widely used modes for UT are longitudinal,
BASICS
ULTRASONIC TESTING
METHOD
-Dr.Oruganti Prabhakar
Proprietor-OP-TECH
INTRODUCTION
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) is done by first
generating high frequency acoustic waves
at the outer surface of the component and
transmitting these waves through a
coupling medium into the component. The
flaw indications are indirect unlike
Radiographic Testing Method where the
silhouette of the discontinuity can be seen
on the radiograph. The UT of flat and
parallel-sided components for large
isolated discontinuities is quite
straightforward. However, caution must be
exercised in applying UT for complex
shapes and for detecting smaller
discontinuities. Operator skill would
determine the correct interpretation of the
results. It is better to restrict UT to
materials having an attenuation coefficient
less than 0.1 dB/mm to reduce the trust
deficit of the management on UT.
ACOUSTIC WAVES
Fig 1: Types of UT waves
There are many ultrasonic vibration
modes that travel through materials. The
transverse, surface and plate waves. The
directions of particle vibration and wave
propagation direction will determine the
vibration mode. If they are parallel then it
is ‘longitudinal’ and if they are
perpendicular to each other then it is
‘shear’ or ‘transverse’ waves. In
conventional UT we deal mostly with non-
dispersive type of US waves where the
phase velocity is independent of frequency
and specimen thickness.
BASIC PRINCIPLES
1. PULSE-ECHO TECHNIQUE
Two principles define this UT technique:
Ultrasonic (US) waves have a fixed phase
velocity in a given medium (non-dispersive
type) for a given mode.
US waves get reflected at materials’
interface where the acoustic impedances
do not match resulting in an echo.
Fig 2: Pulse-Echo technique principle
In the example given in Figure 2, a US
pulse generated by the probe travels in
100 mm steel specimen and returns to the
probe in about 32 microseconds (µsecs).
In the same specimen if a flaw is present
at 40 mm an echo will be received at 14
µsec. It is this time difference that we
discern to locate the flaw.
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Fig 3: Block diagram of an ultrasonic
Pulse Echo equipment Fig 4: Typical flaw indicattions

In pulse-echo technique we are looking for 2. ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE:

means to measure times in the
microseconds range. So we use a CRT to It is the product of the density and the
measure the time of travel of the pulse. phase velocity of a material. The degree of
This is also known as the “Time of flight) mismatch between two materials will
(TOF). We synchronize the electron beam determine the amount of pressure
travel in the CRT with the US pulse travel transferred from one material to the when
in the specimen. Figure 3 shows a in contact.
schematic block diagram of US pulse echo
equipment. Modern equipment are
different, however, for training we still use
CRT to explain the UT fundamentals.

Some typical flaw indications are shown in

Figure 4. What one should notice is an
echo from the discontinuity should be
received by the probe. Otherwise we
cannot draw any conclusion. So planar
defects like fatigue crack, hot tear,
laminations etc. that reflect the US waves
nicely back to the probe can be detected
Fig 5: Reflection and transmission
easily by UT. Shrinks, pipes etc. are poor
reflectors and hence detection is more
difficult.
3. THROUGH TRANSMISSION
TECHNIQUE

