MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Physics Department

Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences Department

Astronomy 8.282J­12.402J April 19, 2006

Quiz 2

Name Solutions (please print)

Last First

1. Work any 7 of the 9 problems ­ indicate clearly which 7 you want graded.
2. Spend 10 or 15 minutes reviewing the problems, and select 7.
3. Immediately after this you have two continuous hours to work the problems.
4. All problems are worth 14 points; everyone gets 2 points just for taking the exam.
5. Closed book exam; you may use two pages of notes, and a calculator.
6. Wherever possible, try to solve the problems using general analytic expressions.
Plug in numbers only as a last step.
7. If you have any questions, e­mail the Instructor.
8. Turn exam in during lecture, Friday, April 21.

Time Started: Time Stopped:

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 APPROXIMATE VALUES OF USEFUL CONSTANTS

Constant cgs units mks units

c (speed of light) 3 × 1010 cm/sec 3 × 108 m/sec

G (gravitation constant) 7 × 10−8 dyne­cm2 /g2 7 × 10−11 N­m2 /kg2
k (Boltzmann’s constant) 1.4 × 10−16 erg/K 1.4 × 10−23 J/K
h (Planck’s constant) 6.6 × 10−27 erg­sec 6.6 × 10−34 J­sec
mproton 1.6 × 10−24 g 1.6 × 10−27 kg
eV (electron Volt) 1.6 × 10−12 erg 1.6 × 10−19 J
M� (solar mass) 2 × 1033 g 2 × 1030 kg
L� (solar luminosity) 4 × 1033 erg/sec 4 × 1026 J/sec
R� (solar radius) 7 × 1010 cm 7 × 108 m
σ (Stefan­Boltzmann cons) 6 × 10−5 erg/cm2 ­sec­K4 6 × 10−8 J/m2 ­sec­K4
Å(Angstrom) 10−8 cm 10−10 m
km (kilometer) 105 cm 103 m
pc (parsec) 3 × 1018 cm 3 × 1016 m
kpc (kiloparsec) 3 × 1021 cm 3 × 1019 m
Mpc (megaparsec) 3 × 1024 cm 3 × 1022 m
year 3 × 107 sec 3 × 107 sec
day 86400 sec 86400 sec
AU 1.5 × 1013 cm 1.5 × 1011 m
1� (arc minute) 1/3400 rad 1/3400 rad
1�� (arc second) 1/200, 000 rad 1/200, 000 rad
Problem 1 (Short Answer Questions on Magnitudes)
a. A globular cluster has 106 stars each of apparent magnitude +8. What is the combined
apparent magnitude of the entire cluster?

+8 = −2.5 log(F/F0 )
F = 6.3 × 10−4 F0
Fcluster = 106 × 6.3 × 10−4 F0 = 630 F0
mcluster = −2.5 log(630) = −7

b. Find the distance modulus to the Andromeda galaxy (M31). Take the distance to
Andromeda to be 750 kpc.
� �
d
DM = 5 log = 5 log(75, 000) = 24.4
10 pc

c. An eclipsing binary consists of two stars of different radii and effective temperatures.
Star 1 has radius R1 and T1 , and Star 2 has R2 = 0.5R1 and T2 = 2T1 . Find the change in
bolometric magnitude of the binary, Δmbol , when the smaller star is behind the larger star.
(Consider only bolometric magnitudes so you don’t have to worry about color differences.)

F1&2 = 4πσ T14 R12 + T24 R22

� �

Feclipse = 4πσT14 R12

� �
F1&2
Δm = −2.5 log
Feclipse
T24 R22
� �
Δm = −2.5 log 1 + 4 2
T1 R1
� �
16
Δm = −2.5 log 1 + = −1.75
4
So, the binary is 1.75 magnitudes brighter out of eclipse than when star 2 is behind star 1.
Problem 2 (Binary System)
The orbit of the first accretion­powered millisecond X­ray pulsar was measured here at M.I.T.
using data from the Rossi X­Ray Timing Explorer Satellite. The Doppler delay curve for
the motion of the neutron star is given in the figure below. The amplitude of the sine curve
indicates the projected light travel time across the orbit of the neutron star around the center
of mass of the binary.

