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Back in the late 90s, in the process of reading for my MA dissertation, I put together
a collection of hundreds of sentence stems that I felt could help me with my
academic writing later on. And they did. Immensely. After the course was over, I
stacked my sentences away, but kept wondering if I could ever put them to good use
and perhaps help other DELTA / Trinity / MA / PhD students who know exactly what
they want to say, but might have trouble finding the best way to say it.
the original compilation, which ran for almost 10 pages. This list is organized
around keywords (rather than functions / discourse categories) so I can explore each
word’s ecosystem better, highlight common collocations and so on.
Argue
a. Along similar lines, [X] argues that ___.
b. There seems to be no compelling reason to argue that ___.
c. As a rebuttal to this point, it might be (convincingly) argued that ___.
d. There are [three] main arguments that can be advanced to support ___.
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Claim
a. In this [paper], I put forward the claim that ___.
b. [X] develops the claim that ___.
c. There is ample / growing support for the claim that ___.
d. [X]‘s findings lend support to the claim that ___.
e. Taking a middle-ground position, [X] claims that ___.
Data
a. The data gathered in the [pilot study] suggests / suggest that ___.
b. The data appears / appear to suggest that ___.
c. The data yielded by this [study] provides strong / convincing evidence that ___.
(yielded = generated)
d. A closer look at the data indicates that ___.
e. The data generated by [X] is / are reported in [table 1].
f. The aim of this [section] is to generalize beyond the data and ___.
In modern usage, data can also be treated as a mass / uncountable noun, like
information. Before you submit your work, check whether the institution you’re
writing for / on behalf of prefers data + plural verb.
Debate
a. [X] has fostered debate on ___. (fostered = encouraged)
b. There has been an inconclusive debate about whether ___.
c. The question of whether ___ has caused much debate in [our profession] [over
the years].
d. (Much of) the current debate revolves around ___.
Discussion
a. In this section / chapter, the discussion will point to ___.
b. The foregoing discussion implies that ___. (foregoing = that came before)
c. For the sake of discussion, I would like to argue that ___.
d. In this study, the question under discussion is ___.
e. In this paper, the discussion centers on ___.
f. [X] lies at the heart of the discussion on ___.
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b. On the basis of the evidence currently available, it seems fair to suggest that ___.
c. There is overwhelming evidence corroborating the notion that ___.
(corroborating = confirming)
d. Further evidence supporting / against [X] may lie in the findings of [Y], who ___.
e. These results provide confirmatory evidence that ___.
Ground
a. I will now summarize the ground covered in this [chapter] by ___.
b. On logical grounds, there is no compelling reason to argue that ___.
c. [X] takes a middle-ground position on [Y] and argues that ___.
d. On these grounds, we can argue that ___.
e. [X]‘s views are grounded on the assumption that ___.
Issue
a. This study is an attempt to address the issue of ___.
b.In the present study, the issue under scrutiny is ___.
c. The issue of whether ___ is clouded by the fact that ___. (clouded = made less
clear)
d. To portray the issue in [X]‘s terms, ___.
e. Given the centrality of this issue to [my claim], I will now ___.
f. This [chapter] is concerned with the issue of [how/whether/what] ___.
Literature
a. [X] is prominent in the literature on [Y].
b. There is a rapidly growing literature on [X], which indicates that ___.
c. The literature shows no consensus on [X], which means that ___.
d. The (current) literature on [X] abounds with examples of ___.
Premise
a. The main theoretical premise behind [X] is that ___.
b. [X] and [Y] share an important premise: ___.
c. [X] is premised on the assumption that ___.
d. The basic premises of [X]‘s theory / argument are ___.
e. The arguments against [X]‘s premise rest on [four] assumptions: ___.
Research
a.This study draws on research conducted by ___.
b. Although there has been relatively little research on / into [X], ___.
c. In the last [X] years, [educational] research has provided ample support for the
assertion that ___.
