Pressure, Temperature, Flow, Level

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BP CASPIAN SEA
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, FLOW LEVEL
Operations Basics 1
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DRAFT VERSION Page 1 of 71
REVISI0N HISTORY
Revision Number Date Comments
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UNIT 1
PRESSURE
CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION PAGE 4
1.1 PRESSURE UNITS PAGE 5
1.2 BOURDON TUBE PRESSURE GAUGES PAGE 8
1.3 DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE GAUGES PAGE 10
1.4 PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS PAGE 11
1.5 PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS PAGE 12
1.6 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE PAGE 13
1.7 PRESSURE SWITCHES PAGE 14
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1.0 INTRODUCTION:
Pressure, temperature, flow and level are the four most important process variables
that are measured and controlled in the oil and gas industry. This unit will look at
the measurement of pressure.
Pressure is force/unit area. A small force over a small area can have a very large
pressure. Think of pushing your hand on the handle and then on the blade of a
knife with the same force!
Two effects that are used to measure pressure are mechanical distortion and
changes in electrical properties.
The idea of mechanical distortion is easy to demonstrate. If a sealed can of petrol is

left in the sun, the increased vapour pressure will push out the flat sides of the can.
Pressure gauges that use the idea of mechanical distortion are bourdon tube gauges
and diaphragm gauges.
There are two electrical properties that can be used to measure pressure: the piezo
electric effect and changes in electrical resistance. The piezo electric effect is a
small voltage that is generated in a crystal of quartz when pressure is applied to the
crystal. Electrical resistance of metals and semi-conductors changes when the
material is strained [stretched or bent]. Devices that use this principle are known as
strain gauges. Pressure sensors that use piezo electric elements or strain gauges
are called transducers. They are very accurate and much more reliable than
mechanical devices.
Pressure sensing devices discussed in this section are:

 Bourdon tube pressure gauges
 Diaphragm pressure gauges
 Transducers
 Differential pressure [DP] cells
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1.1 PRESSURE UNITS
The oil industry uses a mixture of imperial and metric [SI] units. The most common
unit of pressure used in the Az SPU is the bar. The SI unit of pressure is the kPa
[kilopascal]. One bar = 100 kPa.
Other common units of pressure are psi [pounds per square inch] and Kg/cm2.
For almost all applications, normal atmospheric pressure is taken as the zero for
pressure measurements. Pressures above atmospheric are called “positive”;
pressures below atmospheric are called “negative”.
Gauges that read positive pressure [and have a zero at atmospheric] are said to
read “gauge pressure”. Gauge pressures are written in manuals as psig, kPag or
barg. Most gauge pressure instruments simply read psi or kPa or bar.
Figure 1-1
Absolute pressure is the pressure more than a complete vacuum. If there is a need
to calculate the absolute pressure, remember that normal atmospheric pressure is
14.7 psi(a), 101.3 kPa(a), 1.013bar(a), 1.032 Kg/cm 2(a)
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For negative pressures, the units commonly used are “inches of mercury” [in.Hg] or
“inches of vacuum” [in.vac].
Normal atmospheric pressure will hold up a column of mercury 29.92 inches [760
mm] high. For practical use, 29.92 inches is rounded to 30 inches. A complete
vacuum is recorded as “30 inches of vacuum” [30 in.vac]. A slight negative pressure
may be measured as 5 in.vac.
Gauges that measure negative and positive pressures are called compound gauges.
ZERO is
atmospheric
pressure
Figure 1-2
You will notice that the compound gauge shown above also has a scale in kPa. A
complete vacuum is 101.3 kPa below normal atmospheric.
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Small positive pressures are usually measured in “inches of water” [in.H 20]. Normal
atmospheric pressure will hold up a column of water 406 inches [10.32 metres] high.
Conversions from psi and kPa to in.H20 are:

1 psi = 28 in.H20
1 kPa = 4 in.H20
Figure 1-3
Differential Pressure cells [DP cells] have specifications that are written in inches of
water. A “100 inch DP cell” means the maximum differential pressure the cell can
measure is 100 in.H20 [or about 25 kPa]
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1.2 BOURDON TUBE PRESSURE GAUGES
Bourdon tubes with mechanical pointers are the most common type of pressure
indicators. A bourdon tube is made from a brass or stainless steel tube: it has a
flattened cross section and is sealed at one end; the other end is open to the
process fluid. Bourdon tubes are usually made in a curved “C” shape. Spiral and
helix shaped tubes are also used.
60% of range
Bourdon tube
Pointer Levers, gears

and pivots
Restriction
orifice
Figure 1-4
Increased pressure in the tube will cause the tube to straighten. The movement of
the tube is transferred to a pointer by levers, gears and pivots. The tubes have a
restriction orifice at the process connection to limit any leaks to atmosphere if the
tube fails.
Bourdon tubes can permanently stretch, or rupture if they are over pressured. It is
good practice to operate the tubes at a maximum of 60% of the range. Bourdon
tubes can also fail if the tube is overheated. If a gauge is too hot to touch, then it is
too hot.
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If the process fluid is corrosive, or if it can solidify in the gauge, then the gauge
must have a diaphragm isolator to prevent the bourdon tube blocking or corroding.
Diaphragm isolators have a flexible diaphragm to separate the process fluid from the
bourdon tube. The bourdon tube is completely filled with a light fluid such as
machine oil or glycerin. The diaphragm transfers the process pressure to the fluid in
the tube. Pressures on both side of the diaphragm are equal - the diaphragm does
not need to be strong.
Figure 1-5
Gauge connection
Process connection
Flexible diaphragm
Bourdon tube gauges on steam systems have a siphon to isolate the gauge from the
heat of the steam. A siphon is simply a short length of tube bent into a loop. Steam
will condense in the loop. The plug of condensate will transfer pressure while
blocking heat transfer.
Gauge
connection
This part of
siphon filled
with
condensate
Connection to
steam system
Figure 1-6
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1.3 DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE GAUGES
Diaphragm is a term used for any flexible disc that will transmit pressure. The
diaphragms used in pressure gauges are hollow, flat discs with a corrugated surface.
When they have pressure applied to the surface, they bulge. This movement can be
transferred to a pointer using levers, gears and pivots.
Movement
Pressure
Fixed
connection
Figure 1-7
The diaphragm shown in figure 1-7 is very sensitive to pressure changes. Two
corrugated surfaces will produce more movement than one only. Corrugated discs
can be built into stacks to produce very sensitive gauges.
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1.4 PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS
A pressure transmitter is a common term for a device that changes a process
pressure into a 4 - 20 milli-ampere signal which can be used by a control system.
The pressure transmitter is really two devices: a transducer and a transmitter.
Electrical
connection
Transmitter
Transducer
Connection to
process piping
Figure 1-8
A transducer is any device that changes energy from one form to another. Pressure
transducers change pressure to an electrical signal. This electrical signal is
conditioned and changed to a 4 - 20 milli-ampere [mA] signal by the transmitter.
The electronics of the transmitter is contained in a flameproof and explosion proof

housing. Modern transmitters will often have digital indicators.
There are pressure transmitters that use mechanical diaphragms to transmit a 3 - 15

psi pneumatic signal. Older plants will still have these instruments.
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1.5 PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS
Pressure transducers can use different silicon sensors to indicate pressure. Two that
are used are piezo-electric sensors and strain gauge sensors. Piezo electric sensors
measure a voltage that is produced across a silicon crystal when pressure is applied
to the crystal. Strain gauge sensors measure the change in resistance of metals
when they are twisted or stretched.
Strain gauges are micro-circuits etched into the surface of the silicon - the same way
computer chips are made.
The sensors are placed in a space that is completely filled with silicone oil. A thin
stainless steel diaphragm separates the oil from the process pressure. A change in
process pressure is transmitted through the silicone oil to the sensor. The silicone
oil barrier is necessary to protect the sensor from corrosion by the process fluid.
Corrosion will change the voltage and resistance of the sensors.
Electrical leads
Strain gauges
Silicon sensor
Diaphragm Silicone oil
Screwed
connection Process
pressure
Figure 1-9
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1.6 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
Sometimes it is necessary to measure a difference between two pressures. A
differential pressure cell [DP cell] and transmitter will do this. Differential pressure is
used to measure flow and level. This will be covered in units three and four.
The DP cell has a high and a low pressure cap clamped around it by through bolts.
The DP cell is completely filled with dielectric oil. Isolating diaphragms separate the
dielectric oil from the process fluids. Inside the DP cell is a measuring cell and a
measuring diaphragm.
Isolating
diaphragm
Transmitter
Measuring
cell
Measuring
diaphragm
Dielectric
DP oil filling
Cell
Pressure caps
Figure 1-10
The measuring diaphragm will move if the pressure on one side is greater than the
other: this movement will change the electrical capacitance between the measuring
diaphragm and the walls of the cell. The output signal from the transmitter is 4 - 20
mA. The pressure difference that DP cells can measure is specified in inches of
water. DP cells are available to measure very small DPs of 0 - 5 in.H 2O. They are
available to measure larger DPs - over 400 in.H2O.
There are DP transmitters that use mechanical diaphragms to transmit a 3 - 15 psi

