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Evolution of Branding Theory and Its Relevance to the Independent Retail

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Article  in  The Marketing Review · February 2006

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Evolution of Branding Theory and Its Relevance
to the Independent Retail Sector
Stuart Roper1, Manchester Business School
Cathy Parker2, Manchester Metropolitan University Business School

We are living in an age of branding. Branding has developed from FMCGs to encompass
services, non-for-profit organizations and even places. This success is not always
favourably received, for example the New Economics Foundation has recently argued
that branding is having a negative impact on our towns and cities; the so-called “clone
town phenomena” with high streets across the UK dominated by the same retail brands.
This raises an interesting question for marketing academics: Is the branding literature
applicable to only large organizations, such as multiple retailers, or does it apply to small
and family run organizations? Could the development of branding theory be used to
counteract the increasing homogeneity of the UK’s urban retail landscape? This study
uses new software, in particular ENDNOTE and REFVIZ to explore the development of
the branding literature. This is a first stage of research project which will progress by
assessing the relevance of branding theory to the independent retail sector with the aim
of developing relevant theory for this sector.

Key Words: Branding theory, literature review, retailing, independent retailing.

Introduction

“The social landscape is, in many aspects, turned into a commercial

brandscape” (Salzer-Mörling and Strannegård 2004). Branding principles
are applied in all aspects of Western life; not only are brands and their
associated signs and symbols used to communicate with consumers but
they are also used in other areas of non-commercial life such as in
education, health, sports and even religion. Critics of the increasing spread
of commodification through branding complain of the symbolic clutter as
the visual manifestations of brands has come to dominate public and
private space. Product brands, which started as a means of differentiating
one tangible good from another in a crowded marketplace, have evolved
into a reduced number of extremely dominant corporate brands. Modern
day brand management is increasingly concerned with rationalising the
brand portfolio, investing more into a smaller number of ever-more
powerful brands. Not surprisingly, popular coverage (through the media) as
well as academic coverage (through the marketing and branding literature)

1
Correspondence: Dr Stuart Roper, Manchester Business School, Booth Street East,
Manchester England, MI5 6PB, Tel +44 161 306 3475, Fax +44 161 306 3167,
Stuart.roper@manchester.ac.uk
2
Ms Cathy Parker, Manchester Metropolitan University Business School, Aytoun
Street, Manchester, M1 3GH, Tel+44 161 247 6056, Fax+44 161 247 4690,
c.parker@mmu.ac.uk

The Marketing Review 2006, 6, 55-71

ISSN1469-347X ©Westburn Publishers Ltd.
56 The Marketing Review 2006, 1, 55-71

reflects the dominant position of these very large brands. Nevertheless,

does our popular fascination and academic interest in these brands mean
that branding theory is only applicable to them? Is it possible and useful to
use branding theory to understand more about smaller organisations and
their relationships with consumers? This article explores the development of
the brand, branding and the concurrent theory that has evolved to establish
whether it has relevance to one particular type of smaller organization and
one that is currently under threat from the increasing dominance of
corporate branding, the independent retailer. The authors are involved in a
long-term project with independent retailers and a research focus of this
project is branding. This paper begins by tracing the history of the brand in
order to identify key stages in the development of branding theory and
assist the construction of a framework that identifies the major clusters of
branding theory and principles. Subsequent papers will seek to establish
the relevance of the branding literature to the independent retailer and
further empirical work will take place.

A Brief History of the Brand

A number of authors have traced the evolution of brands and identified that
the word brand probably derived from the Norse word brandr referring to
the branding of cattle (for example see Hart and Murphy 1998 and Riezebos
2003). Symbolic branding featured prominently in the design of pub signs
in Britain from Shakespearian times onwards. However, the real starting
point for the development of modern brands and brand management was
the industrial revolution. Low and Fullerton (1994) point out various
macroeconomic factors that allowed innovative companies to lay the
foundations of modern brand strategy. Improvements in transport and
communications ensured that national distribution become easier. The
improvements in production processes allowed mass production and
corresponding economies of scale to take effect and this combined with
consistent quality in the manufacturing process allowed producers to
persuade customers that they could rely on their products time and again.
Packaging improvements meant that as well as providing necessary
protection, manufacturers could make their products instantly recognisable
and thus begin the cycle of consumers asking for the product by name and
repeat purchase. Newspapers provided mass communication and were
supported by the establishment of the advertising industry as a legitimate
form of persuading customers to support a brand. Differing routes to
market including the first department stores and mail order were a move
towards self-selection by consumers thereby weakening the power base of
the existing distribution channel and the shopkeeper at the same time
increasing the importance of individual purchase decisions by consumers.
The rise of the middle classes created by the industrial revolution ensured
that there was a growing group of more prosperous and better-educated
consumers waiting to take advantage of the new brands.
Legal factors, such as the recognition of trademarks have assisted in
the building of brands. As time has developed the law has extended to
allow the trade marking and copywriting of not just names but shapes and
colours used in packaging thus further protecting the difference and added
 Stuart Roper and Cathy Parker, Evolution of Branding Theory 57

