolts.
These tensile orces will be the consequence o l p pl te pryin nd bolt bendin
.
Counter ctin this e ect, the she r re v il ble incre ses s bendin occurs
bec use the she r pl ne no loner p sses throuh the bolt sh nk t riht nles
to
the lonitudin l xis o the bolt. This phenomenon h s been observed in m ny tes
ts
nd is evident in the photor phs o iled specimens in the Yur et l. study.
Evidently, in these tests the she r strenth reduction due to the presence o te
nsile
orces in the bolt exceeded the she r strenth incre se present due to incre sed
she r re .
Tiht illers miht be dv nt eous or necess ry i the be rin stress on the
m in pl te r ther th n the she r c p city o the stener overns the desin. Pr
ovidin
tiht iller incre ses the thickness o the pl te to be spliced nd thereby
reduces the be rin stress. There re no bolted joint tests with tiht illers
v il ble. However, tests h ve been conducted on riveted joints to veri y the
ssumed beh vior.
Dependin on the required lo d tr ns er, loose or tiht illers c n be used in s
lipresist nt
or be rin-type joints. For slip-resist nt joints, loose illers with sur ce
conditions comp r ble to other joint components re c p ble o developin the
required slip resist nce. Slip-resist nt joints do not require ddition l sten
ers
when iller pl tes re used. The illers become inter l components o the joint
,
nd iller thickness does not sini ic ntly ect the joint beh vior.
For be rin-type joints, where the lo d is tr nsmitted by she r nd be rin o
the bolts, loose illers c n be used s lon s excessive bendin o the bolts d
oes
not occur. It is suested th t sinle loose illers up to ¼ -in. thick c n be use
d
without considerin reduction in bolt she r strenth. I the loose iller thic
kness
exceeds this, the bolt she r strenth c p city should be reduced. A reduction o
15% would be ppropri te or loose iller thickness o ¾ in.
Re erences 193
Tiht illers re not required in be rin-type joints i the llow ble be rin
stress on the m in pl te is not exceeded. Tests on riveted joints h ve indic ted
th t
tiht illers re desir ble when thick iller pl tes re needed nd lon rips r
esult.
This requires ddition l steners nd they re pre er bly pl ced outside the
connection, s shown in Fi. 10.2b. As n ltern tive solution, the ddition l
steners m y be pl ced in the m in splice.
The desin recommend tions iven in Ch pter 5 or the pl tes nd steners
re pplic ble to the desin o connections with iller pl tes.
REFERENCES
10.1 L. G. Johnson, Hih Strenth Friction Grip Bolts, unpublished report, Dorm
n Lon
nd Comp ny, Enl nd, September 1965.
10.2 J. A. Yur , M. A. H nsen, nd K. H. Fr nk, “Bolted Splice Connections with
Undeveloped Fillers,” Journ l o the Structur l Division, ASCE, Vol. 108, ST12,
December 1982.
10.3 D. D. V s rhelyi nd C. C. Chen, “Bolted Joints with Pl tes o Di erent Thic
kness,”
Journ l o the Structur l Division, ASCE, Vol. 93, ST6, December 1967.
Ch pter Eleven
Alinment o Holes
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Holes in mech nic lly stened joints re either punched, subpunched nd re med,
or drilled, nd the hole di meter is ener lly 1/16 in. re ter th n the nomin l
bolt
di meter. Since connections cont in two or more steners, the linment o hole
s
is o concern. Usu l shop pr ctice is to bric te the constituent p rts o jo
int
sep r tely. Since dimension l toler nces re necess ry durin the bric tion
process, the holes o component p rts o joint re not likely to be per ectly
lined unless ll plies re cl mped toether be ore drillin. Mis linment m y
lso result rom erection toler nces. Hence, it is desir ble to scert in whethe
r hole
o sets h ve detriment l e ects on the joint beh vior.
This ch pter discusses the in luence o mis linments on the beh vior o hihstr
enth
bolted connections.
11.2 BEHAVIOR OF JOINTS WITH MISALIGNED HOLES
The experiment l d t v il ble on joints with mis lined holes re not extensiv
e.
V s rhelyi et l. h ve reported on series o tests where mis linment w s
purposely introduced into the joint by providin mism tchin holes.11.1, 11.2
The two m jor concerns with mis lined holes re whether the slip resist nce
is ected nd whether the mis linment dversely ects the joint strenth n
d
per orm nce. With joints tr ns errin lo d by she r nd be rin o the steners
,
bolts pl ced in mis lined holes obviously will come into be rin prior to other
steners in the joint. I the steners nd pl tes h ve su icient ductility n
d c n
ccommod te the unequ l orces nd displ cements, the mis linments should not
h ve sini ic nt e ect.
In ddition to ectin the distribution o orces on the steners,
mis linment m y lso in luence the stress distribution in the connected pl tes
o
the joint.
Dependin on the mount o mis linment in the hole p ttern, tests on mis lined
joints h ve indic ted th t slip ener lly develops more r du lly s comp red wi
th
joints with ood linment.11.1, 11.2 This is expected, since ull hole cle r nc
e slip is
prevented due to the mis linment o the holes. As slip develops, the pl tes
194
11.2 Beh vior o Joints with Mis lined Holes 195
come into be rin nd the steners ener lly o er urther resist nce to the sl
ip
movement.
A series o sm ll slips h ve been observed to develop t lo d levels
consider bly bove the norm l slip resist nce.11.1, 11.2
These p rti l slips brin more
bolts into be rin nd result in eometric sel - djustment o the joint elements
s
the pplied lo ds orce linment o the joint. The joint tends to pivot round
steners lre dy in be rin, nd eventu lly this results in more bolts in be ri
n.
Tests h ve indic ted th t the slip resist nce o mis lined bolted joint is
equ l to or exceeds the slip resist nce o joint without mis linment. This is
visu lly pp rent in Fi. 11.1. As the mis lined condition w s m de more severe
,
there w s not s much riid body motion possible. No sini ic nt ch ne in joint
sti ness w s pp rent until the pplied lo ds were ne rly twice s l re s the
lo d
th t c used m jor slip to develop with ood linment. Comp r ble results h ve
been observed with more complex joints where mis linment is more
prob ble.3.8, 4.6 Mis lined holes lw ys result in less movement between the
connected plies. The joint sti ness is improved, nd ull hole slip is not poss
ible.
Fi. 11.1 In luence o mis linment o holes on lo d versus de orm tion response
(Re . 11.2)
196 Alinment o Holes
When slip develops, one or more bolts come into be rin. As the pplied lo d is
incre sed, these bolts nd the dj cent pl te m teri l must de orm so th t other
bolts
c n come into be rin s well. I the de orm tion c p city o the pl tes nd the
bolts
will permit it, ll bolts m y come into be rin be ore she r ilure develops in
one or
more bolts. Excessive mis linment m y prevent ll bolts rom comin into be rin

nd prevent the ull she r strenth o the joint rom bein developed. This situ
tion is
somewh t n loous to the lo d p rtition th t occurs in lon bolted joints. The
critic l
stener m y be subjected to severe de orm tions nd il prem turely be ore the
ull
joint strenth c n be tt ined.4.6
The tests on comp ct bolted joints with di erent derees o mis linment
throuhout the bolt p ttern th t re summ rized in Fi. 11.1 show th t mis linm
ent
h s neliible e ect on the ultim te strenth o the joints. I nythin, the
mis linment h d bene ici l e ect. It improved the slip resist nce, decre sed
the
riid body motion between connected plies, o ered sti er joint, nd did not
result in
decre se in joint strenth. Comp r ble results were reported in l ter tests. 1
1.2
As the connected m teri l incre ses in yield nd tensile strenth, mis linment
m y h ve more dverse e ect. Not s much ductility is v il ble or the
redistribution o the lo d, nd critic l stener could be she red o prem tu
rely.
This condition is lso more critic l with hiher strenth bolts, since they h ve
less
de orm tion c p city in she r. The pl stic de orm tion c p city o the pl te
m teri l nd the de orm tion c p city o the bolt both contribute to the djustm
ent
th t occurs in the joint. Obviously, the more de orm tion c p city th t is v il
ble,
the better the redistribution o pl te nd bolt orces.
The mount o mis linment in joint depends l rely on the joint eometry s
well s on bric tion toler nces nd erection procedures. Since bolt holes re
ener lly 1/16 in. in excess o the nomin l bolt di meter, some djustment
possibility is provided. Av il ble test results do not indic te ny dverse e e
ct o
mis linment resultin rom hole cle r nce on either the slip resist nce or the
ultim te strenth o the joint.11.1, 11.2 Hence, the usu l mis linment th t m y
result
rom erection or bric tion toler nces does not ect the desin o joints.
Since the de orm tion c p city o the steners nd pl te m teri l re o prime
import nce in the re djustment c p city o bolted joints with mis lined holes,
the
deree o toler nce will decre se when hiher strenth m teri ls with lower
ductility re used.
REFERENCES
11.1 D. D. V s rhelyi, S. Y. Be no, R. B. M dison, Z. A. Lu, nd U. C. V sishth,
“E ects o F bric tion Techniques on Bolted Joints,” Journ l o the Structur l
Division, ASCE, Vol. 85, ST3, M rch 1959.
11.2 D. D. V s rhelyi nd W. N. Ch n, “Mis linment in Bolted Joints,” Journ l o t
he
Structur l Division, ASCE, Vol. 91, ST4, Auust 1965.
Ch pter Twelve
Sur ce Co tins
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Situ tions o ten rise in steel construction in which it is desir ble to provide
protective co tin on the members nd the yin sur ces o their joints. The
tre tment prevents corrosion due to exposure be ore erection or provides
corrosion-resist nt l yer to reduce m inten nce costs durin the li etime o the
structure. When the tre tment is pplied to prevent lon term corrosion, the co
tin
is o perm nent n ture; usu lly, met llic l yers o zinc or luminum re
employed. For tempor ry protective purposes, w sh primer is o ten used th t is
usu lly removed upon ssembly by rindin or by dissolvin with v rious solvents
.
Other less perm nent co tins such s vinyl w shes nd linseed oil re lso used
.
It h s lon been reconized th t protective co tins lter the slip ch r cterist
ics o
bolted joints to v ryin derees.4.18, 12.7 Consequently, the desin o slip-res
ist nt joints
with co ted yin sur ces must re lect the in luence o such tre tments on the
slip
resist nce.
For be rin-type joints, the permissible lo d or both workin stress desin nd
lo d ctor desin is b sed on the ultim te strenth o the connection. This str
enth is,
o course, independent o ny co tin th t m y be used. There ore, the comments
in
this ch pter re con ined to the in luence o protective co tins on the respons
e
ch r cteristics nd per orm nce o slip-resist nt joints subjected to v rious ty
pes o
lo din.
In the p st, the m in me ns o providin corrosion protection to exposed
sur ces w s by lv nizin. G lv nized members were used m inly or tr nsmissio
n
line towers, nd the joints were o ten desined on the b sis o their bolt she r
strenth so th t be rin-type connections resulted.
In some structures, ribbed be rin bolts were used to minimize joint slip. At
th t time, the use o co tins or slip-resist nt joints w s limited or prohibit
ed by
the speci ic tions.1.4, 5.30 These restrictions were the result o e rly rese rc
h th t
indic ted th t low riction l resist nce resulted when lv nized sur ces wer
e
present.12.7 However, s result o continuin rese rch, protective sur ce
tre tments th t provide dequ te slip resist nce h ve been developed.4.11, 4.18,
4.27,
5.11, 5.17, 5.37, 9.1, 12.1–12.3 These studies indic te th t dequ te ric-
197
198 Sur ce Co tins
tion l resist nce o co ted sur ces c n be chieved, nd th t co ted hih-stren
th
bolts, nuts, nd w shers c n be used provided th t suit ble lubric nt is used
on
the thre ded p rt o the stener (see Section 4.6). As result o these studie
s,
provisions were included in the RCRBSJ speci ic tion in 1970 th t permitted
cert in sur ce tre tments to be used in slip-resist nt joints.1.4 These tre tme
nts nd
their in luence upon the lo d versus slip per orm nce o slip-resist nt joints
re
discussed in this ch pter.
12.2 EFFECT OF TYPE OF COATING ON SHORT-DURATION SLIP
RESISTANCE
When only tempor ry protection o the yin sur ce is needed, p ints re o ten
pl ced on the we ther-exposed sur ces. Vinyl-w shes nd linseed oil h ve lso
been used s substitutes or red le d nd simil r p ints.5.11 I more perm nen
t
protective co tin is required, met llic l yer with hih corrosion resist nc
e
must be pplied to the structur l element. The most commonly used protective
co tins n be cl ssi ied s ollows:
1. Hot-dip lv nizin, with or without pre ssembly tre tment, to improve
the slip resist nce o the sur ce
2. Met llizin with either spr yed zinc, luminum, or combin tion o both
met ls
3. Zinc-rich p ints th t use or nic or inor nic, vehicles
4. Vinyl w shes or p ints.
The e ects o these co tins on the slip resist nce o connections subjected to
short-dur tion, st tic lly pplied lo ds re discussed in this section. Other
ctors,
such s the lo d versus de orm tion beh vior under sust ined or repe ted lo din
conditions, must be considered when pplic ble; they re discussed in subsequent
sections.
12.2.1 Hot-Dip G lv nizin
The hot-dip lv nizin process requires the remov l o the mill sc le prior to
the
co tin pplic tion. This is usu lly done by picklin the member in b th o c
id.
subsequently, the member is co ted with met llic l yer by dippin into b th
o
hot met l. Iron-zinc lloys or pure zinc re ener lly used or this process.
Test results indic te th t hot-dip lv nizin ener lly results in low
riction l resist nce o the yin sur ces.4.11, 4.18, 12.1, 12.13 Tests on jo
ints with hotdip
lv nized yin sur ces h ve yielded slip coe icients between 0.08 nd
0.36, with n ver e v lue o 0.19 (see T ble 12.1).12.13 The low slip resist n
ce o
lv nized sur ces s comp red with cle n mill sc le sur ces is c used by the
presence o the so ter zinc l yer th t tends to ct s lubric nt between the
yin
sur ces. Test results h ve lso indic ted th t the slip coe icient decre ses w
ith n
incre se in co tin thickness.4.18, 12.1
12.2 E ect o Type o Co tin on Short-Dur tion Slip Resist nce 199
T ble 12.1 Slip Coe icients or Hot-Dip G lv nized Sur ces under Short-
Dur tion St tic Lo d
Re .
Type o Tre tment
Co tin
Thickness
(mils)
Number
o Tests
Aver e St nd rd
Devi tion
4.18
12.1
12.13
12.1
12.5
Picklin in cid b th, hotdip
lv nized
lv nized
lv nized (tests per ormed
on one-bolt compression-
type specimens
lv nized
lv nized
S nd-bl sted, hot-dip
lv nized
2.4–5.0
4.0
—
—
3.2
3.2
10
3
15
2
—
—
0.23
0.15
0.21
0.15
0.20
0.28
0.023
—
0.08
—
—
—
12.13 Summ ry Study (d t
rom v rious sources)
— 95 0.19 V lue:
Min. 0.08
M x. 0.36
Estim ted
Std. Dev.
0.045
Note: 1 mil= 0.001 in or 25.4 µm; zinc co tin o 1 oz/ t2 corresponds to co t
in
thickness o 0.0017 in.
V ri bility in thickness o the met llic l yer is inherent with the lv nizin
process. Di erent tre tment methods h ve lso contributed to the v ri bility ob
served
or di erent test series. These ctors re believed to be the m jor re sons
or the rel tively l re sc tter in the test d t .12.13
The in luence o the tre tment method on the slip resist nce o lv nized joint
s is
illustr ted by the test d t summ rized in T ble 12.2. In these test series, ll
joint
components were rit-bl sted be ore picklin nd subsequent dippin into the met
l
b th. Dippin time, coolin r te, nd b th temper ture were v ried. For the pl i
n,
unco ted, bl st-cle ned sur ces, n ver e slip coe icient o 0.73 resulted.
The
lv nized sur ces yielded ver e slip coe icients between 0.27 nd 0.57.12.8
The
study indic ted th t the type o co tin process c n ect the slip resist nce
o the
co ted sur ces. These results, s well s d t reported in Re . 5.17, show th t
bl st
cle nin the sur ce be ore hot-dip lv nizin results in n improvement
200 Sur ce Co tins
T ble 12.2 In luence o Pre lv nizin Tre tment on Slip Coe icient
Conditions Series A Series B Series C
Sur ce
condition
Co tin
thickness
(mils)
Co tin
structure
Prep r tion
Zinc b th
temper ture
Dippin
time
Coolin
Grit- bl sted
to white
met l
—
—
—
—
—
—
Hot-dip lv nized
4.0
Fe-Zn lloys 40%; pure
zinc 60%
Grit bl stin nd successive
picklin with HCl
452oC
1 min
Hih: ir blowin
within
20 sec, ter withdr w l
nd successive w ter
quenchin
Hot-dip lv nized
4.5
Fe-Zn lloys 100%
Grit bl stin nd
successive picklin
with HCl
467oC
3 min
Low: specimens kept
over the b th sur ce or
3 min, successive w ter
quenchin
Re .
Type o Tre tment
Co tin
Thickness
(mils)
Number
o Tests
Aver e
St nd rd
Devi tion
12.8
5.17
Grit-bl sted, series A
Grit-bl sted, hot-dip
lv nized, series C
lv nized, series B
lv nized
—
4.2
4.2
4.0
10
10
10
12
0.73
0.57
0.27
0.30
0.05
0.01
0.03
—
o the slip resist nce.5.17, 12.5, 12.8 This results rom the incre sed sur ce
rouhness due
to the bl st cle nin.
A sini ic nt improvement in the slip resist nce o lv nized sur ces c n be
chieved by pre ssembly tre tment o the cont ct sur ces. Amon the tre tments
ex mined re wire brushin, s nd or rit bl stin, nd chemic l tre tment o t
he
lv nized sur ces.4.11 Wire brushin c n be ccomplished m nu lly or with
power brush. A liht bl st cle nin th t dulls the norm l shiny ppe r nce o th
e
lv nized co tin is ener lly su icient. With either tre tment it is essenti
l to
visibly lter the sur ce condition. However, in order to m int in the corrosion
protection or which the lv nizin w s pplied in the irst pl ce, it is impor
t nt
T ble 12.3 Summ ry o Slip Coe icients o Hot-Dip G lv nized Sur ces
(Determined rom Compression-Type Specimens)
Sur ce Tre tment Aver e St nd rd
Devi tion
Number
o Tests
As-received
We thered
Wire-brushed
S nd-bl sted
Shot-bl sted
Acetone-cle ned
Phosph te-tre ted
Chrom te-tre ted
0.21
0.20
0.37
0.44
0.37
0.32
0.38
0.26
0.08
0.06
0.01
0.02
0.10
0.03
0.03
0.02
12
17
6
9
6
9
10
6
th t the continuity o the co tin not be disrupted. A subst nti l incre se in s
lip
resist nce h s been observed or some o the tre tments.4.11, 4.27, 12.13
Slip coe icients obt ined usin sm ll compression jis re summ rized in T ble
12.3. Tests on l rer tension connections with the s me sur ce tre tments h ve
yielded somewh t lower slip coe icients. The results o the compression she r j
i
tests cle rly show th t n improvement in slip resist nce c n be obt ined by wir
e
brushin or lihtly bl st cle nin the lv nized sur ces o the joints prior t
o
ssembly. Tests reported in Re . 5.17 yielded the s me trend. Hence, tre tment o

hot-dip lv nized sur ces c n result in slip coe icient th t is t le st
comp r ble to the coe icient or cle n mill sc le sur ces (see Fi. 12.1). Fur
ther
tests re desir ble to provide better estim te o the slip coe icient or suc
h
sur ce conditions.
Fi. 12.1 Sm ll she r block specimen tests indic te sever l sur ce tre tments t
h t enh nce
the iction l resist nce o lv nized steel.
202 Sur ce Co tins
In contr st to cle n mill sc le or bl st-cle ned sur ce conditions, sudden sl
ip
does not usu lly occur in hot-dip lv nized joints. The observed slip is o ten
r du l, with lo ds incre sin until the bolts come into be rin.
12.2.2 Met llizin
The met llizin process involves spr yin hot met l onto the sur ces o
structur l element to provide corrosion resist nce. Zinc nd luminum re
commonly used or met llizin structur l members.
The sur ce to be met llized should h ve ll oil nd re se removed nd must
be rouhened by bl stin. The spr yed met l will only bond dequ tely to cle ned
nd rouhened sur ces. S nd, crushed sl , or chilled iron rit re commonly us
ed
or bl st cle nin the sur ce. The co tin is pplied shortly ter bl st cle n
in.
Di erent spr yin processes c n be used, nd det il procedures re iven in Re
.
12.11.
Short-dur tion slip tests on met llized sur ces h ve shown th t hih slip
resist nce c n be chieved with these tre tments.4.18, 5.17, 5.37, 12.1, 12.5, 1
2.6 Test results rom
met llized joints with v rious co tin thicknesses re summ rized in T ble 12.4.
It is
pp rent th t the slip coe icient is rel ted to the co tin thickness. When the
co tin is
thick comp red with the sur ce irreul rities resultin rom bl st cle nin,
rel tively
low slip coe icient results. Very thin co tins, 0.0005 to 0.001 in. (15 to 25 µm
), lso
result in rel tively low slip coe icients. The optimum slip per orm nce w s ch
ieved
when the co tin thickness w s between 0.002 nd 0.004 in. (50 nd 100 µm). The
test d t lso indic te hiher slip coe icient or luminum-spr yed sur ces
s
comp red with zinc-spr yed sur ces with the s me co tin thickness. This
di erence in beh vior is believed due to the di erence in h rdness o the met
llic
l yer. A hiher slip coe icient results with the h rder luminum co tin.
Se lin tre tments re o ten used to improve the corrosion resist nce o the
sur ces nd to enh nce their ppe r nce.12.11
These ddition l tre tments tend to
ill the sur ce irreul rities nd provide smoother yin sur ce. This resu
lts in
decre sed riction l resist nce nd lower slip coe icient. Hence, se lin
tre tment should not be used on slip-resist nt joints.12.2
12.2.3 Zinc-Rich Pl nts
Zinc-rich pl nts re co tins th t cont in hih zinc dust content; they provid
e
h rd, br sion-resist nt protection or the co ted sur ces.12.12 They re m inl
y
used or perm nent or lon-term corrosion protection. Some o the co tins re
used or pre bric tion or shop primers. The primer co ts do not require s re
t
thickness s co tins or lon-term protection.
Zinc-rich p ints re v il ble in l re number o di erent commerci l mixes.
These co tins use either or nic or inor nic vehicles. Amon the or nic vehic
les
used re vinyls, epoxies, nd polyesters.5.11, 12.12 Common inor nic vehicles
re
silic tes, phosph tes, nd modi ic tions thereo . M ny o these co tins re sup
plied
with the zinc-rich piment p ck ed sep r tely, nd the m teri ls re mixed
T ble 12.4 Slip Coe icients or Met llized Sur ces (Short-Dur tion
Tension-Type Tests)
Re .
Type o Tre tment
Co tin
Thickness
(mils)
Number
o Tests
Aver e
St nd rd
Devi tion
12.6
5.37
4.18
12.1
12.5
5.17
12.6
12.1
5.37
12.5
12.6
Corundum bl stcle ned,
zinc-spr yed
S nd-bl sted,
zinc-spr yed
S nd-bl sted,
zinc-spr yed
Grit-bl sted,
zinc-spr yed
Shot-bl sted,
zinc-spr yed
Corundum-bl sted,
zinc-spr yed
S nd-bl sted,
zinc-spr yed
S nd-bl sted,
two l yers,
zinc-sp yed
Grit-bl sted,
zinc spr yed (compression
type specimens)
Corundum-bl sted, luminum-
spr yed
Shot-bl sted,
luminum-spr yed
Grit-bl sted,
luminum-spr yed
Corundum-bl sted,
luminum-spr yed
S nd-bl sted,
luminum-spr yed
S nd-bl sted,
luminum-spr yed
Corundum-bl sted,
zinc-spr yed,
luminum-spr yed
0.8–1.6
2.0–2.8
3.6–4.4
8.0
—
3.0
0.6–1.0
—
3.0
0.6–1.0
1.6
2.6
4.0
0.8–1.6
2.0–2.8
3.6–4.4
—
4.0
1.6 – 2.2
4.0
1.6–2.2
10.0
2.4
L yer
thickness
Zn: 1.2
Al: 1.2
Zn: 1.2
Al: 4.0
—
—
—
—
2
—
20
—
—
10
17
14
12
—
—
—
—
—
20
—
10
—
—
0.42
0.45
0.41
0.40
0.48
0.78
0.42
0.60
0.70
0.43
0.70
0.73
0.82
0.56
0.58
0.59
0.64
0.79
0.74
0.76
0.73
0.4
0.67
0.49
0.42
—
—
—
—
—
—
0.04
—
—
0.04
0.05
0.05
—
—
—
—
—
—
0.08
—
0.10
—
—
—
—
203
204 Sur ce Co tins
T ble 2.4. (Continued)
Re .
Type o Tre tment
Co tin
Thickness
(mils)
Number
o Tests
Aver e
St nd rd
Devi tion
5.37
12.5
S nd bl sted,
Chrome-nickel
spr yed
S nd-bl sted
st inless steel spr yed
20.0
1.6
—
6
0.41
0.72
—
0.05
t the time o pplic tion. Dependin on the chemic l composition, these co tin
s
m y h ve pot li e s low s 6 hr.
The inor nic co tins re very resist nt to solvents nd oil nd re lso
resist nt to hih humidity. The we therin resist nce o inor nic co tins is
outst ndin bec use the co tin continues to cure durin proloned exposure.12.1
2
For best results, the inor nic co tins should be used over bl st-cle ned sur
ces
th t pro vide “ne r-white” condition.
Comp red with the inor nic co tins, or nic co tins re ener lly more
toler nt to v ri tions in sur ce prep r tion. They tend to be more lexible but
re
lso less touh nd br sion resist nt th n the inor nic m teri ls.12.12
The slip beh vior o connections with cont ct sur ces tre ted with zinc-rich
p ints th t use inor nic or or nic vehicles h s been ex mined by tests.9.2, 12
.1
T ble 12.5 summ rizes the results o tests in which the yin sur ces were tre
ted
with zinc-rich p int usin or nic vehicles.9.2, 12.1, 12.14
Prior to p intin, the sur ces
were cle ned either by rit bl stin or s nd bl stin. The v rious p ints tested
included one- nd two-component zinc dust p ints, speci l primers, or nic zinc
primer, nd or nic zinc primer with n epoxy top co t. In one series o tests,
unco ted bl st-cle ned or s nd-bl sted sur ces were used s control.
Considerin rit-bl sted nd co ted joints, trend tow rd incre sin slip
resist nce with incre sin co tin thickness is noted (up to 1.8 mils). However,
the
incre se is not l re. B re, rit-bl sted steel in these tests h d slip coe i
cient o
0.56, where s rit-bl sted sur ces with one-component zinc dust p int or speci
l
primer h d me n slip coe icient o 0.44. Use o two-component zinc dust p i
nt
ve lower slip coe icient, 0.31.
Unco ted, s nd-bl sted joints h d slip coe icient o 0.52. Addition o
primer lowered this to 0.20. Co tin with speci l primer resulted in slip
coe icient o 0.41. Use o zinc dust p int ve slip coe icients th t were
dependent upon co tin thickness, 0.8 mils ivin slip coe icient o 0.39, n
d
1.2 mils ivin 0.23. (These two results were obt ined rom di erent test
pror ms, however.) S ndbl sted joints with n or nic zinc primer ve slip
coe icient o 0.46, nd with n epoxy top co t the slip coe icient w s 0.27.
In summ ry, the results t bul ted in T ble 12.5 show th t ny zinc-rich co tin
T ble 12.5. Slip Coe icient o Zinc-Rich P inted Sur ces (Or nic
Vehicles
Co tin Thickness
(mils)
Re .
Type o Tre tment
Primer
Co t
Top
Co t
Number
o Tests Aver e
St nd rd
Devi tion
9.2
12.1
12.14
Grit-bl sted
Grit-bl sted, one
component zinc
dust p int
Grit-bl sted, speci l
primer
Grit-bl sted, two
component zinc
dust p int
S nd-bl sted
S nd-bl sted,
primer
S nd-bl sted, speci l
primer
S nd-bl sted, zinc
dust p int
S nd-bl sted, zinc
dust p int
S nd-bl sted, or nic
zinc
primer
S nd-bl sted, or nic
zinc
primer
—
0.6
1.2
1.8
—
0.6–0.8
0.8
2.5–10.3
2.8–9.7
—
0.6
1.2
1.8
0.6
1.2
1.8
0.8
1.2
1.8–4.0
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
8
10
10
10
94
90
0.56
0.40
0.45
0.46
0.39
0.41
0.42
0.30
0.31
0.33
0.52
0.20
0.41
0.39
0.23
0.47
0.27
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.01
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.07
0.03
pplied to rit-bl sted or s nd-bl sted steel sur ce results in lowered sli
p
coe icient. In the m jority o tre tments listed, the slip coe icient w s stil
l cornp r ble
to th t or s nd or shot-bl sted hot-dip lv nized sur ces, however. Still,
it must be reconized th t the tre tment o steel sur ces with zinc-rich p int
results in wide v ri tion in slip coe icient, dependin on the tre tment used
.
Use o inor nic zinc-rich p ints or co tin provides better slip resist nce
th n when or nic zinc-rich p ints re used.9.2, 12.1, 12.6, 12.14 When zinc sil
ic te p int
h s been used with cle r l cquer (w ter-l ss) s bindin ent nd zinc dus
t
powder s the piment, hih slip resist nce h s resulted. The incre sed h rdness
o
the zinc silic te co tin provides more slip-resist nt sur ce th n sur ces t
re ted
with or nic zinc-rich p ints. For optimum results, these p ints re ener lly
pplied to bl st-cle ned sur ces by either spr yin or brushin.12.12
206 Sur ce Co tins
The thickness o zinc silic te co tins lso slihtly in luences the slip
coe icient. This is illustr ted in T ble 12.6, where test results or di erent
co tin
thickness re summ rized.12.6 The specimens were ll bl st cle ned nd then co t
ed
with zinc silic te p int supplied by ive di erent suppliers. An incre se in co
tin
thickness incre sed the slip resist nce or ll ive mixes.
Tests were per ormed in Germ ny on s nd-bl sted specimens tre ted with zinc
silic te p int,9.2 nd the results re iven in T ble 12.7. The zinc p int w s
provided by ive di erent suppliers, nd the co tin thickness v ried rom 1.0
to
1.4 mils. All ive co tins provided slip coe icients th t were bout the s me
s
pl in s nd-bl sted sur ces. The m ximum di erence in ver e slip coe icients
between co ted nd unco ted specimens w s only bout 13%. The other test results
shown in T ble 12.7 lso show slip coe icients comp r ble to unco ted, s ndbl s
ted,
or rit-bl sted sur ces.
The results lso indic te th t the chemic l composition o the p int does not
re tly in luence the slip beh vior. Much re ter v ri tion w s observed with or
nic
zinc-rich p ints. Bl st-cle ned sur ces tre ted with zinc silic te p ints re l
ikely to
yield slip coe icient th t is bout the s me s the slip coe icient provided
by
bl st-cle ned b se met l.
12.2.4 Vinyl-Tre ted Sur ces
Vinyl w shes or vinyl p ints re lso used or the corrosion protection o yin