pneumatic signal. Older plants will still have these instruments.
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1.7 PRESSURE SWITCHES
Sometimes it is necessary to take an action at a particular pressure. An example
would be to shut off heat to a process at a high pressure for safety reasons.
24 volts
Process Electrical
pressure High pressure set point output
input to from
switch switch
0 volts
Time
Figure 1-11
Pressure switches have a continuous process pressure input and an on/off electrical
output. The output will change at a set process pressure. It is usual to make the
zero output the “safe” position. If the electrical signal is accidentally cut - then you
would want the plant to go to the safe condition.
Electrical
contacts
[output]
Adjustment
screw
Switch
Spring guide
Spring
Piston
Diaphragm
Process
Screw pressure
connection [input]
to process
Figure 1-12
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The electrical signal is usually sent to a solenoid. The solenoid could do many
things: force a control valve to a safe position; stop a motor; sound an alarm …
almost any action is possible.
The pressure switch itself may be electronic or mechanical. Electronic switches and
mechanical switches are both used.
Electronic switches are the same as the pressure transducers shown in figure 1-9.
The output from the transducer is compared electronically to a set value. When the
transducer output differs from the set value, an electronic switch will change state.
Mechanical switches have a piston that pushes a switch open and closed. The piston
has a spring pressing on it - the process pressure must overcome the spring
pressure to move the piston. The spring pressure can be adjusted by an adjusting
screw pressing on the spring guide. The switch shown in figure 1-12 is to illustrate
the operating principles. The switch assembly is practically the same as in the
flameproof switch shown below: this is a type that technicians will see in oil and gas
installations.
Flameproof
housing Electrical
connection
Screw
adjustment
Switch
Screw assembly
connection
to process
Figure 1-13
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UNIT 2
TEMPERATURE
CONTENTS
2.1 TEMPERATURE UNITS PAGE 19
2.2 GLASS CAPILLARY THERMOMETERS PAGE 20
2.3 BIMETALLIC THERMOMETERS PAGE 21
2.4 GAS AND LIQUID FILLED THERMOMETERS PAGE 24
2.5 VAPOUR TENSION THERMOMETERS PAGE 25
2.6 THERMOCOUPLES PAGE 27
2.7 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE PAGE 29
2.8 RADIATION TEMPERATURE DETECTORS PAGE 30
2.9 TEMPERATURE SWITCHES PAGE 32
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2.0 INTRODUCTION:
that are measured and controlled. This unit will look at the measurement of
temperature.
The temperature of a system is defined as the average energy of molecules in the

system: The higher the energy, the higher the temperature. Measuring the average
energy of molecules directly is practically impossible.
Temperature is easy to describe but practically impossible to measure directly.

Everyone agrees that a temperature of 45˚C feels “hotter” than a temperature of
5˚C. Our bodies are sensing an effect of the temperature change.
When we measure temperature, we really measure the effect of temperature.

The effects that we can measure are:
 Expansion and contraction of metals, liquids and gases
 Vapour pressure of volatile liquids
 Small electrical voltages generated in circuits where temperatures change
 Changes in electrical resistance of metals and semi-conductors
 Emitted radiation - usually infra-red radiation
The thermometers described in this unit are:

 Glass capillary thermometers
 Bi-metallic thermometers
 Gas filled; liquid filled and vapour tension thermometers
 Thermocouples
 Resistance Temperature Devices [RTDs]
 Radiation temperature detectors [pyrometers]
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2.1 TEMPERATURE UNITS
A scale to compare temperatures is necessary. “Hotter”, “colder” and “the same”
are not really useful. There are three scales in use - Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin.
Figure 2-1
Celsius is the scale that is most commonly used. In Celsius the freezing point of
pure water is set at 0˚C and the normal boiling point of pure water is set at 100˚C.
Fahrenheit is used a lot in the oil industry. In Fahrenheit, the freezing point of pure
water is set at 32˚F and the boiling point of pure water is set at 212˚F. The number
of 32 for the freezing point of pure water can be explained. Mr. Daniel Fahrenheit
actually set 0 on his scale as the freezing point of brine. The number 212 has never
been explained. Mr. Fahrenheit thought it was a nice number.
Conversion between Fahrenheit and Celsius is done using the formulas:

˚C = (˚F - 32) X 5 / 9
˚F = (˚C X 9 / 5) + 32
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Kelvin is the absolute temperature scale. Temperature is the average energy of
molecules in a system. As the energy is less - the temperature is less. There must
be a point where the energy is zero. This is absolutely the coldest temperature.
Absolute zero is O on the Kelvin scale. Graduations on the Kelvin scale are the same
as on the Celsius scale, so conversion is easy.
2.2 GLASS CAPILLARY THERMOMETERS

These thermometers use a narrow, sealed glass tube [a capillary] with a bulb at the
bottom end. The glass tube is made in a vacuum and the bulb is filled with a
suitable liquid and sealed.
Capillary
Bulb
tube
Figure 2-2
Mercury is still used as the liquid in some thermometers. Mercury is very toxic and it
is difficult to clean up if a thermometer breaks. Most thermometers now use a
hydrocarbon such as kerosene with a dye to make it visible.
The liquid in the bulb will expand as it is heated and take up more space in the tube.
The effect you will see is the level rising in the tube. The tube is narrow enough so
that a small increase in volume of fluid will cause a large increase in level. When
properly calibrated, these thermometers will give very accurate indications.
Glass capillary thermometers are fragile. They will break easily - this is a hazard.
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2.3 BIMETALLIC THERMOMETERS
Figure 2-3
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Length at 20˚C Length at 21˚C
Iron 1.0000000 metres 1.0000120 metres
Copper 1.0000000 metres 1.0000166 metres
Bimetallic thermometers use the fact that metals expand when heated to measure
temperature. The amount of linear expansion for each degree C is not a lot:
examples for iron and copper are listed below.
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Linear expansion of one metal is too small to be useful. Bimetallic strips use the
different expansions of two metals to make a change that is easy to measure.
Bimetallic strips are made by welding thin strips of two different metals together.
When the strip is heated, both metals will try to expand by different amounts. The
only way this can happen is for the strip to make a curve. The outside of a curve
has a greater length than the inside. The curving movement of the bimetallic strip is
much greater than the linear expansion.
Copper
Support Iron Movement
Figure 2-4
Bimetallic thermometers consist of a hollow metal stem and a dial. The stem can be
connected to the bottom of the dial, the back of the dial or have a flexible
connection. The stem is inserted into the fluid being measured.
The stem contains the bimetallic element that causes a pointer to move on the dial
of the thermometer. A long bimetallic strip can be placed in a small space by
winding the strip into a helix. The stem of a bimetallic thermometer is hollow and
contains a helix.
Rotating pin connected Bush to support Bi-metallic strip

to bottom end of helix top end of helix wound into a helix
Metal stem
Figure 2-5
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The helix shown in the cutaway drawing will curl and uncurl as the temperature
changes. The top end of the helix is supported by a bush and the bottom end will
turn as the helix curls. The turning movement causes the pin to rotate. The pin is
connected to a pointer on a dial.
Lens
Case Pointer
Dial Zero
adjustment
Seal
Threaded
connection
Figure 2-6
Bimetallic thermometers are available for temperature ranges of minus 75˚C to plus
450˚C. They should not be used at higher temperatures as the two metals in the
helix will weaken permanently and the thermometer will lose accuracy.
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2.4 GAS AND LIQUID FILLED THERMOMETERS
Gas filled and liquid filled thermometers use changing pressure to indicate a change
in temperature. The thermometers consist of a stainless steel bulb [a small cylinder]
and a pressure gauge.
The bulb and the gauge may be joined by a flexible stainless steel capillary tube:
this allows the gauge to be mounted remotely. The pressure gauge is usually a
stainless steel bourdon tube.
Bulb
Pressure gauge
Capillary tube
Figure 2-7
Gas filled thermometers are usually filled with nitrogen. Nitrogen [N 2] is an