(a) Use the figure to estimate the value of ans sin(i) for this system, where i is the orbital
inclination angle. Express your answer in cm or m.
We can read off ans sin i from the graph = 0.063 �t­sec = 1.9 × 109 cm.

(b) Assume that the neutron star has a mass of Mns = 1.4 M� and that the orbital inclination
is i = 30◦ . The orbital period of the binary is Porb = 2 hours. Compute the mass of the
companion star, mc . Hint: in order to solve for mc you will have to make the approximation
that mc /Mns � 1 and, equivalently, Mns /mc � 1.

4π 2 GMtot G(Mns + Mc ) G(Mns + Mc ) G(Mns + Mc )

2
= 3
= 3
� 3 3
� 3
P a (ans + ac ) ans (1 + ac /ans ) ans (1 + Mns /Mc )3
We can now take Mns � Mc to find:
4π 2 GMc3 GMc3 sin3 i
� 3 2 =
P2 ans Mns (ans sin i)3 Mns
2

Plugging in numbers, we have:

4π 2 GMc3 213
=
72002 (1.9 × 109 )3 (1.4 M� )2
Solve for Mc to find
Mc = 0.085 M�
Problem 3 (Hertzsprung­Russell Diagrams)
The figures below show H–R diagrams for two globular clusters, NGC 1851 and NGC 5904.
The data were obtained with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and reported by Piotto et
al. (2002). For purposes of this problem you may consider the HST magnitudes F 439W and
F 555W to be the equivalent of the apparent B and V magnitudes.

a. Use these HR diagrams to find the ratio of the distances to the two clusters.
The best defined feature with which to compare magnitudes between the two HR dia­
grams is, perhaps, the horizontal branch. I estimate 16th and 15th magnitudes for NGC
1851 and NGC 5904, respectively.
d1851
Δ mag = 5 log �1
d5904
Thus, d1851 /d5904 � 1.58.
b. If we take the absolute visual magnitude of a star on the Horizontal Branch to be
V = +0.5, find the distance to either cluster.
The distance modulus for NGC 1851 is DM � 16 − 0.5 = 15.5. Hence the distance is:

distance = 10 × 1015.5/5 pc � 12, 600 pc

c. Identify as many phases of stellar evolution as you can on one of the globular cluster
diagrams. You may mark directly on the figure. Comment on any physical processes that
you know are occurring in the stars at these particular phases.
The phases and nuclear burning cycles we were looking for included:
• main sequence; hydrogen core burning

• giant branch; hydrogen shell burning

• horizontal branch; helium core burning

Others that could have been mentioned were asymptotic giant branch, main sequence turnoff,

and blue stragglers.

Problem 4 (Galaxy Features)

The image below is of the galaxy M101. Assume that this is a typical spiral galaxy seen
nearly face on.

NASAandESA STScI
-PRC06-
10a

a. Give a short discourse on this image, identifying as many generic features of the galaxy
as you can. You may write on the white space provided and draw arrows to the appropriate
places on the figure. Indicate approximate dimensions where appropriate. Comment on the
stellar populations in various locations and the corresponding metallicities. Roughly where
would the Sun be located if this were the Milky Way?
• Dimensions: 30­50 kpc in diameter; perhaps 1 kpc in thickness
• Pop I concentrated in the spiral arms; Z � 0.02;
Pop II concentrated in the bulge; low Z (� 0.001)
• Possible features to point out
spiral arms
dust lanes
galactic bulge
star forming regions
central black hole
globular clusters (hard to discern)
dark­matter halo
Problem 5 (Stellar Atmosphere Density Profile)
A star of radius, R, and mass, M , has an atmosphere that obeys a polytropic equation of
state:
P = Kρ5/3 ,
where P is the gas pressure, ρ is the gas density (mass per unit volume), and K is a constant
throughout the atmosphere. Assume that the atmosphere is sufficiently thin (compared to
R) that the gravitational acceleration can be taken to be a constant.
Use the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium to derive the pressure as a function of height
z above the surface of the planet. Take the pressure at the surface to be P0 . Sketch your
solution P (z).
Start with the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium:
dP
= −gρ
dz
where g is approximately constant through the atmosphere, and is given by GM/R2 . We
can use the polytropic equation of state to eliminate ρ from the equation of hydrostatic
equilibrium:
� �3/5
dP P
= −g
dz K
Separating variables, we find:
� �3/5
−3/5 1
P dP = −g dz
K