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Fig 6: Through transmission technique
In through transmission technique US
energy is transmitted through the zone of
interest. The changes in the transmitted
energy are taken as a measure of the
quality of the zone of interest. Figure 6
shows the schematic of the method. This
technique is employed in the resistance
welding of plates and sheets. One uses a
continuous train of US waves unlike a
pulse in the pulse- technique.
OBLIQUE INCIDENCE
Fig 7: Mode conversions
Mode conversion takes place as shown in
figure 7 when a sound beam strikes an
interface between two media at an angle
other than 90o. The angular relationships
between the various modes can be
determined by Snell’s law given below.
Sin α L1 Velocity L1
=
Sin γ t 2 Velocity t2
where subscript
L= longitudinal, t=Transverse,
1= medium 1 and 2 =medium 2.
We generate longitudinal waves in the
probe but scan the component using
shear waves generated through mode
conversion. By clever manipulation we
totally eliminate the presence of
longitudinal waves in the component. This
law is used extensively in UT for testing
and probe construction. One should
remember while Snell’s law indicates
angular relationships between various
modes, it does not tell us about the
pressure distribution amongst these
modes.
PRESSURE
Attenuation
The gradual loss of intensity of US waves
travelling through a specimen is termed as
Attenuation. Grain size distribution, micro
inclusions and other scatterers influence
attenuation. If the scatterer is smaller than
the wavelength then the scatterer is
practically of no consequence. By
employing a lower frequency or a higher
wavelength one may reduce the scattering
problem. However, lowering the frequency
will decrease the sensitivity to detect
discontinuities and will also reduce lateral
resolution.
SENSITIVITY
It is ability to detect the smallest flaw. It is
influence by the wavelength or the probe
frequency employed in UT. Higher the
frequency higher the sensivity of the UT
method. The smallest size of the flaw one
can detect is half of the wavelength used.
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This is for spherical type of flaws. In the
case of crack like discontinuities the crack
thickness can be as low as one tenth of
the wavelength or even smaller.

RESOLUTION

Resolution is the ability to separate two

signals coming from two defects lying
close to each other. Both axial and lateral
resolutions are relevant in UT. 6 dB
difference may be used to differentiate two Fig 8: Immersion Technique
closely lying signal. Axial resolution may
PROBE TYPES
be altered by changing the damping of the
crustal and the pulse voltage applied to The following types of probes are used in
the crystal. Lateral resolution is UT.
manipulated by changing the beam spread
and beam focussing. 1. Normal Probe

IMMERSION TECHNIQUE 2. Angle Probe

In this technique water is used as the 3. T/R Probe

couplant. The part to be tested in
4. Immersion Probe
immersed in a water tank during testing. In
immersion technique it is possible to use 5. Squirters
different search units sizes and shapes.
The search units are usually focussed 6. Bubblers
probes. The water path and the focussing
7. EMAT
distance inside the steel specimen are of
major concerns in this method. One tends 8. Laser induced US waves
to use scanners in immersion technique.
The principle one employs in immersion 9. Air coupling Probe
testing and in any time delay technique in
Each type of probe is used depending on
general, is that the second reflection from
the application. The most commonly used
the water/ specimen interface should
probes are the normal, angle and
come after the first reflection from the
immersion probes.
backwall of the test specimen. This will
ensure easier analysis of the signal CALIBRATION/REFERENCE
patterns. Please see figure 8 for a general
BLOCKS
arrangement used in immersion testing.
Calibration blocks are used to calibrate the
time and the gain of the UT equipment.
Two of the commonly used calibration
blocks are shown in Figure 9.

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Fig 9: V1, V2 reference blocks
Reference blocks are made with a wide
variety of reflectors such as notches, flat
bottom holes (FBH) and side drilled holes
(SDH).
FLAW SIZE DETERMINATION
Fracture control and fracture mechanics
have placed a great emphasis on the flaw
size determination. UT is of great help to
determine the flaw size.
One employs three methods to assess the
flaw size:
1. 6 dB drop method: This is used
when the flaw size is bigger than
the probe diameter.
2. Distance- Gain-Size diagrams
(DGS), Distance-Amplitude-
Correction Curve (DAC), Flat
Bottom Holes (FBH) or Side drilled
Holes (SDH): This is used when
the flaw size is smallerr than the
probe diameter.
3. Time of Flight: In this method one
employs the time of flight to
calculate the flaw size instead of
the gain used.
SCANNING METHODS
The information obtained in UT can be
displayed by three methods:
1. Meter
2. Strip Chart
3. Cathode ray tube (CRT)
Cathode ray tube (CRT) is usually
employed in UT. The CRT has two sets of
plates, one pair – X-Pair and the other- Y-
Pair. Two electrical signals can be fed to
these two pairs of plates. The type of
scanning is determined by the electrical
signals we choose to feed into CRT.
A-Scan:
X-Pair- Time of flight of the US pulse.
Y-Pair- Amplification of the US signal,
Gain.
B-Scan:
X-Pair- Probe location on the component
in one (say x) direction.
Y-Pair- Time of flight of the US pulse.
So you find that the B-Scan has no
information on the gain employed. So this
is useful in Time of Flight Diffraction
(TOFD), a type of UT which utilizes the
diffraction effects of US waves. One may
also call B-scan as parallel stacking of A-
Scan signals.
C-Scan:
X-Pair- Probe location on the component
in x- direction.
Y-Pair- Probe location on the component
in y- direction.
In the C-Scan the test data like time of
flight, gain or phase are displayed as the
pixel intensity or depth.
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TESTING OF CASTINGS WELD TESTING