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How to improve your
academic writing
This publication will explain the main characteristics of academic writing and
provide several examples of good practice.
When you write an assignment or essay, you must use an academic style of writing. This is similar to your own
natural style of writing but has several characteristics which set it apart from more informal types of writing.
One of the biggest misconceptions about academic writing is that it uses complex language. This is incorrect,
academic writing should be as concise, simple and as clear as possible.
You will not be expected to write wonderfully written academic arguments straight away. As you progress in your
course, you will start to read more textbooks and journal articles. You will also receive feedback on your writing from
tutors. Using this feedback and reading more in your subject area will gradually develop your academic writing.
One of the best ways of developing your academic writing is to read textbooks and journal articles in your area of
study. Read articles for style as well as content. You could set yourself the task of reading at least one relevant
journal article each week.
When reading relevant journals or textbooks try to be aware of the language used and how the author makes use of
sentences and paragraphs. The best place to find relevant and appropriate material is the Library Catalogue and
NORA.
Academic writing is formal in style, not chatty, so do not write as you would on Facebook or with a text message.
Do not use slang expressions and always write words out in full.
Because research and theories are being developed and updated all the time, writers tend to use cautious or
tentative language. The language used in academic writing should reflect the amount of strength of evidence to
support a topic or claim. This is sometimes called hedging. Academic language is therefore usually cautious in
nature.
July 2014 This leaflet is available in other formats on request.
Language that is not cautious
Jennings’ (2010) research shows that smoking tobacco causes lung cancer.
Smith’s (2011) evidence says that greenhouse gases have an effect on the climate.
Cautious language
Jennings’ (2010) research would appear to show that smoking tobacco may cause lung cancer.
Smith’s (2011) evidence suggests that greenhouse gases may have an effect on the climate.
Correct use of punctuation is another characteristic of academic writing. Incorrect use of grammar can undermine
your assignment or dissertation so it is a good idea to ensure you have an understanding of basic grammar. Knowing
how to use correct grammar is a valuable skill for life.
Try to learn and understand the correct use of full stops, commas, colons and semi colons, hyphens and
apostrophes. Some of the most common punctuation and grammar mistakes students make include:
There are many books available in the University Library on punctuation and grammar. There is also a good resource
called Improving your Academic Writing (University of Essex 2012).
You can also use the Grammar Beagle (Learnhigher 2012) which can help you overcome the most common
grammar and punctuation mistakes.
A well structured piece of writing is important for several reasons. It helps you present your arguments in a logical
way and can provide a framework for presenting your findings. The correct use of paragraphs and sentences are vital
for a well structured piece of writing. The use of paragraphs and sentences is covered in more details in the Essay
Writing helpguide.
Subjective
The residue from the experiment was a beautiful red colour.
Brown’s contribution to the field of quantum physics is extremely important because...
Objective
The residue from the experiment was red in colour.
Brown made a significant contribution to the field of quantum physics because…
Most academic writing uses the third person, in other words the writer does not use ‘I’. This helps to ensure the
writing stays objective. If you are writing a personal reflection or a reflective report, then you may be required to write
in the first person but check with your tutor first.
Examples
This essay will discuss the effect of… The researcher found that the results seemed to indicate…
It could be argued that... The results appeared to show that…
July 2014 This leaflet is available in other formats on request.
Precise and concise language
Academic writing is precise and not vague. Do not be tempted to add extra ‘big’ words to your assignment to make it
appear more academic. Your writing should be as concise as possible. Do not try and use extra words just to
increase your word count!
Precise Concise
The earthquake measured 6.4 on the Richter scale. Because wet weather can contribute towards erosion in
400ml of methanol was added to the solution. metals…
Useful Phrases
In academic writing, you will need to compare, contrast and explain different ideas and concepts. The phrases below
are examples you can use to compare, contrast, introduce and report results or information. You will encounter
these, or similar phrases, as you begin to read more journal articles and textbooks.