sur ces or bolted joints. They re e sily pplied, ive moder te to ood corros
ion
protection, nd re rel tively inexpensive. In the e rlier studies reported, 5.9
, 5.11 two
di erent vinyl w shes were ev lu ted. These were pplied in liht co ts (0.3 to
0.5
mils thick) on sur ces th t h d been s nd bl sted. Joints were tested both
rel tively soon ter prep r tion nd ssembly nd ter 2 months exposure (prio
r
to ssembly) in n industri l tmosphere. T ble 12.8 provides summ ry o the
test results. These studies showed th t the exposure time prior to ssembly did
not
h ve the sini ic nt in luence on the slip coe icient. The slip coe icient or
these
joints in the s nd-bl sted nd vinyl w sh condition is not re tly reduced s co
mp red
with unco ted, cle n mill sc le conditions. (It should be noted th t the
T ble 12.6 Slip coe icients or Sur ces Tre ted with Zinc Silic te P int
Aver e Slip Coe icient Product Identi ic tion
Co tin
Thickness
(mils) A B C D E
0.8
2.0
0.41
0.52
0.47
0.53
0.62
0.53
0.53
0.64
0.50
0.52
Specimens were bl st cle ned nd tre ted with di erent zinc silic te p ints. T
hese
results re ver ed rom two re dins e ch (see Re . 12.6).
T ble 12.7. Slip Coe icient o Zinc-Rich P inted Sur ces (Inor nic
Vehicles)
Co tin Thickness
(mils)
Re .
Type o Tre tment
Primer
Co t
Top Co t
Number
o Tests
Aver e
St nd rd
Devi tion
9.2
12.1
12.14
S nd-bl sted
S nd-bl sted, zinc
silic te p int
Grit-bl sted, zinc
silic te p int
Shot-bl sted
Shot-bl sted, zinc
silic te p int
Grit-bl sted
Grit-bl sted, zinc
silic te p int
S nd-bl sted, inor nic
zinc
primer vinyl top
co t
S nd-bl sted, inor nic
zinc
primer (80 %
zinc)
S nd-bl sted,
inor nic zinc
primer (75 %
zinc)
—
—
—
2.1–11.5
6.8–8.0
6.7–7.2
—
1.4
1.2
1.2
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.8–1.6
1.6–3.8
—
3.0
—
3.0
1.3–2.8
4
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
—
—
—
—
80
10
5
0.61
0.61
0.59
0.52
0.53
0.58
0.60
0.57
0.68
0.60
0.63
0.58
0.56
0.50
0.61
0.51
—
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.07
0.05
—
—
—
—
0.06
0.03
0.01
speci ic tion overnin use o the vinyl w sh requires th t the sur ces be s nd
bl sted prior to pplic tion o the co tin.) A more recent study h s ex mined
the e ect o usin thicker vinyl co tins, presum bly required or superior
corrosion protection.12.14 A summ ry o these results is lso iven in T ble
12.8. In one series, vinyl primer tre tment 2.1 to 2.7 mils thick w s pplied
to
bl st-cle ned sur ce, nd in nother both vinyl primer (2.3 to 2.8 mils) n
d
vinyl topco t (2.1 to 2.5 mils) were used. The results
208 Sur ce Co tins
T ble 12.8 Slip coe icients o Vinyl-Tre ted Sur ces
Co tin Thickness
(mils)
Re . Type o
Tre tment
Primer
Co t
Top
Co t
Number o
Tests
Aver e St nd rd
Devi tion
5.9
5.11
12.14
S nd-bl sted, vinyl
w sh (MILP15328A)
S nd-bl sted, vinyl
w sh (MILC15328A)
S nd-bl sted, vinyl
w sh (MILC15328A)
S nd-bl sted, vinyl
w sh (MILC15328A),
exposed
or 2
months
S nd-bl sted, vinyl
w sh (MILP15328B),
exposed
or 2
months
S nd-bl sted, vinyl
primer
S nd-bl sted, vinyl
primer, vinyl
top co t
0.3–0.5
0.3–0.5
0.3–0.5
0.3–0.5
0.3–0.5
2.1 – 2.7
2.3–2.8
2.1–2.5
3
3
3
3
3
15
6
0.28
0.27
0.29
0.27
0.26
0.19
0.20
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.01
0.02
0.01
rom these two series o tests were lmost identic l, nd they show th t
sini ic nt decre se in slip coe icient occurs s comp red with the vinyl w she
s.
12.3 JOINT BEHAVIOR UNDER SUSTAINED LOADING
E rly ield experience nd test results indic ted th t some lv nized members h
d
tendency to continue to slip under sust ined lo din.12.3, 12.6, 12.9 Slip w s
only
stopped when the bolts c me into be rin. In some situ tions this sm ll slipp e
m y imp ir the service bility o the structure. Hence, i joint is subjected t
o
sust ined lo din conditions nd is slip critic l, the slip per orm nce o the
co tin, whether lv nized or tre ted otherwise, must be considered under the
sust ined lo d condition.
L bor tory tests h ve been per ormed to ev lu te the lo d versus de orm tion
beh vior o di erent types o co ted sur ces subjected to sust ined lo din.12
.3, 12.6,
12.9, 12.15 In ener l, the observed slip beh vior with respect to time c n be
ch r cterized by one o the three rel tionships shown in Fi. 12.2.12.9 C teory
12.3 Joint Beh vior under Sust ined Lo din 209
Fi. 12.2 Typic l time versus slip curves or connections under sust ined lo din
.
1 represents cl ss o connections in which m jor slip occurs durin pplic tio
n o
the lo d. The bolts come into be rin inst the pl te, nd the joint rem ins s
t ble
with time unless the lo d reverses direction. C teory 2 represents connections
th t
do not initi lly slip into be rin but continue to slip under sust ined lo din;
the
connection is s id to “creep.” The slip r te under sust ined lo din only becomes
zero when the bolts come into be rin. C teory 3 shows joints with ood slip
resist nce under both short term s well s sust ined lo din conditions. A ter
sm ll initi l extension, o ten el stic, no urther slip is detected.
Test specimens re usu lly subjected to stepwise incre sin lo d when
ev lu tin slip resist nce under sust ined lo din. A ter slip h s been rrested
or the
210 Sur ce Co tins
slip r te h s st bilized, the lo d is incre sed. This process is repe ted until
either
the bolts re in be rin or the slip resist nce o the yin sur ces is exceed
ed.
Tests on hot-dip lv nized joints nd on joints with zinc-rich p ints with
vinyl topco t tested t medium or hih lo ds subjected to sust ined lo din show
ste dy-st te r te o slip.12.6, 12.9 The connections developed creep-type beh
vior s
indic ted in Fi. 12.2. Pre ssembly tre tments th t yielded n incre se in short
dur tion
slip resist nce did not sini ic ntly improve the slip beh vior o the hotdip
lv nized joints under sust ined lo din. Joints tre ted with or nic zinc-rich
p ints showed essenti lly the s me beh vior.9.1 The zinc l yer cre ted by the zi
ncrich
p int cts like lubric nt between the sur ces, nd this results in creep unde
r
sust ined lo din.
Better results were obt ined usin zinc silic te p int on the joint yin sur
ces.
Both short-dur tion slip resist nce nd sust ined lo d slip resist nce were impr
oved.
Test results indic ted th t co tin l yer thickness equ l to 0.0020 to 0.0024
in.
(50 to 60 µm) provided bout the s me slip coe icient or sust ined lo din nd
short dur tion tests.12.3, 12.6 Even when the sust ined lo ds were close to the
slip
lo d o the connection, st ble joint condition resulted. Joints protected with
only
vinyl co tin nd tested t medium to low sust ined lo d levels lso exhibited
ood per orm nce.
Met llizin with either zinc or luminum resulted in ood short-dur tion slip
resist nce. However, under sust ined lo din conditions, luminum-spr yed yin
sur ces provided better slip resist nce th n zinc-spr yed sur ces. Slip coe i
cients
or spr yed luminum sur ces were ound to be bout the s me or both the
sust ined nd short-dur tion lo din tests. Zinc-spr yed sur ces exhibited cree
p
when the joint w s subjected to lo ds th t were close to the slip resist nce o
the
sur ces. I n ppropri te m rin w s pplied so th t the lo ds were well below
the slip resist nce o the joint, s tis ctory sust ined lo d ch r cteristics we
re observed.
12.3, 12.6
12.4 JOINT BEHAVIOR UNDER REPEATED LOADING
The beh vior o pl in, nonco ted bolted butt joints subjected to repe ted lo din

conditions is summ rized in Ch pter 5. For slip-resist nt joints, cr ck initi ti
on nd
rowth were ener lly observed to occur throuh the ross section. When, the sli
p
resist nce w s decre sed, ilure usu lly occurred t the net section. The
pplic tion o protective sur ce co tin m y lter the slip resist nce o j
oint;
there ore, its in luence on the tiue strenth o joint h s to be ex mined.
F tiue tests h ve been per ormed on hot-dip lv nized joints bec use they
exhibited low slip resist nce durin short-dur tion st tic slip tests.4.11, 4.27
, 12.10, 12.13 The
tests showed th t the connection either slipped into be rin or the connection “lo
cked
up” (ce sed to slip) ter ew cycles when there w s lo d revers l.4.11, 12.10,
12.13
This lockin-up e ect is illustr ted in Fi. 12.3 or hot-dip lv nized join
t subjected
to repe ted lo d revers l. Fiure 12.3 shows th t the displ cements durin the
i th
cycle were bout the s me s those th t occurred
Fi. 12.3 “Lock-up” e ect o hot-dip lv nized joints.
durin the second cycle. Hence, sm ll slips in hot-dip lv nized joints did not
decre se the tiue li e. F ilures o ten occurred throuh the ross section re
s
despite the initi l slip.
Dis ssembly o these joints con irmed the tendency to lock up. To sep r te the
pl tes o joint it w s o ten necess ry to pry them p rt.4.11 L yers o zinc t
ended
to pull o rom the sur ces o the pl te s result o llin nd seizin o
the
zinc co tin in the reion round the bolt holes where hih cont ct pressures ex
ist.
A pre ssembly tre tment o the hot-dip lv nized sur ce by wire brushin or
liht bl st cle nin did not in luence the tiue li e.
The e ect o repe ted lo din on joints with other protective sur ce
tre tments such s met llizin nd zinc-rich p ints h s been studied s well.5.1
7, 12.4,
12.6 The results o these tests h ve lso indic ted th t the lower slip resist n
ce nd
e rly slips in the joints did not in luence the tiue resist nce o co ted joi
nts.
Their tiue strenth w s equ l to or re ter th n the tiue resist nce o
unco ted joints o simil r dimensions. In n ttempt to expl in this beh vior
qu lit tively, joints were cl ssi ied into two c teories dependin on whether o
r
not the slip resist nce o the test joint w s exceeded by the pplied lo d. It i
s
shown in Ch pter 5 th t unco ted slip-resist nt bolted joints subjected to repe
ted
lo din exhibit rettin-type cr ck initi tion in the ross section he d o t
he bolt
hole. Hence, sur ce co tin th t provides su icient slip resist nce should
provide comp r ble beh vior. Such beh vior w s requently observed in tests on
met llized nd zinc silic te p inted joints.9.2, 12.4 For these sur ce conditio
ns,
repe ted cyclic lo ds close to the slip lo d o the connection did not result in
sini ic nt slip in the connection.
212 Sur ce Co tins
Joints with protective co tins should be desined by the criteri suested in
Ch pter 5. Dependin on the type o sur ce tre tment, wide r ne o slip
coe icients is possible. Even or speci ic type o tre tment, subst nti l sc
tter
c n result rom bric tion procedures.
Subsection 5.4.2 set out the desin recommend tions or slip-resist nt connectio
ns
in which the yin sur ces re unco ted. Altern tive orms or expressin the
slip
lo d were iven, one settin orth the slip lo d s unction o the speci ied
minimum
cl mpin orce in the bolt (Tispec) nd the me n slip coe icient o the yin
sur ce (ks me n). Usin n = number o bolts nd m = number o yin sur ces,
this expression is
( ) 26 . 5
where D is multiplier th t provides the rel tionship between ks me n nd ks ,
incorpor tes the expected bolt tension v lue s comp red with the speci ied
minimum v lue, nd re lects the slip prob bility level chosen.
T ble 12.9. Reduction F ctors D or Ev lu tion o permissible She r
Lo ds or Slip-Resist nt Co ted Sur ces, Turn-o -Nut Inst ll tion
Slip Coe icient Slip Prob bility
A325 A490
Sur ce Tre tment
Aver e
St nd rd
Devi tion 5 % 10 % 5 % 10 %
Hot-dip lv nized
Hot-dip lv nized,
tre ted,
wire brushed or
bl sted
Vinyl tre ted (t >
2 mils)
Bl st-cle ned
zinc-spr yed ( t
> 2 mils)
Bl st-cle ned, Alspr yed
( t > 2
mils)
Bl st-cle ned, or nic
zinc-rich
p int
Bl st-cle ned, inor nic
zinc-rich
p int
0.18
0.40
0.19
0.40
0.55
0.35
0.50
0.04
0.07
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.04
0.05
0.793
0.895
1.072
1.038
1.040
1.040
1.040
0.924
1.000
1.139
1.110
1.111
1.111
1.110
0.755
0.848
1.015
0.985
0.985
0.983
0.984
0.870
0.943
1.072
1.048
1.047
1.046
1.048
O course, the slip resist nce o slip-resist nt joints with co ted yin sur
ces
c n lso be expressed usin Eq. 5.26. V lues o D or use in this equ tion re
t bul ted in T ble 12.9 or v rious sur ce tre tments, bolt types, nd slip
prob bility levels. The v lues iven in T ble 12.9 re or inst ll tions in whic
h the
turn-o -nut method is used. T ble 12.10 ives the v lues o D to be used in Eq.
5.26 when the c libr ted wrench method o inst ll tion is used.
The ltern tive w y iven in Ch pter 5 or expressin the slip lo d w s to
derive n equiv lent ( ictitious) she r stress (Eq. 5.30). This she r stress c n
then
be used in the expression
b s A
mn Pτ =

whereA is he cross-sec

ional area of
he ol corresponding
o i s nominal

diame

er, and τa
can e o ained from
Ta
le 12.11 ( urn-of-nu
ins alla ion) or
Ta le 12.12 (cali ra ed
wrench ins alla

ion),
as appropria
e.
Chap er 5 should also e consul ed a ou he reduc ions required if slo ed hole
s

Ta le 12.10. Reduc ion Fac ors

D for Evalua ion
of
Permissi le Shear
Loads for Slip-Resis an Coa ed Surfaces, Cali ra ed Wrench Ins alla ion
Slip Coefficien

Slip Pro a ili y
A325/A490
Surface Trea men
Average S andard
Devia ion
5 % 10 %
Ho-dip galvanized
-dip
Ho galvanized,

rea
ed, wire rushed or

las ed
Vinyl rea ed ( >2 mils)
Blas
-cleaned zincsprayed
( > 2 mils)

Blas
-cleaned, Alsprayed
( >2mils)
Blas -cleaned,organic
zinc-rich
pain
Blas -cleaned,inorganic
zinc-rich pain
0.18
0.40
0.19
0.40
0.55
0.35
0.50
0.04
0.07
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.04
0.05
0.696
0.784
0.943
0.914
0.915
0.914
0.914
0.792
0.862
0.987
0.963
0.964
0.962
0.963
214
Surface Coa ings

Ta le 12.11 Permissi
le Shear S ress for Slip-Resis an Coa ed Surfaces,
Turn-of-Nu Insalla ion

Slip Coefficien
Slip Pro a ili y
Surface Trea men
A325 A490
Average

S andard

Devia ion
5 % 10 % 5 % 10 %
Ho-dip galvanized
-dip
Ho galvanized,
rea
ed,
wire rushed or
las ed
Vinyl rea ed ( >
2 mils)

Blas -cleaned
zinc-sprayed (
> 2 mils)
Blas
-cleaned, Alsprayed
( > 2
mils)
Blas -cleaned, organic
zinc-rich

pain

Blas -cleaned, inorganic
zinc-rich

pain
0.18
0.40
0.19
0.40
0.55
0.35
0.50
0.04
0.07
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.04
0.05
9.3
22.9
13.3
26.5
36.5
23.2
33.2
10.8
25.5
14.1
28.3
39.0
24.8
35.4
10.9
26.7
15.5
31.0
42.6
27.1
38.7
12.6
29.7
16.4
33.0
45.4
28.8
41.2
are used and for he requiremen s of a slip-resis an connec ion under load fac
or
design.

When slip-resis
an join s are su jec ed o sus ained loading condi ions, only
surface
rea men s ha provide adequa
e slip resis ance under long- erm loading
should
e used. Me allizing wi h ei her zinc or aluminum or a zinc silica e pain
or

vinyl
coa ing should
e used. Ho -dip galvanizing
and
organic

zinc-rich

pain

sys ems are no sa isfac ory for slip-resis an join s. O viously, ri ed earin
g

ol

s would
e sa isfac ory for hese condi ions since hey would no permi
su s an ial slips
odevelop.
If a join is su jec ed
o repea ed loads, he design recommenda
ions given
in
Sec ion 5.4 are applica le. If he slip resis ance is adequa e o preven slip d
uring

he life ime of he s ruc ure, he s ress range on he gross sec ion area may e
used

for design. If slip is expec ed, he design s ress range should e applied o h
e ne

sec ion. Al hough several
ho -dip galvanized
join s have
exhi

i ed gross sec
ion
failures in es s, i is recommended ha hese connec ions e designed on he

asis
of heir ne sec ion area.
References

215

Ta le 12.11 Permissi
le Shear S ress for Slip-Resis an Coa ed Surfaces,
Turn-of-Nu Insalla ion

Slip Coefficien Slip Pro a ili y
Surface Trea men
A325 A490
Average

S andard

Devia ion
5 % 10 % 5 % 10 %
Ho-dip galvanized
-dip
Ho galvanized,
rea
ed,
wire rushed or
las ed
Vinyl
rea ed
( >2 mils)
Blas -cleaned
zinc-sprayed

( >2 mils)
Blas -cleaned
Al-sprayed

( > 2 mils)
Blas -cleaned, organic
zinc-rich

pain
Blas -cleaned, inorganic
zinc-rich

pain
0.18
0.40
0.19
0.40
0.55
0.35
0.50
0.04
0.07
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.04
0.05
8.2
20.0
11.7
23.3
32.1
20.4
29.2
9.3
22.0
12.2
24.6
33.8
21.5
30.7
10.1
24.7
14.4
28.8
39.6
25.2
36.0
11.5
27.1
15.1
30.3
41.7
26.5
37.9
Since he presence of a coa ing does no affec he ul ima e s reng h of a join
,
he design recommenda ions given in Chap er 5 for join s ha are no slip cri i
cal

can e applied o all ypes of coa ed join s as well.
REFERENCES
12.1 Office of Research and Experimen s of he In erna ional Union of Railways (
ORE),

Coefficien
s ofFric ion of Paving Surfaces Su jec ed o Various Corrosion
Pro ec ive Treamen s, Repor 2, ORE, U rech , he Ne herlands,
June 1967.

12.2 ORE, Effec s of Wea hering on he Coefficien s of Fric ion of Unpro ec ed a
nd Pro ec ed
Faying Surfaces, Repor 3,ORE, U rech , heNe herlands, Oc o er 1968.

12.3
ORE, Influence of Sus ained Loading on he Slip Behavior of High S reng h B
ol ed
Join s, Repor 4, ORE, U rech , he Ne herlands,

Oc o er 1969.

12.4 ORE, Influence of Coa ed Surfaces on he Fa igue S reng h of High S reng h
Bol ed
Join s, Repor 5. ORE, U rech , he Ne herlands, Oc o er 1970.

12.5 Cen re de Recherches Scien ifiques e Techniques de L’Indus rie des Fa rica i
ons
216 Surface Coa ings
Me allique (CRlF), Secion Cons ruc ion Me allique, Les Assem lages par
Boulons de Hau e Resis ance, Repor MT 48, MT5O, Brussels, Belgium, 1969
(in French).
12.6 T. v. d. Schaaf, Influence of Pro ec ive Surface Coa ings on he Slip Behav
ior of

High S reng h Bol ed Joins Su jec ed o Sus ained Loading, S evinLa ora ory,
Repor 6-68-5-VB-18,
Delf Universi y of Technology, Delf , he Ne herlands,
1968(in Du ch).
12.7 S. Y. Beano and D. D. Vasarhelyi, The
Effec ofVariousTrea men s of he
Paving Surface on heCoefficien of Fric ion inBol ed Join
s, Universi y of
Washing on, Depar men ofCivil Engineering, Sea le, Decem
er
1958.
12.8 L. Zennaro, Slip Tes s of High S reng h Bol ed Join s wi h Differen Galvan
ized
Coa ing S
ruc ures, Documen

CECM-X-71-8.

12.9
V. Lo and F. S oller, “Bol ed Join s Under Sus ained Loading,” Journal of he
S ruc ural Division, ASCE, vol. 97,ST3, March 1971.
12.10
D. J. L. Kennedy, High S reng h Bol ed Galvanized
Join s, Engineering
Ex
ension
Series 15,Proceedings, ASCE Special
y Conference on S eel
S ruc ures, Universi y of Missouri, Colum ia, 1970.

12.11 American Welding Socie y, Recommended Prac ices for Me allizing wi h
Aluminum and Zinc for Pro ec ion of iron and S eel, American Welding Socie y
C2.2-67, New York, 1967.
12.12 S eel S ruc ures Pain ing Council (SSPC), Guide o Zinc-Rich Coa ing Sys e
ms,
SSPC Specifica ion 12.00.
12.13 W. H. Munse and P. C. Birkemoe, HighS reng hBoling of Galvanized
Connec ions, The Aus ralian Ins i u e of
S eel Consruc ion and he Aus ralian
Zinc Developmen Associa ion, Sydney-Mel ourne, Aus ralia, Augus 1969.
12.14 H. Fouad, “Slip Behavior of Bol ed Fric ion-Type
Join s wi h Coa ed Con ac
Surfaces,” M.S. Thesis, The Universi y of Texas a Aus in, January 1978.
12.15 M. G. Nanninga, “Creep Behavior of Fric ion-Type
Join s wi h Coa ed Faying
Surfaces,”
M.S.
Thesis, The Universi y of Texas a Aus in, January 1978.
Chap er Thir een
Eccen rically Loaded Join s
13.1 INTRODUCTION

In eccen rically loaded join s, he connec ion is su jec ed o applied loads ha
resul in
a line of ac ion passing ou side he cen er of ro a ion of he fas ener group. S
ome

common
examples
are

racke - ype connec ions, we splices in eams and girders,

and he s andard eam connec ions shown in Fig. 13.1. Because of he eccen rici
y

of he applied load, he fas ener group is su jec ed o a shear force and a wis
ing
momen
. Bo h he
momen and he shear force resul

in shear s resses in he
fas eners,
and
o h of hese effec s have o e considered in de ermining he
capaci y of he connecion.
The effec of an eccen ric load on a fas ener group was s udied as early as 1870
.13.1
For a very long period following ha , design was carried ou on an elas ic asi
s,

assuming ha ro a ion of he connec ion ook place a ou he cen er of gravi y
of

he fas ener
group. This mean ha he pro lem could e rea edas he
superposi ion of a concen ric shear case and a shear due o he orsional momen
.

The
assumpion of ro a ion a ou he cen erof gravi
y was he asis for design
a les in he AISC Manual of S eel Cons ruc ion pu lished in 1970,13.2 al hough
i
was recognized ha he me hodproduced conserva ive resul s, and empirically
derived adjus men s werepermi ed.

Theassump ion of connec
ion
ro a ion
a ou he cen er of gravi y iden ifies
fas ener forces ha are no compa i le wi h he deforma ions necessary for such
a

ro a ion. An ar icle pu lished in 191413.3

repor ed on work y P. Gullander of
Chalmers

Technical Universi y a Go hen

urg, Sweden
ha sugges
ed ha a ion
ro
had o e considered as occurring a ou an ins an aneous cen er. Calcula ions do
ne

on his asis produced a se of forces in he fas eners ha were consis en wi
h he
deforma ions imposed on hose fas eners.

The firs applica ion of he ins an aneous cen er concep o es resul s, inclu
ding
use of a measured load versus deforma ion response for he fas eners, appears o
have

een made
y Yarimci and
Slu er,13.4, 13.5 who performed es s on
rive ed
connec

ions.
Since hen, o h experimen al and analy ical workhas een carried
ou on ol ed connec ions,13.6–13.10 he main effor direc ed oward informa ion
217

218 Eccen rically LoadedJoin s
Fig. 13.1. Typical eccen rically loaded connec ions. (a) Bracke connec ion. ( )
Beam

we splice. (c) Sandard eam connec ions.
on he ul ima e s reng h of such connec ions. In his chap er dealing wi h
he
analysis anddesign ofeccen rically loaded fas ener groups, emphasis will
e
placed upon he connec ion ype
shown in Fig.
13.la. The applica ion o we
splices
in girders (Fig. 13.1
) and s andard eam connec ions is discussed in
Chap ers 16 and 18, respec ively.
13.2 BEHAVIOR OF A FASTENER GROUP UNDER ECCENTRIC
LOADING

Tes s on special

connec ions have een performed
o evalua e he load versus
deforma
ion ehavior of fas ener
groups su jeced o an eccen
ric shear load.
Rive ed as well as high-s reng h ol ed connec ions
have een
examined.13.4–13.8
Mos es specimenswere of he ype shown in Fig. 13.2, wi h
a fas ener group consis ing of one or wo ver ical lines of fas eners. Since he
connec ion is symme ric wi h respec o he line of ac ion of he load, each es

provides woload versus deforma ion curves for idenical connec ions.
In general, he designof he es specimens caused he fas ener group in he
13.2 Behavior of a Fas enerGroup under Eccen ric Loading 219
Fig.

13.2. Tes

specimen wi h eccen rically
loaded
fas ener group.
we angles o e he cri ical componen , and he es resul s can herefore e u

sed
o assess he s reng h of he group. However, he load versus deforma ion ehavi

or

of an eccen rically
loaded connec ion in he field may also e affec ed y o her
componen

s of he connec ion.
The ehavior
of various fas ener pa erns under differen
eccen rici ies can e
represen ed y load versus ro a ion curves of he ype shown in Fig. 13.3.13.5 T
he

s raigh line from he origin o poin A represen s he elas ic ro a ion, and h
e ransi ion
segmen AB iden ifies elas ic as well as plas ic deforma ions. Beyond poin B h
e

ro a ion is mainly produced y plas ic deforma ions. This segmen of he load ve
rsus

ro a ion curve is ermina ed y he failure load, reached as one or more of he
fas eners
fail in shear.

Load versus ro a ion curves have een developed for ol ed as well as rive ed
specimens.13.8
Figure 13.4 shows a ypical load versus ro a ion curve aken from
he

source ma
erial of Ref. 13.8for a ol ed specimen wi h wo ver ical
rows of ¾-in.
dia. A325 ol s. The horizon al
dis ance from he

load o he cen roid
of he
fas
ener group was 12 in. In his es series, he ol holes in he eam we an
d we

angles
were

ma ch drilled for fi ed ols. The resul ing minimum clearance
e ween he ol and he hole minimized he join slip, and caused he applied l
oad
Fig.
13.3. Idealized load versus ro a ion diagram for an eccen rically loaded fa
s ener group.
220 Eccen rically Loaded Join s

Fig. 13.4. Load versus ro a ion curve for ol ed connec ions (Ref. 13.8). (Tes
specimen
shown

in Fig. 13.2.)

o e aken immedia ely in earing on he ol s. In prac ice, ol s are usually
placed in
holes wi h 1/16 in. clearance, and slip may occur when he slip resis ance of h
e

connec
ion is exceeded. Slip will ring one or more fas eners in o earing. Ther
eaf er,

he connec ion will ehave

in much he same way as descri ed y Fig. 13.4.

The amoun of slip o e expec
ed depends on
he hole clearance, fas ener
he
pa ern, and he alignmen of he holes in he connec ion. The ro a ion due o s
lip
decreases rapidly wi h an increase in dis ance from he ou ermos fas ener o h
e

cen
er of ro a ion of he ol group. In mos prac ical si ua ions he slips wil
l e so

small
ha hey do no have a significan

effec on he servicea

ili
y of he
sruc ure. Therefore,
mos join s can e designed on he asis of he ul ima e
s reng h of he join .
13.3 ANALYSIS OF ECCENTRICALLY LOADED FASTENER GROUPS
For many years he analysis and design of eccen rically loaded fas ener groups w
as

ased on he assump ion ha ro a ion of he connec ion akes place a ou he ce
n er of
gravi y of he fas ener group and ha he load versus deforma ion response of a
n
individual
fas ener is linear.13.11 In his me hod, he eccen ric load is resolv
ed in o a
shearload P ac ing hrough hecen roid of he fas ener group
and a orsional
momen
Pe, where e is he eccen rici y of P wi h respec o he cen roid of

he
fasener
group. The shear force ac ing hrough hecen roid is assumed o e
dis ri u ed uniformly among he fas eners, as in o her shear splices. The momen
is
13.3 Analysis
of Eccen
rically Loaded Fas ener Groups 221
assumed o cause s resses in he fas eners ha vary linearly wi h he dis ance
from he
fas
ener o he cen er of gravi y. The s ress in any fas ener is evalua ed y ve
c orially
adding he s ress resul ing from each load componen , ha is, he con-cen ric s
hear
force and he momen . The me hod fur her assumes he connec ed pla es o e rigi
d
enough o remain essen ially undeformed during wis . The influence of he fric
ional

resis
ance e ween he componen par s of he connec ionis neglec ed.
Tes s on eccen rically loaded rive ed connec ions indica ed ha he elas ic ana
lysis

yielded a conserva ive design.13.4, 13.5 On he asis of es resul s, he me ho
d was

modified
y in roducing an “effecive eccen rici y,” which is less han he ac ual
eccen rici y. Empirical formulaso de ermine he effec ive eccen rici y as a
func ion of specific fas ener pa erns were developed.13.4, 13.5
Reducion in

eccen rici y yielded a fac or ofsafe y
more compa i le wi h
he value used for
shear alone. The me hod is essen ially ased on he elas ic ehavior of he fas
ener

group descri ed in his sec ion. Reducing he eccen rici y decreases he magni u
de

of he ending componen and recognizes he ac ual s reng h of he join o serve

d
in es s.
hough
Al use of he me hod jus ou lined produced
safe designs using
ei her
he ac ual or he so-called effec ive eccen rici y, physical es ing showed ha
he

fac or of safe y wi h respec o he ul ima e load was o h varia le and larger

han

ha used for oher ypesof ol ed connec ions. Fur hermore, he me hod of
analysis did no provide he necessary informa ion required
in order o
accommoda e load fac or design. As a resul , he work descri ed in
Sec ion 13.2
was carried ou .13.8 Wi h sligh modifica

ion, he procedure can e used for he
analysis of eccen rically loaded ol ed connec ions in which slip resis ance is
desired.
13.3.1
Slip-Resis
an Join s
Ini
ially, he load versus deforma ion curve of an eccen rically loaded join ca
n e

approxima ed y a s raigh line represen ing he elas ic ro a ion. (See Figs. 13
.3

and 13.4). During his s age he applied load is comple ely carried y fric iona
l

resis ance e ween he cons

i uen par
s of he connec ion. This
phase of load
ransfer is expec ed o e ermina ed y a slip of he connec ion, al hough phys
ical
es s show ha slip may or may no occur.13.12 If slip does occur, he movemen
ha

akes place can e expec ed o ring one or more ol s in o earing. If slip doe
s no

occur, i means ha one or more ol s were ini ially

in earing.

A predic ion of he load ha will cause slip can e made on he asis of he
following
assump ions:

1. A any value of he load, he connec ion ro a es a ou an ins an aneous
cen erof ro a ion.
2. A he slipload of he connec ion, he maximum slip resis
ance of each
individual

fas ener is reached. An analogous assump ion has een used o
descri e he slipresis ance of simple shear
splices.

3. The slip resis

ance of each fas ener can
e represen ed yaforce a he
cen er of he ol ac ing perpendicularly o he radius of ro a ion.
222 Eccen rically Loaded
Join s

The ins ananeouscen er of ro a ion is ha poin a ou whichpure ro a ion of
he connec ed par s akes place (See Fig. 13.5.)The erm “ins an aneous” is used
ecause, in general, he cen er of ro a ion is a a differen loca ion for each
value of
he applied load. The loca ion also depends on he fas ener arrangemen . As show
n
in Fig. 13.5, he ins an aneous cen er of ro a ion is loca ed on a line perpendi
cular

o he line of ac ionof heload. This perpendicular mus also pass hrough he
cen er of gravi y of he fas ener group.

The maximum
slip resis ance Rs of a single fas ener was descri ed in Chap er 5
and can e expressed as
i s S T mk
R = ( ) 1. 13
Therefore,
ased on he previously
s aed assump ions, a he slip load of he
connec ion each fas ener is su jec ed o a load Rs ac ing perpendicularly
o he
radius
of ro a ion. Figure 13.6 shows schema ically he load ransfer for a symm
e ric

fas ener pa ern. The hree equa ions of equili rium mus e employed o
de ermine he coordina es of he ins an aneous cen er and he maximum value

of
he load ha resul s in
slip of he
connec ion. The solu ion of
his pro lem is
generally
accomplished
y
an i era
ive procedure. A rial
loca ion of he
ins
an aneous cen er can e selec ed. For convenience, he origin of he coordin
a e

sys em can e placed a he ins an aneous cen er, wi h he x-axis perpendicular
o
he applied load. The radius of ro a ion ri of he i h fas ener is equal o
2 2
i i i y xr + = ( ) 2 . 13
Equa ing he sum of all forces in he x and y direc ion as well as he sum of h
e

momen s a ou heins an aneous
cen er
o zero, yields
Fig. 13.5. Ins an aneous
cen er of ro a ion.