value inherent from a branded good. Modern day consumers relate to

brands and modern day brands communicate in a myriad of ways with
consumers. From product placements in films to branded clothing, brands
are a central part of western consumers’ lifestyles.
Brands are now recognised on balance sheets as assets in the same
way that tangibles such as buildings are assigned a value. Rank Hovis
McDougal valued their brands at £678m on their 1988 balance sheet, a
move that has been replicated by other companies (de Chernatony and
McDonald 1998). Nestle’s purchase of Rowntree for £2.4bn was
considerably above the market capitalisation of the company of around
£1bn (Egan 1998). This recognized that companies are not simply about
processes and tangibles; the brand has a valuable relationship with its
customers that would exist even if the tangible assets of a company were
destroyed.
A summation of the development of brands, in terms of their
relationship with consumers, is presented in Table 1. Branding as an asset is
not included in the table as it is not necessarily a stage in the evolution of
branding that would be recognisable external to individual companies.
Nevertheless, each of the major stages (including ‘brand as asset’) is
explored in more detail, in terms of the development of the corresponding
theory and principles that have developed to support each stage.

Branding as Identification

The original purpose of branding was to associate a product or offering

with its producer or owner. This is a move along Goodyear’s ‘branding
continuum’(1993); from unbranded to brand as a reference. Brand names
are usually manufacturers’ own surnames (for example Twinning’s Tea).
Like the arbitary association of Camel with cigarettes, names of persons
trademark concepts (Reizeboss 2003), “with regard to the marketing
appeal………are incredibly weak” (Kohli and Thakor 1997). The very use of
an owner’s or manufacturer’s name is illustrative of a supplyside orientation
(Hanby 1999). Nevertheless, the mere longevity of these allegedly weak (in
marketing terms) brand names would appear to contradict this.
Furthermore, at its very core, the concept of branding is one of
identification, ensuring that consumers can recognise your product
(whatever it is called).

Branding as Differentiation

After the industrial revolution, the onset of mass-production, distribution

and communication meant there was still the need to be identified in new,
unfamiliar marketplaces. In addition to this requirement, the brand needed
to differentiate itself against increased competition in these new markets.
Brand is still at the point of reference within the continuum, but now it is
within a category and possibly even range, as brand owners started to
‘extend’ their name (such Heinz 57) and the creation of brand portfolios.
The basis of differentiation communicated through the industrial age was
usually functional or rational (size, packaging, quality, availability, price etc)
and reflected in marketing communications (e.g. John Lewis, never
 58 The Marketing Review 2006, 1, 55-71

Table 1: Stages in the Development of Brands and Branding

Stage in
Macro-Environmental development
Time Change Purpose Examples of branding
200BC Use of tools, Identification of Signs
development of trade. trade man with
craft

Identification
476BC- Increasing mobilization Identification of Brand marks
1492AD of and legislation in ownership
population
16C Increasingly mobilization Identification of Pub signs
of population product offering
1760-1830 Industrialisation of Identification of Names
production manufacturer
1830-1970 Mass-production and Differentiation of Brand
development of product (quality advertising
distribution and

Differentiation
infrastructure and mass functionality)
communication
1970-1990 Development of the Communicating Brand
service sector added value narratives
(intangible
differentiation)