There is an excellent resource at the Academic Phrasebank (Manchester University, 2012). This resource has
many examples of academic phrases and language you can use in your own writing.
Why not build your own phrasebook from useful phrases you encounter in your own reading?
Russell (2011) argued that... McGuirk (2009) estimated... Roll (2009) stated that...
DeMille (1999) concluded that... Evans (2006) believed that... King (2007) suggested that...
A key characteristic of academic writing is referencing any sources that you use. Referencing usually involves
creating an in-text citation and a reference list.
An in-text citation is how you refer to, or cite, an author in your own writing. A reference list goes at the end of your
assignment and is a complete list of all the resources you have referred to in your writing. The University uses
several different referencing styles, we recommend you consult your tutor to clarify which style you should use.
A bibliography contains everything that is in your reference list but also any resources you may have read but have
not referred to directly in your writing. For this reason, your bibliography is always longer than your reference list.
The following are generic marking criteria for different Faculties within Northumbria University. You might find them
helpful when thinking about what makes a good piece of academic writing. These are taken from Guidelines for
Good Assessment Practice at Northumbria University (Northumbria University, 2011).
Geography and Environmental Management - an exceptional answer
Excellent in every respect, showing extensive knowledge and understanding, and an outstanding ability to
analyse, synthesise and evaluate. Evidence of very extensive, if not exhaustive reading and study beyond the
course content. Exemplars are well chosen and specified in considerable detail. An accurate answer presented in
a very well organised manner, with excellent presentation. A well balanced answer, very sharply focused on the
question and stylishly written. Exhibits a high level of insight, and a strong element of originality.
Newcastle Business School, Undergraduate Year 1, First (70 - 100)
Exceptional comprehension of knowledge demonstrated. Sophisticated skill shown in formation of relevant
argument or analytical reasoning. Thorough knowledge and understanding demonstrated. Fluent and focused.
Shows ability to contextualise knowledge and sustain a relevant argument or logical reasoning.
Newcastle Business School, Undergraduate Year 3, First (70 - 100)
Exceptional scholarship for subject. Outstanding ability to apply, in the right measure, the skills necessary to
achieve highly sophisticated and fluent challenges to received wisdom.
Knowledge and understanding is comprehensive both as to breadth and depth. A mature ability to critically
appreciate concepts and their inter-relationship is demonstrated. Clear evidence of independent thought.
Presentation of work is fluent, focused and accurate.
Arts and Social Sciences, Psychology, Undergraduate Year 1, First (70 - 100)
Covers all aspects of the question. Evidence of independent reading (mainly books, but perhaps some journal
articles). All the material is accurate and directly relevant. All points expressed clearly and succinctly. Excellent
organisation of the material. Shows good appreciation of the strengths and weaknesses of theories,
methodologies and empirical evidence.
University of Essex (2012) How to improve your academic writing. Available at: http://www.essex.ac.uk/
myskills/How_to_improve_your_academic_writing.pdf (Accessed: 1 May 2013).
1. INTRODUCTION
• This essay will deal with the following aspects of the question...
• The aim of this essay is ......
_______________________________________
2. GIVING AN OVERVIEW OF THE ESSAY CONTENT
• In order to link.... with ...., the background to ... will be briefly outlined.
• The first part of the analysis will examine....
• The second part of this analysis will consider...
• The final level of the analysis consists of...
__________________________________________
3. MAKING A POINT
___________________________________________
4. EMPHASIS MARKERS show clearly what you think is most important but
allow you to avoid personal language such as 'I think'
Nouns: focus, element, concept, theory, aspect, part, idea, point, argument,
discussion, debate
Examples:
6. HEDGING
The group of 11 words called modals can help you avoid over-generalisation
as they express degrees of certainty and possibility, thereby avoiding making
statements which claim too much or suggest you know everything about a
subject.