13.3 Analysis of Eccen rically
Loaded Fas ener Groups 223
Fig.
13.6.Analyses of eccen rically loaded fas ener group. c.g.: Cen er of grav
i y of fas ener
group.i.c. : Ins an aneous cen er of ro a ion. For slip-resis an join s Ri is
equal o Rs where Rs =
mTi ). For o her join s Ri = (ri/rmax)Rul .
∑=
=
n
i
i S R
1
0 sin ϕ ( ) 3 . 13
∑=
= −
n
i
i S P R
1
0 cos ϕ ( ) 4 . 13
∑=
= − +
n
i
S iR r r e P
1
0 0 ) ( ( ) 5 . 13
Equation 13.3 and 13.4 are usuall written as follows:
∑=
=
n
i i
i
S r

R
1
0 ( ) 6 . 13
∑=
= −
n
i i
i
S P
r
x
R
1
0 ( ) 7 . 13
The solution to the problem is achieved if the value of ro satisfies all three
equilibrium equations. The procedure must be repeated until this condition is me
t.
A smmetric fastener pattern was used in ig. 13.6, and the applied load was
normal to the axis of smmetr. In such situations the instantaneous center of r
otation
must lie on the axis perpendicular to the applied load in order to satisf Eq. 1
3.7. The
procedure also applies to the more general case where no axis of smmetr of the
fastener
group exists or the applied load is acting in an arbitrar direction, a
s in ig.
13.5.
13.3.2 Ultimate Strength Analsis
A theoretical approach to predict the ultimate strength of an eccentricall load
ed
fastener group was developed b Crawford and Kulak.13.8
This approach considers
224 Eccentricall Loaded Joints
the load versus deformation response of a single fastener as the basis for deter
mining
the ultimate strength of a fastener group. or a single fastener loaded in
double shear, this relationship has been expressed as 5.22
λ µ ) 1 ( ∆ − − = e R R u t ( ) 8 . 13
in which R = shear force on the bo t at any given deformation, ∆
ult R = the ultim te she r lo d o the stener
∆ = the she rin, bendin, nd be rin de orm tion o the stener s
s the loc l be rin de orm tion o the connectin pl tes
λ µ, = regression coefficients
e = base of natura ogarithms
Numerica va ues for Ru t,, λ, and µ for various combinations of bo ts and connected
materia can be determined experimenta y by means of specia shear tests. A ten
siontype
shear test has been recommended, since it yie ds a ower bound to the u timate
shear capacity Ru t of the bo t.4.4
The eva uation of the u timate strength of an eccentrica y oaded fastener grou
p is
comparab e to the ana ysis of simi ar s ip resistant joints (See Subsection 13.1
.1). The
connection is assumed to rotate about an instantaneous center, and the connected
p ates
are assumed to remain rigid during this rotation. The atter assumption imp ies
that the
deformation occurring at each fastener varies inear y with its distance from th
e
instantaneous center. The fastener deformation and the resu ting shear oad on t
he
fastener act perpendicu ar y to the radius of rotation of the fastener. The u ti
mate
strength of the fastener group is assumed to be reached when the u timate
deformation of the fastener farthest away from the instantaneous center is reach
ed.
For a given fastener configuration and an eccentricity of the oad equa to e, a
tria
ocation of the instantaneous center can be se ected at a distance r0 from the c
entroid
of the fastener group (see Fig. 13.6). The radius of rotation ri of the ith fast
ener is
given by Eq. 13.2. At the u timate oad of the entire connection, the shear
deformation of the critica fastener, ocated a distance rmax away from the
instantaneous center, is assumed to be equa to ∆m x , the m ximum stener de orm
tion
obt ined rom sinle bolt she r test.4.4, 5.22 The de orm tion o other
steners c n then be determined rom
m x
m x
∆ = ∆
r
ri
i ( ) 9 . 13
The stener lo d correspondin to ∆i is re dily obt ined rom Eq. 13.8.
Equilibrium o horizont l nd vertic l orces yields
13.4 Comp rison o An lytic l nd Experiment l Results 225
; 0 = ∑ x F ∑=
=
n
i
i i R
1
0 sin ϕ ( ) 10 . 13
; 0 = ∑ y F ∑=
=
n
i
i i R
1
0 cos ϕ () 11 . 13
The summa ion of momen s around he ins an aneous cen er yields a hird equa ion
∑=
= − +
n
i
i iR r r e P
1
0 0 ) ( ( ) 12 . 13
Equations 13.10 and 13.11 can be convenient y written in terms of the coordinate
s
xi , yi of the fastener,
∑=
= −
n
1 i i
i i 0 P
r
y R
( ) 13 . 13
∑=
=
n
1 i i
i i 0
r
x R
( ) 14 . 13
The so ution is obtained when the tria va ue of r0 satisfies Eqs. 13.12, 13.13,
and 13.14 simu taneous y.
13.4 COMPARISON OF ANALYTICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The va idity of the u timate strength ana ysis has been checked by comparing
predicted resu ts with experimenta data. It was found that the predicted u tima
te
oads for bo ted specimens ranged between 5 and 14% higher than the observed
fai ure oads of the connections.13.8
One of the reasons for this observed difference is that the deformation of the
critica fastener in the connection does not reach the maximum va ue observed in
a
sing e bo t shear test. In the sing e bo t test, the oad and deformation direct
ion do
not change throughout the test. In the eccentrica y oaded connection, the oad
and
deformation of each bo t are changing direction continuous y as the instantaneou
s
center moves with an increase in app ied oad. It was observed from tested
specimens that the bo t ho es were deformed and scored by the circu ar movement
of the bo ts re ative to the p ates. Hence, it is un ike y that the critica fas
tener in
the connection wi deform as much as a sing e fastener oaded with a
unidirectiona force.13.8
The predictions of the u timate strength in Ref. 13.8 were based on oad versus
deformation re ationships determined from compression type specimens. However,
fai ure of the fasteners was observed main y in the tension region of the p ates
(where the connected p ates are subjected to tension). It was shown in Chapter 4
226 Eccentrica y Loaded Joints
that a tension type shear test genera y yie ds ower shear va ues than a
compression type shear test.4.4 Since a compression type shear test was used by
Crawford and Ku ak, this may a so have contributed to the overestimation of the
u timate oads of the bo t groups reported in Ref. 13.8.
On y a few test resu ts are avai ab e for eccentrica y oaded s ip resistant co
nnections.
13.12 Figure 13.7 summarizes the oad versus rotation curves for three
eccentrica y oaded connections fastened by ¾ in. dia. A325 bo ts. The bo ts were
insta ed by the turn of nut method in ho es 1/16 in. greater in diameter than t
he
bo ts. The faying surfaces were in a c ean mi sca e condition.
Fig. 13.7. Comparison of design recommendations and test data for s ip resistant
eccentrica y oaded joints.
13.5 Design Recommendations 227
Predicted s ip oads for these specimens were 30, 44, and 63 kips for
connections 1, 2, and 3, respective y. These predictions were based on measured
properties of the connection, inc uding both the s ip coefficient and the c ampi
ng
force. Neither connection 1 nor connection 3 showed any s ip as the specimens
were oaded. Connection 1 did show an increased rate of rotation starting at a
oad
eve of about 50 kips. Connection 3 had a fair y stiff oad versus rotation res
ponse
throughout. Connection 2 had an initia s ip at a oad eve of 48 kips and
additiona s ips at 53 and 63 kips. The so id circu ar dots in Fig. 13.7 indicat
e the
permissib e s ip oad for each specimen using the method out ined in this chapte
r.
A s ip probabi ity eve of 5% was se ected (see Section 5.4).
A though the u timate strength of an eccentrica y oaded fastener group of a
type as given in Figs. 13. a and 13.2 can be eva uated within acceptab e imits,
additiona research is needed to be ab e to predict the oad versus deformation
behavior of such joints. Furthermore, research on other types of connections, su
ch
as shown in Fig. 13.1b, is desirab e to verify the app ication of the ana ysis a
s
out ined in the previous section to these types of connections as we .
13.5.1 Connected Materia
The design of the p ates used in eccentrica y oaded joints does not invo ve sp
ecia
design recommendations. To design the p ate for the bracket connection shown in
Fig. 13. a, the shear stress and norma stress at section AA due to the app ied
oad P
shou d be checked. If re ative y thin p ates are used, the out of p ane deformat
ions
due to instabi ity effects may require an increased p ate thickness.
The a owab e stresses for these conditions depend on the p ate materia and the
type of oading.
13.5.2 Fasteners
Depending on the required performance of the joint, the permissib e oad can be
based on either the s ip resistance or the u timate strength of the connection.
If the
atter basis is used (bearing type connections), the design must be further
distinguished as to either a owab e stress design or oad factor design.
In a these cases, the method of ana ysis emp oying the determination of the
instantaneous center of rotation can be used. If the joint is to be s ip resista
nt, the
resistance of each bo t wi be taken as that estab ished for the type of fasten
er,
surface condition of the connected materia , and s ip probabi ity eve (see Sub
section
5.4.2iii). In a bearing type connection and under oad factor design, the resist
ance
of the most high y oaded fastener shou d be estab ished at its u timate
va ue (Subsection 5.4.2ii); if a owab e stress design is used, the resistance o
f the
most high y oaded fastener shou d be that corresponding to the a owab e stress
for
the bo t (Subsection 5.4.2i).
In equation form, the resu ts of the instantaneous center method of ana ysis can
be
expressed as
v Cr P = ( ) 15 . 13
in which rv is the permissib e oad on a sing e fastener according to the descri
ption
above (that is, s ip resistant connection, or bearing type connection under eith
er
a owab e stress design or oad factor design), and P is the corresponding
permissib e oad on the connection acting at a given eccentricity and for a give
n
fastener arrangement. The nondimensiona coefficient C provides the necessary
re ationship between P and rv.
In deve oping the coefficients C for bearing type connections for A325 and A490
bo ts for s ip resistant connections, it was observed that the coefficients did
not vary
great y for the various cases. According y, it has become customary to tabu ate
on y one set of coefficients and app y it to a cases of eccentrica y oaded c
onnections.
13.13, 13.14 Tab e 13.1 shows a portion of the tabu ated C va ues given in
Reference 13.13. The va ue of C obtained from Tab e 13.1 for a given geometry of
fasteners and eccentricity of oad is to be mu tip ied by the appropriate indivi
dua
bo t resistance (i.e., A325 or A490 bo t, s ip resistant or bearing type joint,
a owab e
stress design or oad factor design). The coefficients tabu ated were generated
taking the doub e shear strength of an A325 bo t as 74 kips and its u timate def
ormation
as 0.34 in. These were the va ues estab ished in Reference 13.8, and they
were obtained from tests on bo ts whose tensi e strength was ess than 1% greate
r
than the specified minimum va ue.
There are a number of ways of ca cu ating the permissib e eccentric oads for bo
t
groups for which the C va ues are not tabu ated. The most obvious way is to work
from
first princip es, using the method out ined in Section 13.3. Po ynomina functio
ns that
approximate the exact so ution are a so avai ab e for one and two fastener in
es of
bo ts.13.8 Some of these were contained in the first edition of this Guide.13.15
More
recent y, procedures have been pub ished that identify a reasonab e first choice
for the
tria ocation of the instantaneous center and provide other computationa short
cuts
that decrease the number of iterations required for a so ution.13.9 This is
particu ar y he pfu if the oad vector is not orthogona with respect to the
centroida axes of the bo t group.
The C va ues for rivets and A307 bo ts can be deve oped on the basis of typica
oad versus deformation curves for those fasteners. For convenience, the
permissib e oads for connections emp oying these fastener types can be
conservative y estimated using the C va ue for high strength bo ts.
The margins of safety imp ied by the use of the instantaneous center method of
ana ysis for eccentrica y oaded connections are consistent with those of other
types of connections. They wi be at about the same eve as that for concentri
ca y
oaded joints ess than 50 in. ong; that is, a factor of safety of about 2.0 in
a owab e stress design and a safety index of about 4.5 in oad factor design.
Required minimum C=
v r
P
P = C x rv
n = Tota number of fasteners in the vertica row
P = Permissib e oad acting with ever arm , inches
rv = Permissib e on one fastener by Specification
C = Coefficients tabu ated be ow.
n
(inches) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
b =
3 in
b =
6 in.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
16
20
24
30
36
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
16
20
24
30
36
0.88
0.69
0.56
0.48
0.41
0.36
0.32
0.29
0.24
0.18
0.15
0.12
0.10
0.08
1.39
1.18
1.01
0.88
0.77
0.69
0.62
0.56
0.48
0.36
0.29
0.24
0.20
0.16
1.75
1.40
1.15
0.97
0.83
0.73
0.65
0.59
0.49
0.37
0.29
0.25
0.20
0.16
2.48
2.22
1.98
1.75
1.56
1.40
1.26
1.15
0.97
0.73
0.59
0.49
0.39
0.33
2.81
2.36
2.01
1.73
1.51
1.34
1.21
1.09
0.92
0.70
0.56
0.47
0.37
0.31
3.56
3.32
3.07
2.81
2.58
2.36
2.17
2.01
1.73
1.34
1.09
0.92
0.74
0.62
3.90
3.40
2.95
2.58
2.28
2.04
1.83
1.66
1.40
1.06
0.85
0.71
0.57
0.48
4.60
4.39
4.15
3.90
3.64
3.40
3.17
2.95
2.58
2.04
1.66
1.40
1.13
0.95
4.98
4.47
3.98
3.55
3.17
2.85
2.59
2.36
2.00
1.53
1.24
1.03
0.83
0.69
5.63
5.45
5.23
4.98
4.73
4.47
4.22
3.98
3.55
2.85
2.36
2.00
1.63
1.37
6.06
5.56
5.05
4.57
4.13
3.75
3.42
3.14
2.68
2.06
1.67
1.40
1.12
0.94
6.65
6.48
6.28
6.06
5.81
5.56
5.30
5.05
4.57
3.75
3.14
2.68
2.19
1.84
7.12
6.64
6.13
5.63
5.15
4.72
4.34
4.00
3.44
2.67
2.16
1.82
1.46
1.22
7.65
7.51
7.33
7.12
6.89
6.64
6.39
6.13
5.63
4.72
4.00
3.44
2.83
2.39
8.17
7.72
7.22
6.70
6.20
5.73
5.31
4.92
4.27
3.33
2.72
2.29
1.84
1.54
8.66
8.52
8.36
8.17
7.95
7.72
7.47
7.22
6.70
5.73
4.92
4.27
3.53
3.00
9.20
8.78
8.30
7.79
7.27
6.78
6.32
5.89
5.15
4.06
3.33
2.81
2.27
1.90
9.65
9.53
9.38
9.20
9.00
8.78
8.55
8.30
7.79
6.78
5.89
5.15
4.30
3.66
10.2
9.84
9.38
8.87
8.36
7.85
7.36
6.90
6.09
4.85
3.99
3.37
2.73
2.29
10.7
10.5
10.4
10.2
10.0
9.84
9.61
9.38
8.87
7.85
6.90
6.09
5.12
4.38
11.3
10.9
10.4
9.96
9.44
8.93
8.42
7.94
7.06
5.68
4.70
3.99
3.24
2.72
11.6
11.5
11.4
11.3
11.1
10.9
10.7
10.4
9.96
8.93
7.94
7.86
5.98
5.18
Source: Manua of Stee Construction, Eighth Edition, American Institute of Stee

Construction, Chicago, 1980.
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ECCENTRICALLY LOADED
JOINTS
v Cr P =
where C = coefficient from Tab e 13.1, or simi ar, or as ca cu ated using
instantaneous center method of ana ysis
rv = permissib e oad per fastener (kips) according to method of design
(see the fo owing)
i. S ip Resistant Connections. If the connection is to be s ip resistant, pre oa
ded
high strength bo ts must be used. In this case, the va ue rv sha be taken in
accordance with Subsection 5.4.2iii, except that the number of fasteners, n, is
unity.
Thus, from Eq. 5.26,
smean ispec v k DmT r = ( ) 16 . 13
The resistance per bo t can a so be estab ished using the a ternative formu atio
n
given in Subsection 5.4.2iii.
ii. Bearing Type Connections: A owab e Stress Design. In the case of
bearing type connections and using a owab e stress design, the recommended
permissib e fastener stresses are 30 ksi for A325 bo ts and 40 ksi for A490 bo t
s
(Subsection 5.4.2i). These stresses mu tip ied by the shear area per bo t (sing
e
shear or doub e shear, as appropriate, wi give the resistance va ue to be used
for
rv. If shear p anes pass through the bo t threads, a reduction of 70% of the bas
ic
va ue must be used.
iii. Bearing Type Connections: Load Factor Design. The va ue of rv to be used
when a bearing type connection is designed using oad factor procedures is given
in
Subsection 5.4.2ii. For one bo t,
b v FA m r φ = ( ) 17 . 13
where m = number o she r pl nes
φ = reduction ctor, 0.80
F = 0.60 = u u σ σ ( ten ile trength of bolt)
Ab = cro - ectional area of bolt corre onding to the nominal diameter
If hear lane a through the bolt thread , 70% of the value calculated accor
ding
to Eq. 13.17 hould be u ed.
REFERENCES
13.1 C. Reilly, “Studie of Iron Girder Bridge ,” Proceeding of the In titute of Ci
vil
Engineer , Vol. 29, 1870.
Reference 231
13.2 T. R. Higgin , “Treatment of Eccentrically Loaded Connection in the AISC
Manual,” Engineering Journal, AJSC, Vol. 8, No. 2. Aril 1971.
13.3 “Eccentric Rivet Connection ,” Engineering Record, Vol. 70, No. 19, November 7,
1914, P. 518.
13.4 E. Yarimci and R. G. Slutter, Re ult of Te t on Riveted Connection , Frit
z Engineering
Laboratory, Reort 200.63.401.1, Bethlehem, Penn ylvania, Aril 1963.
13.5 T. R. Higgin , “New Formula for Fa tener Loaded Off Center,” Engineering-New
Record, May 21, 1964.
13.6 A. L. Abolitz, “Pla tic De ign of Eccentrically Loaded Fa tener ,” Engineering
Journal,
AISC, Vol. 3, No. 3, July 1966.
13.7 C. L. Shermer, “Pla tic Behavior of Eccentrically-Loaded Connection ,”
Engineering Journal, AISC, Vol. 8, No. 2, Aril 1971. (See al o di cu ion by G.
L.
Kulak, Vol. 8, No. 4, October 1971.)
13.8 S. F. Crawford and G. L. Kulak, “Eccentrically Loaded Bolted Connection ,” Jour
nal of
the Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 97, ST3, March 1971.
13.9 G. D. Brandt, “Raid Determination of Ultimate Strength of Eccentrically Load
ed
Bolt Grou .” Engineering Journal, AISC, Second Quarter, 1982.
13.10 D. M. F. Orr, “The Strength of Eccentrically Loaded Shear Connection ,” Journa
l of
Con tructional Steel Re earch, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1982.
13.11 C. G. Salmon and J. E. John on, Steel Structure , De ign and Behavior, 2nd
ed., Harer
and Row, New York, 1980.
13.12 G. L. Kulak, “Eccentrically Loaded Sli-Re i tant Connection ,” Engineering Jo
urnal,
AISC, Vol. 12, No. 2, Aril 1975.
13.13 American In titute of Steel Con truction, Manual of Steel Con truction, 8t
h ed., AISC,
Chicago, Illinoi , 1980.
13.14 Canadian In titute of Steel Con truction, Handbook of Steel Con truction,
4th ed.,
Rexdale, Ontario, 1985.
13.15 J. W. Fi her and J. H. A. Struik, Guide to De ign Criteria for Bolted and
Riveted Joint ,
Wiley Inter cience, New York, 1974.
Chater Fourteen
Combination Joint
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Mo t connection u e a ingle fa tening y tem to connect late or member
together and rovide the mean of tran ferring the force acting in or on the jo
int.
However, ituation do ari e where it i de irable or nece ary to combine two
different method of fa tening in a ingle connection. Thi generally involve
rivet and bolt or bolt and weld . In the e connection the two fa tening y t
em
hare the load. Joint of thi tye are generally referred to a combination joi
nt or
load- haring joint .
There are two general tye of combination connection , a illu trated in Fig.
14.1. One tye, hown in Fig. 14.la, utilize two different fa tening y tem to
hare the load on a common hear lane. Thi condition may occur when reinforcin
g
or trengthening an exi ting joint. For examle, high- trength bolt may be
u ed to relace everal rivet . In other ituation , ace may not be available
for
additional fa tener , and weld are added to the joint. In either ca e, the al
ied
load are tran ferred by both tye of fa tener on a common hear lane.
Combination joint that combine fa tener on a common hear lane have the
advantage of being comact. Thi reduce the required ace and the amount of
lice material. In addition, they can hel overcome field erection roblem . Al
though
welded connection are generally more comact than bolted connection ,
fabrication tolerance for welding are more rigid than the tolerance allowed fo
r
bolted connection . Before the welding roce i tarted, o itioning and holdi
ng
of comonent in lace mu t al o be con idered and accounted for. Bolted
connection with regular hole clearance (1/16-in.) rovide for ome relative
movement between the connected art after initial a embly and before final
tightening of the bolt . Therefore, a member in a frame can be more ea ily
in talled with bolt . After the member ha been o itioned and aligned roerly,
the bolt are tightened. It i ea y to add weld to a connection after it ha be
en fir t
bolted into lace ( ee Fig. 14.1a).
Combination joint of the tye a hown in Fig. 14.la have a wide alication fo
r
reinforcement of exi ting mechanically fa tened joint . Simle hear lice or
232
14.1 Introduction 233
Fig. 14.1. Tyical combination joint . (a) Load haring on a common hear lane.
(b) Combination joint with two different hear lane .
eccentrically loaded hear lice are tyical connection that can utilize a
combination of mechanical fa tener and weld on a common hear lane.
The behavior of mall combination joint with bolt and weld or with bolt
and rivet combined on a ingle hear lane ha been tudied to evaluate joint
behavior and develo de ign recommendation .5.5, 9.2, 14.1, 14.2 The e te t hav
e
demon trated the alicability of thi tye of joint. The work in thi area i n
ot
exten ive, and further re earch would be de irable.
234 Combination Joint
In the other major tye of combination connection, two different fa tening
method are u ed but they do not act on a common hear lane. Examle of thi
category of combination joint are hown in Fig. 14.lb. The e connection include
the imle combination framed beam connection that utilize ho weld to
connect the web angle to either the beam web or the member into which the beam
frame and bolt for the field connection. In thi articular ca e, both the bol
t and
the weld are re i ting the beam hear force. Variation of thi tye of combina
tion
joint are o ible, uch a welding the flange of beam to column joint and
roviding a bolted hear connection for the web.
U ually, thi tye of combination joint will rovide greater economy and increa
ed
flexibility during erection a comared with the ame joint configuration
that u e only one tye of fa tener. The many o ibilitie for combination join
t
that exi t will only be limited by the ingenuity of the engineer. All available
evidence how that they rovide a ati factory joint with adequate trength and
tiffne when roer de ign rocedure are u ed for the comonent art .14.4
The remainder of thi chater di cu e the behavior of bolted-welded and
riveted-bolted combination joint where the fa tener are haring the load on
common hear lane. Other combination of fa tening y tem are not con idered
for thi tye of combination joint becau e of the lack of information and becau
e of
their limited u e in tructural alication .
Di cu ion of the behavior of the other major tye of combination connection,
where different tye of fa tener are u ed but not on a common hear lane, i
given in Chater 18.
14.2 BEHAVIOR OF COMBINATION JOINTS THAT SHARE LOAD ON A
COMMON SHEAR PLANE
Before the combined action of two different fa tening method acting in a common
hear lane i di cu ed, it i de irable to reexamine the load ver u deformati
on
behavior of the different tye of individual fa tener . Figure 14.2 how tyic
al
load ver u deformation curve for welded, bolted, and riveted ten ion ecimen
.
Thi figure indicate that high- trength bolted connection with normal hole
clearance rovide a very high initial tiffne u to the li load of the conne
ction.
During li, the deformation increa e ignificantly until the bolt come into
bearing. After the bolt are in bearing, the load ver u deformation curve how
an
increa e in joint tiffne . Joint li can be minimized by in talling fitted bo
lt in
matching drilled hole .
Comared to li-re i tant high- trength bolted joint where the load i tran fe
rred
by friction, riveted connection are generally more flexible. Often a udden cha
nge in
the loe of the load ver u deflection curve can be ob erved that i directly
comarable to li in a high- trength bolted connection. However, thi “ li” i u u
ally
le than one-third the li ob erved in high- trength bolted connection .
A tyical characteri tic of a welded connection a comared with riveted or
14.2 Behavior of Combination Joint that Share Load on a Common Shear Plane 235
Fig. 14.2. Load ver u deformation relation hi for different fa tening method
(Ref. 9.2.).
high- trength bolted connection i the reduced deformation caacity. Sli doe
not occur in welded connection , and the initial tiffne of the joint only cha
nge
a the ultimate load i aroached. From the e load ver u deformation
relation hi for tyical fa tener , one can conclude that combination of the e
fa tener would be mo t aroriate where comatible deformation characteri tic
exi t. The referred combination aear to be weld with li-re i tant high tr
ength
bolt and rivet with bolt .
14.2.1 High-Strength Bolt Combined with Weld
A comari on of the load ver u deformation caacity of welded and high- trength
bolted connection with normal 1/16-in.-hole clearance indicate that the total
deformation caacity of the weld i of the ame order of magnitude a the
maximum li of a high- trength bolted connection. Therefore, if both fa tening
method are u ed on a common hear lane, the caacity of the re ulting
combination joint might be taken a the um of the weld trength and the li
re i tance rovided by the bolt .
The que tion ari e a to what con titute failure in a welded-bolted combinatio
n
joint. A di cu ed above, becau e the weld hear deformation caacity and the
ob erved value of li in bolted joint are about the ame, the weld hear fail
ure
can be exected to occur at the ame time a the bolt li into bearing. If the
joint
wa de igned to be li-re i tant, thi would con titute failure. If the joint w
ere
de igned a a bearing tye, the connection now con i t of a bolted connection
(with ome broken weld ) who e caacity can be determined according to the u ual
rule ( ee Chater 5). Thu , in new work it i not logical to con ider u ing bot
h
high- trength bolt and weld in the ame joint unle it i categorized a a l
ire i tant
connection. It mu t al o be noted that in load factor de ign a li-re i tant
connection mu t al o be checked with re ect to the ultimate limit tate. The
ultimate re i tance of the bolted-welded joint, a defined by comlete earatio
n of
the art , will be the greate t of the hear caacity of the bolt , the bearing
caacity
of the late , or the hear caacity of the weld . The re i tance o determined
mu t
be at lea t equal to the effect of the factored load .
In renovation or reair work, two earate loading ca e hould be identified.
If, for examle, weld are added to a bolted joint that ha little or no load, t
he ca e
i the ame a that de cribed for new work. On the other hand, if the joint i
already under load, the exi ting comonent, bolt or weld , mu t be initially
carrying that load. Load alied ub equent to the addition of weld or bolt wi
ll
be hared between the original fa tening element and tho e that have been added
.
Whether the joint i to be con idered now a li re i tant or bearing tye will
deend uon individual circum tance . Similarly, if the joint i a bearing tye,
the
identification of the critical fa tening element will have to be done on a ca e-
byca e
ba i .
Te t have been erformed to evaluate the validity of the a umtion made for
new work (or for renovation done under no load), namely, that the hear caacit
y
of the weld and the li re i tance of the bolt can be added.5.5, 9.2, 14.1, 1
4.2 The te t
joint were generally mall ten ion tye butt lice with two bolt on either
ide of
the lice, a hown in Fig. 14.3. The influence of the location of the weld , t
hat i ,
either tran ver e or arallel to the alied load, wa al o tudied. Furthermore
, the
ratio of the caacity of the weld with re ect to the li re i tance of the bo
lt
wa con idered a a te t variable.
Figure 14.3 ummarize the re ult ob erved in a tyical erie of te t joint .9
.2
The load ver u deformation behavior of the lain welded and the lain bolted
connection i hown, a i that for the combination bolted and welded joint. It
i
aarent that the behavior of the combination joint can be adequately de cribed
by
the um of the li load of the lain bolted connection and the trength of the
weld . Other combination of weld length, weld location, and li re i tance of
the
bolted joint re ulted in imilar conclu ion .9.2, 14.1
The te t reorted in Ref. 9.2 were limited to mall connection with only a
few bolt in line. In larger connection , ome mi alignment may exi t and the bo
lt
come into bearing before failure of weld occur . The load carried by the bolted
connection i then tran mitted by friction and bearing. The failure load of the
e
connection i likely to exceed the e timated ultimate load determined from the
li
re i tance of the bolt and the trength of the weld . Reducing the hole clearan
ce
would al o bring the bolt into bearing and increa e the ultimate trength of a
bolted-welded combination joint. The maximum caacity of a combination joint i
develoed when fitted bolt are in talled in matching drilled hole . Te t have
indicated that the e connection have an ultimate load that exceed the ummatio
n
of the weld trength and the li load of the bolted connection.9.2, 14.2 Obviou
ly,
uch joint are not very economical in new work. However, in exi ting work hole
would of nece ity be drilled, and they would of cour e be matched. In thi ca e
,
fitted bolt could be ea ily u ed.
Fig. 14.3. Te t of welded, bolted, and combined welded-bolted joint . (Ref. 9.2)
.
Another a ect that ha to be con idered i the behavior of combination joint
under reeated loading condition . The behavior of high- trength bolted connecti
on
ubjected to reeated loading condition i di cu ed in Chater 5. Te t erfor
med in
Germany indicated that the fatigue trength of a high- trength bolted connection
decrea e when weldment are added.9.2 Thi reduction in fatigue trength i ex
ected,
becau e the weld toe i the critical region, and crack growth will occur ju t a
in a
welded joint. The weld toe wa more critical than the bolt hole in all te t joi
nt .9.2 A
comari on of the few data available for welded joint indicate that the fatigu
e
trength i not ignificantly different from the fatigue trength of a imilar
lain fillet
welded connection. Hence, the de ign criteria for
welded joint hould be u ed for cyclic load condition when the weld are
o itioned on the boundarie of the combination joint.
Some te t have indicated that an imrovement in fatigue trength can re ult
when the weld are laced on the joint interior.14.3 Thi remove the weld from
the
more highly tre ed joint boundary where the geometric di continuity i more
evere and lace it in a lower tre ed region. In addition, the tre concent
ration
condition i generally decrea ed, ince the connected art are more nearly
ubjected to about the ame train condition . However, caution mu t alway be
exerci ed when adding weld to exi ting bolted joint . The danger exi t that
condition favorable to crack growth will be created, articularly if the e weld
are
u ed at lug or lot .
14.2.2 High-Strength Bolt Combined with Rivet
A combination of rivet and high- trength bolt inter ecting the ame hear lan
e
would not be u ed in new con truction. However, high- trength bolt are often
u ed to relace one or more rivet in exi ting riveted connection . Thi i done
to
either reair the joint or to trengthen the connection.
The addition of high- trength bolt to a riveted connection re ult in a number
of imrovement . For a given diameter, a high- trength bolt ha a greater hear
trength than a rivet, and o the ultimate trength of the whole connection will
be
increa ed. If the connection i li-re i tant, the tiffne will be increa ed
by the
addition of high- trength bolt . If the li re i tance i exceeded, the re enc
e of
the rivet , which have le hole clearance than do high- trength bolt , mean th
at
le li will take lace a comared with a fully-bolted joint. Furthermore, re
lacing
rivet by high- trength bolt ha been hown to imrove the fatigue
trength of the joint.14.5
Te t to evaluate the load ver u deformation behavior of hort bolted-riveted
combination joint have indicated that the ultimate trength of the joint i
adequately aroximated by the ummation of the re i tance of the two tye of
fa tener .9.2 Thi i illu trated in Fig. 14.4, where the load ver u deformatio
n
curve of a riveted, a bolted, and a bolted-riveted combination joint are comar
ed.
Thi figure clearly how the increa ed tiffne of the combined joint a coma
red
with the riveted joint. The imroved li behavior of the combination joint i a
l o
evident.
Since the joint trength of hort combination joint i an aggregate of the
trength of the individual fa tener , it doe not matter how the fa tener are
arranged in the combination joint. Hence, either the outermo t rivet or rivet
located in the joint interior can be relaced by high- trength bolt . Either
arrangement yield about the ame ultimate load. Ba ed uon the ob erved
behavior of long riveted and bolted joint , the fa tener location will influence
the
joint trength. Becau e of “unbuttoning,” relacing the outermo t rivet of a long
joint by high- trength bolt will be more effective in increa ing the joint tre
ngth
than relacing the ame number of interior fa tener . Exerimental verification
i
not available on long joint at the re ent time (1987).
Fig. 14.4. Te t re ult of riveted, bolted, and combined riveted-bolted joint (
Ref. 9.2).
A wa di cu ed for the ca e of bolted-welded joint , the amount of load on a
rivet joint at the time that high- trength bolt are added mu t be known. If the
exi ting load i mall or zero, the rivet and bolt can be a umed to hare the
load,
a di cu ed above. However, if the joint i already under load at the time of
reinforcement, the rivet will already be under load when the high- trength bolt

are introduced. Additional load will be hared between the rivet and the bolt .
The joint trength will have to be a e ed on a ca e-by-ca e ba i , and thi ca
n be
done by relating the fa tener deformation and load .
Con ider the relacement of ome rivet at the extremitie of a loaded, riveted
joint by high- trength bolt . Under the exi ting load, the hear force er rivet
can
be calculated ( ee Sub ection 5.2.5) and the corre onding hearing deformation
,
∆e, est blished usin v lues simil r to those shown in Fi. 3.2. The rivet she rin