1990’s Globalisation and post- “Emotionalise”, Micro

modernism build marketing

Personification
relationships

knowingly undersold). Increasingly, non-functional or rationale

differentiation was communicated through brands. These factors were not
economically rational and those charged with forecasting or understanding
demand for these products could no longer rely on economic theory to
explain the behaviour of customers and predict the behaviour of brands.
The new discipline of marketing began and, from the 1950’s the study of
branding began. The underlying conception of a brand as extended
product (Levitt 1981) included not just the functional or expected aspects
but also the augmented or the intangible. As the service sector grew, the
debate began as to whether tangible goods were significantly different to
intangible services to warrant the development of a new stream of
marketing (for example, the seminal article by Shostack 1977). This has led
to the concurrent development of product and service branding within the
literature.
 Stuart Roper and Cathy Parker, Evolution of Branding Theory 59

Branding as Personification

Branding however is more than merely a method of differentiation. In their

seminal paper “The Product and the Brand,” Gardner and Levy (1955)
describe a brand as a “complex symbol that represents a variety of ideas and
attributes.” Customers build up a set of associations with the brand that
they are unable to do with an undifferentiated product. Kim (1990)
describes branding as the “attribution of social and symbolic meaning to a
product” therefore, a full and clear appreciation of consumers and the
markets in which they exist is necessary to develop and maintain a
successful brand. Hart and Murphy (1998) insist that a brand is a “synthesis
of all the elements, physical, aesthetic, rational and emotional,” and that
product attributes must be “coherent, appropriate, distinctive and
appealing to consumers.” de Chernatony and Riley (1998) state that
company, identity system, image, value system, personality, relationship and
added value can be combined to form a common antecedent of the brand’s
personality.
Aaker (1997) used the personification metaphor and attributed it to
brands, thereby ascribing to brands dimensions of personality, in the same
way psychologists have identified and ascribed dimensions of personality to
humans. The personification of brands moves us from the brand as
“manipulable artifact (to) living entity….the machine and the organism”
(Hanby 1999). We move from brands as things to brands as images and
organisations “creating a corporate mythology powerful to infuse
meaning……just by signing its name”. The rise of the multiple retailers is
well illustrative of the shift in the balance of power, away from the
individual product brands to the corporate brand. Retail companies, such
as Tesco, have an all-encompassing corporate brand, which includes own-
label groceries to financial services.
The personality of the CEO can often influence a corporate
personality e.g. Richard Branson at Virgin or Lee Iacocca whose forceful
personality added charisma to the Chrysler company’s dependable
personality. Work by Martineau (1958) suggested that consumers aligned
their choice of retail store with their own personality. It would therefore
make sense that the personality of customers and companies are aligned.
Martineau states that the store without a clear personality is like a dull
person and will only be positioned as an alternative store in the mind of the
customer rather than the store of choice. Ellwood (2000) places brand
personality within the DNA of the brand. The DNA “summarises both the
internal and external benefits of the brand across all media types to all
stakeholders” (p126). Kapferer (1998) also involves himself in the biology of
brands by referring to the “genetic programme” of brands (p53). The brand
memory i.e. recognised past achievements of the brand are a way of tracing
the path that the brand will take in the future.

Brand as Asset

Much of the theory that surrounds branding is aimed at measuring the

value of a brand. Manrai (1995) reviews mathematical models of brand
choice behaviour dating back to the late 1950’s. Multi-attribute models,
60 The Marketing Review 2006, 1, 55-71

preference and choice mapping models and conjoint analysis are the three
major categories of model and such theory aims to measure a brand from
the perspective of either the economic principle of utility maximization or
from that of consumer behaviour and the behavioural sciences. Similarly,
Jacoby and Chestnut (1978) provide theory aimed at the measurement of
brand loyalty. More recently there has been a move to measure the actual
value of brands. The reporting of brands on balance sheets has considerably
increased the desire for measurement. Aaker (1991) outlines brand equity
made up from the elements of brand name awareness, brand loyalty,
perceived quality and brand associations. Riezebos (2003) updates this work
by considering the relationship between brand added-value i.e. the brand
value for the customer of perceived performance, psychosocial meaning and
brand-name awareness and brand equity comprising size of market, stability
of market share and the margin on the branded article together with the
proprietary brand assets. A variety of accountancy based measures are used
to calculate brand value including the use of a multiplier by which profits
are multiplied by weighted factors such as leadership, internationality,
stability, trends, protection of brand etc. (Penrose 1989). Brand values are
now ranked as Interbrand annually produces a table listing the world’s most
valuable brands.