We then integrate the left­hand side from P0 to P and the right hand side from 0 to z to
find:
5 � 2/5 2/5
�
P − P0 = −gK −3/5 z
2
Solving for P (z) we have:
� �5/2 � �5/2
2/5 2 2 g
P (z) = P0 − gK −3/5 z = P0 1 − z
5 5 P02/5 K 3/5

The pressure therefore, goes to zero at a finite height zmax , where:

2/5 2/3
5P0 K 3/5 5Kρ0 5P0
zmax = = =
2g 2g 2gρ0
Problem 6 (Galaxy Rotation Curve)
It has been suggested that our Galaxy has a spherically symmetric dark­matter halo with a
density distribution, ρdark (r), given by:
� r �2
0
ρdark (r) = ρ0 ,
r
where ρ0 and r0 are constants, and r is the radial distance from the center of the galaxy. For
star orbits far out in the halo you can ignore the gravitational contribution of the ordinary
matter in the Galaxy.
a. Compute the rotation curve of the Galaxy (at large distances), i.e., find v(r) for circular
orbits.
GM (< r) v2
− =− (from F = ma)
r2 r
� r � �2
r0
M (< r) = ρ0 4πr2 dr = 4πρ0 r02 r
0 r
Note that, in general, M �= ρ×volume! You must integrate over ρ(r). From these expressions
we find: �
v(r) = 4πGρ0 r02 = constant

b. Find the Oort B� coefficient that would be expected at a radial distance r0 .

1 dω
�
[Recall: A = − 2 r0 dr 0 , and B = A − ω0 ]

First we find ω(r): �

v 4πGρ0 r02

ω(r) = =
r r
�
dω 4πGρ0 r02
=−
dr r2
� � √
dω 4πGρ0
=−
dr 0 r0
� �
1 dω �
A = − r0 = πGρ0
2 dr 0
From above, �
ω0 = 4πGρ0
Thus, � � �
B = A − ω0 = πGρ0 − 4πGρ0 = − πGρ0
Problem 7 (Dimensional Analysis)
The objective of this problem is to find a scaling law for how stellar luminosity depends on
the mass of a (main­sequence) star. Carry out a dimensional analysis of the equation for the
temperature gradient (for radiative diffusion):

dT 3κρL
=− ,
dr 64πσSB r2 T 3
where L, ρ, and T are the luminosity, density, and temperature at radial distance r, and κ
is the radiative opacity (units: cross sectional area per unit mass), and σSB is the Stefan­
Boltzmann constant. Take the radiative opacity, κ to be:
ρ
κ(ρ, T ) = κ0 ,
T 7/2
where κ0 is a constant.
Find an expression for L as a function of M and constants, only.
Helpful relation: A typical stellar interior temperature is given, also by dimensional analysis,
to be T � GM µ/(kR), where µ is the mean mass per gas particle.
A dimensional analysis of the above equation first yields:
T κρL
∼ c1 2 3
R R T
where c1 is a constant constructed from the constants in the original dT /dr equation. By
using the expression given for κ, we find:

T ρ2 L
∼ c2 2 13/2
R R T
where c2 = c1 κ0 . The expression for L is then:

L ∼ c−1
2 RT
15/2 −2
ρ ∼ 16c2−1 RT 15/2 M −2 R6

where we have approximated ρ ∼ M/(4R3 ). Next, we make use of the given relation among
T, M, and R from the ‘helpful relation’.