The 11 modals are:
CAN MAY COULD MIGHT WILL
WOULD SHALL SHOULD, OUGHT TO MUST NEEDN'T
By far the most useful modal verbs are CAN, MAY, COULD and MIGHT. If
you say something IS true you may well be guilty of over-generalisation. If
you say something MAY or MIGHT be true you avoid this problem.
7. CITING RESEARCH
8. MAKING HYPOTHESES
• If, then
• Assuming that
___________________________________________
9. STATING CONDITIONS
•Given that
•Provided that
•Granted that
•If it is the case that & then,
___________________________________________
• For example/instance
• In this situation/case
• To illustrate
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
13. RE-PHRASING
• In other words
• To put it another way
• That is to say
___________________________________________
Nouns: synthesis, survey, topic, study, review, history, concept, area, theme,
overview, analysis, system
Examples:
___________________________________________
15. REPEATING
In general, DON'T! Try to organise your writing so that you stick to one point
at a time. But if you must, you can use phrases such as:
• As noted before/above
___________________________________________
16. SUMMING UP
___________________________________________
17. CONCLUSION
• To conclude/In conclusion,
USEFUL PHRASES
Useful phrases when writing a dissertation abstract
This section sets out some useful phrases that you can use and build on when writing your undergraduate or master's level
dissertation abstract. As the section, How to structure your dissertation abstract explains, the abstract has a number of
components, typically including: (a) study background and significance; (b) components of your research strategy; (c)
findings; and (d) conclusions. The phrases below build on these four components.
COMPONENT #1
Build the background to the study
Introductory sentences
aims to illuminate?
examines the role of...
explores why...
investigates the effects of...
assesses the impact of...on...
developed and tested the idea that...
I...
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is motivated by two research questions: (1) [Insert research question one]? (2) [Insert research question two]? To
examine these questions, the study?
"[Insert a research question]?" is a fundamental question in [the name of your area of interest]. We suggest [argue] that
a new generation of research in this area needs to address the extended question: [Insert your research question]?
offers two hypotheses: (1) [insert research hypothesis one]; and (2) [insert research hypothesis two].
It was
hypothesized that [insert variable] is more negatively [positively] related to [insert variable] than [insert variable].
has three goals: (1) [insert goal one], (2) [insert goal two], and (3) [insert goal three].
Literature component
indicates that...
offers a descriptive account of...
has shown that...
Literature on [insert area of the literature] has focused almost exclusively on...
Synthesizing [e.g., name of theories], this research built and tested a theoretical model linking...
COMPONENT #2
Components of research strategy
We conducted...
We employed...
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Using...
a sample of [X number of people, firms, data, objects, e.g., doctors, banks, songs], we collected data from three
sources [e.g., X, Y and Z].
To illustrate these ideas, [insert company name or type] was used as a case study to show how...
We tested these hypotheses using [e.g., student test score] data to measure [e.g., teacher performance].
COMPONENT #3
Major findings
illustrate how...
show that the impact of [insert text] on [insert text] is more complex than previously thought/assumed.
illustrate the antecedents and consequences of [insert text] and [insert text] in...
suggest that the effect of [variable X] on [variable Y] was moderated over time when...
A predicted, the...
COMPONENT #4
Conclusion
The results, implications for managers, and future research are discussed.
The findings...
We conclude that...
If you would like us to add more of these kinds of phrases, please leave us feedback.
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1
Academic Writing
1 What
hat is it - what is it not?
1.1 Style
Generally:
Avoid contractions.
Instead of
So try As a result / Therefore, / Consequently,
Instead of
And try In addition, / Furthermore,
Instead of
But try However,
(For more suggestions, see the section on Transitions that follows later)
Try to avoid:
I believe NATO'S strategy was poorly designed and carelessly implemented.
You can see NATO'S strategy was poorly designed and carelessly implemented.
The phrases I believe /We argue / You can see can be found in
academic writing but they are not formal enough for many
departments. If you need to be more formal, you have to learn how
to use impersonal structures
or
It is argued that
it has been asserted that
it will be shown that
it can be seen that
_________________________________________________________________
6. People were surprised at the results of the election and some were
very upset.