Plain carbon steel or alloy steel castings

weighing up to 50 tons are cast in India for
many industries including for cement and
sugar mills. Heat treatment is an essential
feature of these castings. Adequacy of the
heat treatment can be in many situations
monitored by UT. Ultimately the toughness
of the castings is what the engineer
focussing on. UT would reveal many
factors like inclusions, hot-tears, blow
holes, porosity, cracks, hydrogen blisters,
hydrogen induced cracking etc. that affect
Fig 10: Weld Testing
toughness. We should not forget that
some critical information on embrittlement
including hydrogen or tramp element
induced embrittlement, segregation or Welds are tested using angle probes as
presence of harmful phases like sigma or shown in Figure 10.
Chi phase cannot be obtained by
By its very nature weld cannot be perfect.
conventional UT on the shop floor.
Welds have defects. Cracks or nicks,
Minimum section thickness of the residual stresses and variations in
castings, surface roughness, the microstructure constitute the major issues
orientation of the discontinuities and of concern. Many of the weld defects can
microstructure are some of the factors that be detected by UT and it is the main test
limit the use of UT in the casting industry. method in many situations to accept
welds. Hydrogen continues to be a major
Curved surfaces such as the bore of an problem in welds. In its atomic state it can
engine cylinder block would not permit cause embrittlement or coalesce to form
adequate or easy coupling of the probe blisters. However, in the molecular form
and so precautions should be taken. coupled with residual stresses can cause
delayed cracking. UT is an invaluable tool
Cast iron castings pose a special problem
to detect HIC (hydrogen induced cracks).
due to the presence of free graphite that
damps the US waves. Grades higher than Mostly angle probes are employed. Once
17 or Spheroidal graphite cast irons may a flaw is detected during scanning, the
be tested with UT. UT is more useful to beam path from the flaw detector and the
assess the structure of cast iron castings physical distance measured between the
than for flaw detection. probe and the weld centre line are used to
obtain information on the location, size
and the nature of flaw. A UT operator has
to undergo good practical training to do
weld testing reliably.

Codes like AWS and ASME are used

extensively in the industries to carry out
UT.
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The main principle is that the UT beam programs are necessary if the reliability
should be very nearly at 90o to the flaw to and usefulness of this method are to be
obtain good reflection. So in the case of further improved in our country.
thick plates one may virtually slice the
plates into three or more zones and use
different probes for different zones. This
is practised in Automated Ultrasonic
Testing (AUT). Just for one type of defect
like Lack of side wall fusion (LOF) in thick
welds, we may use time of flight diffraction
technique which is a slight variation of UT.
In TOFD we use the diffracted beam and
not the reflected beam.

ADVANCES IN UT

Major advances have taken place in UT.

Most of these are propelled by
improvements in signal and image
analysis techniques. Phased array
ultrasonic testing (PAUT), Guided wave
testing and Time-of-flight diffraction
technique are the important modern UT
methods. Investments in equipment and
manpower training are huge. In India there
is a general belief amongst the
technologists that more recent the
technique the better it is. Remember the
days when acoustic emission technique
was introduced in early 70’s and when all
the Indian NDT personnel rushed to
embrace this technique as a cure all.
However, at least one major advanced
country has reservations about these
modern UT techniques. They feel that
conventional UT can do the job
adequately and it is mostly the hype that is
surrounding these modern techniques.
Obviously truth should be lying
somewhere between the two extreme
views.

GENERAL COMMENT

For a successful application of UT in a

jobbing environment, time and effort are
needed. Reasonable remuneration for UT
operators and tightening the certification
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