de orm tion t ultim te, ∆m, is lso obt in ble rom Fi. 3.2. When hih-strenth
bolts re dded, they c n only be subjected to the di erence between the two ri
vet
she r de orm tions, th t is, ∆b = ∆m-∆e. The orce per bolt c n then be obt ined
rom iure such s Fi. 4.11 or rom the m them tic l expressions developed t
o
describe this rel tionship.5.22 Fin lly, the ultim te c p city o the riveted-bo
lted
combin tion joint c n be c lcul ted s the sum o the rivet orces nd the bolt
orces est blished s bove. Althouh the procedure described is believed to be
sound, there h ve not been ny tests th t would veri y its pplic bility.
M ny test pror ms h ve indic ted th t hih-strenth bolted she r splices
subjected to repe ted-type lo din ener lly exhibit sini ic ntly hiher numb
er
o lo d cycles be ore ilure th n do comp r ble riveted specimens (see Ch pter
5).
This di erence is m inly ttributed to the hih cl mpin orce provided by the
bolts, which results in more vor ble stress distribution round the bolt hol
e s
comp red with the stress low round the holes in riveted connection. Hence, t
he
repl cement o rivets by hih-strenth bolts will incre se the tiue strenth
o
connection.
F tiue strenth tests h ve been c rried out on both sm ll bolted-riveted
combin tion joints9.2 nd on ull-size specimens.14.5 In the l tter pror m, 16
ullsc le
tests were conducted, includin both modeled joints nd ctu l connections
t ken rom structure in service. The study showed th t the repl cement o rive
ts
with prelo ded hih-strenth bolts t loc tions o observed or nticip ted cr ck
in
incre sed tiue li e by ctor o rom two to six. Proper remov l o the riv
ets to
be repl ced nd proper inst ll tion o the repl cement bolts is necess ry so th
t no
new mech nic l l ws (burrs, nicks, nd oues) re introduced durin the
reh bilit tion process. The tests lso showed th t i cr ckin is ret rded in th
e
critic l reion by rivet repl cement, other loc tions not s hihly stressed m y
become critic l.
Reression n lyses o the d t were c rried out th t en bled the prediction o
the tiue strenth o the reh bilit ted joints.14.5 For c ses involvin struct
ur l
sizes simil r to those tested, these could be used. Altern tively, the conserv t
ive
prediction miht be used; th t is, reh bilit tion o joint by repl cement o r
ivets
with prelo ded hih-strenth bolts will result in tiue li e twice s re t
s th t
o the unreh bilit ted joint.
Althouh only limited test d t re v il ble, knowlede o the beh vior o th
e
di erent stener responses en bles desin recommend tions to be developed or
combin tion joints th t utilize two di erent types o steners to tr ns er lo
d on
common she r pl ne.
14.3.1 St tic Lo din Conditions
For welded-bolted c ses in which the lo d in the joint to be rein orced is sm ll
or
zero, the c p city c n be t ken s the sum o the slip resist nce o the hih-st
renth
bolted p rt nd the ultim te lo d o the welded p rt. This summ tion corresponds
to the slip resist nce o the connection. I lo d ctor desin is bein used, t
he
ultim te resist nce (sep r tion o the p rts) must lso be c lcul ted nd comp r
ed
with the orce introduced into the joint by the ctored lo ds. For the welded-b
olted
joint, this will lw ys be the ultim te she r c p city o the bolts or the be ri
n
c p city o the connected p rts.
I the welded-bolted combin tion joint rises s result o rein orcement under
lo d, then it must be reconized th t the oriin l stenin element is lre dy
lo ded, nd only lo ds pplied ter the rein orcin connector is introduced wil
l be
sh red. The identi ic tion o the critic l stenin element nd the joint resis
t nce
will h ve to be h ndled on n individu l b sis, considerin the de orm tion nd
lo d responses o the individu l elements nd en orcin comp tibility nd
equilibrium requirements.
Bolted-riveted combin tion joints will simil rly h ve to be distinuished s to
lo din c se. I the combin tion is ormed under low or zero lo d, the rivets n
d
bolts c n be ssumed to sh re ll the pplied lo d. The c p city o the joint wi
ll be
the sum o the individu l contributions. I rein orcement is m de under lo d,
usu lly by the repl cement o rivets with hih-strenth bolts, then the lo d nd
de orm tion oriin lly present in the rivets must be c lcul ted. The lo d pplie
d
ter the rein orcement will be c rried by the rivets nd bolts in proportion to
their
de orm tions.
14.3.2 Repe ted Lo din Conditions
When hih-strenth bolts nd illet welds re combined to resist orces on
common she r pl ne, the tiue strenth is overned by the welded joint. Cr ck
rowth occurs irst rom the weld toe termin tion, nd tiue provisions or th
e
welded det il should be used or desin.
When hih-strenth bolts h ve been used to strenthen riveted joints,
sini ic nt improvement in tiue strenth h s been noted when the bolts were
pl ced t the joint ends where the stressed pl tes re most critic l. Reression
n lyses re v il ble th t will en ble the prediction or the tiue strenth o
the
reh bilit ted joints.14.5 Altern tively, it would be conserv tive to ssume th t
the
reh bilit tion o joint by repl cement o rivets with prelo ded hih-strenth
bolts
will ive tiue li e ( t the point o reh bilit tion) twice s re t s th t
o the
unreh bilit ted joint. The possibility th t other reions o the connection mih
t
now become critic l must lso be considered.
242 Combin tion Joints
REFERENCES
14.1 W. Hoyer nd H. Skwirblies, Hoch este Schr uben in Verbindunen Mit
Schweissn chten, (2nd report), Wissensch tliches Zeitschri t der Hochschule ue
r
B uwesen, Cottbus, 1959/1960, Vol. 1, Cottbus, Germ ny, 1960.
14.2 N. M. Holtz nd 0. L. Kul k, Hih Strenth Bolts nd Welds in Lo d-Sh rin
Systems, Dep rtment o Civil Enineerin, Nov Scoti Technic l Collee,
H li x, Nov Scoti , September 1970.
14.3 E. Ypeij, New Development in Dutch Steel Bride Buildins, Prelimin ry Repo
rt 9th
Conress IABSE. Amsterd m, M y 1972.
14.4 J. S. Hu n, W. F. Chen, nd J. E. Reec, Test Pror m o Steel Be m-to-
Column Connections, Fritz Enineerin L bor tory Report 333.15, Lehih
University, Bethlehem, Pennsylv ni , July 1971.
14.5 H. S. Reemsnyder, “F tiue Li e Extension o Riveted Connections,” Journ l o t
he
Structur l Division, ASCE, Vol. 101, ST12, December 1975.
Ch pter Fi teen
Gusset Pl tes
15.1 INTRODUCTION
When the lonitudin l xes o two or more members to be joined t point re
inclined with respect to one nother, it is not usu lly possible to bolt one mem
ber
directly to nother. In these c ses, usset pl tes re used to receive the lo d
rom
one member nd tr ns er it to the others. Fiure 2.4 illustr tes such connecti
on.
Althouh it is custom ry to ssume th t the members in this rr nement re
lo ded only in their xi l directions, the delivery o these lo ds by the bolts
into
nd out o the usset pl te will produce bendin, she r, nd norm l orces t n
y
rbitr ry section t ken throuh the usset pl te.
Out-o -pl ne bendin in usset pl tes is ener lly insini ic nt. In most c ses,
the lo d pplic tion is symmetric with respect to the pl ne o the usset pl te,
or
joint eometry prevents or minimizes the second ry out-o -pl ne bendin stresses
,
s shown in Fi. 2.4c. Bec use o these ctors, the n lysis o usset pl tes
ener lly is tre ted s two-dimension l pl ne stress problem; second ry stress
es
due to out-o -pl ne bendin re nelected.
Until very recently, there h d been rel tively ew ttempts to determine the
stress distribution in usset pl tes, either n lytic lly or experiment lly. The
usu l
procedure15.1
w s to select sections or ex min tion (usu lly t ken p r llel to nd
perpendicul r to the chord in the c se o truss), identi y the bolt orces th
t h d
been delivered to the usset pl te, nd use these orces to c lcul te the she r,
norm l orce, nd moment t the cut section. The stresses were then c lcul ted
ssumin th t the element ry ormul s or be ms pply. It w s reconized th t th
e
ssumption o be m beh vior is not v lid, however. Furthermore, it w s uncert in
whether loc l stresses within the usset pl te necess rily rem ined el stic, eve
n
under llow ble stress desin. An e rly study on model o W rren truss lower
chord connection indic ted th t the be m ssumptions led to erroneous
predictions.15.2 (This study w s limited to nomin l stresses within the el stic
r ne.) Since bout 1970, more experiment l nd n lytic l studies h ve become
v il ble.15.3-15.9 The l test studies, usin the inite element method to model
the
structure, h ve been p rticul rly use ul in predictin the stresses th t occur i
n the
inel stic reion o beh vior. Althouh the mount o experiment l d t is still
243
244 Gusset Pl tes
sm ll, the n lytic l studies re ble to provide ood prediction o test resu
lts.15.7,
15.9
This ch pter discusses the methods currently in use or the desin o usset
pl tes. An ex min tion o current pr ctice suests th t subst nti l v ri tions
in
the ctor o s ety inst ultim te lo d exist in usset pl tes bec use o the
ssumptions involved. Despite the shortcomins o the presently v il ble desin
methods, these procedures continue to be used bec use experience with these
methods h s resulted in usset pl tes th t h ve provided s tis ctory per orm nc
e
nd beh vior. There re, no doubt, subst nti l v ri tions in the ctu l strenth
o
the v rious usset pl tes th t result rom this desin ppro ch. However, there
re
no known ilures or documented c ses o dverse beh vior.
15.2 METHOD OF ANALYSIS AND EXPERIMENTAL WORK ON
GUSSET PLATES
The desin o usset pl tes h s lon been b sed on simple methods o n lysis.
Simple strenth o m teri ls n lysis or speci ic tion rules were used.15.10, 15
.11
Such n n lysis is b sed on ssumptions, nd their dequ cy is not ully known.
The procedure ener lly ollowed nd presented in m ny desin h ndbooks is
summ rized s ollows.15.1
It is ssumed th t ll steners connectin member to
the usset c rry n equ l sh re o the lo d. This permits the number o stener
s
required to tr nsmit the lo d rom e ch member into the usset pl te to be deter
mined.
Note th t comp r ble ssumptions re rdin the lo d tr ns er re used or
desin o other types o she r splices. The pl n r dimensions o the pl te re
selected so th t ll steners c n be pl ced. A tent tive pl te thickness is sel
ected,
o ten on the b sis o experience o the desiner or s prescribed by pplic ble
speci ic tions. Stresses re then ev lu ted on e ch section by ssumin the pl t
e to
ct s be m. Hence, be m theory is used to ev lu te the stresses t the select
ed
section. Gener lly, the n lysis consists o checkin v rious sections throuh t
he
pl te in order to obt in the overnin one (see Fi. 15.1).
It h s lon been reconized th t the be m method o n lysis is o question ble
v lue.15.1-15.5 The lo d p rtition mon steners connectin member to uss
et pl te
is ener lly not uni orm, nd the pplic bility o be m ormul s to the eometri
es
ener lly encountered in usset pl tes is question ble. To ex mine the v lidity
o
the use o be m ormul s or this problem, Whitmore, in 1952, investi ted the
stress distribution in 12.6 x 1/8 x 16.6 in. luminum usset pl te in which th
e
connections were m de usin tiht ittin pins nd bolts.15.2 The model simul te
d
lower chord joint o W rren-type truss with continuous chord (see Fi. 15.2)
. A
vertic l member w s tt ched to the model but not lo ded. Whitmore observed th t
the loc tions o the m ximum tensile nd compressive stress were ne r the ends o

the tension nd compression di on ls, respectively. The ssumption th t norm l
stresses, bendin stresses, nd she r stresses on critic l pl ne throuh the e
nds o
the di on ls re distributed ccordin to be m ormul s
15.2 Method o An lysis nd Experiment l Work on Gusset Pl tes 245
Fi. 15.1. An lysis o usset pl tes. Bendin stress σmax = P/A Mx/I. Shear tre
τmax

= 3/2 V/A.a-a,
- , c-c, and d-d deno e secions o e checked.

was found o e inaccura e. This is illus ra ed in Fig. 15.3 where he dis ri u
ion of
he ver ical normal s ress along a sec ion parallel o he chord mem er and pass
ing

hrough
each diagonal is shown.
A significan
difference
e ween
hecalcula ed
ando served s resses isno ed, par icularlya heedges of he pla
e.
Whi more concluded ha
he maximum normal

s ress a he end of a mem er
Fig. 15.2. Gusse pla e model as used y Whi more (Ref. 15.2.).
246 Gusse Plaes

Fig. 15.3. Dis ri u ion of ver ical normal s ress on cri ical sec ion C-C; see F
ig. 15.2.

could e es ima ed adequa ely y assuming ha
he mem er force was
dis ri
u ed
uniformly
over
an effec ive area of pla
e ma erial. This area was o ained y
mul
iplying he hickness of he pla e y an effec ive leng h. The effec ive len
g h

was es ima ed y cons ruc ing 30° lines from he ou er fas eners in he firs row
o
heir in ersec ion wi h a line perpendicular o he line of ac ion of he ex ern
al load

and passing
hrough
he o om row of fas eners, as shown in Fig.
15.4. The
segmen
in ercep ed y he 30° lines is hen used as he effec ive wid h of he pl
a e.

Me hods of analysis have
ecome
availa

le, such as he fini e elemen me hod,
which permi he gusse pla e o e analyzed in he elas ic and inelas ic ranges
.

Vasarhelyi15.4 and Davis15.5 o h a emp ed an elas ic fini e elemen solu ion o
f
Fig. 15.4. Evalua ion of effec ive wid h for fas ener pa ern.
15.2 Me hod ofAnalysis and
Experimenal Workon Gusse Pla
es 247
specific gusse pla es. S ruik15.6 no only s udied he pro lem in he elas ic r
ange

u also predic ed he ehavior of gusse pla es in he inelas ic range up o h
eir
ul ima es reng h. In he elas ic-plas ic analysis, he presence of he holes ar
e accoun ed
for in an approxima e manner. Richard and

his coworkers a he Universi y
ofArizona have also modeled gusse pla e ehavior using

he fini e elemen
me hods15.7. Their procedure is par icularly in eres ing ecause he model inclu
des

all elemen
s
of he connec ion: he fas eners, he connec ed mem ers, and he
gusse pla e i self.
The elas ic analyses15.4-15.6

confirmed

Whi
more’s conclusions.
Significan

varia ion e ween s ress dis ri u ions predic ed y he fini e elemen me hod an
d
eam heory exis ed. However,

he difference was no necessarily unsafe. None of
he s resses evalua ed y he fini e elemen analyses exceeded he maximum value
s

predic ed
y eam heory. The loca ion and dis ri u ion of he maximum s resses
showed su s an ial varia ion.
Some
of he resul s of he elas
ic-plas
ic fini e elemen analysis done y
S ruik15.6 of a ypical gusse pla e are shown in Figs. 15.5 hrough 15.7. Figur
e 15.5
shows
he geome ryof he gusse pla e as
well as he applied loads. The ensile
s reng h of he ma erial was assumed o e 70 ksi a a s rain of 15%. Reaching
he
ensile s reng h in one or more elemen s was considered o resul in failure of
he
gusse anddefined he ul ima e load.
The predic
ed load versus displacemen curves for
wo ypical poin s on he
gusse are shown in Fig. 15.6. The elas ic-plas ic oundaries corresponding o
he
load
levels P1, P2, and P3, indica ed in Fig. 15.6, are summarized in Fig. 15.7.
I is

apparen ha yielding occurred near he ends of hemem ers soon af er load P1
was applied.
The loadversus deformaion curves s ar o devia
e from
lineari

y,
reflec

ing plas ifica ion of he sec ion. A load s age P3 he sys em exhi i ed
su -
Fig. 15.5. Geome ry and loading condi ions for sample gusse pla e. Fas ener hol
es 0.5-in.
dia. Pla e Thickness 0.25 in. α Lo d P r meter to indic te proportion l lo din (s

ee Fi .
15.7).
Fi. 15.6. Typic l lo d versus displ cement curves or s mple usset pl te. ( )
Lo d versus displ cement curves. (b) Loc tion o points o displ cement.
248
Fi. 15.7. El stic-pl stic bound ry t v rious lo d st es ( or lo d re erence s
ee Fi. 15.6).
( ) Lo d st e P1. (b) Lo d st e P2. (c) Lo d st e P3.
249
250 Gusset Pl tes
st nti l nonline r beh vior. The tensile strenth w s irst re ched in the eleme
nts t
the end o the di on l members, s indic ted in Fi. 15.6.
The llow ble lo ds or this p rticul r usset pl te were ev lu ted on the b sis
o the current AISC speci ic tions2.11 nd re lso shown in Fi. 15.6. The el s
ticpl stic
n lysis indic ted ctor o s ety inst ultim te between 2.5 nd 2.7,

dependin on the method o n lysis used. For this p rticul r ex mple, the 30o
e ective width method ve slihtly hiher llow ble lo d th n be m theory. O
n
the b sis o these inite element studies, it w s concluded th t current desin
procedures result in v ri ble ctor o s ety inst the usset pl te c p ci
ty.15.6
The physic l tests done by Bjorhovde t the University o Albert 15.8 llowed
the n lytic l model o Rich rd et l. to be ev lu ted.15.7
The ener l rr nement
o the test specimen is shown in Fi. 15.8. The nle o the br cin used in the
tests w s 30°, 45° ( s shown), or 60°. Gusset pl te thicknesses were 1/8 nd 3/8 in.
A plot o theoretic l e ective stresses ( ccordin to the von Mises yield
criterion) is shown in Fi. 15.9 or the c se o 1/8-in. thick usset pl te lo
ded by
member inclined t 45° nd or lo d o 150 kips. This is the lo d t which the
usset pl te in the physic l test tore in the reion round the ends o the spli
ce
pl tes. The plot shows th t consider ble mount o the splice pl te h d yielde
d t this
lo d level, nd th t hih str ins were present in the reion where the ilure
ctu lly
occurred. A comp rison o me sured str ins with those obt ined n lytic lly show
ed
re son ble reement in reions where the str in r dient is low. In re s o hi
h
Fi. 15.8. University o Albert test specimen.
15.2 Method o An lysis nd Experiment l Work on Gusset Pl tes 251
Fi. 15.9. 45o 1/8-in. usset, e ective (von Mises) nd sur ce plots, 150 kip
lo d.
str in r dient, there were quite l re di erences between me sured nd c lcul
ted
str ins, possibly re lection o in dequ te mesh size in the inite element mod
el.
Finite element n lyses or the 30° nd 60° lo d c ses nd or the other usset pl t
e
thickness showed simil r results.
In the tests done by Bjorhovde,15.8 the c ses in which te rin occurred in the
usset pl te in the reion o the splice pl te ends occurred t lo ds o 150 kip
s nd
158 kips. Both these c ses were or usset pl te 1/8-in. thick, nd the lo ded
members were inclined t 45° nd 30°, respectively. The Whitmore method,
described e rlier, would ive predicted ilure lo d o 179 kips or e ch o t
hese
tests. (The me sured ultim te tensile strenth o the usset pl te m teri l w s
55.5
ksi.) In workin stress desin, nd usin the speci ied minimum yield strenth (
44
ksi), the permissible lo d usin the Whitmore method is 142 kips. For these test
s,
the Whitmore method overestim tes the ultim te strenth, nd it does not provide
su icient m rin o s ety i llow ble stress desin is used.
In nother test o usset pl te in which 45° lo ded member w s present, 3/8-
in. thick usset pl te w s used.15.8 It w s lo ded to 324 kips be ore the test h
d to be
discontinued. Althouh ilure h d not occurred, sm ll mount o yieldin
252 Gusset Pl tes
w s observed t the s me loc tion where usset pl te te rin took pl ce when the
1/8-in. thickness w s used. Usin the me sured m teri l yield strenth o 42.7 k
si,
the Whitmore method would predict yieldin t lo d o 412 kips.
Rich rd et l.15.7
h ve suested th t the block she r method o n lysis used
or st nd rd web nle connections on coped be ms miht be suit ble or usset
pl te desin. (This method is discussed in Subsection 18.3.1.) For “lon”
connections, described s those with more th n ive bolts in line, they suest
usin the ross re lon the potenti l ilure sur ces, nd or short connect
ions,
they suest usin the net re . The connection shown in Fi. 15.8 h s nine bolt
s in
line t sp cin o 2 1/4 in. The bolt lines re 5 in. p rt. Usin the me sure
d
ultim te tensile strenth (55.5 ksi) nd t kin the ultim te she r stress s 0.6
times
the me sured tensile yield strenth (42.7 ksi), the c lcul ted ultim te lo d by
this
method is 150 kips. This is ex ctly equ l to the ilure lo d o the connection
in
which the 45° member w s present nd very close to the ilure lo d o 158 kips
or the c se when 60° member w s present. More studies re needed to support
the block she r model; however, it is consistent with the m ximum she r stresses
identi ied in the n lytic l model o Re . 15.7, nd it seems to ive ood resul
ts.
The desin o the usset pl te ssembly must lso include consider tion o the
orces in the bolts. In Ch pter 5 the ev lu tion o individu l bolt orces lon
the
lenth o joint ssumed th t the two p rts bein connected (in Ch pter 5, l p
pl tes nd m in pl te) would be o equ l cross-section l re . For connection
o
the type shown in Fi. 15.8, the “m in pl te” is the usset pl te nd the “l p pl tes”
re the splice pl tes or m in member. It is uncert in s to just wh t width o
usset
pl te should be ssoci ted with the splice pl tes t ny iven loc tion, but it
is
cle r th t in these test specimens the mount o splice pl te cross-section l r
e
re tly exceeded th t o ny ssoci ted usset pl te. As such, nd usin the
concepts developed in Ch pter 5, it could be expected th t nonuni ormity o lo d
mon steners in such n rr nement will be rel tively l re. Furthermore, th
is
nonequ l lo din o bolts will not be symmetric l bout the midlenth o the joi
nt
s it w s or butt splices. Rel tively hiher stener lo ds c n be expected t
the
end o the connection tow rd the interior o the ssembly.
The rel tive dimensions used in the connection shown in Fi. 15.8 re
prob bly not typic l o bric tion pr ctice; the thin usset pl te w s necess r
y
to ensure pl te ilure. Nevertheless, usin the dimensions o the test specimen
,
Rich rd et l. ound th t the m ximum bolt she r orce w s bout 1.5 times
re ter th n the ver e bolt she r orce or the c se o the 60° member.
Considerin usset pl te thicknesses th t re more represent tive o those used
in pr ctice, this inequ lity would not be quite so l re. In ny c se, the e ec
t
o these hiher stener lo ds is not likely to show up s problem with respec
t
to she r ilure o the bolts, but will more likely result in hih be rin
stresses in the usset pl te. There is not enouh in orm tion t the present tim
e
to dr w conclusions rom this point. Keepin in mind th t existin pr ctice h s
not resulted in ny known problems in the beh vior o usset pl tes, it is
prob bly su icient to note th t speci l ttention should be p id to be rin
stresses when lon joints (s y, more th n ive bolts in
line) re present, nd th t the rules or minimum end nd ede dist nces or the
steners should be strictly ollowed.
As o (1987), no tests or n lysis h ve ocused on the beh vior o usset pl tes
when compressive, r ther th n tensile, lo ds re delivered by the connected
members. Obviously, the presence o one or more compressive lo ds bein
delivered to usset pl te r ises the possibility o loc l bucklin in the pl t
e. Good
pr ctice indic tes th t the reion o unsupported usset pl te t the ends o th
e
members (see Fi. 15.6b, or ex mple) should be kept to minimum. I the ends o

the members bein connected re not in close proximity, the possibility o loc l
bucklin must be ex mined. At the present time, this c n only be done on the
b sis o enineerin judement supplemented by the current st te o knowlede o
orces delivered to usset pl tes by members lo ded in tension.
The complexity o usset pl te connection nd the m ny possible
rr nements o bound ry members, steners, nd usset pl te eometries me ns
th t much investi tive work still needs to be done. The proximity o the member
bein ex mined to the other members c n undoubtedly ect the ductility o the
usset pl te nd, thereby, the ultim te lo d. The desiner must be w re o ll
possible modes o ilure in the ssembly: loc l bucklin o the usset, te rin
o
the usset, bolt she r ilure, nd be rin ilure in the pl te round the bolt
s. The
modern tools o n lysis th t re now v il ble, in conjunction with ddition l
physic l tests, should help to provide more in orm tion on these topics nd help
improve current desin procedures.
Desin recommend tions or usseted connections concern the steners s well s
the pl te m teri l. To determine the tot l number o steners required to tr ns
er
the lo d rom member into the usset pl te, equ l lo d distribution mon the
steners m y be ssumed, s is done with other joints. Desin recommend tions
or steners re iven in Ch pter 5 or symmetric butt splices nd re pplic b
le to
the desin o slip-resist nt nd be rin-type usset pl tes s well. Lon joints
,
those in which the number o bolts in line is re ter th n ive, or joints in
which
the usset pl te is thin rel tive to the mount o m teri l bein connected, sho
uld
receive speci l ttention. End nd ede dist nce requirements or the bolts shou
ld
be strictly ollowed.
The n lysis o the usset pl te c n be per ormed by both the Whitmore
method (Re . 15.2) nd by ev lu tin the block she r mode o ilure (Re s. 15.7
nd 15.9). The more severe requirements resultin rom these ex min tions should
then be pplied.
The Whitmore method required the ev lu tion o n e ective pl te re , s
indic ted in Fi. 15.4. The norm l stress on this e ective re should not exce
ed
th t permitted by the overnin speci ic tion. The block she r strenth is obt i
ned
by c lcul tin the she r resist nce obt ined on the two possible ilure sur ce
s
lon the lenth o the joint nd ddin the tensile resist nce obt ined cross
the
254 Gusset Pl tes
end. For short joints, these re s should be t ken throuh the bolt holes. For l
on
joints, the ross re s c n be used.
REFERENCES
15.1 E. H. G ylord nd C. N. G ylord, Desin o Steel Structures, 2nd ed., McGr
w-Hill,
New York, 1972.
15.2 R. E. Whitmore, Experiment l Investi tion o Stresses in Gusset Pl tes. Un
iversity
o Tennessee Enineerin Experiment St tion Bulletin 16, M y 1952.
15.3 P. C. Birkemoe, R. A. Eub nks nd W. H. Munse, Distribution o Stresses nd
P rtition o Lo ds in Gusseted Connections, Structur l Rese rch Series Report 34
3,
Dep rtment o Civil Enineerin, University o Illinois, Urb n , M rch 1969.
15.4 D. D. V s rhelyi, “Tests o Gusset Pl te Models,” Journ l o the Structur l Div
ision,
ASCE, Vol. 97, ST2, Febru ry 1971.
15.5 C. S. D vis, “Computer An lysis o the Stresses in Gusset Pl te,” M.S. Thesis
,
Dep rtment o Civil Enineerin, University o W shinton, Se ttle, 1967.
15.6 J. H. A. Struik, “Applic tions o Finite Element An lysis to Non-Line r Pl ne
Stress
Problems,” Ph.D. Dissert tion, Dep rtment o Civil Enineerin, Lehih University,
Bethlehem, Pennsylv ni , November 1972.
15.7 R. M. Rich rd, D. A. R bern, D. E. Hormby, nd G. C. Willi ms, “An lytic l
Models or Steel Connections,” Beh vior o Met l Structures, Proceedins o the W.
H. Munse Symposium, Edited by W. J. H ll nd M. P. G us, ASCE, M y 17, 1983.
15.8 S. K. Ch kr b rti nd R. Bjorhovde, Tests o Gusset Pl te Connections, Dep
rtment
o Civil Enineerin, University o Arizon , Tucson, April 1983.
15.9 R. M. Rich rd, “An lysis o L re Br cin Connection Desins or He vy
Construction,” Proceedins, N tion l Enineerin Con erence, Americ n Institute o
Steel Construction. Chic o, 1986.
15.10 J. A. W ddell, Bride Enineerin, Wiley, New York, 1916.
15.11 T. H. Rust, “Speci ic tion nd Desin o Steel Gusset Pl tes,” Tr ns ctions, A
SCE,
Vol. 105, 1940.
Ch pter Sixteen
Be m nd Girder Splices
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Splices in be ms nd irders re ener lly cl ssi ied either s shop or ield sp
lices.
Shop splices re m de durin the bric tion o the member in the shop. They re
usu lly required to overcome lenth limit tions o structur l components s re
sult
o bric tion or tr nsport tion cilities. The loc tion o shop splice in
member
is o ten determined by lo din conditions or stress result nts ctin on the mem
ber
nd by the v il ble lenths o m teri l. Splices m y lso be introduced to perm
it
the size o the cross-section to be ch ned with lenth in order to meet strent
h
requirements more closely.
Field splices re necess ry when structur l member becomes too lon to be
tr nsported in one piece rom the shop to the construction site. Occ sion lly, t
he
v il ble equipment in the ield m y lso limit the m ximum size or weiht o
structur l components. Such limit tions m y require ddition l ield splices.
This ch pter de ls speci ic lly with the n lysis nd desin o bolted or rivete
d
be m nd irder splices. Current pr ctice v ries nd is l rely b sed on p st
experience nd limited experiment d t .16.1–16.3 Most desins involve equilibrium
checks o the joint components usin either llow ble stress desin or lo d ct
or
desin, s ppropri te. P st pr ctice h s shown th t this procedure results in
s tis ctory desin when the connection is subjected to st tic lo din. Further
work
m y le d to the development o more r tion l methods o n lysis or this type o

splice.
16.2 TYPES AND BEHAVIOR OF BEAM OR GIRDER SPLICES
Two types o connections re currently in use or bolted be m or irder splices.
They re (1) the end-pl te connection nd (2) the more commonly used web- l ne
splice. Both connections re shown in Fi. 16.1. The m jor di erence between
these two types o joints is the lo din condition to which the steners re
subjected. The steners in the end-pl te connection re ener lly subjected to
combined xi l orce nd she r orce, where s the steners in the web- l ne-ty
pe
splice re subjected to she r lone. The end-pl te connection is lso used s
255
256 Be m nd Girder Splices
Fi. 16.1. Be m splices. ( ) Web nd l ne splice. (b) End-pl te splice.
moment-resist nt be m-to-column connection. The desin recommend tions or end
pl tes in be m-to-column joints discussed in Ch pter 18 c n lso be pplied to t
he end
pl te connection in be m splice. A ter n initi l discussion o the rel tive
per orm nce o the two types o connections, emph sis in this ch pter is pl ced
on the
desin o web- l ne-type splices.
Usu lly two bolts re pl ced in the compression reion o n end-pl te
connection. Althouh these bolts do not ctively p rticip te in tr ns errin the
moment, they re desir ble rom pr ctic l point o view nd serve to m int in
the
eometry o the joint. They lso incre se the she r c p city o the joint. In d
dition
to the bolts in the compression reion, cluster o bolts is pl ced ne r the te
nsion
l ne in order to obt in the m ximum moment resist nce or iven number o
bolts nd type o end-pl te. The steners ne r the tension l ne c n be used e
ven
more e ectively i the end-pl te is extended beyond the tension l ne nd bolt
s
re pl ced in this reion s well (see Fi. 16.1).
As moment connection, the end-pl te splice is most economic l in rel tively
liht construction l steelwork bec use it requires less m teri l nd steners t
h n
convention l web- l ne splices. S tis ctory beh vior up to the pl stic limit l
o d
o the be m c n be chieved i the steners re dequ tely desined. This is
illustr ted in Fi. 16.2 where lo d versus midsp n de lection curves re comp re
d
or be ms with two types o end-pl te splices in the const nt moment reion.16.2
The observed beh vior is lmost identic l to the beh vior o pl in be ms. The
pl stic moment or the ross section o the be m w s re ched nd sust ined.
As be m sizes re incre sed or when l re she r orces re to be tr ns erred,
the end-pl te splice loses much o its economy nd is repl ced by the convention
l
16.2. Types nd Beh vior o Be m or Girder Splices 257
Fi. 16.2. Lo d versus de lection di r ms or be ms with end-pl te splice (Re .
16.2).
be m splice shown in Fi. 16.l . The loc tion o the web nd l ne splices m y
be
st ered, but this is o ten voided to simpli y ield ssembly.
In the desin o irder splices, it is custom ry to ssume th t the web tr nsmit
s
the she r orce nd the l ne splices resist the moment. The e ect o these
ssumptions is ex mined in Subsections 16.2.1 nd 16.2.2.
16.2.1 Fl ne Splices
Investi tions were per ormed to determine the ultim te resistin moment o
be m with stener holes in both l nes.16.1–16.3 The ener l objective o these
investi tions w s to ev lu te whether the pl stic moment c p city o the ross
cross-section could be developed nd whether the connection could provide
su icient rot tion c p city. An extensive test series w s reported in Re . 16.2
.
Pl in be ms, be ms with holes in the l nes, nd be ms with l ne splice in
the
const nt moment reion were tested. Sinle splice pl tes were bolted on the outs
ide
o the l nes nd the llow ble stener she r v ried rom 15 to 30 ksi. Typic
l
results re shown in Fi. 16.3. The nondimension l lo d versus de lection curves
show the r tio o lo d to irst yield lo d nd de lection to yield lo d de lecti
on.
Fiure 16.3 comp res the beh vior o pl in rolled be m to th t o be m with
Fi. 16.3. Typic l lo d versus de lection curves (Re . 16.2).
holes in the l nes. No splice pl tes were provided. It is pp rent th t the ho
les did
not ect the lexur l c p city o this be m. Fiure 16.3b shows the lo d versu
s
de orm tion beh vior o simil r be ms with the l nes spliced. The required num
ber
o steners or the splice w s b sed on n llow ble she r stress or the ste
ners o
15 ksi or one be m, which resulted in 48 steners per splice. A second be m w
s
desined usin 30 ksi in she r which resulted in 24 steners per
16.2 Types nd Beh vior o Be m or Girder Splices 259
splice. An llow ble she r stress o 15 ksi or cle n mill sc le sur ces is
conserv tive estim te o the c p city o slip-resist nt joint. There ore, slip
w s
not expected to develop in this joint nd did not occur.
In ll c ses, the pl stic moment c p city o the ross cross-section w s
developed, even thouh two 15/16-in. di meter holes were pl ced in e ch l ne
cross-section. This reduced the l ne re by 23%. Nevertheless, the be ms were
ll ble to develop the ull pl stic moment o the ross section: the holes in t
he
l nes did not decre se the moment c p city o the be ms.16.2 The holes only
in luence the str in in the l nes loc lly. The m teri l ne r the net section
t the
holes str in-h rdened nd permitted the ull pl stic moment o the ross section
to
be re ched. This beh vior o the net section is rel ted to the r tio o the net
to
ross section re o the l nes, s w s noted in Ch pter 5.
Fiure 16.3b shows th t, lthouh the slip between the splice pl tes nd the
l nes in luences the lo d versus de orm tion beh vior o the be m, it h s
neliible e ect on the ultim te moment c p city o the be m.16.2, 16.3 At ulti
m te,
pl stic hines ormed in the const nt moment reion nd ilure occurred by loc
l
bucklin o the compression l ne.
In the be m tests reported in Re . 16.2 l ne splices were present in the
const nt moment reion. There w s no web splice present. As illustr ted in Fi.
16.3b, in this situ tion where moment w s present but she r w s zero, properly
proportioned l ne pl tes lone were ble to provide ull moment tr ns er. This
should be ener lly true or be ms o usu l proportions, th t is, or be ms in w
hich
the l ne m teri l constitutes the m jority o the cross-section. This observ t
ion is
urther con irmed by tests reported in Re . 16.1 in which both web nd l ne
splice pl tes were used in const nt moment reion.
The observed m ximum moment c p city in these test be ms w s
pproxim tely equ l to the ross section pl stic moment. Hence, providin web
splice pl tes did not sini ic ntly lter the moment c p city o the be m.
16.2.2 Web Splices
Fiure 16.4 shows splice m de in reion o be m in which both she r nd
moment re present. Bec use the tr nsverse sti ness o l ne splice pl tes wil
l
usu lly be very sm ll, it must loic lly be ssumed th t the web splice h s to c
rry
ll the tr nsverse she r t the section. A ree-body di r m throuh one set o
steners is shown in Fi. 16.4b. For the ultim te strenth o the steners in
the
web splice to be just re ched, the de orm tion in bolts 1 nd 3 must just tt in
their
m ximum she rin de orm tion. The correspondin ultim te orces, R1 nd R3, re
shown on the ree-body di r m. Assumin riid-body rot tion o the connected
p rts, the directions o R1 nd R3 will be perpendicul r to r dius rom the
inst nt neous center o rot tion. The de orm tions o ny other steners, only
R2
in this illustr tive ex mple, will be proportion l to their dist nce rom the
inst nt neous center o rot tion. The correspondin stener orces or these ot
her
bolts c n be est blished rom the lo d versus de orm tion response o the bolts
ctin in she r, th t is, rom n expression like Eq. 13.8.
Fi. 16.4. An lytic l model or web splice.
C llin the she r nd moment t the section V nd M, respectively, the
equ tions o equilibrium c n be written s:
0
1
= − ∑=
V R
n
i
iv ( ) 1 . 16
0
1
= − + ∑=
M d F r R f
n
i
i i ( ) 2 . 16
Equation 16.1 says that the transverse shear at the section is resisted by the
vertica components of the bo t forces. Equation 16.2 identifies how the moment
at
the section is shared between the f ange sp ice p ates and the web sp ice p ates
.
Note that if there is moment at the section but no shear, the instantaneous cent
er of
rotation wi be at the center of gravity of the fastener group being examined (
in
this case, the right hand side three bo ts). If there is shear at the section bu
t no
moment, as can occur in a continuous beam, the instantaneous center of rotation
wi be at infinity (to the right hand side) from the cut section. In genera , h
owever,
the ocation of the instantaneous center of rotation wi have to be estab ished
, by
tria , such that Eqs. 16.1 and 16.2 are satisfied.
As out ined ear ier, the assumption that a proper y proportioned f ange sp ice c
an
carry the fu moment capacity of the cut section seems to give satisfactory res
u ts
compared with experimenta evidence. Of course, it wi be a conservative so uti
on if
a web sp ice is a so present because the web sp ice wi a so carry moment, in
accordance with Eq. 16.2. Se ection of the size and arrangement of fasteners in
the
web sp ice has not been subjected to the same experimenta scrutiny, however. Th
e
use of Eqs. 16.1 and 16.2 can be app ied on a case by case basis. Obvious y, it
wou d
be advantageous from the point of view of design if the ocation
16.3 Design Recommendations 261
Fig. 16.5. Reso ution of web sp ice forces.
of an eccentrica y p aced shear force that wou d yie d resu ts identica to tha
t given by
Eqs. 16.1 and 16.2 cou d be estab ished. Figure 16.5 shows how the forces in the
bo ts
on the right hand side of the web sp ice of Fig. 16.4 can be reso ved to ocate
the shear
force acting on the bo ts on the eft hand side of this sp ice. Unfortunate y, t
he
eccentricity “e” bears no particu ar re ationship to the center of gravity of either
fastener group. Indeed, it can ie on either side of the right hand bo t group.
It is not
necessari y conservative, therefore, to assume that the fastener group on one si
de of the
sp ice can be designed on the basis of a shear force acting through the center o
f gravity
of the fastener group on the other side. Design on that basis does not seem to h
ave ed
to difficu ties in the past, however. Experimenta and ana ytica studies of thi
s prob em
are current y (1987) underway.
16.3 F ange Sp ices
The f ange sp ice can be designed conservative y by assuming that it transfers a