The results of the election were surprising.
2. The government is set to backtrack on key areas of the anti-terror laws, the shadow
home secretary claims.
3. The detainee was head of the regime's intelligence services before becoming a
presidential adviser.
In creative writing... (e.g. poetry / prose) you could use the following to great effect (however, in academic writing you
would generally be well advised to avoid)
metaphors - comparisons between dissimilar entities expressed as statements of fact, typically using some form of to be,
e.g. he is a shark/ she's a sausage/ he's putting down roots.
similes - comparisons between dissimilar entities using words such as like and as, e.g. it was as if the heavens opened
hyperbole - wild exaggeration, e.g. the old cliché I could eat a horse
litotes - a form of understatement that implies something by stating that it is not its opposite, e.g. saying not bad instead
of saying good.
anthropomorphism - giving animals/inanimate objectsby
Produced human qualities, emotions
The University of Hull or intent, e.g. that step tripped me/ the
chair welcomed me/ I left the computer to its own devices.
7
4 Signposting
Holding to this kind of structure will also help you avoid both
repetition (sending you over your word count) and not putting in
sufficient shoehorning language (which would pull you under
your word count). If, after applying the IDEAL format, you're still
significantly under or over your word count then there's a very
high probability that you're pitching your assignment at the
wrong level (either too low or too high respectively)… especially
if the second section on sign posting (which’ll help improve the
readability of your essay) also leaves you wide of the mark.
REMEMBER
All academic writing is written to be read by someone else
HOWEVER,
Some of us become so involved with the hassle of getting things
down that we do not think of the person we’re writing for.
Preoccupied with off-loading our information and ideas we lose
sight of our reader.
So, remember:
don’t fall into the trap of thinking these links are just a waste of
space/ "padding" or "fluff" - trying to put your thoughts down
using a minimum number of words: this will not help your reader.
Instead, connect your work with words and phrases which tell
the reader
CAUSE AND EFFECT - this is where you show the effects of something
accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, otherwise,
therefore, thus; so, it can be seen that; it is evident that;
because of this; this suggests that; it follows that;
COMPARISON
similarly, likewise
CONNECTIONS IN TIME
after a short time, afterwards, as long as, as soon as, at last, at
length, at that time, at the same time, before, earlier, of late,
immediately, in the meantime, lastly, lately, later, meanwhile,
presently, shortly, since, soon, temporarily, thereafter, until,
when, while.
SUMMING UP OR CONCLUDING
in brief, in conclusion, in short, on the whole, to conclude, to
summarise, to sum up, all in all, on the whole, on balance, it could
be claimed, as a consequence of this; in the final analysis
Example one
Before
Harrison's use of the word public asserts his belief that poetry
should be available for all. Poetry is not something that readily
embraces such a categorisation. Geoffrey Grigson has
suggested that poetry is essentially a 'private art'. It is 'the
necessary secret possession of select individuals. It isn't choral,
it isn't communal […] it is resistant to vulgarisation.' Alan Bold,
has argued that 'there is nothing intrinsically private about
poetry'. C. K. Stead has said: 'Poetry is neither 'public' as in the
moralist tradition, nor 'private' as in the aesthete's'.
After
It is arguable that Harrison's use of the word public asserts his
belief that poetry should be available for all. For some critics,
however, poetry is not something that readily embraces such a
categorisation. Geoffrey Grigson, for example, has suggested
that poetry is essentially a 'private art'. For him it is 'the
necessary secret possession of select individuals. It isn't choral,
it isn't communal [ consequently ] it is resistant to
vulgarisation.' Alan Bold, on the other hand, has argued
succinctly that 'there is nothing intrinsically private about
poetry' whereas for C. K. Stead: 'Poetry is neither 'public' as in
the moralist tradition, nor 'private' as in the aesthete's'.