“ideal gas”: this means the pressure will increase linearly as the temperature
increases. The pressure gauge can be simply calibrated to show temperature. Gas
filled thermometers are available in ranges from minus 200˚C to plus 650˚C.
Liquid filled thermometers are built exactly the same as gas filled. They are
completely filled with a suitable liquid. The liquid is selected so that it will not freeze
or boil in the temperature range to be measured.
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All liquids expand linearly with increased temperature. Increased temperature in the
bulb will cause the liquid to expand. The increased volume of liquid will cause a
pressure increase in the gauge. The pressure gauge can be simply calibrated to
show temperature.
2.5 VAPOUR TENSION THERMOMETERS

Vapour tension thermometers are built exactly the same as gas and liquid filled
thermometers. They use the pressure of vapourising liquids to indicate temperature.
The thermometer is partly filled with a pure vapourising liquid. The thermometer
then contains vapour and liquid of the substance. As the temperature increases,
more liquid will vapourise and the pressure will increase. The temperature/pressure
relation for each substance is known exactly. Figure 1-8 shows a temperature/
pressure graph for pure water as an example. You should notice that the vapour
pressure of water heated to 100˚C is 14.7 psi absolute [atmospheric pressure]. Is
this a coincidence?
250
200
degrees C
150
100
50
0
0 14.7 50 100 150 200 250
psi absolute
Figure 2-8
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Vapour pressure graphs for all liquids are non linear, so the gauges of vapour
tension thermometers are non linear [see figure 1-9 for an example].
Figure 2-9
The liquids used for vapour tension thermometers are selected so they do not freeze
and the vapour pressure is not too high.
The pressure gauge of vapour tension thermometers must always be ABOVE the
bulb … or the liquid phase will run out of the bulb and correct measurement will be
impossible!
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2.6 THERMOCOUPLES
A thermocouple is an electrical circuit made from two wires of different metals. The
two wires are welded together to form a junction. This junction [the measurement
junction] is placed at the site where the temperature is to be measured. The other
ends of the two wires are connected by a sensitive voltmeter at a reference site [the
reference junction]. The temperature at the reference junction is known.
Reference
junction
Measurement Voltmeter
junction
Figure 2-10
The temperature difference between the two junctions will force a small voltage
[milli-volts] difference at the reference junction. The voltmeter will measure this
difference. The voltage/temperature relation for each pair of metals is known. The
voltage is converted to temperature electronically. Temperatures from minus 270˚C
to 1750˚C + can be measured using a range of different metals.
Metal sheath
Connections
for wires to
reference
Measurement
junction
junction
Figure 2-11
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Measurement junctions are usually packed in alumina powder inside a metal sheath.
The alumina powder will electrically insulate the junction. Reference junctions can
be in a control room or in a field bus close to the measurement junction
Thermocouple
connection head
Thermocouple
sheath
Thermowell
Figure 2-12
In practice, thermocouples are rarely in direct contact with the process fluids.
Thermocouples are placed in thermo-wells that are screwed into pipes or vessels.
The process heat must be conducted through the wall of the thermo-well, radiated
across the air space in the thermo-well, and then finally conducted through the
sheath to the reference junction. This delay in sensing a temperature change must
be considered.
Thermocouples are robust and cheap and can have an accuracy of +/- 1˚C. They
are the most common type of temperature sensor.
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2.7 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DEVICES [RTDs]
The electrical resistance of metals changes with temperature. The resistance is
linear with change in temperature, so RTDs are very accurate. Platinum RTDs are
the most accurate. Temperatures of minus 200˚C to plus 800˚C can be measured.
RTDs look like thermocouples and are often identified incorrectly.
RTDs use a coil [or a thin film] of metal placed inside the end of a sheath. The metal
coil [or film] is part of an electrical circuit. The resistance in the circuit can be
measured very accurately as the temperature changes.
RTDs are more accurate than thermocouples. They are more expensive and are
used only when the extra accuracy is necessary
Figure 2-13
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2.8 RADIATION TEMPERATURE DETECTORS
Radiation temperature detectors are commonly called pyrometers. Pyrometers use
the emitted radiation from objects to infer the temperature. Emitted radiation can
range from low energy radio frequencies to high energy x-rays and gamma rays.
Figure 2-14
All objects emit electromagnetic radiation. If you feel heat emitting from an oven
you know it is hot - your skin is sensing infrared radiation from the oven. If the
oven is glowing red then you know it is very hot. Your eyes are sensing the higher
energy visible light radiation.
The frequency of the emitted radiation is related directly to the surface temperature
of an object: the higher the frequency - the hotter the surface temperature.
Temperatures of interest to operators will cause radiation in the infrared and visible
light spectrum.
The temperature of objects that emit in the visible light spectrum can be measured
using an optical pyrometer. These instruments are small telescopes that focus on
the object of interest. See figure 2-15.
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Inside the optical pyrometer, in the operators field of view, is an electric filament
lamp. Electric current to the filament is increased to heat the filament. When the
filament “disappears”, it is the same temperature as the object. The current to the
filament is calibrated to read an equivalent temperature of the filament.
Filament Filament Filament and object