the moment at the section. The fasteners in each f ange must resist the force in
the
f ange, taken as equa to approximate y the moment at the cross section divided
by
the beam depth (M/d). A sing e shear sp ice p ate on each f ange is often suffic
ient.
For arge shapes and for heavy f anges, sp ice p ates may be required on both si
des
of the f anges in order to reduce the number of fasteners by providing a doub e
shear condition and to reduce the sp ice p ate thickness. The fasteners can be
designed using the recommendations given in Chapter 5 for symmetric butt joints.
Depending on the required joint performance, either s ip resistant or bearing ty
pe
joints can be used.
262 Beam and Girder Sp ices
The moment capacity of the beam is not affected by the reduction in crosssection
a
area caused by the fastener ho es un ess the ratio of net section to gross
section area of the f anges (the An /Ag ratio) is ess than σy/0.85σu ( ee Chater 5
).
The flange lice late in the ten ion region hould be treated a ten ion memb
er
and are al o ubject to the de ign recommendation given in Chater 5.
16.3.2 Web Slice
The fa tener in the web lice hould be de igned uch that the vertical
comonent of the bolt force are ufficient to carry the tran ver e hear at th
e
ection. In load factor de ign, thi can be accomli hed by meeting the
requirement of Eq . 16.1 and 16.2. In allowable tre de ign, the ame
examination can be made (i.e., u e Eq . 16.1 and 16.2) and the re ulting caacit
y
then reduced in the ratio of ermi ible load for a ingle bolt in load factor d
e ign
to that of a ingle bolt in allowable tre de ign. The web lice can al o be
de igned a li re i tant. In thi ca e, the ame general rocedure i to be fo
llowed
excet that all bolt force are taken a equal ( ee Sub ection 13.3.1).
A an alternative to the above, the current rocedure for the de ign of web
lice can be followed. In thi ca e, de ign the bolt grou on one ide of the
web
lice for an eccentric force (equal to the hear at the ection) acting through
the
center of gravity of the bolt grou on the other ide of the lice. The rocedu
re
and de ign recommendation given in Chater 13 for eccentrically loaded
connection can then be emloyed. Although thi rocedure ha re ulted in lice

that have given ati factory erformance in the a t, the actual margin of afe
ty i
unknown.
Two web lice late , one on either ide of the web, are recommended for
beam or girder lice . Thi not only create a ymmetric load tran fer with re
ect
to the lane of the web, but al o roduce double hear condition and thereby
reduce the required number of fa tener and thu the eccentricity.
The overall dimen ion of the web lice late deend on the elected
fa tener attern. The thickne of the lice late can be determined from the
alied eccentric hear load and the alicable hear, bending, and bearing
tre e .
The fa tener hear tre e and the bearing tre e ugge ted in Chater 5
were hown in Ref. 18.7 to be fully alicable.
REFERENCES
16.1 F. W. Schutz, Jr., “Strength of Moment Connection U ing High Ten ile
Strength Bolt ,” AISC National Engineering Conference, Proceeding , 1959.
16.2 R. T. Douty, and W. McGuire, “High Strength Bolted Moment Connection ,”
Journal of the Structural Divi ion, ASCE, Vol. 91, ST2, Aril 1965.
16.3 L. G. John on, J. C. Cannon, and L. A. Sooner, “Joint in High Ten ile Prelo
aded
Bolt —Te t on Joint De igned to Develo Full Pla tic Moment on Connected
Member ,” Jubilee Symo ium on High Strength Bolt , In titution of Structural
Engineer , London, June 1959.
Chater Seventeen
Ten ion-Tye Connection
17.1 INTRODUCTION
Fa tener are often ubjected to a ten ile-tye loading by T- tub or their
equivalent. Some tyical examle in thi category are the hanger connection, th
e
diagonal brace connection, and the beam-to-column connection hown in Fig.
17.1. Deending on the direction of the bending moment, either the to or bottom
flange T- tub in a beam-to-column connection (Fig. 17.la) i tre ed in ten ion
. It
ha long been recognized that deformation of the T- tub can re ult in additional
fa tener ten ion.17.1 Thi henomenon i called rying action. Te t have indica
ted
that rying action can reduce both the ultimate load caacity and the fatigue
trength of bolted and riveted joint .16.2. 17.1–17.4
17.2 SINGLE FASTENERS IN TENSION
Cooling of hot-driven rivet or tightening of a nut on a bolt re ult in an axia
l force or
reload in the fa tener. Ina much a thi load exi t rior to the alication o
f external
loading, the fa tener i re tre ed. A a re ult of thi reload, the externall
y alied
load mainly change the contact re ure between the late ; very little additio
nal
fa tener elongation i introduced and therefore there i only a minor change in
bolt
ten ion. Thi behavior can be illu trated by the model hown in Fig. 17.2.14.11,
17.7
Tightening of the nut re ult in a ten ion in the bolt and comre ion between t
he
connected art . A uming that the bolt and late remain ela tic, the force in
each i
roortional to it change in length, that i
∆B = kb∆e (17.1)
nd
∆C = -kp∆e (17.2)
where B represents the bolt prelo d, C is the summ tion o cont ct orces betwee
n
the pl tes nd kb nd kp the sti ness o the bolt nd the ripped pl tes, respe
ctively.
263
264 Tension-Type Connections
Fi. 17.1. Typic l uses o T-type structur l connections. ( ) Be m-to-column con
nection.
(b) H ner connection. (c) Di on l br ce connection.
The term ∆e represents the ch ne in bolt elon tion due to n extern lly pplied
lo d. As lon s sep r tion o the pl tes does not occur, the ch ne in bolt
elon tion is equ l to the ch ne in thickness o the precompressed p rts.
For the usu l bolt nd pl te combin tions, kp will be much l rer th n kb bec us
e
the orce Bo is concentr ted in the bolt where s the orce Ci is distributed ove
r
much l rer re , the e ective cont ct re o the pl tes. I no lo d is pplie
d to the
connection, the bolt prelo d Bo nd the cont ct orces Ci re equ l (Fi. 17.2 )
. When
lo d T is pplied to the connected p rts (the pl te in Fi. 17.2b), the sten
er will
elon te nd the precompressed pl tes tend to exp nd. I the exp nsion does not
exceed the initi l contr ction o the pl tes, some cont ct pressure will rem in
(Fi.
17.2b). Now, the requirement o equilibrium c n be st ted s
17.2 Sinle F steners in Tension 265
Fi. 17.2. Force in prestressed stener.
T C B p + = ( ) 3 . 17
where T is the extern lly pplied lo d, Cp the summ tion o the reduced cont ct
orces, nd B the bolt orce under n pplied orce T. Under such conditions n
incre se in pplied lo d T results in n incre se in bolt elon tion ∆e. For
comp tibility, pl tes must exp nd by the s me mount. As illustr ted in Fi. 17.
2c,
bec use o the di erences in bolt nd pl te sti ness, the pplic tion o the e
xtern l
orce T results in re ter ch ne in the compression in the pl tes (depicted
s ∆C)
th n in the tension in the bolt, indic ted s ∆B. Further incre ses in the extern
l
lo d T eventu lly reduce the cont ct pressure between the pl tes to zero, nd th
e
p rts re on the vere o sep r tion. For el stic conditions, sep r tion o the
pl tes
t kes pl ce t n pplied lo d equ l to
+ =
p
b
k
k B T 1 0 ( ) 4 . 17
A ter the pl tes re sep r ted, the bolt orce B is simply equ l to the extern l
pplied lo d T.
Fi. 17.3. Bolt orce versus pplied lo d or prestressed sinle bolt connection
.
The complete v ri tion o the bolt orce s unction o the pplied lo d is
iven di r mm tic lly in Fi. 17.3. The ctor kb / kp depends on ctu l
dimensions o the connection. However, or most pr ctic l c ses the r tio v ries
between 0.05 nd 0.10.13.11 Hence, unless sep r tion o the pl tes t kes pl ce,
the
m ximum incre se in bolt orce due to n pplied extern l lo d is o the order o
5
to 10% o the initi l bolt prelo d.
17.3 BOLT GROUPS LOADED IN TENSION—PRYING ACTION
One o the simplest connections with the bolt roups in tension is the symmetric
Tstub
h ner with sinle line o steners p r llel to nd on e ch side o the web.
Bec use o symmetry o the connection, the steners c n be ssumed to be
stressed equ lly. An extern l tensile lo d on the connection will reduce the con
t ct
pressure between the T-stub l ne nd the b se. However, dependin on the
lexur l riidity o the T-stub, ddition l orces m y be developed ne r the l
ne
tip. This phenomenon is re erred to s pryin ction nd is illustr ted in Fi.
17.4.
The pryin ction incre ses the stener orce nd this incre se must ener lly
be
t ken into ccount in the n lysis o the connection.
The ide liz tions used to ev lu te pryin orces h ve the e ect o only
incre sin the xi l orce in the bolt. In ct, the distortion o the connected
p rts
lso results in bendin o the bolt, nd loc l bendin o the bolt nut or he d c
n be
sini ic nt, even when there is no ppreci ble incre se in bolt xi l orce.
I the l ne o T-stub connection is su iciently sti , the lexur l de orm
tions
o the l ne will be sm ll comp red with the elon tion o the steners. Very
17.3 Bolt Groups Lo ded in Tension – Pryin Action 267
Fi. 17.4. Schem tic o joint de orm tion.
little pryin orce will be developed, nd the stener will beh ve much like
sinle bolt in tension. This is illustr ted in Fi. 17.5 where the bolt orce i
n test
specimen is plotted s unction o the extern l pplied lo d. The m ximum
moment in the T-stub occurs t the inter ce between the web nd the l ne. Sin
ce
very little pryin orce is developed, the l ne is subjected to sinle curv tu
re
bendin.
When more lexible T-stub l nes re used, the lexur l de orm tion o the
l ne induces pryin orces th t result in the ddition l bolt orces illustr t
ed in
Fi. 17.5b. Initi lly, the extern l lo d reduces the cont ct pressure between th
e
l ne nd the b se until sep r tion t the bolt line occurs. Bendin in the out
er
portions o the l nes develops pryin orces ctin between the bolt line nd
the
ede o the l ne, s illustr ted in Fi. 17.4. Yieldin o the steners nd t
he Tstub
l ne o ten permits n incre se in the pplied lo d with only sm ll incre se
in bolt orce. Bec use o this pl stic low, the pryin orce is reduced t this
lo d
level (see Fi. 17.5b). Dependin on the lexur l riidity o the l ne nd the
properties o the steners, pryin orces m y persist up to the point o ilur
e.
Test results h ve con irmed th t the sti ness properties o both the l ne nd
the steners re sini ic nt ctors in luencin the pryin ction.16.2, 17.2–17.
4 Other
ctors, such s the m nitude o the initi l cl mpin orce o the steners, t
he
rip lenth, nd the number o lines o steners, h ve lso been studied. Test
results h ve indic ted th t the initi l cl mpin orce does not ect the pryin

ction t ultim te lo d.17.2, 17.3 This is illustr ted in Fi. 17.6 where joints
with two
di erent bolt prelo ds re comp red. The bolt orce in the T-stub connection is
plotted s unction o the pplied lo d. The pryin ction t lo d levels clos
e to
the ultim te lo d w s bout the s me or both conditions.
Althouh n incre se in rip lenth m y reduce the pryin ction t rel tively l
ow
lo ds, the beh vior t ultim te lo d is not sini ic ntly ected.17.2, 17.3 Th
e pryin
ction t ultim te lo d is in luenced by the de orm tion c p city o the bolts.
At ultim te lo d, the inel stic de orm tions o the thre ded portion o the bolt
re
Fi. 17.5. In luence o pl te thickness on pplied lo d.
268
17.3 Bolt Groups Lo ded in Tension – Pryin Action 269
Fi. 17.6. In luence o initi l bolt prelo d on pryin ction (Re . 17.3).
more critic l th n the sm ll el stic elon tions th t occur in the bolt sh nk. A
n incre se
in rip lenth h s only minor e ect s lon s the lenth o the thre d under
the nut is
rel tively const nt.
In the discussion so r, it h s been ssumed t citly th t the T-section is conn
ected
to riid b se. However, pr ctic l situ tions do rise wherein the member to wh
ich the
T-section is connected does not provide riid b se. A typic l ex mple is T-s
ection
th t tr ns ers the tensile component in moment resist nt be m-to- column conne
ction.
The web o the T-stub is connected to the be m tension l ne, nd the l ne o
the Tsection
is bolted to the column l nes (see Fi. 17.1). I the column l nes do not
provide dequ te sti ness under the pplied lo d system, the loc tion o the pr
yin
orces m y shi t rom the toe lines AB nd CD, to the edes AC nd BD (see Fi.
17.7 ). In such connections the m nitude nd the loc tion o the pryin orces
re
overned by the rel tive sti ness o the T-stub l ne nd the column l ne.
Gener lly, the resultin lo din condition in such connection is hihly comple
x nd
h s not been studied extensively. Re erence 17.5 summ rizes the results o ser
ies o
tests in which T-sections were bolted to the l nes o wide l ne sh pe. The
Tsections
were lo ded in tension. The in luence o the column l ne thickness on the
loc tion nd the m nitude o the pryin orces w s studied17.5 nd some typic l
test
results re shown in Fi. 17.7b. It is pp rent rom the de orm tion p ttern th
t
s the sti ness o the T- l ne is incre sed, the pryin orces tend to
concentr te in the re s ne r the corners o the T-section. When the
sti ness o the T-stub l ne is much re ter th n the sti ness
Fi. 17.7. T-stub sections bolted onto nonriid support (Re . 17.3). ( ) Specime
n
dimensions. (b) De orm tion p ttern or v rious T-stub l ne sti nesses. (Cour
tesy o
Stevin L bor tory, Del t University o Technoloy.)
270
17.3 Bolt Groups Lo ded in Tension—Pryin Action 271
o the column l ne, the T-section provides the riid b se, nd pryin orces
re
developed bec use o de orm tions o the column l ne.
Bouwm n h s conducted tests in which the cont ct sur ce between p irs o
opposin T-stubs w s uniquely est blished.17.8 The two extremes re shown in Fi
.
17.8. Fi. 17.8 shows specimen in which the cont ct points re loc ted t the
extremities o the T-stub l ne. Cle rly, this represents c se in which re
t
de l o pryin ction c n be present, dependin upon the lexibility o the l n
e.
St tic tests o this rr nement showed th t pryin orces were present rom the
beinnin o lo din ( or the p rticul r eometry involved), nd the pryin orc
e t
the time o sep r tion o the p rts w s bout equ l to the m nitude o the ppl
ied
lo d. The rr nement shown in Fi. 17.8b will result in rel tively little pryin

orce in the steners i the re o cont ct is sm ll nd the l ne is rel tiv
ely sti
or the bolts rel tively close to the T-stub web. For the dimensions used in the
test
pieces (32-mm l ne thickness nd 20-mm di . bolts 70 mm rom the centerline o
the web), there w s virtu lly no incre se in bolt orce until sep r tion o the
p rts.
However, with more lexible l ne, bendin o the bolt will become more
sini ic nt, p rticul rly t the junction o the bolt he d nd the sh nk. Apprec
i ble
“pryin” orces c n develop, even with the rr nement shown in Fi. 17.8b.
When h ners h ve more th n two rows o steners p r llel to the web (see
Fi. 17.9 ), the e ectiveness o the outer rows m y be sh rply reduced bec use
o
the l ne lexibility. Tests h ve demonstr ted th t, upon lo din o the
connection, the str in in the inner steners incre sed nd continued to do so u
ntil
ilure occurred.17.2 However, initi lly the str in in the outer bolts decre sed
slihtly or rem ined const nt. Thus, in the e rly st es o lo din, lmost the
entire
lo d is c rried by the inner bolts. F ilure o the inner steners occurred be o
re the
strenth o the outer steners could be developed. Incre sin the lexur l sti
ness
o the l ne resulted in incre sed e iciencies. Test e iciencies between 45
nd
80% were observed.17.2 This shows th t the outer bolts re not very e ective in
c rryin the pplied lo d unless the l nes re extremely he vy or sti ened,
s
indic ted in Fi. 17.9b. I sti eners re used, their connection to the T-stub
web
Fi. 17.8. Test specimens used to est blish in luence o cont ct sur ce on pryi
n.
Fi. 17.9. Four-row h ner connections.
nd l ne must be properly proportioned. The sti eners must unction until the
ultim te lo d o the connection is re ched. I the connection ils prem turely,
the
now unsti ened T-stub c n develop l re pryin orces, nd bolt ilure m y occ
ur
t levels lower th n expected.17.9
17.4 REPEATED LOADING OF TENSION-TYPE CONNECTIONS
As e rly s 1956 it w s identi ied th t pryin orces could sini ic ntly reduce
the
tiue strenth o tension-type T-connection.17.1 Althouh extensive d t re
not
v il ble, urther rese rch h s yielded in orm tion on the beh vior o bolted Tc
onnections
under repe ted lo din conditions.17.4, 17.8 F tiue tests were c rried
out on connections h vin sinle line o steners on either side o the web.
The bolt tension history o sinle stener inst lled in pl te ssembly nd
subjected to n extern l tensile lo d w s discussed e rlier. The ide lized
rel tionship between the xi l orce in the bolt nd the pplied lo d is summ ri
zed
in Fi. 17.3. The results plotted in Fi. 17.5 indic ted th t rel tively sti
tensiontype
T-connections beh ve simil rly to sinle bolt nd pl te ssemblies. For such
c ses it is pp rent th t ny incre se in bolt orce due to pplic tion o n ex
tern l
orce will be sm ll s lon s the connected p rts do not sep r te. This me ns t
h t
the stress r ne in the bolt will likewise be sm ll, nd the tiue li e o the
bolts
will be rel tively lon. This situ tion c n be s id to represent one extreme o
the
tiue li e beh vior. It must be emph sized th t the lon tiue li e depends
upon
combin tion o ctors: neliible pryin orces, little or no bendin in the
bolt
thre ds, nd hih level o initi l prelo d in the bolt. Fiure 17.10 shows the

ti ue li e o T-stub connection th t used A36 steel connected by ¾-in. di mete
r
A490 bolts. Illustr ted re three di erent levels o pryin orce. (In ll c se
s, bolts
were inst lled by the turn-o -nut method nd h d t le st the minimum required
prelo d t the time the cyclic lo din w s st rted.) The specimen with the sm ll
est
mount o pryin h d the lonest tiue li e; it h d still not broken t 3 x 10
6
cycles o lo din, t which time testin w s discontinued.
17.4 Repe ted Lo din o Tension-Type Connections 273
Fi. 17.10. Bolted T-stubs under repe ted lo din
conditions (Re . 17.4). Asterisk below denotes
connection th t did not il. Test discontinued.
G
(in.)
Applied Lo d
R ne per Bolt
kips
St tic Pryin
R tio Q/T t
Ultim te Lo d
(Method o Re . 17.4)
R ne in
Aver e
Bolt Stress
First Cycle (ksi)
Number o
Cycles to
F ilure
3
4½
6
0–25
0–25
0–25
0.02
0.19
0.45
2.2
3.7
10.4
3,000,000*
592,000
32,000
I the l nes o T-connection lo ded in tension re lexible, pryin orces
develop nd sini ic nt decre se in tiue li e c n result.17.4 The d t in F

i .
17.10 show cle rly th t the tiue li e o these connections decre sed dr m tic
lly
s the level o pryin orce incre sed. As the pryin r tio decre sed rom 0.45
to
0.02 ( s c lcul ted in Re . 17.4 nd or conditions t ultim te lo d), the numbe
r o
cycles to ilure by tiue incre sed by ctor o t le st 100. Me sured v l
ues
o the ver e stress r ne in the bolts decre sed rom 10.4 to 2.2 ksi over thi
s
interv l. Simil r connections stened with A325 bolts exhibited the s me
beh vior, nd the results h ve been ener lly con irmed by other rese rchers. It
is
pp rent th t n incre se in pryin orce resulted in decre se in tiue li e
o the
connection. These reductions c n be expl ined qu lit tively by ex minin the
pryin orces durin tiue-type lo din.
As illustr ted in Fi . 17.5b, the pryin orce Q in
lexible connection result
ed
in l re incre se in bolt lo d s comp red with the rel tively riid connectio
n
shown in Fi. 17.5 . The more lexible connection results in re ter stress r
ne
in the stener, with correspondin decre se in tiue strenth. In ddition,
lexur l de orm tions in the l ne m y distort the thre d reion o the bolt sh
t.
This lso results in hiher stress r ne t the root comp red with the ver e
stress r ne in the bolt.
I the pplied lo d on the connection is su icient to produce yieldin o the
steners, reduced cl mpin orce results upon unlo din. Subsequent cycles o
Fi. 17.11. In luence o pryin orce on stener cl mpin orce ter unlo din
(Re . 17.4).
lo d result in n incre se in stress r ne. This is shown in Fi. 17.11 or c
rbon
steel T-connection stened by ¾-in. di . A325 bolts.17.6 An pplied lo d o 24 ki
p/
bolt incre sed the bolt lo d by bout 7 kip. Upon unlo din, the initi l cl mpin

orce w s reduced rom 32 kips to bout 25 kips. When the extern l lo d w s
re pplied, the stress r ne durin the second cycle w s lmost twice the stress
r ne observed durin the irst cycle. A st tic test o n identic l connection
yielded pryin r tio Q/T equ l to 0.37 t ultim te lo d.17.4 When the s me
extern l lo d (24 kips/ stener) w s pplied to connection in which very littl
e
pryin orce w s developed, the incre se in bolt lo d w s only bout 2 kips nd
the
initi l cl mpin orce w s not notice bly reduced ter unlo din. Subsequent
cycles yielded simil r bolt lo d ch ne.
These studies illustr te th t l re pryin orces not only decre se the st tic
strenth o the connection but lso h ve detriment l e ect on the tiue str

en th
o the steners. It is pp rent th t connection th t develops little or no pr
yin
orce is pre er ble under repe ted lo din.
17.5 ANALYSIS OF PRYING ACTION
An lytic l nd experiment l studies o pryin ction h ve resulted in sever l
m them tic l models.16.2, 17.3, 17.4, 17.6, 17.10 Douty nd McGuire used the mod
el shown
17.5 An lysis o Pryin Action 275
in Fi. 17.12 nd suested ormul b sed on n el stic n lysis. They
considered the properties o the bolts nd the connected m teri l nd the eomet
ry
o the connection. These ormul s were then modi ied to simpli y pplic tion nd
re lect test results. The ollowin semi-empiric l equ tion w s obt ined.
( )
( ) [ ] ( ) T
A b wt b b
A b wt
Q
b
b
+ +
−
= 2 4
2 4
2
1
6 / 1 3 /
30 /
( ) 5 . 17
This equation re ates the prying force Q to the u timate oad of the connection.
A
simi ar formu a with different coefficients was suggested for eva uating the pry
ing
force under working oad conditions.16.2
The deve opment of Eq. 17.5 by Douty and McGuire was based on the
fu fi ment of both equi ibrium and compatibi ity conditions. The atter was
obtained by assuming that the T stub f ange acts as a simp e beam between its ti
ps,
acted upon by the bo t forces and the app ied oad. The f ange def ection at the
bo t
ine was equated to the axia def ection of the bo t and the f ange expansion in
the
thickness direction due to reduction in contact pressure. For this compatibi ity
statement to be va id, both the T stub f ange and the bo t must remain e astic a
nd
the f ange must continue to act with a span of 2(a + b). A though the first cond
ition
may be met approximate y under working oad conditions, it is un ike y to be va
id
at the time that the u timate oad of the connection is reached. The second
condition, which in effect says that the force Q acts unique y at the f ange tip
s, is
not ike y to be satisfied at any oad eve , a though the effect of this inaccu
racy
cannot be determined.
Agerskov17.10 has presented a deve opment for the prediction of prying action
that is simi ar in some major respects to that of Douty and McGuire. He a so use
d
both equi ibrium and compatibi ity equations to deve op a prediction of prying
Fig. 17.12. Mode used by Douty and McGuire (Ref. 16.2).
276 Tension Type Connections
forces. Agerskov provided a more sophisticated deve opment of the bo t e ongatio
n and
p ate expansion terms. The possibi ity of washers is inc uded and the bo t e ong
ation is
considered to be composed of nut, shaft, and threaded portion e ongations. The p
ossibi ity
of ine astic deformations due to yie ding of the f ange is not inc uded, however
, and the
span of the f ange is again assumed to extend from f ange tip to f ange tip. Age
rskov a so
identified the effect of shear as a reduction to the p astic moment capacity of
the section.
The norma stress due to bending and the shear stress are combined according to
the von
Mises criterion, and the p astic moment capacity is ca cu ated using the reduced
norma
stress. It is genera y accepted that such a reduction is quite conservative.17.
6 Rectangu ar
sections of the proportions to be expected in the tension connections under cons
ideration
wou d undergo a theoretica reduction in p astic moment capacity resu ting from
shear of
ess than about 10%. Such a theoretica reduction wou d probab y be masked by st
rainhardening
in an actua connection.
Because of its comp exity, Eq. 17.5 is not readi y suited for design. The semi e
mpirica
re ationship suggested by Douty and McGuire for the prying force at u timate was
simp ified in Ref. 17.6 to yie d (U.S. customary units)
− =
20 8
3 3 t
a
b
T
Q
( ) 6 . 17
As is i ustrated in Fig. 17.13, this equation tends to overestimate the prying
force and
provides conservative design resu ts.17.4
An experimenta and ana ytica study on connections consisting of two carbon
stee T stubs bo ted together through the f anges with four A325 or A490 bo ts w
as
conducted at the University of I inois and resu ted in the deve opment of empir
ica
Fig. 17.13. Comparison between ana ytica and experimenta resu ts. ■ A325 bolts, σu
ec =
120 k i. ▲ A490 bolts, σu ec = 150–170 k i. ● 10k bolts, σu ec = 142 k i. ○ 4D bolts,
σu ec = 50 k i. ∆ A502 rivets, σu = 60–80 k i.
17.5 Analy i of Prying Action 277
formula to aroximate rying.17.4 The rying ratio Q/T at ultimate load for
connection with A325 bolt wa given a
+
−
= 2 2
2 2
21 70
18 100
wt ad
wt bd
T
Q
( ) 7 . 17
For connections with A490 bo ts, the coefficients 18 and 70 were rep aced by 14
and
62, respective y. Use of Eq. 17.7 provided somewhat better agreement with the te
st
resu ts as compared with Eq. 17.6. Figure 17.14 shows the comparison between
ana ytica and experimenta resu ts when Eq. 17.7 is used.
However, the empirica formu as are on y app icab e to the specific
combination of bo t and p ate materia for which they were deve oped. Different
formu as may be required for different bo t and p ate materia combinations.
A third ana ytica approach for predicting the prying force was suggested in
Ref. 17.3. The simp ified mode , shown in Fig. 17.15, was used to describe the
prying action in a T stub with its f ange bo ted to a rigid base. The approach i
s not
restricted to specific bo t and p ate combinations since a major parameters th
at
inf uence the prying action are inc uded in the mode . The symbo Q denotes the
prying force per bo t at u timate and this force is assumed to act as a ine oa
d at
the edge of the f ange. Test resu ts have shown this to be a reasonab e assumpti
on
for conditions near u timate as ong as the edge distance a is within certain i
mits.
The u timate tensi e oad of the fastener is B, and the corresponding app ied o
ad
Fig. 17.14. Comparison between ana ytica and experimenta resu ts. ■ A325 bolts, ●
10k bolts:
( ) ( ) 2 2 2 2 21 70 18 100 wt d wt bd T Q + − = . ▲A490 bolts:
( ) ( ) 2 2 2 2 wt 21 d 62 wt 14 bd 100 T Q + − = .
Fig. 17.15. Ana ytica mode for prying force.
per bo t is equa to T. The bending moment at the interface between the web and
the f ange is taken as M, and the moment at the bo t ine due to the prying forc
e Q
is taken to be equa to αδM where δ is equal to the ratio of the net area (at the bolt
line) an the gross area (at the web face) of the flange. The term α represents th
e
r tio between the moment per unit width t the centerline o the bolt line nd t
he
l ne moment t the web ce. Note th t the ctor α is unction o the unknown
r tio Q/T. Usin ree-body di r m o the portion o the T-stub l ne between
the bolt line nd the web ce, the equ tion o moment equilibrium ives
( ) Tb M = + δα 1 ( ) 8 . 17
where b is the dist nce rom the centerline o the bolt to the web. The ultim te
moment c p city o the ross re o the l ne is
y wt M σ 2
4
1 = ( ) 9 . 17
where σy i the yield trength of the flange material, t i the flange thickne ,
and w
the length of the flange arallel to the web that i tributary to each bolt ( ee
Fig.
17.15).
Another equation can be obtained by writing the moment equilibrium
requirement for the ortion of the flange between the bolt line and the flange t
i:
y wt Qa σ αδ 2
4
1 = ( ) 10 . 17
Equilibrium of applie loa , bolt force, an prying force requires that
Q T B + = ( ) a 10 . 17
When expresse in terms of the other moment an equilibrium con itions, this
results in
( )
+
+ =
a
b T B
δα
δα
1
1 ( ) 11 . 17
nd
( ) [ ]
2 / 1
4
+ +
=
b w
B b t
y αδ σ
( ) 12 . 17
Equation 17.12 relate the required flange thickne to the mechanical roertie
and
geometrical dimen ion of the con tituent art of the connection. Exerimental
re ult
and the rying ratio Q/T obtained from Eq. 17.11 are comared in Fig. 17.16 for
different tye of bolt . A few data obtained from riveted ecimen are include
d a
well.
It i aarent that the olution given by Eq . 17.11 and 17.12 overe timate the
rying force. The variation i comarable to that obtained when Eq . 17.6 and 17
.7
are u ed. Among the factor cau ing the difference between the load tran fer
redicted by the idealized model and the te t re ult are train-hardening and t
he
actual di tribution of force . The model a ume the bolt force to act at the
centerline of the bolt. A a re ult of flexural deformation in the flange, the
bolt B
force i acting robably omewhere between the bolt axi and the edge of the bol
t
head, a indicated in Fig. 17.17. Thi decrea e the di tance b and change the
rying ratio Q/T directly. To aroximate thi effect, a revi ed equilibrium
condition wa develoed u ing modified di tance a’ and b’, defined in Fig.
17.18b. The re ultant fa tener force B wa a umed to act at a di tance b’ equal t
o
b – d/2 from the web face. The di tance a’ wa taken equal to a + d/2. The model
a ume the rying force Q at ultimate load to be a line load at the ti of the
flange.
Te t have indicated that thi i a rea onable a umtion a long a the end
di tance i not much greater than the di tance b. Therefore, it i recommended t
hat
the end di tance a be limited to 1.25b.
280 Ten ion-Tye Connection
Fig. 17.16. Comari on between theoretical and exerimental Q/T ratio ■ A325 bolt
s,
σu ec = 120 k i. ▲ A490 bolts, σu ec = 150–170 k i. ● 10k bolts, σu ec = 142 k i.
○ 4D bolts, σu ec = 50 k i. ∆ A502 rivets, σu = 60–80 k i.
A illu trated in Fig. 17.18a, the redicted rying force ba ed on the e modifie
d
dimen ion rovide much better agreement with the te t re ult . U e of the e mo
dified
dimen ion i likely to re ult in a con ervative de ign of the bolt , how-ever,
ince the
model till tend to overe timate the influence of the rying force for mo t ca
e .
Equation 17.11 and 17.12 (u ing the modified a’ and b’ value ) are
recommended in the following ection for u e in calculating the effect of rying
force .
Fig. 17.17. Influence of flange deformation on location of re ultant bolt force
.
Fig. 17.18. Comari on between analytical and exerimental Q/T ratio for modifi
ed a and
b di tance . ■ A325 bolts, σu ec = 120 k i. ▲ A490 bolts, σu ec = 150–170 k i.
● 10k bolts, σu ec = 142 k i. ○ 4D bolts, σu ec = 50 k i. ∆ A502 rivets, σu = 60–80 k i
De igner mu t, however, be aware of the limitation of the formulae and be aler
t
to detail that are not comarable to tho e for which the e equation have been
develoed. The equation give ati factory rediction of failure for the range
of
connection geometrie reflected by the te t ecimen . In a few te t , it ha be
en
ob erved that when the di tance b i mall relative to a and the flange i fairl
y
flexible, there can be an exaggerated deformation of the bolt head or nut. Figur
e
17.19 illu trate thi henomenon. In the e ca e , the redicted rying force ca
n be
mall, yet the bolt break at a load le than that a ociated with direct axial
ten ion. In other word , there are really two henomena related to rying action
.
The fir t i an overall rying (Fig. 17.4) that re ult in increa ed force in th
e bolt
but one that i till generally axial. The econd i a local rying of the fa te
ner
head (Fig. 17.19), roducing both an axial force and bending in the bolt.
Obviou ly, ca e between the e two extreme will al o exi t.
Although the roblem of calculating the rying force at ultimate load condition