Branding in Retail

The application of existing branding theory and the development of the

topic within the sector are well-established. In the mid-seventies authors
such as (Swan 1974) began a stream of research that investigated the
competition between the dominant manufacturing brands and the rising
power of the retailing brands. Current research themes (those found in the
last year) include own-label branding (Morton 2004), retail co-branding
(Dahlstrom 2004), tourism and retailing (Coles 2004), on-line retailing (Tang
2004), visual merchandising (Kerfoot 2003) as well as research related to
sub-sectors such as books and food etc. (see for example {Cao 2004;
Vranesevic 2003). Whilst there is arguably diversity in the branding
literature related to retail, one common theme is the size of the
organization that is studied. Just as the more mainstream branding
literature is dominated by the national or multi-national organization, so
too the retail branding literature has developed from the study of multiple
retailers, not independent ones. This poses a dilemma. Good research
should be generalisable, but if the subject of interest has not featured in this
research, then just how relevant is it? Of course, the debate concerning the
relevance of business and management literature to small businesses is not
a new one. Nevertheless, despite the realization that SMEs are not,
necessarily scaled-down MNCs, there is very little literature devoted to
understanding branding in an SME context. Notable exceptions are Inskip
(2004) or a local context (Kapferer 2002) and none in a retail SME context.
In support of Dawson’s (2000) suggestion to identify and prioritize future
areas of retail research, the aim is to understand more about the nature of
the retail firm, in other words how smallness in retailing may or may not be
a relevant area of future research in branding.
 Stuart Roper and Cathy Parker, Evolution of Branding Theory 61

Development of the Branding Literature

From investigation of the history of branding 4 stages have been identified;

identification, differentiation, personification and asset. These stages or
themes in the branding literature have been expanded in the previous
section in order to understand more about the theories that have developed
within them. Nevertheless, whilst these themes appear congruent with the
development of brands themselves, the method of literature review, thus
far, has not established if these distinct stages or themes are indeed
reflected in the development of the branding literature. Previous reviews of
the branding literature have already identified confusion between
definitions and overlap between them (Patterson 1999). In addition, our
method of review, thus far, does not identify if the development of
branding theory is relevant to the chosen sector – the independent retail
sector. It would be helpful to have a clear set of concepts and theories to
utilize. Therefore in this section, this paper will explore the development of
the branding literature in a far more structured fashion and investigate
evidence or application to the retail and small business sector in the extant
literature. The aim is to establish, in a more structured way, the thematic
building blocks of branding theory that subsequent research papers can
assess in terms of its potential relevance to the independent retail sector.

Method and Results

A review was carried out within ABI Inform (amongst all scholarly articles) to
identify all articles that had been published, from 1935 that included
‘branding’, ‘brand’ or ‘brands’ within an article’s abstract, title or key
words. This search elicited 1,304 usable references (i.e. that had complete
records for all the search items listed above). These records were exported
to EndNote 7 where editorials, retorts, commentaries and book reviews
were also excluded from the final usable ‘library’ (which contained 1,106
references). The resulting library references spanned from 1964 to 2005
with the majority (nearly 900) of branding articles published in the last
decade. In order to understand more about the themes that are
represented within all these references, “RefViz”, a software package that
has been designed “to explore reference collections for major themes”
(Thomson Literature) was utilised. RefViz reviews all the information
contained within a bibliographic library to identify a ‘reference set’. This
reference set is merely a collection of reoccurring words that the software
finds within the library, or collection of articles it has been instructed to
investigate. It then utilises this reference set to further divide the library
into “concept based groups”. These are groups of words that occur
together. These groups (and the relationships between them) are then
presented visually in a ‘galaxy’. Concept groups that are closer together
have more in common (in terms of key words etc) then those that are
farther apart. An initial analysis of the complete branding library, visually
representing all the concept groups is shown below in Figure 1. In order to
ensure that key concepts were identified, ‘common-to-all-article’ words
such as ‘market’, ‘product’ and ‘consumer’ were made secondary rather
than primary sorting words. The contents of each group are listed in Table
2.
 62 The Marketing Review 2006, 1, 55-71