But television has many good points. People learn more from it,
because it is a visual medium. Families can share watching a
good film and talk about it. It can pass on news very quickly. It
has interesting documentaries. It is good entertainment for
people who cannot afford to go out.
After
On the one hand, television has been blamed by researchers for
many social problems. The first is that because many families
have the television on all the time, they do not communicate.
Secondly, they do not eat together. Another criticism is that
children watch unsuitable videos and this may cause
psychological disturbance. This in turn may lead to violent and
aggressive behaviour.
The points made in both pieces are the same but the second
piece makes the links between the ideas stand out more clearly.
loose:
A intro sentence
A followed by examples and/or evidence.
mixed:
p build up to the central topic
p introduce the central topic
p this may be particularly useful if the central topic of the paragraph is
sufficiently complex that preliminary explanation is required
p followed by supporting information
but use these sparingly as they do not provide the reader with good
signposting...
certainly, don't start or end a subsection with this type of paragraph.
periodic:
d sometimes development is needed
d these set the scene for the main topic sentence
d so, when the topic sentence finally comes, and ends the paragraph...
d the main topic sentence is a logical conclusion and therefore easy to
remember.
cyclic:
8 a cyclic paragraph is a paragraph that starts and finishes with the main
topic.
8 within the paragraph the topic is explored/ evidence is provided
8 in fact, the IDEAL paragraph format is an example
8 by starting and finishing with the main topic, a cyclic paragraph provides
both a preview and a review of the topic.
What is it -
14 Think about how
to write as well as
what is it
what to write
conventions not?
Avoid
2
passive repetition
choice of voice
words:
3
How to convey
Academic Help your reader
by signposting
style tricks: your arguments
emotion while
using the
Writing
Tips
In creative
passive voice Avoid cliches -er-
writing...
like the plague
Saying where 4
you are
Signposting Read other people's stuff
Saying where you're
going - linking 7 deadly sins and nick the non-contentsy-
sentences & linky-bits you like (that
paragraphs 5
doesn't count as plagiarism)
other
types of
paragraph
circumlocut ion t aut ology gobbledygook jargon - don't euphemi sm cliches - overloading
- not expressing - using two - if you look like use it - clarity is because - overly long
yourself directly words that you're trying to unnecessarily essential they're sentences/
e.g. repeat the impress your and always tired; I too much
using meaning reader with define, wouldn't detail/ non
due to the fact that when because will do; convoluted otherwise touch sequitur
in the majority of cases - usually ; arguments you you'll be back them (things that
or I beg to differ - I disagree will instead in with a don't follow
alienate/ gobbledygook ten foot on logically)
e.g. confuse him/her land barge
actual fact, instead; s/he pole
added bonus, may even get
arid desert, the impression
innocent victims, and George W. Bush's that you don't
"As long as necessary but not a day longer.” know what
It may be the intention to add emphasis but use of you're talking How to evaluate
tautologies detract instead about yo ur own work
Results can be generalised, i.e. they would hold true if The unique is considered worth of study –
the research was repeated. results may be impossible to repeat exactly.
Numbers and standardised measurements make it Creative interpretation is highly valued.
easier to generalise results.
Objective views are formed, based on the evidence and Subjective responses, feelings, intuition and
facts rather than personal opinion creativity are regarded as valuable resources.
The role of the scientist is minimised and rarely The role of the researcher is made explicit – it is
discussed considered useful to discuss how the
researcher’s presence influenced the results.
Individual differences are not important – general Individual instances, and opportunities for
findings are valued detailed interpretation, are valued.
Personal experiences are regarded as individual and Personal experience is highly valued as giving
irrelevant: they are not referred to insight and a deeper understanding
The language used is clinical, neutral, impersonal and The language allows the personality and
dispassionate, even if the researcher feels feelings of the writer to shine through
passionately about the subject.
Which subjects do you think are at this end of Which subjects do you think Which subjects do you think are at this
the spectrum? are in the middle? end of the spectrum?