Fig. 17.19. Local rying of fa tener. head.
i comlex, the olution re ented give rea onably ati factory rediction of
the te t
data. A rediction of the fatigue trength of the bolt in a ten ion connection
i more
comlicated, and a ati factory method of analy i i not yet (1987) avail-able.
The
olution mu t include identification of the tre range in the bolt under ervi
ce load
condition (including both direct rying force and bolt bending), recognition of
the
level of initial reload in the bolt, and calculation of local effect uch a y
ielding in the
vicinity of the bolt thread .
17.6.1 Static Loading
Several emi-analytical and emirical aroximation for the rying force in Tco
nnection
with a ingle line of fa tener on each ide of the web have been
examined. All of the method rovided about the ame degree of fit to the te t d
ata.
A modification of the equilibrium method roo ed by Struik and deBack17.3
wa ob erved to have everal advantage . Of rimary imortance wa the fact that
it wa alicable to a range of fa tener and teel and i readily uited for d
e ign.
The analytical model u ed by Douty and McGuire had everal coefficient adju ted
on the ba i of exerimental work16.2 and therefore it wa not directly alicab
le to
a variety of fa tener and material . Similarly, the emirical formula develoe
d by
Nair et al. were only alicable to ecific late and bolt combination . Ager k
ov
u ed a method imilar to that of Douty and McGuire but u ed a comatibility
requirement ba ed on ela tic condition in combination with the ultimate trengt
h
of the cro - ection.
Although the number of te t i limited, the exerimental data are in rea onable
agreement with rediction made u ing Eq . 17.11 and 17.12, a illu trated in Fi
g.
17.18. The imlified model rovide a ati factory ba i for de igning bolted a
nd
riveted ten ion-tye T-connection under tatic loading and for connection who
e
geometry i rea onably imilar to tho e from which the te t data were obtained.
Connection geometry that might re ult in evere local di tortion of the bolt hea
d may
lead to ultimate load lower than tho e redicted by Eq . 17.11 and 17.12.
Connection with more than two gage line of fa tener are not effective unle
ecial rovi ion uch a additional tiffening of the flange i rovided.17.2
If thi
i not rovided, the load caacity i rovided largely by the inner fa tener al
one.
It would be rudent to de ign tiffener and their connection con ervatively o
that they will till be functioning at the time the ultimate trength of the bol
t i
reached. Premature failure of tiffener would likely roduce very high bolt ry
ing
force .
i. Allowable Stre De ign. The minimum ten ile caacity of a fa tener i
equal to the roduct of the fa tener tre area A and it minimum ecified te
n ile
trength σu ec in kiloound er quare inch. A noted in Chater 4, the ten ile
caacity of a bolt can be exre ed in term of the nominal bolt area Ab a
u ec b u A B σ 75 . 0 = ( ) 13 . 17
Alying a factor of afety with re ect to ultimate load equal to 2.0 yield an
allowable ten ile load Ball er fa tener a
( )( ) u ec b all A B σ 75 . 0 5 . 0 = ( ) 14 . 17
or
u ec b all A B σ 375 . 0 = ( ) 15 . 17
A factor of afety of 2.0 i con i tent with reviou ly u ed value . It i al o
comatible
with allowable hear and bearing tre e for bolt .
To rovide a uniform margin between working load and ultimate trength, the
alied load and rying force hould not exceed the allowable bolt load. Hence
Q T B + ≥ ( ) 16 . 17
The rying force Q deend on the geometrical dimen ion of the connection, a
well a uon the alied load T. The e factor determine the value of α which is i
n
turn rel ted to the pryin orce Q, s iven in Eq. 17.10. The desin
recommend tions, summ rized here ter, c n be used either or n lysis or or de
sin
purposes.
The dimensions o the T-stub nd the size, number, nd loc tion o the bolts ll
ect the strenth o the connection. As such, it is usu lly expeditious to sel
ect
tent tive dimensions, sizes, nd so on nd then to n lyze the connection.
Adjustments c n then be m de i ny p rt (T-stub or bolts) is either in dequ te
or
overdesined. Knowin the permissible stener lo d, Eq. 17.11 c n be used s n
equ lity to solve or α, the moment r tio. (Followin the nomencl ture o Fi. 17.
5.
the tot l extern lly pplied lo d on two-bolt connection is described s 2T.)
V lues
o α less th n unity indic te th t stener c p city will control the desin
nd Eq. 17.12 c n then be used to determine whether or not the tri l l ne
thickness is dequ te. The v lue o B in Eq. 17.12 is to be t ken s the permiss
ible
stener lo d.
I the v lue o α determined usin Eq. 17.11 exceeds unity, this indic tes th t
the limitin condition h s been re ched. For this c se, the ultim te lo d o the
connection would be tt ined when pl stic hines orm t the bolt lines nd t t
he
web-to- l ne junction. In this situ tion, the orce in the bolts t workin lo
d
levels c n be determined directly rom Eq. 17.11 usin α = 1.0. In order to check
the pl te thickness (Eq. 17.12), the orce in the bolts should be th t correspon
din
to ultim te lo d levels. Hence, B is now to be t ken s 2.0 times th t est blish
ed
usin Eq. 17.11.
It w s noted in Section 17.5 th t better reement between test results nd
predictions m de usin Eqs. 17.11 nd 17.12 w s obt ined i the dist nces nd
b
re modi ied s indic ted in Fi. 17.18. Thus, or convenience, Eqs. 17.11 nd
17.12 will be rest ted in the Desin Recommend tions For T-Connections Under
St tic Lo din Conditions usin the equ lity orm nd the modi ied eometry
p r meters.
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR T-CONNECTIONS UNDER
STATIC LOADING CONDITIONS
Allow ble Stress Desin
Allow ble tensile lo d per stener
uspec b ll A B σ 375 . 0 =
Check adequacy of fa tener to re i t the alied load and rying action:
Q T Ball + ≥
or uon ub tituting Eq. 17.11 with modified a and b di tance ;
( )
+
+ ≥

1
1
a
b T Ball δα
δα
( ) 17 . 17
The T- l ne thickness must be equ l to or exceed
( ) [ ]
2 / 1
' ' '
' ' 4
+ +
=
b w
b B t
y αδ σ
( ) 18 . 17
where 2 / d a a + =
2 / d b b − =
= B estimate fastener loa at failure of the connection
if a < 1.0
17.6 Design Recommen ations 285
u b A B σ 75 . 0 =
if , 0 . 1 ≥ α it is t ken s 1.0 nd
( )
+
+ = '
'
1
1 2
b T B
δ
δ
Maximum value of istance a
b a 25 . 1 ≤
The esign recommen ations given in this section are vali for tension type
connections fastene to a rigi base. It was note in Section 17.3 that the stif
fness
of the base to which the T section is connecte is an important
parameter in the
evelopment of prying
forces. If the base
oes not provi
e enough stiffness, the
fastener loa s an prying forces shoul be evaluate on the basis of the
geometrical
imensions an material properties of the flange to which the T is
connecte . The joint component
that provi
es the least stiffness results in the
greatest prying forces an governs
the esign of the fasteners.

ii. Loa Factor Design. The esign of T connections by loa factor esign
is irectly comparable to allowable stress esign. The only ifference is that t
he
loa on the fastener at the factore loa level shoul not excee the ultimate t
ensile

loa of the fastener multiplie by a re uction factor φ. A reduction ctor φ equ l
to 0.85 is in re son ble reement with p st pr ctice. A lo d ctor o 1.7 nd
reduction ctor o 0.85 yields desin th t is comp r ble to llow ble stress

desi n.
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR T-CONNECTIONS UNDER
STATIC LOADING CONDITIONS
Lo d F ctor Desin
M ximum tensile c p city o stener
u b A B σ 75 . 0 =
Check adequacy of fa tener to re i t the alied load a well a rying action
( )
+
+ ≥

1
1
a
b T B
δα
δα
φ
where the reduction ctor ф = 0.85 nd represents the pplied lo d per stener
t
the ctored level. The T- l ne thickness is iven by
( ) [ ]
2 / 1
' ' '
' ' 4
+ +
=
b w
b B t
y αδ σ
where 2 / d a a + =
2 / d b b − =
= B estimate fastener loa at failure of the connection
if a < 1.0
u b A B B σ 75 . 0 = =
if , 0 . 1 ≥ α it is t ken s 1.0 nd
( )
+
+ = '
'
'
1
1
b T B
δ
δ
Maximum value of istance a
b a 25 . 1 ≤
17.6.2 Repeate Loa ing
The fatigue strength of high strength bolts loa e in tension in T connections i
s
significantly affecte by the preloa in the fastener an by the amount of pryin
g action
present. Therefore, in situations where repeate loa ing is expecte , special at
tention
must be irecte to bolt installation proce ures to ensure that the bolts are pr
operly
tightene an provi e the esire clamping force.
As note earlier, prying forces in T connections can lea to severe re uctions
in fatigue strengths. To avoi a re uction in strength an substantial ecreases
in
life, the T connection shoul be imensione so that prying forces are minimize
.
This can be accomplishe by provi ing a reasonably rigi T connection,
as was
shown in Fig. 17.5a. This will ensure that the applie loa oes not cause
separation of the plates an that plying forces remain low. Consequently, the bo
lt
will only experience a small change in stress as external loa is applie .
Figure 17.20 shows the fatigue test results that are available.17.4, 17.8 They r
epresent

two ifferent bolt gra
es: A325 an A490 (or gra e 10.9). In all cases, the
bolts were i entifie as having a preloa at least equal to the specifie minimu
m
value. The stress range parameter plotte in Fig. 17.20
correspon
s to the bolt
force calculate accor ing to Eqs. 17.17 an 17.18 ivi e by the nominal area o
f
the bolt. Although this appears to give a reasonable in ication of the fatigue l
ives

an is convenient for esign, what shoul be calculate is the actual range of s
tress
to which the bolts are subjecte . This is much less than the nominal value use
in
Fig. 17.20. As has alrea y been note , the actual range of stress will epen on
the
stiffness
of the parts (reflecting the amount of prying present) an the initial
preloa in the bolts. Measure stress range values are available for 12 of the t
est
results shown
in Fig. 17.20, an they are from about 5 to 25 times less than the
values use to plot the figure.
In assessing the results shown in Fig. 17.20, it shoul also be note that in on
ly
Fig. 17.20. Fatigue strength of bolts in T stub connections.
four of the tests was there any calculate prying force, an even in these cases
the
prying
forces were small.
The esign recommen ation given below has been base on the ata shown in
Fig. 17.20 (The recommen ation is also shown in Fig. 17.20.)
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS
IN T CONNECTIONS, REPEATED TYPE LOADING
Permissible tensile forces in the bolts of T stub connections shall not excee
Ball for number of cycles less than 20,000
0.90 Ball for number of cycles between 20,000 an 500,000
0.75 Ball for number of cycles greater than 500,000

The forces in the bolts shall be calculate un er the specifie loa s using Eqs.
17.17 an 17.18. In no case shall the calculate prying force excee 60% of the
externally applie loa .
REFERENCES
17.1 W. H. Munse. “Research on Bolte Connections,” Transactions, ASCE, Vol. 121,
1956, p. 1255.
17.2 W. H. Munse, K. S. Peterson, an E. Chesson, Jr., “Strength of Rivets an Bol
ts in
Tension,” Journal of the Structural
Division, ASCE, Vol. 85, ST3, March 1959.
17.3 J. H. A. Struik an J. e Back, Tests on Bolte T Stubs with Respect to a
Bolte Beam to Column Connections, Report 6 69 13, Stevin Laboratory,
Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlan s, 1969.
17.4 R. S. Nair, P. C. Birkemoe, an W. H. Munse, “High Strength Bolts Subjecte t
o
Tension an Prying,” Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 100, ST2,
February 1974.
17.5 J. e Back an P. Zoetemeyer, High Strength Bolte Beam to Column Connectio
ns,
The Computation of Bolts, T Stub Flanges an Column Flanges, Report 6 72 13,
Stevin Laboratory, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlan s, 1972.
17.6 ASCE, Commentary on Plastic Design,
Manual 41, New York, 1971.
17.7
J. L. Rumpf, “Rivete an Bolte Connections,” in Structural Steel Design, 2n
E .
Ronal Press, 1974, Chap. 18.
17.8 L. P. Bouwman, Fatigue of Bolte Connections an Bolts Loa e in Tension,
Report No. 6 79 9, Stevin Laboratory, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the
Netherlan s, 1979.
17.9 James W. Bal win, Jr., Test Report, Kemper Arena Roof Hangers, prepare for
City
of Kansas City Director of Public Works, November 12, 1980, Kansas City,
Missouri.
17.10 H. Agerskov, “High Strength Bolte Connections Subject to Prying,” Journal of
the
Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 102, ST1, January 1979.
Chapter Eighteen______________________
Beam To Column Connections
18.1 INTRODUCTION
Beam to column connections play an important role in the loa partition of
structural
frames. The major function of these connections is to transfer the lo
a s
that are applie to the beams an the floor system to the columns. In its simple
st
form, the connection is use to transfer only the en reaction of the beam to th
e
column,
an the beam is assume to be simply supporte . If restraints are provi
e ,
the en rotations of the beam are minimize , an the maximum positive moment in
the beam can be re uce by the resulting en moments. Connections of this nature
are often referre to as moment resistant joints. Connections that are only capa
ble
of transferring the reaction of the beam are calle shear connections.18.1
The behavior of beam to column connections is of major interest to engineers, an

a significant amount of research has been one or is un erway. In one category s
tu ies
are aime at eveloping an improving esign rules for the beam to column
connection.16.1–16.3, 18.1–18.22 This work focuses on the general requirements for
connections, that is, (1) sufficient strength, (2) a equate rotation capacity, (
3) sufficient
stiffness, an (4) economical fabrication. The role of the beam to column

connection in overall frame behavior is also of interest, an the pre iction of
the
moment versus rotation characteristics of typical connections is a subject of re
cent

an current stu y.18.23 –18.28
Most of the early research on beam to column connections
was performe
on
wel e or rivete specimens.
However,
as the a vantages of bolte connections
an combination
bolte an wel e connections became more apparent because of
ecrease fabrication
an erection costs, research on these types of connections
was increase .
In
current practice shop connections are often wel e an fiel connections bolt
e .
As a result of these fabrication proce ures, a wi e variety of beam to column
connections
are encountere in the fiel . It is still not possible to accurately
escribe

an pre ict the behavior of many of these connections because of their complexit
y.
This chapter summarizes the present state of knowle ge an provi es gui elines f
or
esign. The esign recommen ations for these joints are base on available
information an result in a conservative, safe esign. The ongoing
289
290 Beam to Column Connections
experimental an theoretical work will permit the evelopment of more liberal an

improve esign rules.
18.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BEAM TO COLUMN CONNECTIONS
Depen ing on their rotational characteristics,
beam to column connections are
classifie as flexible, semi rigi , or rigi connections.18.1 Flexible connectio
ns are
also calle shear connections, an the semi rigi an rigi type connections are
often referre to as moment resistant connection.
The rotational characteristics of beam to column connections are important
to
the engineer because they affect the require beam size. For i ealize rigi joi
nts,
the beam size is generally governe by the fixe en moment: for example, M =
wl2/12, for a uniformly loa e beam. If the same beam is attache to the column
by
a flexible type shear connection, the maximum moment for the same loa ing case
is
M = w12/8. Actual situations in the fiel will generally be somewhat less rig
i
than assume for the rigi connection an somewhat more rigi than assume for
the flexible connection. The classification of a connection epen s entirely on
the
joint geometry an loa ing con itions. Generally, it is not possible to efine h
ow a
joint shoul be classifie unless test results an experience are available.
The simplest
type of beam to column connection is the flexible connection that
provi es relatively low resistance against rotations. Hence, the connection main
ly
transfers shear to the column. Typical examples that fall into this category are
the
web angle connection (sometimes calle the stan ar beam connection), web
structural tee, an seat angle connections, shown in Fig. 18.la. The structural
Tconnections,

en plate connections, an flange plate connections, shown in Fig.
8.1c, are typical examples of beam to column connections with high moment
resistance. By combining web angles or a T section with a beam seat an tension
flange plate or angle, a semi rigi connection results that has a greater moment
resistance than the flexible connection. Unfortunately, the egree of restraint
is
ifficult to evaluate unless test ata are available.
Typical moment versus rotation characteristics for several types of beam tocolum
n
connections are shown in Fig. 18.2. These relationships, combine
with the
beam line concept (intro uce in Ref. 18.1), are often use to estimate the mome
nt
that will be evelope by a particular connection, span,
an beam size. The beam
line efines the relationship between the en moment an en rotation of a beam.
If
a beam is uniformly loa e an subjecte to restraining en moments M, the en
slope f is equal to
EI
Ml
EI
wl
2 24
1 3
÷ ÷
ø
ö
ç çè
æ
= f
This relationship is plotte in Fig. 18.2. The intersection of the beam line an
moment versus rotation
curves for the various connections in icates the moment
resistance expecte un er these con itions. For example, the stan ar web angle
connection (connection A in Fig. 18.2) evelops about 20% of the fixe en moFig
.
18.1. Types of beam to column connections. Note. The nee for column stiffeners
in
of these connections must be checke . (a) Flexible connections. (b) Semi rig
any
i
connections. (c) Rigi connections.
291
Fig. 18.2. Typical moment versus rotation curves an beam lines.
ment for this particular
combination
of beam an connection geometry. The same
connection
with a e top an seat angles (connection C) evelops about 75% of
the fixe en moment.18.1
18.3 BEHAVIOR OF BEAM TO COLUMN CONNECTIONS
The stiffness an strength of beam to column connections are closely interrelate

an of major importance to the performance of the connection. Strength require18
.3
Behavior of Beam to Column Connections 293
ments ensure that the connection has the ability to transfer the anticipate loa
s.
Stiffness requirements relate to the ability to evelop the esire restraint or
lack
of restraint. To meet the stiffness an strength requirements, a itional stiffe
ning
of the column
web or flanges may be nee e , since certain joint components are
subjecte to highly localize , concentrate forces. Stiffeners are often necessa
ry to
prevent crippling of the column web in the compression region, excessive yiel in
g
of the column web, or eformation of the column flange near the tension flange o
f
the beam. If the shear capacity of the column web is critical, shear stiffening
may
be require for that purpose as well.

The loa versus eformation characteristics an approximate metho s of
analysis for typical
beam to column connections are iscusse in this section.
Features from ifferent types of connections are sometimes combine to
meet the
esign requirements. Only the strength aspects of the connection are iscusse i
n
this section. Problems relate to stiffening of the column web are treate separ
ately
(Section 18.4). The influence of the restraint characteristics on column or fram
e
strength is not iscusse in this Chapter.
18.3.1 Flexible Beam to Column Connections
The web angle or stan ar beam connection, as well as the seat angle connection,
are typical flexible beam to column connections. Generally, they are assume to
be
completely flexible an capable of transferring only shear. To justify these
assumptions, the connections must allow for ample en rotation.
The rotation capacity of the connection
is governe largely by the eformation

capacity of the angles, as epicte in Fig. 18.3. Experiments have in icate tha
t
most of the
rotation of the connection comes from the eformation of the angles;
fastener eformations play only a minor role.18.1, 18.2 To minimize rotational

resistance, the thickness of the angle shoul be kept to a minimum an a relativ
ely
large gage, g, provi e (see Fig. 18.3).
A typical
moment versus
rotation iagram for a stan ar web connection that
use both bolts an rivets is shown in Fig. 18.4. In this test, the heels of the
angles
on the tension si e began to separate from the column flanges at about 260 kip i
n.
The toes of the angles remaine in contact with the column. Yiel ing of the angl
es
ecrease
the rotational resistance. After the compression flanges of the beams
ha
ma e contact
with the column flanges, the moment resistance of the connection
increase , as shown in Fig. 18.4. Failure of the connection occurre from excess
ive
yiel ing an tearing of the connection angles (see Fig. 18.5).
From this test series it was conclu e that web angle beam to column
connections offer some resistance to rotations at the en s of the beam. This par
tial
restraint is relatively small an estimate to be about 10% of the fixe en mom
ent
provi e by rigi moment resistant connections.18.2, 18.28 Rotation restraints o
f the
same or er of magnitu e can be expecte in seat angle connections as well.18.3
Jones et al. have provi e a useful review (through 1980) of test ata for vario
us
types an configurations of connections an show how a B spline fit of ata can
be
use to provi e a goo representation of the loa versus eformation
characteristics.18.27
Fig. 18.3. Deformations of flexible beam to column connections.
Most web angle connections are checke only for their shear carrying
capacity, that is, the relatively small amount of moment present is neglecte . T
his
shear capacity can be governe by (1) the shear capacity of the fasteners, (2) t
he
bearing capacity of the material a jacent to the bolts (angle legs a jacent to b
oth

column flange an beam web), inclu ing a check of en an e ge istances, an
(3) the shear capacity of the angles. Fasteners are assume to be subjecte to s
hear
forces only; the tensile forces intro uce by eformation of the angles (Fig. 18
.3)
are neglecte . However, the effect of shear forces acting eccentrically shoul b
e
inclu e unless istances are small. The usual assumption is to consi er the bol
t
group in the web as acte upon by an eccentric shear (Fig. 18.6), although work
by
Richar et al. on single plate framing connections in icates that this may not b
e a
large enough allowance.18.20

The examination of en an e ge istances for the fasteners shoul recognize
that the rotation of the beam will result in the type of behavior shown in Fig.
18.7a.
The upper bolts in the group will ten to push out material towar the en of th
e
beam, an the lower
bolts will ten to push out material towar the toes of the
angles. It woul be conservative
to use the istance
e1 in checking the bearing
capacity of the beam web an the lesser of e2 an e3 for the angles (see Fig. 18
.7b).
The special case of cope beams shoul be recognize . Coping (or cutting back)
of a flange might be necessary when a beam is to be connecte to a column web or
when a beam to gir er connection requires that the top flanges be kept at the sa
me
elevation (Fig. 18.8a). In such a case, it is evi ent
that a new mo e of failure
Fig. 18.4. Loa versus eformation behavior of stan ar beam connections (Ref. 1
8.2).
295
Fig. 18.5. Angle in stan ar beam connections escribe in Fig. 18.4. (Courtesy
of
University of Illinois.)
Fig 18.6. Eccentric shear acting on bolt group
296
18.3 Behavior of Beam to Column Connections 297
Fig. 18.7. Effect of beam rotation on bolts. (a) Actual; (b) i ealizaiton.
is possible, the removal of a block of material, as in icate in Fig. 18.8b, by
a
combination of shear an tensile forces as the beam rotates relative to the angl
es. It has
been foun 18.17–18.19 that a goo representation of the ultimate strength is give
n by the
sum of tensile resistance on the horizontal surface a–b (Fig. 18.8b) an the shear
resistance on the vertical surface b–c. Conservatively, the shear resistance coul
be
use over the whole length a–b–c. Of course, the effect of the cope on the strength
an
stability
of the
beam also shoul be examine .18.38
Instea of the ouble angles attache to the beam web that have been escribe
thus
far, a single angle or a single plate on one si e of the beam web can be us
e .
Obviously, there can be a saving in material (although
the single element must
relatively thicker than either component of a ouble element), but more importan
t
savings usually result from the re uce cost of erection. It is much quicker to
erect a
beam that can be move in laterally to a single connection piece than to bring a
beam
web into position between two connection pieces. This type of connection has rec
eive
consi erable
attention recently.18.13, 18.20, 18.21
The frame beam connection has elements subjecte to flexure (the
outstan ing legs of the web angles, especially) that give it uctility an that
greatly
contribute to fulfillment of the assumption of no (or, at least, little) restrai
nt. A
single plate framing connection has no comparable component. The uctility in th
is
type of connection must come from the shear eformation of the bolts, from hole
istortion (in the beam web or in the plate), an from out of plane ben ing of t
he
plate. Of course, bolt slip prior to bearing might also be present, but this can
not be
relie upon. Thus, although esigners usually consi er the single plate framing
beam connection
to be a flexible connection, care must be taken to ensure that
sufficient uctility oes exist so that the esign assumption is satisfie .
For a single plate framing connection of the type shown in Fig. 18.9, the esign
requirements inclu e selection of the bolts (shear capacity, checking the bearin
g
Fig. 18.8. Effect of beam cope on failure. (a) Actual;
(b) tear out.
stresses in the plates a jacent to the bolts, proper en an e ge istances), pr
oportioning
of the wel at the beam to beam or beam to column junction. an selection
of a suitable framing plate. Usually, the latter requires only the selection of
the plate thickness;
the other imensions are controlle by the requirements for
wel length an by the number of bolts an their spacing. If an appreciable port
ion
of the en plate is unsupporte , buckling
of the plate shoul be investigate .
Richar an his coworkers con ucte an extensive analytical an experimental
Fig. 18.9. Single plate framing connections.
stu y of single plate framing connections, inclu ing an analysis of test results
by
others.18.20,
18.21 In or er that uctility of the connection be ensure , they
recommen that bolt shear or transverse tension tearing of the plate in line wit
h the
bolt (see Fig. 5.33a) not be permitte as failure mo es. In other wor s, bearing
eformations in the plate or in the beam web shoul be use as the principal
mechanism
to pro uce uctility.

Richar et al. recommen that the ratio L/ (see Fig. 5.35c) be at least 2.0.
This is consistent with the recommen ations given in Chapter 5 an will ensure
that splitting type failure will not occur. Next, in or er to establish high bea
ring
stresses an , therefore, relatively large bearing eformations before the maximu
m
force is reache , it is recommen e that the thickness of the thinner plate elem
ent
(beam web or framing plate) not excee about 50% of the bolt iameter when A325
bolts are use or about 70% of the bolt iameter
when A490 bolts are use .
For the case of a uniformly loa e beam, an using the results
of about 1500
beam line
analyses of various beam sizes, bolt iameters, an bolt arrangements,
Richar et al. establishe a ratio (e/h)ref. for beam span to epth ratios equal
to or
greater than 6 as follows:
( ) = . ref
h e 0.035 (beam span/beam epth) ( ) 1 . 18
A mo ifie e/h ratio is then calculate as follows:
4 . 0
.
.
÷ ÷ø
ö
ç çè
æ
÷ø
ö
çè
æ
÷ø
ö
çè
æ =
S
S
N
n
h
e
h
e ref
ref
( ) 2 . 18
where e is the connection eccentricity an h is the epth of the connection betw
een
extreme fasteners, that is, h = (n 1) x p, using
n = number of bolts per vertical line
p = bolt pitch
The other terms in Eq. 18.2 are
N = a numerical coefficient, to be taken as 5 for ¾ in. an 7/8 in. ia. Bolts
an 7 for 1 in. ia. bolts
S = section mo ulus of the beam
Sref = a numerical mo ifier, to be taken as 100 for ¾ in. bolts an 175 for
7/8 in. ia. bolts, an 450 for 1 in. ia. bolts.
(Mo ifications to accommo ate cases of concentrate loa ings are given in Ref.
18.20.)
The moment at the bolt line is given by
Ve M = ( ) 3 . 18

an the moment at the wel line is given by
) ( a e V M + = ( ) 4 . 18
where
V is the shear force at the en of the beam an a is the istance from the
wel
line to the fastener line (see Fig. 18.9). The bolts, which ha been select
e by
trial, can now be checke
accor ing to the proce ure given in Chapter 13. The
capacity
of
the wel an the plate itself can also be checke against the forces
i entifie herein.
The proce ure outline above is believe to be satisfactory for single lines of
bolts, either A325 or A490, using connecte material with a yiel strength of up
to
about 50 ksi. The use of more than a single line of bolts or the use of eep
connections will be self efeating. These arrangements will inevitably be stiffe
r
than esirable for a flexible en connection. Design rules are also available fo
r the
case when A307 bolts are use .18.21
The upper angle in a seat connection (see Fig. 18.3) is mainly use to provi e
lateral stability for the beam. This component of the joint is not consi ere as

loa carrying.
The total shear force is assume to be transmitte to the column by shear
on the fasteners in the seat angle. The thickness of the seat angle is governe
by
critical ben ing stress on the outstan ing leg. The usual practice is to consi e
r the
stress at the toe of the fillet of the outstan ing leg. The require angle thick
ness is
etermine from the ben ing moment at that section. The reaction is assume to
act at the mi point of the bearing length.13.11
18.3.2 Semi Rigi Connections
There
has been relatively little experimental
work explicitly irecte towar an
un erstan ing of the strength an eformation characteristics of semi rigi
connections.
Most attention, particularly in the mo ern era, has been irecte t
owar
connections esigne to be either flexible or rigi , with the recognition that n
either of
these i eals is exactly attainable. As was note in Subsection 18.3.1, there has
been
a
goo eal of attention pai to the effect of all types of connections—flexible, se
mirigi
,
an rigi —upon the column strength.18.23–18.27
The only type of semi rigi
connection that will be iscusse in this section is the combine web seat angle
arrangement shown in Fig. 18.1b.
A combination web angle an seat angle connection results in significant increas
es
in the joint restraint characteristics.
Depen ing on the imensions of the
joint components an the loa ing con itions, these combination joints are
sufficiently stiff to result in a substantial re uction in the mi span moment of
a
beam.18.1
Little experimental evi ence is available on the loa versus eformation behavio
r
an loa partition for this type of connection.18.1 Since the behavior of the co
nnections
is complex an because of the lack of experimental ata, a simplifie , conservat
ive
approach is use for esign. Current practice is to assume that the web angles w
ill carry
the shear. Thick top an bottom angles are use to transfer
18.3 Behavior
of Beam to Column Connections 301
the en moment of the beam. Connections esigne on the basis of these
assumptions
have provi e satisfactory performance.

The esign proce ure for a shear connection is i entical to that use for the
web angle connection iscusse in Subsection 18.3.1. The angles connecting
the
beam flanges to the column in the semi rigi connection are consi ere to be loa
carrying
components; this was not the case for seat angle connections. Both angles
are subjecte to ben ing forces. However, the angle that connects the beam tensi
on
flange to the column flange is the critical one. A typical eformation con ition
for
the tension angle is shown in Fig. 18.l0b. Depen ing on the stiffness of the ang
le,
prying forces may evelop near the toe of the outstan ing leg. Therefore, it is
esirable to consi er the influence of prying forces on the ben ing stress in th
e
angle an the fastener tension. For analysis, the angle can be assume to act li
ke a
T stub connecte to a rigi base an loa e in tension. This provi es a

conservative esign because it assumes the angle to be fastene to a rigi base.
Since
the angle is fastene to a column flange, the ecrease stiffness actually
ten s to relieve part of the restraint supplie by the angle. In general. the fo
rces
evelope in a semi rigi connection cannot be approximate in a reasonable way
unless a test is con ucte . This permits the stiffness an istribution of the f
orces
in the connection to be evaluate .
The moment capacity of the connection is limite by the number of fasteners
that can be place in a single transverse line in the vertical leg of the angle
connecting the tension flange to the column flanges. Because of eformation of t
he
column flange (see Fig. 18.11), only the first fasteners on each si e of the bea
m
web may be fully effective
in transferring the forces. Stiffening of the column
flanges may be require unless they are at least as thick as the angle.
18.3.3 Rigi Connections
Replacing the angles of a combine web seat angle connection (see Fig. 18.1b)
with structural T sections results in a connection with significantly increase
mo
Fig. 18.10. Assume behavior of semi rigi connection.

Fig. 18.11. Influence of eformations of fastener elongations.
ment resistance. Such a connection (see Fig. 18.1c) provi es a rigi joint with
high
rotational resistance. The increase in rotational resistance is provi e by the
symmetrically

loa e T sections. Unlike angle connections, which are connecte to the
column flanges by two or more fasteners on one line, the T section allows two or
more fasteners to be use effectively on two lines to transfer the tensile force
s that
result
from the applie moment. This results in an increase in moment capacity a
n
joint stiffness. Since the T sections are symmetrically loa e , they o not perm
it as
much eformation to occur as compare with eccentrically loa e angles (see Fig.
18.3).

The esign of the T stub connection utilizes assumptions similar to those use
for combine web seat angle connections. The flange connection
is assume to
transfer the moment,
an the shear force is transferre by the web connection.