L ∼ c3 M 11/2 R−1/2

where c3 = 16c−1
2 (Gµ/k)
15/2
. This is as far as one can go with the information given in the
problem. If you happened to recall that R ∝ M for stars on the main sequence, then you
could reach the following proportionality:

L ∼ M5
Problem 8 (Helium Burning Star)
A pure He star with mass equal to 1 M� has a radius of 0.2 R� , a central density, ρc = 104
g cm−3 (or 107 kg m−3 ), and a central temperature of Tc = 1.32 × 108 K. It is in thermal
equilibrium, which means that the nuclear luminosity generated in the interior equals the
luminosity radiated from the surface. Consider all the He burning to take place in the central
10%, by mass, of the star, and no burning to occur outside this region. Further, assume that
the density and temperature throughout the nuclear burning region are constant at ρc and
Tc . The energy released per gram per second from He burning is given by the expression:

E(ρ, T ) � 4 × 1011 ρ2 T8−3 exp[−42.9/T8 ] ergs gm−1 sec−1 .

For all mks units (including ρ) simply take the leading coefficient to be 40 rather than
4 × 1011 .
a. Find the luminosity of this He star.
�
L= E(ρ, T )ρ4πr2 dr

However, there is no need to do an integral since you are told that T and ρ are constant
through the burning region. Thus,
�
L = E(ρ, T ) ρ4πr2 dr � E(ρ, T ) × 0.1 M�

Utilizing the expression for E given in the problem, we have:

L � 4 × 1011 ρ2 T8−3 exp[−42.9/T8 ] × 0.1 M� ergs sec−1 .

Or,

L � 4 × 1011 (104 )2 (1.32)−3 exp[−42.9/1.32] × 0.1 M� � 2.7 × 1037 ergs sec−1 .

Note that the definition of T8 was unfortunately not given in the problem; it actually means
T /108 K. No points were taken off if you used the full temperature instead of T8 .

b. Find the effective (i.e., surface) temperature of the He star.

Use the relation L = 4πσR2 T 4 to compute Teff :

� �1/4

L
T = � 117, 000 K
4πσR2

c. The reaction that powers this star is 3 2 He4 → 6 C 12 + γ. The atomic mass excess of a
4 12
2 He atom is 2.42 MeV and that of a 6 C atom is 0 MeV. Find the time for all the helium
in the core of the star (i.e., the central 10% by mass) to be burned to carbon.
For each C atom that is formed, 3 ×2.42 MeV are released. This corresponds to 5.8 ×1017
ergs per gram of ‘burned’ material. The mass to be converted from He to C is 0.1 M� . Thus,
a total of (0.1 × 2 × 1033 grams × 5.8 × 1017 ergs per gram) ergs = 1.15 × 1050 ergs of energy
will be released over the He core burning phase. At a release rate of L = 2.7 × 1037 ergs
sec−1 , this process will last for 4.3 × 1012 seconds, or 1.3 × 105 years.
Problem 9 (Short Answer Questions)
a. Suppose air molecules have a collision cross section of 10−16 cm2 . If the (number) density
of air molecules is 1019 cm−3 , what is the collision mean free path?
1 1
�= = 19 −16 = 10−3 cm
nσ 10 10

b. What is the physical mechanism by which 21­cm radiation is produced?

Hyperfine transition in neutral hydrogen atoms in the n = 1 state. The interaction is
between the intrinsic magnetic moment of the proton and that of the electron.

c. What fraction of the rest mass energy is released (in the form of radiation) when a mass
ΔM is dropped from infinity onto the surface of a neutron star with M = 1 M� and R = 10
km?
GM Δm
ΔE =
R
2
The fractional rest energy lost is ΔE/Δmc , or

ΔE GM
= � 0.15
Δmc2 Rc2

d. What is the slope of a log N (> F ) vs. log F curve for a homogeneous distribution of
objects, each of luminosity, L, where F is the flux at the observer, and N is the number of
objects observed per square degree on the sky?
The number of objects detected goes as the cube of the distance for objects with flux
greater than a certain minimum flux. At the same time the flux falls off with the inverse
square of the distance. Thus, the slope of the log N (> F ) vs. log F curve is ­3/2.