The lists below offer general phrases that can be used in many kinds of research papers. For
mastering the terminology and phraseology specific to a field, regular reading of the relevant
literature is necessary.
Note: The numbering below follows the numbering of the parts in the Guidelines for writing
a paper.
3. Abstract
As the Abstract is a short version of the paper, some of the phrases used in the other parts
of the paper are also used in the abstract and are not mentioned here. You can find them
below under each section of the paper. Some hints on how to start the Abstract follow:
Introductory sentences
The paper/article
discusses/deals with/analyses/considers/explains/describes/establishes/introduces …..
develops/presents/provides/studies/represents/features/contains/concentrates on …..
covers/suggests/proposes/shows …..
demonstrates the feasibility of …..
opens up a new field/issue
gives/aims to give a comprehensive account of …..
offers a solution to …..
serves as an introduction to …..
The main objective/goal/purpose of the paper/article is …..
Common mistakes:
Wrong: Right:
In this paper there/it is presented a novel This paper presents a novel method of …..
method of ….. In this paper, a novel method of ….. is
presented
4. Sections of the paper
4.1. Introduction
In most cases, the Introduction section is treated as a whole and is not divided into
subsections. The subheadings below should only help you organize the information.
4.1.4. Framework of the paper (usually the last part of the Introduction)
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows/into ….. sections:
Section II describes/outlines ….., Section III discusses/analyses ….. . (Experimental results)
are presented in Section IV; Section V concludes the paper.
In Section II, ….. will be discussed. Section III is devoted to ….. . Section IV presents (the
experimental results). The conclusion is reported in Section V.
The proposed (design) is discussed in Section II (The implementation of the proposed
design) is presented in Section III. Section IV shows (the experimental results of
…..). Finally, Section V concludes with a summary.
In Section II we explain ….. . In Section III we introduce our ….. . The measurements are
presented in Section IV. Section V summarizes the results of this work and draws
conclusions.
4.2.2. Results
Some of the phrases listed under Materials and Methods may also be suitable for the
Results section, e.g. summarizing what was done, referring to diagrams, graphs, etc.
It has been found that …..
The results show that …..
The results thus obtained are compatible with …..
The overall measurement results are summarized in Table II.
As mentioned earlier/above, …..
The previous sections have shown that …..
This method is based on …..
The method was tested on …..
The method is an effective way to improve …..
The analysis and simulation indicate that …..
The …. analysis plays a crucial role in …..
As may be seen below, …..
We have introduced a new approach to …..
A similar approach is used for …..
This approach may fail if/due to …..
One of the big advantages of (this approach/method) .…. is that …..
To verify this method, ….. is compared with …..
The only disadvantage/drawback of such ….. is …..
There is no evident relationship between ….. and …..
….. are in good agreement/correspond with …..
There is a good match between ….. and …..
To illustrate the result, a simulation of ….. was performed.
The simulation results match the calculations.
The differences in (temperature) result in significant differences in …..
The decrease/increase in ….. can be contributed to …..
To overcome/avoid this problem/difficulty, it is necessary to adopt a …..
One possible solution to this problem is to (use) ……
This solution requires …..
4.2.3. Discussion
For more phrases see also Introduction and Conclusion(s).
- Stating the main objective
In this paper we propose/examine/study …..
This paper proposes/has proposed …..
The purpose of the paper/study is to …..
The paper presents/has presented several solutions to …..
This paper is a modest contribution to the ongoing discussions about/on …..
It was the main purpose of the paper to draw attention to …..
The main concern of the paper was to …..
In our paper, the focus of attention was/is on …..
This study shows/has shown that …..
This experiment/technique/demonstrates that …..
- Specifying the objective
Particular attention is paid to …..
The author´s attention was focused/concentrated not only on ….. but also on …..
We have addressed not only ….. but also …..
We have also considered the consequences of …..
- Pointing out the originality of the solution
Our paper presents an innovative/a novel view of …..
The originality of our solution lies in the fact that …..