Figure 1: “Galaxy” of 1106 Branding Articles

Much of the theory that has been reviewed in the early part of this article
can be identified in the table below. This is reassuring as it demonstrates
that themes so far identified have not been included arbitrarily. In addition,
Table 2 demonstrates that retailing represents the fifth most dominant
grouping of branding articles in the literature. This, again, demonstrates
that the concept of branding has been researched within this context.
Nevertheless, this overall analysis of the literature does not show how it had
developed, over time, nor whether the application to retailing is a past or
ongoing theme. The table does illustrate that the concept of branding in
small businesses is not a dominant theme (in other words, not enough
articles feature small business to influence the creation of a concept group
within the analysis framework). Therefore, the next step was to identify the
development of the branding literature over time (to track the development
and change in themes). The method for this was to include the groupings
generated by RefViz if they successfully grouped more than 50 per cent of
the articles, in any year. Given that the majority of branding articles have
been written in the past decade, it was not until 1979 that the software
could identify clear groups that represented more than fifty per cent of the
articles that had been written to that date.
Years were analysed separately. The corresponding concepts groups
for each year are identified in Appendices 1 - 3. Identifiable themes from
the first attempt to categorise the development of the topic (Table 1) are
summarised in Table 3.
 Stuart Roper and Cathy Parker, Evolution of Branding Theory 63

Table 2 : Groups Within Branding Literature

Group
Number Keywords No. of refs
9 Customer service, change, industry 128
2 Price, sale, change 105
11 Name, extension, equity 87
1 Image, country, identity 64
31 Retailers, retail, manufacturers 58
4 Quality, perception, name 53
13 Equity, measurement, financial 49
0 Industry, consumption 41
12 Country, origin, name 41
15 Purchase, behaviour, attitude 38
18 Change, trade, chain 37
29 Global, local, country 35
20 Strategic, plan 27
26 Position, industry, benefit 27
3 Internet, web, on-line 25
19 Communication, message, stakeholder 22
6 Identity, change 21
21 Social, community, responsibility 21
10 Promotion, promotional, sale 8
7 Loyalty, behaviour, purchase 7
16 Location, package, quality 6
5 Reputation, measurement, name 5
8 Bank, change 5
25 Co-branding, alliance 5
17 People, age, community 4
23 Asset, financial 4
24 Local, global, communication 4
28 Country, origin 3
22 Recognition, culture 2
27 Risk, plan 2
30 Campaign, attitude 2
14 Public, relations 1

Table 3: Development of Clustered Themes

1979-1984 1987-1992 1993-1999 2001-2005

Clustered Price (related to Name (relating Service (relating Asset
theme market and to consumers, to quality, (relating to
products) markets and customers, value and
categories) markets, customers)
business

In summary, whilst the number of groups expand over time, as the literature
grows, it is difficult to isolate specific shifts. Instead, the inclusion of new
topics and themes appears to happen in conjunction with the survival of
64 The Marketing Review 2006, 1, 55-71

previous themes or topics. To quote the well-worn adage, it would appear

that the development of the branding theory (like many other things) is
more about evolution than revolution. Nevertheless, four themes are
identifiable, within the timescale chosen; price, name, service and asset. In
light of earlier discussion, it would appear that the age of differentiation has
been far more researched in functional terms, through price. Also, as brand
name dominates studies in the eighties, then perhaps ‘identification’ is not
as passé as one might conclude (from the reading our own Table 1). Service
(and quality) is prevalent as a theme for differentiation in the nineties and
asset is identifiable as a theme from 2000 onwards. Clear themes around
personification are not identifiable, although image does intermittently
occur. This may be because, although we identified personification,
conceptually, as a stage in the development theory, it has not been
embraced so widely (and within a concentrated time frame) as the other
topics. However, in order to explore the relevance of the themes we have
support for, in terms of their relevance to smaller organizations and, in
particular, the SME retail sector, we can confidently continue with 3; brand
as identifier, differentiator and asset. These themes are all enduring and are
supported by a wealth of literature and therefore make a sensible and solid
starting point for any study of branding in the independent retail sector or
any underdeveloped sector in research terms.

Discussion

In this section, we briefly discuss the potential relevance of our themes to

the independent retail sector.

Brand as Identifier

On the high street, shop names and signage are perhaps the only external
means of communication many small retailers have with potential
consumers. At a basic level ‘the shop front’ is the brand as identifier. Given
the poor state of many independents’ shop fronts, the opportunity to
present themselves to customers, through branding and signage is not
being fully utilized. Further empirical research could establish why small
shop owners do not invest in their brand as an identifier. In addition, with
recent developments in the management of town and city centers, such as
Business Improvement Districts, which can be of benefit to SME retailers
(Hogg et al 2003) understanding how those responsible for managing and
marketing places may make use of branding theory to brand and identify
areas could be beneficial.