Tests were carrie out on connections of this type to evaluate the vali ity of t
hese
assumptions,16.1, 16.2 an typical test results are illustrate in Fig. 18.12. T
he effect
of beam shear an the presence of
the web angles on the behavior
of the flange
connections was investigate . In a ition, these tests yiel e valuable informat
ion
on the rotation capacity
of these connections.
The test results in icate that the behavior of the bolts connecting the T stubs
to the beam flanges was similar to the behavior observe in simulate flange pla
te
splice tests.16.2 The connection strength excee e the plastic moment of the gro
ss
cross sectional area of the beam, espite the presence of the holes in the flang
es.
Substantial rotational capacity was attaine (see Fig. 18.12) when premature fai
lure
of the joint
components was prevente . It was further conclu e that the beam
shear ha no significant
effect on the performance of the connection. The shear
was largely carrie by friction between the T stubs an the column flanges. Ther
e
was very little ifference in bolt tension in the in ivi ual bolts connecting th
e
tension T stub, regar less of the magnitu e of the prying forces.16.2

The test results generally supporte the assumptions ma e in esign. Although
some shear can be transferre by the web of the T stub, web angles are nee e to
assist with the shear transfer. This is particularly true if large shear forces
exist.
In current (1987) steel fabrication practice, it is probably more common to use
Fig. 18.12. Loa versus eflection
curve for a T stub connection (Ref. 16.1).
a flat
plate, groove wel
e to the column flange, in place of the T stub. This
pro uces a simpler an more compact connection. The groove wel can be ma e in
the shop an the bolts between the plate an the flange of the beam installe in
the
fiel . Web framing angles on one or both si es of the web or shear plates can be
use to transfer the shear between the beam an the column. A single plate wel e

framing connection on one si e of the web is the most common metho use to
transfer the shear between the beam an the column. The flange connections
prevent the large rotations experience by the single plate connections in simpl
e
beams.
Chen an his co workers con ucte a series of tests on various
types of bolte
beam to column moment connections 18.8, 18.9 an compare them to fully wel e
connections.18.29 (In all cases, the flange plates were groove wel e to the
columns.) The results
that will be iscusse here are only those in which the
connection was ma e to the column flanges; tests were also con ucte on beam toc
olumn
web connections.18.10

Specimens were esigne using the assumption that the flanges carrie all of
the moment an the web carrie all of the shear. (One test was carrie out on a
connection that ha no connection between the beam web an the column flange,
that is, the groove wel s at the beam flange level were expecte to transfer bot
h
shear an moment. This connection exhibite neither a equate strength
nor
uctility.) The bolte parts of two of the specimens teste were esigne as
bearing type connections, an a thir specimen use a slip resistant connection
. A
fourth test
use a stiffene beam seat in a ition to the flange an web etails
escribe herein; it will not be iscusse .
Figure 18.13 shows the behavior of these connections.18.8 In Fig. l8.13a a
“fully bolte ” connection, C7, is compare with a fully wel e , but otherwise

comparable, connection. Fully bolte means that the web shear plate an the flan
ge
connection
plates were bolte to the beam. For this specimen, the bolts were
esigne as bearing type. A490 bolts of 1 in. ia. installe in 1 1/16 in. ia.
Holes
were use in both the flange an the web connections. Two responses
representing

theoretical cases are shown: one inclu es strain har ening an the other oes no
t.
The fully
wel e connection follows the theoretical pre iction that inclu es str
ainhar ening
quite closely,
except that there is a roun e knee, as woul be expecte ,
ue to yiel ing. The response curve of the bolte connection shows a change in
slope at about 150 kips, probably ue to slip of fasteners as well as yiel ing.
Both
the ultimate strength an the rotational capacity of the bolte connection were
greater than that of the fully wel e connection.

In Fig. 18.13b the behavior of a fully wel e connection an two otherwise
comparable bolte
connections are compare . One of the bolte connections use a
bearing type esign (C9), an the other use a slip resistant esign (C8). In
Specimen C9, A490 bolts of 1 in. ia. were installe in 1 1/16 in. ia. holes to
connect the flange plate to the beam flange. The web connection was ma e using
¾ in. ia. A325 bolts. Slotte holes 1 7/8 in. long were use horizontally in the
single web shear plate. A covering bar was use , in accor ance with the RCSC
specification. The fastener an hole arrangement
for specimen
C8 was similar,
except that 1 3/4 in. ia. holes were use for the 1 in. ia. A490 bolts.
Figure 18.13b
shows that
the response curve that uses strain har ening once
again provi es a goo representation of the actual response of the fully wel e
connection. As with specimen C7, this bearing type bolte connection (C9) also
shows two istinct slopes in the initial region. The slip resistant connection (
C8)
followe the theoretical curve more closely an i not show any istinct change
in
slope.
The slip that occurre in the tests of these bolte connections was a series of
small in ivi ual slips that took place in the secon slope region of the loa ve
rsus
eflection curves. Shown in each of Fig. 18.13a an b is a horizontal line illus
trating
the effect of the horizontal slips upon the vertical eflection. This horizontal
18.3 Behavior of Beam to Column Connections
305
Fig. 18.13. Behavior of fully wel e an fully bolte rigi connections (Ref 18.
8).
line represents the effect that woul have occurre ha there been one major sli
p,
rather than the many minor slips that actually took place.
Whether the loa at which the secon slope of the loa versus eflection
response curve will be above or below the
working loa of the connection epen s
on the particular etails involve . Stan ig et al.18.8 have shown that this loa
level
306 Beam to
Column
Connections
can be pre icte with reasonable accuracy using the principles outline in this
Gui e. The connection of the beam flange to the moment
plate is i ealize as a
slip resistant lap joint, an the slip loa obtaine by this analysis then can b
e
compare with the theoretical force in the flange plate (at the first line of bo
lts
from the free en ), assuming that all moment is carrie by the beam flanges.
All three bolts specimens teste exhibite a equate rotational capacity as cornp
are
with the fully wel e joints. En plates wel e to the beam cross section
have been use in beam to column connections an butt type beam splices (see
Chapter 16). Two types of en plates are use , as shown in Fig. 18.14. In one ty
pe
the fasteners are place only between the beam flanges, an in the other type th
e
en plate is exten e beyon the tension flange an fasteners are centere aroun

the flange. Sometimes,
this flange extension is stiffene .18.22
The exact loa transfer in this type of connection is complex. The shear forces
acting on the connection are transferre by frictional resistance an /or by shea
r on
the fasteners. The fasteners are also subjecte to tensile loa s that resist the
en ing
moment. The forces
in the bolts change un er the applie loa s an are epen ent
on the magnitu e of the initial bolt tension.
The en plate connection is an economical way of fastening beams to column

Fig. 18.14. En plate types. Note. Connect en plates to beams with enough wel
to
evelop full ben ing strength of beam.
flanges,
an a number of stu ies, both analytical an experimental, have been
carrie out in recent years.16.1, 16.2, 18.4–18.6, 18.11, 18.14–18.16 The problem is
a complex
one because the en plate connection
is highly in eterminate.
The most
recent
analytical stu ies have use the finite element metho to stu y the istribution
of
internal forces. Because of the relatively confine physical system involve ,
experimental stu ies have generally involve only the measurement of the moment
versus rotation response of the connection an , in some cases, the measurement o
f
bolt forces.

The en plate connection has a number of similarities to the T stub connection
just iscusse . It is evi ent on the basis of that examination that the followin
g
potential critical regions or effects will have to be examine for an en plate
connection:
1. Buckling, crippling, or yiel ing of the column web opposite the beam
flange that elivers the compressive force
2. Yiel ing of the column flange (or excessive eformation of the column
flange)opposite
the beam flange that elivers the tensile force
3. Yiel ing or fracture of the connectors
(wel s or bolts)
4. Failure
of
the en plate itself ue to yiel ing or fracture
5. Yiel ing ue to shear in the panel zone of the column web
This list is inten e to cover the situation wherein a beam or gir er is frame
into the flange of a column. The situation will be somewhat ifferent for a beam
or
gir er splice that uses an en plate connection. En plate connections between
beams or gir ers an a column web are not generally
use .
A number of experimental stu ies have been ma e to examine the loa versus
eformation behavior of this type of connection an to evelop esign rules.16.1
, 16.2,
18.4–18.6, 18.11 These stu ies have in icate that the bolts mainly effective in r
esisting
the tension
flange force are those a jacent to the tension flange. This is illus
trate
in Fig. 18.15 where the bolt forces in a moment splice en plate connection are
plotte as a function of the applie loa .16.2 The measure bolt forces were all
similar at the start of the test. As loa was applie , the forces in the bolts c
entere
about the tension flange (levels 3 an 4) increase from about 30 kips to about
48
kips. The forces in the bolts at level 2, close to the neutral axis of the beam,
showe no appreciable
change as the
loa was applie , an the bolts on the
compression si e, level 1, showe a ecrease in force from about 28 kips to 16
kips.
It was conclu e from Fig. 18.15
that the variation of the force in the several
rows of a bolt pattern epen s primarily on the stiffness of the en plate an w
hether
the plate yiel s before fracture of the critical fasteners takes place. At first
, strains
will increase in proportion to the istance of the fasteners from the compressio
n
flange. Because of the strain gra ient, ifferences in bolt loa s result, but th
ese
ifferences will ecrease as plastic eformations of the bolt evelop. If the bo
lts

have sufficient uctility, all bolts in the tension region will evelop the same
Fig. 18.15. Bolt force versus applie loa (Ref. 16.2).
capacity at ultimate loa .16.2 Unless it is sufficiently thick, the en plate wi
ll yiel
an a linear strain istribution will not occur. This is apparent in Fig. 18.16,
which
shows an en plate connection after failure.18.5 The pressure istribution at th
e
interface of the en plate an the column is shown in Fig. 18.17 an in icates t
hat
prying forces were evelope at the e ges of the en plate near the tension
flange.18.5
Test results have shown that the bolts that are effective in resisting the momen
t
for flexible en plate connections are those a jacent to the tension
flange. The
connection is flexible if prying forces are evelope at the e ge of the en pla
te in
the tension
region. If a connection
is esigne such that no prying forces are
evelope
, a linear strain istribution among the fastener rows can be assume ,
an
the inner fasteners may contribute to the capacity of the connection. The ultima
te
moment resistance of the connection
is the summation
of the pro ucts of the
effective fastener loa s an their respective istance from the center of rotati
on. At
the ultimate loa the center of the rotation is near the centerline of the compr
ession
flange. This is compatible with existing experimental observations.16.2, 18.4, 1
8.5
The
esign of en plate connections requires that the connection provi e
a equate strength, that is, both the size an number of bolts an the en plate
thickness must be satisfactory, an that there be a equate rotation capacity suc
h
that the esire moment capacity can be attaine . In a ition, the connection mu
st
be stiff enough so that permanent eformations are not intro uce un er working
loa s.
Fig. 18.16. En plate after failure. (Courtesy of University
of Sheffiel
.)
On the beam si e of the en plate connection, the wel between the en plate
an
the beam must be proportione . On the column si e of the connection, the eliver
y
of the shear an moment from the beam must be accomplishe with strength an
stability requirements being satisfie .
Krishnamurthy has reporte the results of an extensive analytical stu y of en pl
ate
connection behavior.18.11 Two an three imensional finite element analyses
of many
T hanger an en plate connections
were carrie out. Krishnamurthy
note that there can be significant ifferences in stiffness between the assembl
y at
the bolt line an at the face of the en plate to beam flange junction (the “loa
line”), an he also observe that there is a significant ifference in stiffness i
n the
en plate in the region where it is exten e beyon the beam flange an in the
region of the en plate between the beam flanges. As a consequence of these an

Fig. 18.17.
Pressure istribution at interface as
recor e on interpose paper backe up by carbon
paper (Ref. 18.5).

other factors, Krishnamurthy propose a metho of analysis base on a tra itiona
l
approach but mo ifie on the basis of his analytical stu ies to account for thes
e effects.
The analysis
of an en plate connection, a highly re un ant system, must be
subjecte to physical testing as well as to analytical testing. In Ref. 18.11
Krishnamurthy
reporte the
results of 10 tests
of en plate
connections (9 are
reporte in the main bo y of the report, an 1 in an appen ix). In one test, the
moment attaine was well below the plastic moment capacity of the section (58%)
because torsional buckling occurre . In two others, the presence of a slen er we
b
meant
that local buckling occurre before the moment capacity of the section cou
l
be reache . Thus, it can be observe that there were seven tests that coul be u
se to
substantiate the metho propose by Krishnamurthy. For these tests, Krishnamurth
y
reporte that the ratio pe / (“effective istance” from the bolt line to the loa l
ine/the

bolt iameter) range from 0.8 to 1.4. Dismissing the results of certain tests a
s
invali as a suitable measure of the en plate behavior (see above), this ratio
only
exten s over the range of 0.8–1.1. In ee , the mean value of the ratio is 1.0, wit
h a
stan ar eviation of 0.1. Furthermore, the bolt iameters in these tests were a
bout
two times the thickness of the en plate. Thus, the situation is one in which th
e
physical tests represent the case of relatively large bolts connecting
a relatively thin en plate, an wherein the bolt is locate very close to the b
eam
to en plate junction. (In most cases, the Krishnamurthy test specimens
flange
use a bolt arrangement that was at or slightly above the limit consi ere to be
a
practical minimum.18.30) It coul be expecte that these tests woul not result
in
any bolt failures, an none were reporte .
The proce ure for the esign of en plates
an their fasteners as recommen e
by Krishnamurthy 18.11 an as a opte in the eighth e ition of the AISC Steel
Construction Manual 18.31 is as follows:
1. Assume that the beam flanges carry all of the moment, an calculate the
force in each flange accor ingly.
2. Determine the size an number of bolts require to transfer the flange force.
No
allowance is ma e for a itional forces (above the nominal values) ue to prying
action.
3. Calculate
an effective
istance (pe) between the line of action of the bolt
line an the “loa line” at the en plate to beam flange junction (see Fig.
18.18) as
t b f e w p p = 25 . 0 ( ) 5 . 18
4. Calculate the moment in the en plate (Mt ) at the location of the loa line,
using the bolt forces an the effective istance calculate above. The loa
line location is assume
to be a location of fixe en moment.
5. Compute
a mo ifie moment at this location as
t m M M a =
Fig. 18.18. Nomenclature for en plate esign.
where
25 . 0 32 . 0 5 . 0 5 . 0 4 . 0
29 . 1 ÷ ÷
ø
ö
ç çè
æ
÷ ÷ø
ö
ç çè
æ
÷ ÷ø
ö
ç çè
æ
÷ ÷
ø
ö
ç ç
è
æ
÷ ÷ø
ö
ç çè
æ
=
b
e
w
f
s
f
p
bt
bu
y
m
p
A
A
b
b
F
F
F
F
a ( ) 6 . 18
an
= y F yiel strength of beam an plate material
= bu F ultimate tensile strength of bolt material
= bt F allowable tensile
strength of bolt
= b F allowable
ben ing stress of bolt
= f b wi th of beam
flange
= s b wi th of en plate
= f A area of tension flange of beam
= w A area of web of beam
= e p effective bolt istance (see Eq. 18.5)
= f p istance
of bolt from face of beam flange
= b bolt iameter
= t w throat size of fillet
wel .
= s w size of fillet wel

6. Calculate the en plate thickness (ts ) using simple ben ing theory
7. Compute an effective maximum en plate wi th as
s s f e t w b b + + = 2 ( ) 7 . 18
If be is less than bs, recalculate ts using the value of be in place of bs.
8. Check the shear stress in the plate.
Design
ai s are available that simplify the calculations require .18.31 The meth
o
propose by Krishnamurthy an a opte by the AISC will result in thinner en pla
tes
than esigners have been accustome to in the past. Agerskov 18.32 has commente
that
bolt prying forces are likely to be present in en plate connections an shoul
not be
ignore
, an that, with the thinner en plates, eformations between yiel momen
t an
the plastic moment levels might become excessive. Similarly, McGuire 18.33 sugge
sts
that there might be a egra ation of bolt clamping forces even un er working loa

levels because of the thin en plates. Mann an Morris, who have analyze en pl
ate
connections using a yiel line approach, recommen that an increase of 33 1/3 %
over
normal bolt loa levels be applie in recognition of bolt prying forces.18.14 In
the face of
these
criticisms, it must be note that light en plate connections have been us
e
successfully
in the in ustrialize
metal buil ing in ustry for many years.18.34
The esign proce ure evelope by Krishnamurthy appears to give satisfactory
results within the parameters examine , especially the use of bolts that have a
18.4 Stiffener Requirements for Bolte Beam to Column Connections
313
iameter that
is large relative to the en plate thickness
an that are place
(effective istance pe ) no further than about one bolt iameter from the loa l
ine at
the en plate to beam flange junction. When many repetitions of a connection typ
e
are require , this proce ure will be a vantageous because it re uces material co
st.
On
the other han , when the number of connections is not large, a re uction in e
n plate
thickness
may not be significant since the labor component will not be much
re uce over that for a thicker en plate. In these cases, the esigner an fabr
icator
might prefer a more conservative approach since it provi es more leeway in etai
ling
the connection
an , thereby, in ease of fabrication an erection. The bolts
an en plate a jacent to the tension flange can be conservatively esigne by
assuming that they are equivalent to a T stub connection loa e in tension. Desi
gn
proce ures for this i ealization are given in Chapter 17.
Although
the primary transfer of shear is concentrate near the compression
si e of the joint, it can be conservatively assume that all bolts carry an equa
l part
of the shear loa . Hence, the fasteners in an en plate connection are subjecte
to
combine shear an tension. The magnitu e of initial clamping force oes not
influence the ultimate strength of the connection; it oes influence the shear
resistance
resistant joints.
of slip
When en plates o not exten beyon the tension flange, their behavior is not
well known because available ata are not extensive. In general. these types of

en plate
connections are less efficient an require thicker en plates. Reference 16.2
suggeste that en plates that o not exten beyon the tension flange shoul be
proportione to resist a moment equal to the pro uct of the beam flange force an
the
istance between the center of the beam flange an the nearest row of bolts. Pla
te
thicknesses etermine in this manner appear to provi e a linear variation in fa
stener
strain throughout the connection epth. A itional test ata are nee e to verif
y this
suggeste metho for a range of sizes.
All of the foregoing iscussion on en plate connections has assume that the
bolts a jacent to the tension flange of the beam will be arrange in two lines,
one
just above the beam flange an one just below. If this arrangement oes not
provi e a sufficient number of fasteners, it may be necessary to use more than o
ne
bolt line. Extension of the en plate above the tension flange of the beam to
accommo ate two bolt lines is practical only if a very thick en plate is use o
r if
the en plate extension is stiffene . Work on stiffene en plates has been repo
rte
by Murray an Kukreti.18.22
18.4 STIFFENER REQUIREMENTS FOR BOLTED BEAM TO COLUMN
CONNECTIONS
The full capacity of a moment resisting beam to column connection can only be
evelope
if the column oes not exhibit premature failure. The column is subjec
te to
highly localize forces resulting from the applie moments an can eform as sho
wn
schematically in Fig. 18.19a. Excessive eformations of connecte parts shoul b
e
avoi e . There are two major effects of the beam flange forces that have
Fig. 18.19. Deformation of column in moment resistant connection. (a) Distortion
of
unstiffene column. (b) Web crippling in beam to column connection. (Courtesy of
British
Steel Corp.)
314
18.4 Stiffener Requirements for Bolte Beam to Column Connections 315
to be examine because they may result in excessive eformations. On the
compression si e of the beam, crippling or overall buckling of the column web ca
n
occur. On the tension si e, excessive yiel ing an istortion may result in frac
ture
of the column web or bolts. Web buckling is illustrate in Fig. 18.19b where an
en plate connection at ultimate loa is shown. Because of the lack of stiffenin
g in
the compression region, the column web buckle an the connection coul not
evelop the plastic moment capacity of the beam.18.4
Several investigators18.4–18.6 have examine the stiffening requirements for
bolte
beam to column connections. Many joint geometries an boun
ary
con itions exist; the problem is therefore extremely complex an no satisfactory
general esign approach is possible. Often the requirements
evelope for
stiffening wel e beam to column connections are
use .18.35–18.37 Since the
concentrate
forces
arc more
localize in wel e connections, application of the
rules evelope for wel e connections to bolte connections results in a
conservative
esign for the same moment capacity.
Stan ing et al.18.8 an Huang et al.18.9 have confirme the a equacy of this

approach for stiffening bolte connections. It is note , however, that a bolte
moment connection can have an actual moment capacity that is consi erably larger
than an all wel e connection esigne for the same con itions. If a vantage is
to
be taken of this increase capacity, stiffening requirements might require
mo ification. Pen ing further research, criteria base in part on the requiremen
ts
use for wel e beam to column connections are reasonable.
The requirements
for stiffening of the column are summarize as follows. As
propose
in Ref.
18.35, the compression flange force on the column is assume to
be istribute on a 2.5:1 slope from the point of contact to the column k line (
see
Fig. 18.20). If the compression flange force is istribute to the column flange
by
either
an en plate or a structural T section, it can be assume to be istribut
e
over a region on the column face about twice as great as the beam flange thickne
ss.
Hence, the force in the beam flange is assume to be resiste by a length of col
umn
web equal to (Q + 5kc), where Q is the sum of the beam flange thickness an twic
e
the en plate thickness (for the plate connection) or the web thickness of the T
stub

an twice its flange thickness, an kc is the column fillet epth. For equilibri
um,
the resistance
of the effective area of the web must equal or excee the applie
concentrate force of the beam tension or compression flange. This yiel s the
following con ition;
yb f c c yc A k Q w s s ³ + ) 5 ( ( ) 8 . 18
where wc is the thickness of the column web, an Af is the flange area of the be
am.
The yiel point of the column web is given by óyc an the yiel point of the beam
flange by óyb. If the column web resistance is less than provi e by Eq. 18.8,
stiffeners are require .

Fig. 18.20. Assume istribution of compression flange force in bolte beam to c
olumn
connection.
If
flange splice plates are wel e to the column on the compression or tension s
i e
of the beam, the provisions evelope for wel e connections are irectly
applicable.18.35 The force from the compression flange is resiste by a length o
f the
column web equal to (ts + 5kc) where ts is the splice plate thickness.
An upper limit must be place on this analysis of strength because, at some
value
of the column web slen erness, the region in compression
will buckle.
Chen
an Oppenheim have suggeste that a square panel ( c x c) can be use for
the
analysis.18.36 Using plate buckling theory an the usual values for E an v for
steel,
this upper limit can be expresse as
yc c
c
w
s
180 ( ) 9 . 18
If the actual web slen
erness of the column
excee s the value given by Eq.
18.9, a capacity pre iction base on test ata is given by18.37
c
yc c
w
P
3 4100 s
= ( ) 10 . 18
For
the tension flange, Ref. 18.35 has shown that the column flange provi es
a equate resistance against excessive eformations from the concentrate forces
elivere by the tension splice plate if
2 / 1
4 . 0 ÷
÷
ø
ö
ç ç
è
æ
³
yc
yb
f fc A t
s
s
( ) 11 . 18
where tfc is the column flange thickness. Tests
of wel e connections
proportione to these recommen ations in icate that the connections were able t
o
evelop the full plastic moment of the beam.18.9, 18.35
If a T section or an en plate
is bolte to the column flange, the concentrate
tension force is istribute into the column flange by the fasteners. The system
of
applie forces iffers significantly from the case of the splice plate wel e to
the
column. The application of Eq. 18.11 is likely to yiel overly conservative resu
lts.
European practice is to use a yiel line analysis to
examine the requirements

for column flange thickness when bolts are use to eliver the loa from the
tension flange of the beam.18.16
When column stiffeners are require , they shoul be proportione
to carry the
excess between the beam flange force an the calculate resisting capacity of th
e
column web or flange.
If a single beam frames
into a column or if the moments from two beams at an
interior connection iffer by a large amount, the web of the column can be
subjecte to large shears. In such situations it may be necessary to provi e she
ar
stiffening in the form
of iagonal
stiffeners
or oubler plates. Design of such
stiffeners is treate in many esign han books.13.11, 15.1, 17.6
on the anticipate behavior, bolte beam to column connections
Depen ing are
esigne either as slip resistant or bearing type joints. The esign
recommen ations in Chapter 5 for fasteners in butt joints are also applicable to
the
to column connections.
esign of bolte beam
The bolts in an en plate connection are subjecte to combine tension an
shear.
The elliptical interaction curve
for bolts subjecte
to combine loa ing
con itions (see Eq. 4.8) can be use to examine the a equacy of the fasteners.
With the exception of en plate connections, it can be assume for esign that
the web connection or the seat angle transfers the shear component. Web shear

connections shoul be esigne as eccentrically loa e joints in accor ance with
the
recommen ations given in Chapter 13. The moment on a beam to column connection
is transferre by structural components connecte to the beam an column flanges
.
The recommen ations given in Chapter 16 for beam an gir er splices are applicab
le
to the esign of the beam flange connection. The tension connection between the
beam flange an column flange is usually critical for esign.
Prying forces shoul be consi ere for the esign of the fasteners as well as jo
int
components. The bolts an en plate a jacent to the tension flange can be treate

as an equivalent tee stub connection, loa e in tension. Design recommen ations
for the T stub connection are given in Chapter 17. Alternatively,
the metho
recommen e by Krishnamurthy for the esign of en plates an their connectors
can be use .
Special attention shoul be given to the ben ing stiffness of the column
flanges to which the T section or the en plate is fastene . The eformations of
the
column flanges an the T section (en plate) may intro uce prying forces (see
Chapter 17), epen ing on their stiffnesses.
Stiffening the column may be require to prevent premature failure of a joint
component ue to column web crippling or column flange eformation. For
connections
with flange splice plates
wel e to the column, the requirements for
wel e connections
can be applie .2.11, 18.35 If the compression flange
force
is
transferre through an en plate or a T section, Eq. 18.8 can be use to etermi
ne
whether a itional column stiffening is nee e .
yb f c c yc A k Q w s s ³ + ) 5 ( ( ) 8 . 18
For slen er webs the stability of the compression region may govern rather
than strength alone. Reference 18.37 has suggeste that the following relationsh
ip
(see Eq. 18.10) be satisfie when c / wc > 180 óyc
4100
3 yc c
f
yc
yb
c
A w
s
s
s
( ) 12 . 18
where c is the column web epth.
The flanges of the column must not eform excessively un er the action of the
concentrate
flange tensile forces. If splice plates wel e to the column are us
e ,
a equate flange resistance is provi e by
2 / 1
4 . 0 ÷
÷
ø
ö
ç ç
è
æ
³
yc
yb
f fc A t
s
s
( ) 11 . 18
For bolte T connections in tension (inclu ing en plate connections), the use o
f
Eq. 18.11 will be conservative. A yiel line analysis can be use as an alternat
ive.
When stiffeners are require
, they must be proportione to carry the ifference
between the
concentrate force calculate to be in the beam flange an the
calcu1ate resistance of the column web. For stiffeners opposite the beam
compression flange, the
require stiffener area can be etermine from
equilibrium. This yiel s
yc c c f yb st ys k Q w A A s s s ) 5 ( + = ( ) 13 . 18
References 319
If C1 = yc yb s s an C2 = ys yc s s , Eq. 18.13 can be expresse as:
[ ] 2 1 ) 5 ( C k Q w A C A c c f st + = ( ) a 13 . 18
If Eq. 18.12 governs the column web thickness, the require area becomes:
yc
yc c
c
f st
w
A C A s
s ú
ú
û
ù
ê ê
ë
é
=
3
1
4100
( ) 14 . 18
A comparable requirement
can be evelope
for stiffeners opposite the tension
flange by consi ering the nee e a itional flange area to be resiste by stiffe
ners.
Equilibrium yiel s
'
f yb f yb st ys A A A s s s = ( ) 15 . 18
where Af óyb is the actual beam flange tension force, an Af’óyb is the beam f ange
tension force that wou d not require stiffeners. This atter force can be estima
ted
from Eq. 18.11 for the co umn f ange thickness furnished. This yie ds
2 2 6
16
100
fc
yb
yc
fc
yb
yc
f t t A
s
s
s
s
@ =
Substitution into Eq. 18.15 yie ds
2 6 fc yb f yb st ys t A A s s s = ( ) a 15 . 18
Hence, the required stiffener area opposite the team tension f ange becomes
[ ] 2
2
1 6 C t A C A fc f st = ( ) b 15 . 18
As a practica requirement, if stiffeners are required opposite both the beam
tension and compression f anges, they are genera y made the same size.
The fastener shear stresses and the bearing stresses suggested in Chapter 5 were
shown in Refs. 18.7, 18.9, and 18.36 to be fu y app icab e to beam to co umn
connections.
REFERENCES
18.1 J. C. Rathbun. “E astic Properties of Riveted Connections,” Transactions, ASCE,
Vo . 101. 1936.
18.2 W. H. Munse. W. 0. Be and E. Chesson. Jr., “Behavior of Riveted and Bo ted
320 Beam to Co umn Connections
Beam to Co umn Connections,” Journa of the Structura Division, ASCE, Vo . 85, ST
3
March 1959.
18.3 R. A. Hechtman and B. 0. Johnston, Riveted Semi Rigid Beam to Co umn Bui di
ng
Connections, AISC, Progress Report 1, 1947.
18.4 J. R. Bai ey, “Strength and Rigidity of Bo ted Beam to Co umn Connections,” Pro
ceedings,
Conference on Joints in Structures, University of Sheffie d, Sheffie d, Ju y
1970.
18.5 J. 0. Surtees and A. P. Mann, “End P ate Connections in P astica y Designed
Structures,” Proceedings, Conference on Joints in Structures, University of
Sheffie d, Sheffie d, Ju y 1970.
18.6 A. N. Sherboume, “Bo ted Beam to Co umn Connections,” The Structura Engineer,
London, 1961.
18.7 J. S. Huang and W. F. Chen, Stee Beam to Co umn Moment Connections, Meetin
g
Reprint 1920, ASCE Nationa Structura Engineering Meeting, Apri 1973.
18.8 K. F. Standig, G. P. Rentsch er, and W. F. Chen, Tests of Bo ted Beam to Co
umn
Moment Connections, Fritz Engineering Laboratory Report No. 333.31, Lehigh
University, Beth ehem, Pennsy vania, May 1975.
18.9 J. S. Huang, W. F. Chen, and L. S. Beed e, Behavior and Design of Stee Bea
m to
Co umn Moment Connections, We ding Research Counci Bu etin 188, New York,
October 1973.
18.10 0. P. Rentsch er, W. F. Chen, and G. C. Drisco , “Beam to Co umn Web Connec
tion
Detai s,” Journa of the Structura Division, ASCE, Vo . 108, ST2, February 1982.
18.11 N. Krishnamurthy, “A Fresh Look at Bo ted End P ate Behavior and Design,” Engi
neering
Journa , AISC, Vo . 15, No. 2. Second Quarter, 1978.
18.12 W. F. Chen and K. V. Pate , “Static Behavior of Beam to Co umn Moment Connec
tions,”
Journa of the Structura Division, ASCE, Vo . 107, ST9, September 1981.
18.13 S. L. Lipson, “Sing e Ang e We ded Bo ted Connections,” Journa of the
Structura Division, ASCE, Vo . 103, ST3, March 1977.
18.14 A. P. Mann and L. J. Morris, “Limit Design of Extended End P ate Connections
,”
Journa of the Structura Division, ASCE, Vo . 105, ST3, March 1979.
18.15 P. Grundy, I. R. Thomas, and I. D. Bennetts, “Beam to Co umn Moment
Connections,” Journa of the Structura Division, ASCE, Vo . 106, ST1, January
1980.
18.16 J. Witteveen, J. W. B. Stark, F. S. K. Bij aard, and P. Zoetemeijer, “We ded
and
Bo ted Beam to Co umn Connections,” Journa of the Structura Division, ASCE,
Vo . 108, ST2, February 1982.
18.17 J. A. Yura, P. C. Birkemoe, and J. M. Rides, “Web Shear Connections: An
Experimenta Study,” Journa of the Structura Division, ASCE, Vo . 108, ST2,
February 1982.
18.18 J. M. Rides and J. A. Yura, “Strength of Doub e Row Bo ted Web Connections,”
Journa of Structura Engineering, Vo . 109, No. 1, January 1983.
18.19 P. C. Birkemoe and M. I. Gi mor, “Behavior of Bearing Critica Doub e Ang e
Beam
Connections,” Engineering Journa , AISC, Vo . 15, No. 4, Fourth Quarter 1978.
References 321
18.20 R. M. Richard, P. E. Gi ett, J. D. Kriegh, and B. A. Lewis, “The Ana ysis a
nd Design of
Sing e P ate Framing Connections,” Engineering Journa , AISC, Vo . 17, No. 2, Seco
nd
Quarter 1980.
18.21 R. M. Richard, J. D. Kreigh, and D. E. Hormby, “Design of Sing e P ate Frami
ng
Connections with A307 Bo ts,” Engineering Journa , AISC, Vo . 19, No. 4, Fourth
Quarter 1982.
18.22 T. M. Murray and A. R. Kukreti, “Design of 8 Bo t Stiffened End P ate Moment
Connections,” Third Conference on Stee Deve opments, Austra ian Institute of Stee