This is a novel solution to …..
Our results describe for the first time the …..
To our knowledge, this is the first study to deal with/examine/investigate …..
Only one other study, to our knowledge, has come up with …..
This paper presents a pilot study to find the answer to …..
Our observations that ….. are not new, but …..
- Interpreting the facts
The data obtained is/are broadly consistent with the major trends …..
These results agree/concur/are consistent/are in good agreement with other studies which
have shown that …..
In contrast to some reports in the literature, there were …..
An important implication of these findings is that …..
The finding was quite unexpected/surprising and suggests that …..
The most likely explanation of the negative result is …..
The findings have a number of possible limitations, namely …..
So far, the significance of this finding is not clear.
- Stating the limitations of the research
The main limitation of the experimental result is …..
One question still unanswered is whether …..
The analysis does not enable us to determine …..
These results are not conclusive.
- Suggesting possible applications (possible applications are commonly found in the
Conclusion(s) section; they may, however, be mentioned in this section, too. For useful
phrases see Conclusion(s).
4.2.4. Conclusion(s)
The Conclusion(s) section usually starts with
- Stating the objective
The objective presented in the Conclusion(s) section should agree with the objective stated
in the Introduction. For suitable phrases see Introduction and Discussion.
- Drawing conclusions
From the research that has been carried out/done/conducted/performed/undertaken, it is
possible to conclude that …..
Based on the results, it can be concluded that the research into ….. has been very successful.
From the outcome of our investigation it is possible to conclude that …..
The findings of our research are quite convincing, and thus the following conclusions can be
drawn: …..
Summing up the results, it can be concluded that …..
In conclusion, it is evident that this study has shown …..
This paper has clearly shown that …..
It has been demonstrated/shown/found that …..
The results/data obtained indicate/have indicated/suggest/show that …..
The existence of (these effects ) implies that …..
- Suggesting possible application(s)
The proposed method can be readily used in practice.
The technique/approach/result is applicable to …..
….. can be successfully used for a number of ….. applications.
The/our ….. has great potential for other applications such as …..
This research was concerned with …..; however, the results should be applicable also to …..
The findings suggest that this approach could also be useful for …..
The findings are of direct practical relevance.
- Suggesting further research
In our future research we intend to concentrate on …..
Future work will involve …..
On the basis of the promising findings presented in this paper, work on the remaining issues
is continuing and will be presented in future papers.
The next stage of our research will be (experimental confirmation of our theory).
Further study of the issue would be of interest.
Clearly, further research will be needed/required to prove/validate …..
Several other questions remain to be addressed/resolved.
More research into ….. is still necessary before obtaining a definitive answer to …..
Further study of the issue is still required.
Further research on/into ….. is desirable/necessary (to extend our knowledge of) …..
Continuing/continued research on/into ….. appears fully justified because …..
More tests/experiments/calculations will be needed to verify whether …..
5. Acknowledgement
- Thanking for assistance, acknowledging financial assistance
The authors would like to thank their colleagues/Dr X and Dr Y for
- many useful comments and discussions on …..
- their valuable insights and recommendations
- their technical assistance
- their contribution in conducting some of the experiments
for the research
The authors would like to acknowledge the valuable comments and suggestions of the
reviewers, which have improved the quality of this paper.
Fruitful discussions in the early stages of experiments with Professor X are gratefully
acknowledged.
The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance and support of …..
The authors appreciate the efforts and assistance of ….. regarding ….. .
The authors´ thanks are due to Dr X for kindly granting permission to include Fig. 9.
The authors´ thanks are also extended to Dr Y for his support and help in completing the
paper.
The author would like to extend his/her thanks to (name of institution) for its support in
implementing the project.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the generous financial support of (name of institution).
Financial support from the Czech Science Foundation, Grant No. ….., (project topic), is
gratefully acknowledged.
- Stating financial support
This research/work was supported by the European Regional Development Fund and
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic under Project No.
……………