Differentiation

Similarly this is a clearly relevant area to the small brand. The literature tells
us clearly that in order to be considered a brand then the consumer must be
aware of notable differences in the offering. With a small brand these
differences may only be known in a small locality such as a town rather than
nationally or internationally. However, the quality of the produce, the service
ethic, the physical evidence, the personality of the owner or the ambience of
 Stuart Roper and Cathy Parker, Evolution of Branding Theory 65

the store is capable of providing the differentiation necessitated in the

branding literature. In addition, the opportunity exist for specific areas,
towns and cities to ‘differentiate’ themselves through marketing (Warnaby
1998) and, therefore branding.

Differentiation through Price

Small brands are very rarely perceived as being able to differentiate

themselves on the basis of competitive pricing. They do not benefit from the
economies of scale of the large national and international brands. This may,
however, be a matter of perception as it is certainly possible for small
brands to provide more competitively priced products than supermarkets in
certain market segments i.e. convenience foods or ‘local’ products. A brand
is able to command a premium price due to the set of tangible and
intangible benefits that it provides and there is certainly scope for small
brands to utilize this strategy in combination with its strategy of quality,
service etc. An example would be an interior designer or specialist furniture
establishment.

Differentiation through Service

Again at the brand as differentiator or moving to the brand as personality

stage the small brand is able to utilize service as a means of brand success.
Relationship marketing and indeed the practice of marketing itself has
become necessary as the brand has become further and further removed
from the customer. The beauty of the small brand is that it is able to provide
personal service and a genuine relationship with the customer that is the
envy of the major brand’s relationship marketing and loyalty card
programme.

Asset

Less applicable to small brands would be the concept of brand as an asset.

Not totally without use, however, as the sale of a successful small shop will
include a healthy consideration for the ‘goodwill’ of the customer base.
What is unlikely to occur, however, is the statistical modelling that
predominates in the larger brand’s attempts to measure itself. However,
much of this is concerned with the ability to present a strong report to
shareholders and financial institutions such as the City, issues that do not
affect the small brand. What may be more interesting, in terms of future
research, is to establish whether small shop owners perceive their shop as a
brand and, if so, whether they perceive this to be an asset. If small shop
owners do not perceive their brand to be an asset, it is unlikely that they will
want to invest in even the most rudimentary branding techniques, such as
establishing a brand image through their shop frontage and signage.

Conclusions

This review of the development of branding theories and principles has

utilised an innovative approach in order to understand the extant theory.
66 The Marketing Review 2006, 1, 55-71

Many literature reviews undertaken are very specific and often subjective in
the way that they are conducted. In order to understand the applicability of
branding theory to the independent retail sector the method used here
considered all academic work on branding since 1935. Given the ever-
expanding ‘galaxies’ of literature, it is important for researchers to perhaps
consider the techniques that they use to review them.
Three specific themes were identified; brand as identifier, brand as
differentiator and brand as asset. Whilst the paper has discussed, at last
anecdotally, the potential relevance of these themes to the independent
retail sector more work needs to be done to establish how applicable,
relevant and beneficial the extant literature, within these themes, could be
to the independent retail sector. Further research is planned with
independent retail store owners to establish whether or not they perceive
their business to be a brand and, further research with consumers would
establish whether they behave the same way towards small brands as with
large ones.
In addition to this, further work is also planned by the authors to
investigate the clusters of branding literature identified in figure 1, the
galaxy of all branding articles. This would allow greater explanation of the
relationship of the clusters to each other and therefore a better
understanding of the way that branding theory has developed and why.