Construction, Me bourne, May 1985.
18.23 G. C. Drisco , Jr., “Effective Length of Co umns with Semi Rigid Connection
s,”
Engineering Journa , AISC, Vo . 13, No. 4, Fourth Quarter 1976.
18.24 D. J. L. Kennedy, “Moment Rotation Characteristics of Shear Connections,”
Engineering Journa , AISC, Vo . 6, No. 4, October 1969.
18.25 N. Krishnamurthy, H. T. Huang, P. K. Jeffrey, and L. K. Avery, “Ana ytica M
Theta
Curves for End P ate Connections,” Journa of the Structura Division, ASCE, Vo .
105, STI, January 1979.
18.26 M. J. Frye an4 G. A. Morris, “Ana ysis of F exib y Connected Stee Frames,”
Canadian Journa of Civi Engineering, Vo . 2, No. 3, September 1975.
18.27 S. W. Jones, P. A. Kirby. and D. A. Nethercot, “Effect of Semi Rigid Connect
ions
on Stee Co umn Strength,” Journa of Constructiona Stee Research, Vo . 1, No. 1
,
September 1980.
18.28 C. W. Lewitt, E. Chesson, Jr., and W. H. Munse, Restraint Characteristics
of
F exib e Riveted and Bo ted Beam to Co umn Connections, Engineering Experiment
Station Bu etin 500, University of I inois, Urbana, 1969.
18.29 J. E. Regec, J. S. Huang, and W. F. Chen, Test of a Fu y We ded Beam to
Co umn
Connection, Fritz Engineering Laboratory Report No. 333.21, Lehigh University,
Beth ehem, Pennsy vania, September 1972.
18.30 J. D. Griffiths and J. M. Wooten, Discussion to “A Fresh Look at Bo ted End
P ate
Behavior and Design,” by N. Krishnamurthy, ASIC Engineering Journa , Vo . 16,
No. 2, Second Quarter 1979.
18.31 American Institute of Stee Construction, Stee Construction Manua , 8th e
d.,
Chicago, 1980.
18.32 H. Agerskov, Discussion to “A Fresh Look at Bo ted End P ate Behavior and
Design,” by N. Krishnamurthy, ASIC Engineering Journa , Vo . 16, No. 2, Second
Quarter 1979.
18.33 W. McGuire, Discussion to “A Fresh Look at Bo ted End P ate Behavior and
Quarter 1979.
18.34 N. W. Rimmer, Discussion to “A Fresh Look at Bo ted End P ate Behavior and
Quarter 1979.
18.35 J. D. Graham. A. N. Sherbourne, A. N. Khabbaz, and C. D. Jensen, We ded In
terior
Beam to Co umn Connections, AISC, New York, 1959.
322 Beam to Co umn Connections
18.36 W. F. Chen and I. J. Oppenheim, Web Buck ing Strength of Beam to Co umn
Connections, Fritz Engineering Laboratory Report No. 333.10, Lehigh University,
Beth ehem, Pennsy vania, September 1970.
18.37 W. F. Chen and D. E. New in, “Co umn Web Strength in Stee Beam to Co umn
Connections,” Journa of the Structura Division, ASCE, Vo . 99, ST9, September
1973.
18.38 J J. R. Cheng and J. A. Yura, “Loca Web Buck ing of Coped Beams,” Journa
of Structura Engineering, ASCE, Vo . 110, No. 10, October 1986.
Author Index
Abo itz, A. L., (13.6): 217, 218 Beano, S. Y., (11.1): 194, 195; (12.7): 197
Agerskov, H., (17.10): 274, 275; (18.32): 312 Beed e, L. S., (4.7): 30,47,48,56,
78,91,92,
A brecht, P., (5.51): 124, 140; (5.54): 123 93; (5.49): 128; (18.9): 289, 303, 3
15,
A an, R. N., (4.26): 62, 80, 176, 177, 180, 317, 319
181, 182, 183 Be , W. G., (18.2): 289, 293
American Association of State Highway and Bendigo, R. A., (4.6): 30, 47, 48, 56,
78,
Transportation Officia s (AASHTO), 84, 91, 92, 93, 97, 173, 195, 196; (5.35):
(2.2): 16, 157 86; (8.1): 173
American Institute of Stee Construction Benjamin, J. R., (2.13): 17
(AISC), (2.11): 33, 129, 154, 157, 250, Bennetts, I. D., (18.15): 289, 307
318;(13.13):228;(18.31): 311,312 Bij aard, F. S.K.,(18.16):289,307,317
American Rai way Engineering Association Birkemoe, P. C., (4.11): 64, 197, 198,
200,
(AREA), (2.1): 16 201, 210, 211; (5.20): 118, 119, 121;
American Society of Civi Engineers (5.42): 119; (12.13): 198, 199, 201, 210;
(ASCE)—Manua 41, (17.6): 263, 274, (15.3): 243; (17.4): 263, 267, 272, 273,
27., 317 274, 276, 277, 286; (18.17): 289, 297;
American Society of Civi Engineers (18.19): 289, 297
(ASCE)—Manua 48, (1.6): 1, 2 Bjorhovde, R., (15.8): 243, 250, 251
American Society for Testing and Materia s Bouwman, L. P., (5.4): 78; (5.36): 81
, 86;
(ASTM), (1.3): 2, 3, 35, 39; (1.9): 3, 35, (17.8): 271, 272, 286
39; (1.10): 3, 35; (1.11): 4; (1.12): 7,27; Boyd, W. K., (4.23): 65,66,67,68
(2.6): 21, 118; (2.9): 24; (2.14): 21, 22; Brady,W. G.,(5.27): 109
(4.30): 36 Brandt, G. D., (13.9): 217, 228
American We ding Society (AWS), (12.11): Brookhart, G. C., (4.18): 63, 64, 197,
198,
202 199, 202, 203; (5.9): 78, 81, 206, 208
Ang, A.H S., (2.18): 17
AREA Committee on Iron and Stee Structures, Canadian Institute of Stee Constru
ction
(4.14): 54 (CISC), (13.14): 228
Aroian, L. A., (5.33): 133 Cannon, J. C., (16.3): 255, 259, 289
Avery, L. K., (18.25): 289, 300 Carter, J. W., (5.48): 117
Cayes, L., (5.55): 79
Bai ey, J. R., (18.4): 289, 307, 308, 315 Centre de Recherches Scientifiques et
Ba dwin, J. W., Jr., (17.9): 272 Techniques de ’Industrie des Fabrication
Ba , E. F., (4.16): 54 Meta iques (CRIF), Section Construction
Baron, F., (3.6): 28, 119; (3.7): 28, 119 Meta ique, (12.5): 199,200, 202, 203
Barsom, J. M., (2.10): 24; (2.20): 24 Chakrabarti, S. K., (15.8): 243, 250, 251
Bateman, E. H., (1.1): 1 Chang, W. N., (11.2) 194, 195, 196
Batho, C., (1.1): 1 Chen, C. C., (5.14): 78; (10.2): 190
323
324 Author Index
Chen,W.F.,(14.4):234;(18.7):262,289,319; Fisher,J. W., (1.13): 3; (2.21): 21; (2
.24): 21;
(18.8): 289, 303, 304, 305; (18.9): 289, (3.8): 30, 161, 167, 195; (4.1): 39, 41
,
303, 315, 317, 319; (18.10): 289, 304; 44, 57, 62, 63, 83; (4.2): 39, 41, 44, 56
,
(18.29): 303; (18.36): 315, 316, 319; 57, 62, 76; (4.3): 39, 41, 44, 57; (4.4):
(18.37): 315, 316 44, 45, 48, 224, 226; (4.7): 30, 45, 48,
Cheng, J J. R., (18.38): 297 56, 78, 91, 92, 93; (4.25): 45, 48; (4.26):
Chesson, E., Jr., (4.3): 39, 41, 44, 57; (4.8): 62, 80, 126, 177, 180, 181, 182,
183;
48, 50, 51; (4.9): 56, 57, 61, 65, 66, (4.35): 53, 54, 60; (4.37): 59; (5.6): 78
,
118, 119; (4.20): 70; (4.21): 70; (5.7): 91, 92, 97, 100; (5.10): 78, 186, 188,
78; (5.13): 78, 81; (5.28): 109, 149, 150, 190; (5.11): 78, 80, 81, 197, 198, 20
2,
151, 153, 155, 157; (5.29): 109, 149, 206; (5.12): 78, 84, 91, 92, 97; (5.21):
150, 151, 155, 157; (5.45): 91, 93; 92, 95, 97, 99; (5.22): 97, 224, 240;
(6.3): 149, 150; (17.2): 263, 267, 271, (5.24): 100; (5.25): 84, 91, 92, 100,
283; (18.2): 289, 293; (18.28): 289, 293 111; (5.49): 128; (5.50): 132, 139;
Chiang, K. C., (5.15): 78, 80, 81; (5.34): 78 (5.51): 124, 140; (5.56): 118; (7.
1):
Chin, A. G., (5.3): 78 158, 159, 160, 162, 163, 164, 167;
Christopher, R. J., (4.1): 39, 41,44,57,62,63, (7.2): 161, 162, 167; (7.5): 159,
160,
83 167; (8,1): 173; (13.15): 228
Cochrane, V. H., (5.26): 109 F int, T. R., (5.2): 78
Commission of European Communities (CEC), Foreman, R. T., (4.5): 30, 47, 56, 78,
84
(4.32): 52 Fouad, H., (12.14): 204, 205, 207, 208
Corne , C. A., (2.13): 17 Frank, K. H., (2.21): 21; (4.35): 53, 54, 60;
Cox, H. C., (3.2): 29, 30, 31, 32 (5.53): 84, 114; (5.55): 79; (9.3): 176, 182;
Crawford, S. F., (13.8): 217, 218, 219, 221, (10.2): 186, 188, 190, 191
223, 225, 228 Freudentha , A. M., (2.17): 17
Fnncke, M. H., (4.17): 54
Davis, C. S., (15.5): 243, 244, 246, 247 Frye, M. J., (18.26): 289, 300
Davis,E.,(7.3): 161, 163
Davis, H. E., (7.3): 161, 163 Ga ambos, T. V., (2.22): 18; (5.50): 132, 139
de Back, J., (5.4): 78; (5.36): 81, 86; (5.39): Gay ord, C. N., (15.1): 243, 244
, 317
111, 114; (17.3): 263, 267, 274, 277; Gay ord, E. H., (15.1): 243, 244, 317
(17.5): 269 Gibson, G. J., (6.5): 150, 155
deJong, A., (5.39): 111, 114 Gi ett, P. E.,(18.20): 289, 294, 297, 299
de Jonge, A. E. R., (1.8): 1, 27 Gi mor, M. I., (18.19): 289, 297
Desai, S., (7.2): 161, 162, 167 Graham, J. D., (18.35): 315,316, 317, 318.
Deutscher, Stah bau Verband, (1.7): 2 Griffiths, J. D., (18.30): 311
Dineen, R. L., (4.20): 70 Grundy, P., (18.15): 289, 307
Divine, J. R., (5.7): 78; (5.13): 78, 81 Gurney, T. R., (5.43): 123
Douty, R. T., (16.2): 255, 256, 257, 258, 259,
263, 267, 274, 275, 282, 289, 302, 307, Haisch, W. T., (8.2): 173, 176
308,313 Hansen, N. G., (5.19): 119, 123
Drew, F. P., (4.15): 54 Hansen, R. M., (4.6): 30,47,48,56,78,84,91,
Drisco , G. C., (18.10): 289, 304; (18.23): 92, 93, 97, 173, 195, 196; (5.35):
86
289, 300 Hanson, M. A., (10.2): 186, 188, 190, 191
Drucker, D. C., (5.27): 109 Haugen, E. B., (2.4): 17
Hechtman, R. A., (3.3): 28, 29; (5.2): 78;
Engineering Record, (13.3): 217 (5.3): 78; (18.3): 289, 293
Eubanks, R. A., (15.3): 243, 244 Herrschaft, D.C., (4.11): 64, 197, 198, 200,
European Convention for Constructiona 201, 210, 211
Stee work (ECCS), (4.31): 52; (5.30): Higgins, J. J., (4.16): 54
76, 197; (9.1): 176, 197, 210 Higgins, T. R., (3.5): 30, 32; (13.2): 217;
(13.5): 217, 218, 219, 221
Faustino, N. L., (4.8): 48, 50, 51 Hirano, M., (5.40): 111, 114, 116
Ferniund, I., (5.47): 117 Hut, M. A., (2.21): 21
Author Index 325
Hojarczyk, S.,(5.37): 81,202, 203 221, 226; (14.2): 233, 236
Ho tz, N. M., (14.2): 233, 236 Kupers A., (5.8): 78
Hormby, D. E., (15.7): 243, 244, 250, 252,
253; (18.21): 289, 297, 299, 300 Larson, E.W., Jr.,(3.6):28,119;(3.7):28,119
Howard, L. L., (4.13): 52, 86 Laub, W. H., (5.1): 78
Hoyer, W., (14.1): 233, 236 Lee, J. H., (5.10): 78, 186, 188, 190; (5.11):
Huang, H. T., (18.25): 289, 300 78, 80, 81, 197, 198, 202, 206
Huang, J. S., (14.4): 234; (18.7): 262, 289, Lenzen, K. H., (5.48): 117
319; (18.9): 289, 303, 315, 317, 319; Lewis, B. A., (18.20): 289, 294, 297, 299
(18.29): 303 Lewitt, C. W., (18.28): 289, 293
Hy er, W. S., (4.23): 65, 66, 67, 68 Lind, N. C., (2.19): 17
Lindner, C. W., (6.4): 150, 155
I inois, University of, (4.36): 58 Lipson, S. L., (18.13): 289, 297
Industria Fasteners Institute (IFI), (1.5): 5 Lobb, V., (12.9): 208, 210
Internationa Standards Organization (ISO), Lu, Z. A., (5.16): 78; (11.1): 194,
195, 196
(4.34): 52
Ives, K. D., (8.3): 173, 176 McCammon, L. B., (6.4): 150, 155
Macadam, J. N., (4.22): 66
Japan Society of Stee Construction (JSSC), McGuire, W., (16.2): 255, 256, 257,
258, 259,
(4.24): 65, 66 263, 267, 274, 275, 282, 289, 302, 307, 308,
Jeffrey, P. K., (18.25): 289, 300 313; (18.33): 312
Jensen, J. D., (18.35): 315, 316, 317, 318 McNamee, B. M., (2.21): 21; (5.51): 1
23, 140
Johnson, J. E., (13.11): 220, 263, 266, 300, Madison, R. B., (11.1): 194, 195, 1
96
317 Maney,G.A.,(4.12):52
Johnson, K.L., (5.41): 117 Mann,A.P., (18.5):289,307,308,315;
Johnson, L.G.,(10.1): 186; (16.3): 255,259, (18.14): 289, 307, 310,312
289 Maseide, M., (5.17): 78, 197, 199, 200, 201,
Johnston, B. G., (3.1): 29, 30, 31;(18.3): 289, 202, 203, 211
293 Meinheit, D.F.,(5.20): 118, 119, 121
Jones, J., (5.32): 113, 114 MOehier, K., (5.5): 78, 80, 81, 90, 118, 223,
Jones, S. W., (18.27): 289, 293, 300 236; (9.2): 204, 205, 206, 207, 211, 233,
235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240
Kasinski, J., (5.37): 81, 202, 203 Morris, A. P., (18.5): 289, 307; (18.14): 289
,
Kato, B., (4.35): 53, 54, 60 307, 310, 312
Kennedy, D. J. L., (12.10): 210; (18.24): 289, Morris, G. A., (18.26): 289, 300
300 Munse, W. H., (3.2): 29, 30, 31, 32; (3.5): 30,
Khabbaz, A. N., (18.35): 315, 316, 317, 318 32; (4.8): 48, 50, 51; (4.9): 56, 57
, 61, 65,
Kirby, P. A., (18.27): 289, 293, 300 66, 118, 119; (4.19): 62,63, 64; (4.20): 70
;
K ingerman, D. J., (5.51): 124, 140 (4.21): 70; (4.27): 63, 64, 197, 201, 210;
K oppe , K.,(5.18): 81, 116, 118, 120, 123; (5.7): 78; (5.13): 78, 81; (5.20): 1
18, 119,
(6.2): 155, 173, 174 121; (5.28): 109, 149, 150, 151, 153, 155,
Koepse , P. L., (5.2): 78 157; (5.29): 109, 149, 150, 151, 155, 157;
Kormanik, R., (5.24): 100 (5.31): 113, 114, 116; (5.52):85; (6.3): 149,
Krickenberger, C. F., Jr., (4.21): 70 150; (12.13): 198, 199, 201, 210; (15.3):
Kriegh, J. D.,(18.20): 289, 294, 297, 299; 243,244;(17.1):263,272;(17.2):263,267
,
(18.21): 289, 297, 299, 300 271, 283; (17.4): 263, 267, 272, 273, 274,
Krishnarnurthy, N., (18.11): 289, 307, 309, 276, 277, 286; (18.2): 289, 293; (18
.28):
310, 311; (18.25): 289, 300 289, 293
Kukreti, A. R., (18.22): 289, 306, 313 Murray, T. M., (18.22): 289, 306, 313
Ku ak, G. L.,(4.1): 39, 41,44,57,62,63,83;
(5.12): 78, 84, 91, 92, 97; (5.23): 99, 100, Nadai, A., (5.46): 105
102, 104, 105; (5.25): 84, 91, 92, 100, Nair, R. S., (17.4): 263, 267, 272, 273,
274,
111; (5.38): 105; (5.50): 132, 139; (13.8): 276, 277, 286
217,218,219,221,223,225,228;(13.12): Nanninga, M.G.,(12.15):208
326 Author Index
Nawrot, T., (5.37): 81, 202,203 Sah i, A. H., (5.54): 123
Nethercot, D. A., (18.27): 289, 293, 300 Sahnon, C. G., (3.1): 29, 30, 31; (13.1
1):
New in, D. E., (18.37): 315, 316 220, 263, 266, 300, 317
Savikko, E. R., (5.3): 78
O’Connor, C.,(5.11): 78, 80, 81, 197, 198, Schaaf, T. V. D., (12.6): 202, 203, 205
, 206,
202, 206 208, 210, 211
O’Connor, J. J., (5.41): 117 Schenker, L., (3.1): 29, 30, 31
Office of Research and Experiments of the Schutz, F. W., Jr., (16.1): 255, 259,
Internationa Union of Rai ways (ORE), 289, 302, 303, 307
(12.1): 197, 198, 199, 202, 203, 204, 205, Scott, M. B., (6.4): 150, 155
207;(12.2): 197,202;(12.3): 197,208,210; Seeger, T., (5.18): 81, 116, 118, 120,1
23;
(12.4): 211 (6.2): 155, 173, 174
O iver, W. A., (3.4): 30 Se berg, A., (5.17): 78, 197, 199, 200, 201,
Oppenheim, I. J., (18.36): 315, 316, 319 202, 203, 211
Orr, D. M. F., (13.10): 217 Sherbourne, A. N., (18.6): 289, 307, 315;
(18.35): 315, 316, 317, 318
Paris, P. C., (2.15): 21, 22 Shermer, C. L., (13.7): 217, 218
Pate , K. V., (18.12): 289 Shoukry, Z., (8.2): 173, 176
Pauw, A., (4.13): 52, 86 Siddigi, I. H., (4.18): 63, 64, 197, 198, 199,
Pe ini, W. S., (2.8): 24 202, 203, 208; (5.9): 78, 81, 206
Peterson, K. S., (17.2): 263, 267, 271, 283 Skwirb ies, H., (14.1): 233, 236
Phi ips, J.R., (5.1): 78 S utter, R. G., (13.4): 217,218, 221
Power,E.,(7.1): 158,159,160,162,163,164, Spooner, L.A., (16.3): 255, 259, 289
167 Srinivasan, R. S., (5.42): 119
Standig, K.F., (18.8):289,303,304,305,315
Rabern, D. A., (15.7): 243,244,250,252,253 Stark, J. W. B., (18.16): 289, 307, 3
17
Ramseier, P., (4.7): 30, 47, 48, 56, 78, 91, Stee Structures Painting Counci (
SSPC);
92,93 (12.12):202, 204, 205
Rathbun, J. C., (18.1): 289,290,292,293,300 Steinhardt, 0., (5.5): 78, 80, 81, 9
0, 118, 233,
Ravindra, M. K., (2.22): 18; (5.50): 132, 139 236; (9.2): 204, 205, 206, 207, 21
1, 233,
Reemsnyder,H.S., (2.7): 21, 118; (14.5): 238, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240
240, 241 Ster ing, 0. H., (4.3): 39, 41, 44, 57; (5.6):
Regec, J. E., (14.4): 234; (18.29): 303 78, 80, 91, 92, 97, 100
Rei y, C., (13.1): 217 Sto er, F., (12.9): 208, 210
Rentsch er, G. P., (18.8): 289, 303, 304, 305, Stout, R. D., (.16): 25
315; (18.10): 289, 304 Strating, J., (2.22): 18
Research Counci on Structura Connections Structura Engineers Association of C
ahforma
(RCSC), (1.4): 2, 37, 52, 53, 128, 176, 197, (SEAOC), (2.3): 17
198 Struik, J.H.A.,( .13):3; (13. 5):228; (15.6):
Richard,R. M.,(15.7): 243,244, 250,252,253; 243, 247, 250; (17.3): 263, 267, 274
, 277,
(15.9): 243, 244, 253; (18.20): 289,294, 282
297, 299; (18.21): 289, 297, 299, 300 Subcommittee on Bo t Strength, (4.24): 66
Ric es,J. M., (18.17): 289, 297; (18.18): 289, Surtees, J. 0., (18.5): 289, 307,
308,311,
297 315
Rimmer, N. W., (18.34): 312 Swiss Society of Engineers and Architects
Rivera, U., (7.5): 159, 160, 167 (SIA), (4.33): 52
Ro fe, S. T.,(2.10): 24; (2.20): 24
Rumpf, J. L., (4.2): 39, 41, 44, 56, 57, 62, Tajimá, J., (4.10): 62; (5.44): 125
76; (4.5): 30,47,56,78,84; (4.6): 30,47,48, Thomas, F. P., (1.2): 2
56, 78, 84, 91, 92, 93, 97, 173, 195, 196; Thomas, I. R., (18.15): 289, 307
(5.21): 92, 95, 97, 99; (5.35): 86; (8.1): Tomonaga, K., (5.44): 125
173; (17.7): 263 TOr, S. S., (2.16): 25
Rust, T. H., (15.11): 244 Townsend, H. E., Jr., (4.38): 68
Ruzek, J. M., (2.16): 25 Troup, E. W. J., (4.3): 39, 41, 44, 57
Author Index 327
Va tinat, G., (9.2): 204, 205, 206, 207, 211, 253
233, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240 Wi son, W. M., (1.2): 2; (3.4): 30
van Douwen, A. A., (5.4): 78 Witteveen, J., (18.16): 289, 307, 317
Vannoy, D. W., (5.54): 123 Woodruff, G. B., (7.3): 161, 163
Vasarhe yi, D. D., (4.18): 63, 64, 197, 198, Woodward, H. M., (4.35): 53, 54, 60
199, 202, 203; (5.9): 78, 81, 206, 208; Wooten, J. M., (18.30): 311
(5.14): 78; (5.15): 78, 80, 81; (5.16): 78; Wy y, L. T., (5.48): 117; (6.4): 150
, 155
(5.34): 78; (10.2): 190; (11.1): 194, 195,
196; (11.2): 194, 195, 196; (12.7): 197; Yarimci,E., (13.4): 217, 218, 221
(15.4): 243, 244, 246, 247 Yen, B. T., (5.51): 123, 140
Vasishth, U. C., (5.16): 78; (11.1): 194, 195, Yoshida, N., (3.8): 30, 161, 167,
195
196 Young, D. R., (5.3): 78
Vincent, G. S., (2.23): 18 Ypeij, E., (14.3): 238
Viner,J. G.,(4.20): 70 Yura,J.A.,(5.53): 85, 114; (5.55): 79;(9.3):
176, 182; (10.2): 186, 188, 190, 191;
Wadde , J. A., (15.10): 244 (18.17): 289, 297; (18.18): 289, 297;
Wake, B. T., (6.5): 150, 155 (18.38): 297
Wa aert, J. J., (4.4): 44, 45, 48, 224, 226; Yusavage, W. J., (ed.), (7.4): 167
(4.25): 45, 48
Weibu , W., (2.5): 21, 118 Zennaro, L., (12.8): 199, 200
Whitmore, R. E., (15.2): 243, 244, 253 Zoetemeyer,P.,(17.5): 269;(18.16): 289, 3
07,
Wi iams, G. C., (15.7): 243, 244, 250, 252, 317
Subject Index
A owab e stresses: Bearing, 19, 89, 112, 141, 143
buttjoints, 126, 128, 131, 142, 143 Bearing stresses, 19, 112,141,143
concepts, 17 Bearing type joints:
eccentrica y oaded joints, 230 definition, 19
tension type connections, 283 design recommendations, 126, 132
American Institute of Stee Construction eccentrica y oaded joints, 217, 223
(AISC): effect:
manua , 217, 228, 311 of fi er p ates, 190
specification, 154, 250 of gage, 104
American Society for Testing and Materia s of grip ength, 111
(Bo t specifications): of joint geometry, 99
A354BD, 4, 35 of joint ength, 99
A449, 35 of misa igned ho es, 196
ASTM A307, 3, 35 of net and gross areas, 104
ASTM A325, 1, 2, 3, 35 of oversize ho es, 183
ASTMA49O, 1,2,3,35 of pitch, 100
ASTM A502, 7, 27 of shear and tensi e areas, 102
of s otted ho es, 183
Beam to co umn connections, 289 of type of bo t, 111
beam sp ices, 306 of type of connected materia , 105
b ock shear, 296 fatigue, 116, 118
design recommendations, 317 oad partition, 89, 95
effect of copes, 294 oad vs. deformation behavior, 19, 94
end p ates, 306 net section strength, 105, 109
f exib e, 293 stiffness, 94
framed beam connection, 293 surface preparation, 94
moment vs. rotation characteristics, 290, 293, Beve ed surface, 61
302, 303 B ock shear, 296
rigid, 301 Bo ts:
semi rigid, 300 mechanica properties, 3
stiffener requirements, 313 ordinary (ASTM) A307), 3, 5
stifihess, 292 types, 1, 2, 3
types, 290 see a so High strength bo ts
Beam sp ices, 255, 306 Britt e fracture, 23
design recommendations, 261 Bui ding codes, 16
f ange sp ice, 257 Bui t up sections, see Truss type connections
types, 255 Butt sp ice:
web sp ice, 259 behavior after s ip, 89
329
330 Subject Index
Butt sp ice (Continued) Design recommendations:
design recommendations, 126, 132 beam to co umn connections, 317
oad vs. deformation behavior, 18, 92 beam sp ices, 261
repeated oading, 116 bearing stresses, 141, 143
s ip resistance, 74 bo ts, individua , 70
symmetric, 12, 18, 74 butt joints, 126, 132
u timate strength, 95 coated joints, 212
unbuttoning, 92 combination joints, 240
see a so Bearing type joints; S ip resistant connected materia , 138
joints eccentrica y oaded joints, 227
fi er p ates, 192
Ca ibrated wrench insta ation, 53,60, 134, gusset p ates, 253
213 ap joints, 175
C amping force, see Pre oad misa igned ho es, 196
Coated surfaces, see Surface coatings oversize ho es, 183
Combination joints, 232 repeated oading, 127, 140, 155, 286
bo ted riveted, 238 rivets, individua , 33
bo ted we ded, 235 shing e joints, 165
common shear p ane, 234 s ip resistant joints, 126, 132, 170, 175, 184,
design recommendations, 240 196, 212
oad vs. deformation characteristics, 234, s otted ho es, 183
237, 239 tension type connections, 282
new work, 236 truss type connections, 156
repair work, 236 Direct tension indicators, 53, 59
repeated oading, 237, 240
types, 232 Eccentrica y oaded joints, 217
Connections: ana ysis, 220
beam to co umn, 289 design recommendations, 227
bo ted riveted, 232, 238 oad vs. rotation behavior, 219, 225
bo ted we ded, 232, 235 s ip resistant, 221, 226
bracket type, 12 Eccentric connections, see Lap joints; Gusset
butt sp ice, 12, 74 p ates; Truss type connections;
eccentric, 217 Beam to co umn connections
end p ate, 306 Eccentric shear, 12, 217
f ange sp ice, 255, 257 Embritt ement of bo ts, 66
f at p ate type, 12 End distance, 113, 142, 143
f exib e, 293 End p ate connection, see Beam to co umn
framed, 293 connections
gusset p ate, 12, 48, 243
hanger type, 12, 264 Fatigue, 20
ap p ate sp ice, 12, 171 bearing type joints, 116, 118
rigid, 301 bo ts in tension, 272
semi rigid, 300 butt joints, 116, 118
shing e joints, 158 coated joints, 210
tension type, 263 combinations joints, 237, 240
truss type, 148 design recommendations, 127, 140, 155, 286
types, 12 fai ure modes, 116
web sp ice, 255, 259 fai ure probabi ity, 21, 124
Copes, 294 fracture mechanics, 24
Corrosion of bo ts, 66 fretting fatigue, 117
Corrosion protection, see Surface coatings ap jOints, 175
Corrosion resistant bo ts, 36 s ip resistant joints, 116, 210
Creep of bo ted joints, 77 tension type connections, 272
Subject Index 331
truss type connections, 155 Hydrogen stress cracking, 66
Fi er p ates:
design recommendations, 192 Insta ation procedure:
types, 186 ca ibrated wrench, 53, 60, 86
Fracture: direct tension indicator, 53
britt e fracture, 23 high strength bo ts, 52
fracture mechanics, 24 oad indicating washers, 59
Fretting fatigue, 117 oversize ho es, 176, 177
rivets, 27
Gage of bo ts, 104, 108, 152 s otted ho es, 176, 177
Ga vanized bo ts and nuts, 62, 63, 67 torque contro , 52, 53
Ga vanized joints, 62, 197 turn of nut, 53, 56, 83
Girder sp ices, see Beam sp ices washers, 65
Grip ength, 30, 41, 50, 55, 57, 61, 111,267 Interference body bo ts, 37
Gusset p aces, 12, 48, 243
ana ysis, 243, 244 Joint efficiency:
design recommendations, 253 butt joints, 105, 109
oad vs. disp acement characteristics, 247 truss type connections, 148, 150, 154
Joint ength, 99
Hanger connection, 12, 264 Joint stiffness, 78, 94
High strength bo ts:
corrosion resistant, 36 Lap joints, 171
embritt ement, 66 design recommendations, 174
ga vanized, 63, 67 oad vs. deformation behavior, 173
history of, 1 Length of joint:
hydrogen stress cracking, 66 inf uence on oad partition, 99, 150, 163
identification, 36 Load and resistance factor design, see Load
insta ation, see Insta ation procedure factor design
interference body bo t, 37 Load factor design:
oad vs. deformation characteristics: beam to co umn connections, 317
direct tension, 39, 40 butt joints, 126, 132, 139, 143
insta ed bo t, 57, 58 concepts, 17
shear, 44 eccentrica y oaded joints, 230
torqued tension, 39, 40 tension type connections, 285
mechanica properties, 3 Load partition:
re axation, 61, 180 butt joints, 91, 95
reuse, 62 combination joints, 232
specifications, 2, 3, 35 fi er p ates between surfaces, 186
strength: gusset p ates, 252
combined tension and shear, 50 shing e joints, 160, 162
shear, 44, 47, 70, 162, 173, 190 Load transfer:
tension, 39 butt joints, 74, 89, 95
swedge bo ts, 37, 59 friction, 18, 19, 74
tension contro bo ts 37 59 shear and bearing 18 19 74 89 95
types, 3, 35 shing e joints, 160, 162
Ho es: Load types, 16
a ignment, 194
britt e fracture, 25 Mechanica properties:
effect: bo ts, 3
on member efficiency, 105, 153 rivets, 3, 7
on s ip, 93, 176, 180 stee s, 9, 10,11
oversize, see Oversize ho es Meta ized surfaces, 202
s otted see S otted ho es Misa ignment of ho es 194
332 Subject Index
Net section: tension behavior, 29
design recommendations, 126, 138, 156 types, 7, 27
f ange sp ices, 259
strength, 105, 109, 138, 141, 149, 154 Shear:
Nuts: axia , 12
ga vanized, 63 eccentric, 12, 217
specifications, 5,35, 37 shear resistance of bo ts, 44, 47, 70, 162,173,
strength, 69 190, 252
Shear ag in bui t up sections, 149, 150, 151
Oversize ho es, 176 Shear p anes, bo ts, 48, 173, 190
design recommendations, 183 Shear sp ices, see Butt sp ice
dimensions, 176, 182, 183, 184 Shing e joints, 158
effect: design recommendations, 165
on insta ation, 176, 177 effect of joint geometry, 163
on pre oad, 176, 177 oad partition, 160, 162
on s ip resistance, 176, 180 oad vs. deformation behavior, 158
on u timate strength, 176, 183 stiffness, 159, 162
S ip coefficient, 75, 76, 78, 182, 188, 197
Painted surfaces, see Surface coatings S ip resistant joints:
Pitch of bo ts, 100, 108 a ternate bo ts, 89
Pre oad: basic, 18, 74, 180
bo ts, 1, 19, 35, 47, 52, 76, 83, 93 combination joints, 234
ca ibrated wrench insta ation, 52, 53, 86 design recommendations, 126, 132, 170
, 175,
combined with app ied oad, 267 184, 196, 212
direct tension indicators, 59, 89 eccentrica y oaded joints, 221, 226
effect: p effect:
of bo t ength, 56, 89 of fi er p ates, 187
of grip ength, 89 of joint geometry, 77
of ho e size, 176, 177 of misa igned ho es, 194
on shear strength, 47, 93 of number of faying surfaces, 75, 77
on s ip resistance, 82, 86, 89 of oversize ho es, 176, 180
re axation, 61, 180 of pre oad, 19, 75, 82, 83,86
rivets, 28 of s otted ho es, 176, 180
s ip resistance, 19, 75, 82, 83, 86 of surface preparation, 77, 182
torque contro insta ation, 52, 89 of surface treatment, 77, 182, 197
turn of nut insta ation, 54, 83 of type of stee , 77
washers, 65 fatigue, 116, 210
Prying action, 263, 266, 272, 274 ga vanized surfaces, 198
ap joints, 173
Re axation of c amping force, 61, 180 meta ized surfaces, 202
Repeated oading, see Fatigue probabi ity, 133, 212
Research Counci on Structura Connections viny treated surfaces, 206
(RCSC): zinc rich painted surfaces, 202
history, 2 S ip test, 76
specification, 2, 52, 55, 59 S otted hoLes, 176
Reuse of high strength bo ts, 62 design recommendations, 183
Rivets: dimensions, 182, 183, 184
bo ted riveted joints, 238 effect on pre oad, 176, 177
c amping force, 28 effect on s ip resistance, 176, 180
design recommendations, 33 Stagger, see Pitch of bo ts
insta ation, 27 Stiffness, see Joint stiffness
mechanica properties, 7 Stress area, 4
shear behavior, 30 Stress corrosion, 66
shear and tension behavior, 31, 32 Stress corrosion cracking, 65, 66
Subject Index 333
Structura stee : design recommendations, 282
mechanica properties, 9, 10, 11 effect of pre oad, 267
types, 9 prying action, 263, 266, 272, 274
Surface coatings, 197 repeated oading, 272, 286
design recommendations, 212 T stubs, 266
ga vanizing, 198 Torque vs. tension re ationship, 52
meta izing, 202 Truss type connections, 146
repeated oading, 210 design recommendations, 156
s ip resistance, 197 repeated oading, 155
sustained oading, 208 shear ag, 149, 150, 151
viny treatment, 206 Turn of nut method, 53, 56, 82, 134, 212
zinc rich paint, 202
Surface preparation, 94 U timate strength of fastener groups, 217,
Swedge bo ts, 37 223
Unbuttoning, 92
Tension contro bo t, 37
Tension insta ed, see Pre oad Viny paints, 206
Tension resistance of bo ts, 39, 70
Tension shear jig, 45 Washers:
Tension and shear resistance of bo ts, 50, 70 oad indicating, 59
Tension type connections, 263 use of. 65
bo t groups in tension, 266
bo ts in tension, 263 Zinc paints, 202

Design Criteria For Bolted and Rivited Joints

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Design Criteria For Bolted and Rivited Joints

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Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and

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