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 68 The Marketing Review 2006, 1, 55-71

Appendix 1 Thematic Development of Branding Literature (1979 – 1992)

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

1 Market and Consumer Product Product Market
concentrate and market and market and market and
consumer
2 Price and Price and Market Price and Market
buyer market and price product and price
3 Asset and Policy and
manager asset

4 Generic
and name

5 Attitude
and
consumer
6 Individual
and
policy
7 Gain and
market

10

11

12

Salzer-Morling, M. and Strannegard, L. (2004), “Silence of the Brands,”

European Journal of Marketing, 38( ½) 224-238.
Shostack, G.L. (1977), “Breaking Free from Product Marketing,” Journal of
Marketing, 41, 73-80.
Tang, F.-F. and Gan, L. (2004), “Pricing convergence between dot.coms and
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Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing 12(4): 340.
Vranesevic, T. and Stancec, R. (2003), “The effect of the brand on perceived
quality of food products.” British Food Journal 105(10/11): 811.
Warnaby, G. (1998), “Marketing UK cities as shopping destinations:
problems and prospects.” Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 5(1):
55-58.
 Stuart Roper and Cathy Parker, Evolution of Branding Theory 69

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

Consumer Market Product Market and Product Product Product
and market and and market product and and and
consumer market consumer consumer
Pay and Price and
price quality
Asset and
manager

Consumer Name and Name and Name Name Name and

and name category market and and market
market market

Individual Policy and

and policy economic

Market and Change Change Market and

change and and change
benefit benefit
Market and Market and Retailers
retailer retailer and
manufact
urers
Manager Manager Manage- Customer
and and ment and manage-
position position agency ment
Market and Market and Service Service
service service and and
market quality
Product Market
and and
consumer product
Decision
and firms
 70 The Marketing Review 2006, 1, 55-71

Appendix 2 -Thematic Development of Branding Literature (1993-2000)

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

1 Market and Product and Quality and Product and Product and Product and Product and Market and
product consumer product consumer market consumer consumer product
2 Product and Price and Consumer Price and
price product and price quality
3 Country and
Manager
4 Name and Product and Name and Name and Name and Product and Name and Product and
market name market Market product name product name
5 Consumer Corporate Corporate Corporate Image and Corporate and
and image and image and image and image corporate image
6 Label and
policy
7 Change and Change and
developmen benefit
t
8 Manufacturers Retailers and Retailers Retailers Retailer and International
and retailers manufacturers and change and national and retailer
consumers
9 Business and Business Business Business Business and
management and and and service service
customer customer
10 Service and Service and Customer Market and Service and Service and
quality business and service service quality business
11 Customer and Market and Market and Market and Market and
market product product product product
12 Internationa Decision Sale and
l and and image decision
decision
13 Industry Success and Corporate and
and success product differentiation
14 Manage- Manage- Manage- Manage and Awareness
ment and ment and ment and structure and
process challenge building management
15 Equity and Customer
value and value
16 UK and
attitude
17 Consumer Market and Consumer
and market consumer and market
18 Corporate
and
communi-
cation
19 Manage and
activity
20 Industry and
international
21 Equity and
building
22 Quality and
consumers
 Stuart Roper and Cathy Parker, Evolution of Branding Theory 71

Appendix 3 – Thematic Development of Branding Literature (2001-Present)

2001 2002 2003 2004/5

1 Product and consumer Consumer and product Product and consumer Consumer and
product
2 Price and product Market and product Market and product Market and product
3
4 Name and product Name and product Name and Chinese Name and Chinese
5 Corporate and identity Corporate and identity Corporate identity
6
7
8 Retailer and Retailer and retail Retailer and retail
development
9 Business and building Business and Business and
management management
10 Service and business Service and customer
11 Market and product Market and customer
12 Decision and
international
13
14 Awareness and Awareness and asset
management
15 Value and asset Value and asset Customer and value Asset and value
16
17
18 Building and Building and Building and strategic
communication communication
19
20 Industry and food Image and country
21
22
23 Internet and Internet and Internet and web
communication communication
24 Bank and card Bank and card Bank and card
25 Extension and category Extension and category
26 Co-branding and Co-branding and
alliance alliance

About the Authors

Stuart Roper is Lecturer in Marketing at Manchester Business School, UK. His

main teaching interests focus on branding, marketing strategy and services
marketing. His PhD involved research into corporate branding and
reputation in the business-to-business sector. He is a co-author of a recent
book, Corporate Reputation and Competitiveness and his main research
area is in branding. Stuart has marketing management experience in
business-to-business markets, notably in telecommunications and
undertakes consultancy with business-to-business organisations in the UK.

Cathy Parker is Principal Lecturer in Retailing at Manchester Metropolitan

University Business School and Director of the Retail Enterprise Network.
She has published in many international journals such as the International
Journal of Service Industries Management, the European Journal of
Marketing and the Journal of Marketing Management. Her research
interests include the independent retail sector and town and city centre
management and marketing.

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