too cold too hot at same temperature
Figure 2-15
Temperatures of objects that radiate in the infrared are measured by calculating the
strength of the infrared radiation at different frequencies. As the temperatures of
objects change: the “signature” of the radiation changes.
In infrared pyrometers, the radiation from an object is focused on a sensor array by

a lens. The whole process is very similar to the operation of a digital camera.
You have probably seen infrared pyrometers being used as security cameras.
People emit radiation in the infrared spectrum. If it’s dark, they can still see you.
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2.9 TEMPERATURE SWITCHES
It is useful to have a device that will act as a switch at a set temperature. Having an
engine temperature gauge in a car is nice, but if you don’t look at it - it is not much
use. A high temperature switch that lights a bright alarm lamp is much more useful.
Switches have a continuous input and an on/off electrical output. The switches can
be electronic or mechanical. The electrical output from switches is usually sent to a
solenoid. The design and construction of temperature switches is very similar to
pressure switches.
Electronic temperature switches are usually RTDs. The temperature/resistance

relation is known with great accuracy. The resistance of the RTD is compared with a
set resistance. An electronic switch will change state at the set temperature.
Electronic switches are very reliable but they are more expensive.
Pressure switch
Capillary tube
Vapour tension
thermometer bulb
Figure 2-16
Mechanical temperature switches are based on vapour tension thermometers.

Vapour pressure bulbs and capillary tubes are combined with a pressure switch
described in unit one. The vapour pressure/temperature relation of pure liquids is
known with great accuracy. The switch can be calibrated separately using a
pressure test bench - this makes life simple!
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UNIT 3
FLOW
CONTENTS
3.1 ORIFICE PLATES FLOW METERS PAGE 36
3.2 VENTURI TUBE FLOW METERS PAGE 40
3.3 PITOT TUBE FLOW METERS PAGE 41
3.4 VORTEX SHEDDING FLOW METERS PAGE 42
3.5 TURBINE FLOW METERS PAGE 44
3.6 PADDLE WHEEL FLOW METERS PAGE 45
3.7 ULTRASONIC FLOW METERS PAGE 46
3.8 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT FLOW METERS PAGE 48
3.9 VARIABLE AREA FLOW METERS PAGE 49
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3.0 INTRODUCTION:
that are measured and controlled in the oil and gas industry. This unit will look at
the measurement and control of flow.
Flow can be described as an amount of fluid passing in a measured time period.

The time period is usually an hour or day. Minutes and seconds can be used. The
amount can be measured as volume or mass. It is mass that is important, but
measuring mass needs very expensive meters. Most flow measurement is done by
measuring volume: the mass of fluid is then calculated using the temperature,
pressure and density of the fluid. The density can be measured by a dedicated
instrument or simply by taking a sample and doing a laboratory test.
Oil and gas production sites use imperial units such as barrels, gallons and cubic
feet. Processing plants are likely to use metric units such as tonnes, kilograms and
cubic metres.
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Flow is measured by an effect it causes. The most common method is to measure
the differential pressure [DP] across an orifice plate, a venturi or a pitot tube. This
DP can be used to calculate volumetric flow.
Volumetric simply means “the measurement of volume”.
Other effects used to infer flow are:

 The rotation of turbines and paddle wheels
 The speed of sound in moving fluids
 Vortex shedding of bodies in moving fluids
Positive displacement is also a useful way to measure small flow rates. Water
meters to houses use positive displacement meters.
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3.1 ORIFICE PLATE FLOW METERS
Orifice plate flow meters are the most common method of measuring flow. An
orifice plate has a hole [an orifice] that is smaller than the line size. The plate is
bolted between two flanges in a pipe. Pressure tappings on either side of the orifice
plate are connected to a DP cell by impulse lines
Orifice plate ID tag
Flow
Transmitter direc
tion
DP cell
LP impulse line
HP impulse line
Figure 3-2
Figure 3-2 shows an orifice plate, impulse lines and DP cell/transmitter. The needle
valves on the manifold of the DP cell are shown below.
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Vent
Isolator
Equalizer
Figure 3-2a
DP Cell
Vent Vent
Equalizer
Isolator Isolator
LP impulse HP impulse
line line
The vent valves are used to blow out the impulse lines to prove they are clear. The
isolator valves and the equalizer valve are used to commission the DP cell without
stressing it. DP cells are designed to measure small DP’s: 1bar (400 inches) is a big
DP. Line pressures can be hundreds of bars. It would need very good coordination
to open both impulse lines at exactly the same time. Keeping the equalizer open
until both isolator valves are open prevents a massive pressure spike on the DP cell.
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When fluid flows through the orifice, the velocity must increase. [The effective
streamline diameter is actually smaller than the orifice plate size].
Mr. Daniel Bernoulli discovered in 1736 that the total energy of a moving fluid
stream is constant. As the velocity energy of the stream increases, then the
pressure energy must decrease to keep the sum constant.
High Low
pressure pressure
Orifice Streamline
diameter diameter
Pressure on
wall of pipe
Figure 3-1
Measuring the difference in pressure [DP] before and after the orifice can be used to
calculate the velocity of the fluid at that point. If the velocity is known, then the
flow rate can be calculated. Increased flow rates will mean increased velocities and
increased DPs.
To calculate the volumetric flow accurately, it is necessary to measure the

temperature and pressure of the fluid. Many orifice flow meters do not measure
pressure and temperature: they simply use average figures in the calculations. If
the conditions change, then the meter will not read the correct flow.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
Orifice plates have a chamfered orifice to create smooth streamlines in the fluid flow.
If the plate is installed the wrong way round, the flow is not streamlined and the DP
reading will be different. Identification tags on orifice plates are always attached so
the tags face upstream when the plate is correctly installed.
Figure 3-2
Identification
Orifice plate tag
Pressure
High / Low pressure correction
tappings in flanges
Impulse lines
to DP cell
Temperature
correction
The main advantage of orifice plates is they are not expensive.

There are several disadvantages.
 The plate can be eroded and this will change the DP and the measured flow
 The meter will not work correctly if the fluid flow is turbulent
 Changes in density, pressure or temperature will change the DP and the
measured flow
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
3.2 VENTURI TUBE FLOW METERS
Venturi tube flow meters use exactly the same principles as orifice plate meters.
Venturi tubes have a changing diameter so that the fluid velocity changes as it
moves through the meter. The changing velocity of fluid will cause changing
pressure on the walls of the pipe. The highest velocity and lowest pressure is at the
narrowest part of the tube: the low pressure tapping for the DP cell is at this point.
DP cell
Flange joint to pipe
Venturi tube
Pressure on
wall of pipe
Figure 3-3
Venturi flow meters are more streamlined than orifice plate flow meters: they have
less restriction to flow. Venturi flow meters are used where high flow rates are
important.
Pressure tappings
Figure 3-4
Venturi tubes are more accurate than orifice plates, but they are more expensive.
The big advantage of venturi tubes is the streamlined flow and low resistance.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
3.3 PITOT TUBE FLOW METERS
Pitot tube flow meters use the kinetic energy of moving fluids to calculate flow rates.
The higher the flow rate - the faster the fluid moves - the more kinetic energy it has.
Pitot tubes are hollow tubes that are inserted into the
centre of the moving fluid. The moving fluid impacts
openings in the front of the tube. A pressure tapping
from the tube is connected to the high pressure side
of a DP cell.
A static reference pressure from the back of the tube

is connected to the low pressure side of the DP cell.
Fluid velocity at the back of the tube is very low.
Figure 3-5
DP cell
Flow
Total Static
pressures
pressure pressure
averaged
Figure 3-6
Pitot tubes have several openings in the front of the tube to average the pressures
over annular rings in the flow. Pitot tubes are often called annubars for this reason.
Pitot tubes are cheap, but they have some disadvantages:

 The placement of the tubes is absolutely critical
 They are not accurate at low flow rates
 Turbulence in the flow can vibrate the tubes and they can break
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
3.4 VORTEX SHEDDING FLOW METERS
A vortex is a rotating column of air or water. A hurricane is a huge vortex. When a
fluid moves past a non-streamlined body, vortexes are shed from either side of the
body in turn. As a vortex is shed, it gives a push on the side of the body. The
computer simulation in figure 3-7 shows vortexes being shed by a body in an air
stream.
1 2 3 4 5
Figure 3-7
Vortex shedding is well known to engineers who design tall buildings. The push on
one side of a building, then the other, is enough to make tall buildings sway in high
winds.
r
itte
n sm
Tra
Vortex
shedder
Figure 3-8
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
The rate of vortex shedding increases with increased flow rates. This fact is used in
vortex shedding flow meters. A vortex shedder is placed in the centre of the fluid
flow. As each vortex is shed, there is a sideways push on the vortex shedder. A
sensor in the transmitter will record the push.
Vortex shedding flow meters do not work at low flow rates. They are very accurate
at high flow rates.
The flow upstream of the meter must be streamlined so there are no accidental
vortexes that can disturb the flow calculation. The assembly of gaskets and flanges
must be perfect to eliminate accidental vortexes.
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_
3.5 TURBINE FLOW METERS
Turbine flow meters use a turbine rotor that is installed in the centre of the fluid
flow. The fluid will contact the curved blades of the rotor and cause it to spin. The
greater the flow rate - the faster the rotor will spin. The speed of rotation can be
measured by a magnetic pulse pick up. The output from the pick up is used to
calculate the flow rate.
Output to
flow meter
Pulse pick up
FLOW Rotor
Support web Bearings
Figure 3-9
Dual rotors
Inlet
streamlining
vanes
Outlet
streamlining
vanes
Ball bearings
Shaft and spacers
Figure 3-10
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
Turbine meters are very accurate if the flow before the meter is perfectly
streamlined. It is usual to have streamlining vanes upstream of the meter. Figure
3-10 shows a meter that has streamlining vanes at the inlet and outlet of dual
rotors. The maker has taken great care to keep a streamlined flow for accurate flow
measurement.
Turbine meters are accurate at low and high flow rates. The fluid must be clean to
avoid damage to the rotor and the rotor bearings. Turbine meters are used with
steam, gases and light fluids.
3.6 PADDLE WHEEL FLOW METERS

Paddle wheel flow meters are much cheaper than turbine flow meters. They are
used where the accuracy of a turbine is not necessary. Paddle wheel flow meters
can be used in high viscosity fluids and fluids that contain solids.
Figure 3-11
Paddle wheel
Paddle wheel flow meters are inserted into a pipe “T” piece using a flanged or
screwed fitting. The paddle wheel is placed at the edge of the streamlined flow.
The speed of rotation is measured by a magnetic pulse pick up. These meters are
very reliable.
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_
3.7 ULTRASONIC FLOW METERS
All the flow meters studied so far must
disturb the flow to measure it: there will
be a pressure drop across the flow meter.
Ultrasonic flow meters can measure flow

with absolutely no disturbance to the flow.
Figure 3-12
Ultrasonic flow meters use the speed of sound in a moving fluid to determine the
velocity of the fluid. Ultrasonic flow meters send sound pulses from one transducer
to another along the fluid path. The sound pulse moving down stream is “helped”
by the fluid flow and will take less time to transit.
Ultrasonic
transducers
Figure 3-13
In figure 3-13, the sound pulse flowing down stream [marked in green] will take less
time than the one flowing upstream [marked in blue]. As the flow rate increases,
the time difference increases.
Ultrasonic flow meters are very accurate. They will measure to an accuracy of +/-
0.1%. They are often used to measure flows in high pressure gas pipelines for sales
calculations. Ultrasonic flow meters are available in sizes to 48 inches.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
Ultrasonic transducers can bounce sound pulses off the wall of the pipe to increase
the path length. Different manufacturers have different ideas.
Figure 3-14
Ultrasonic flow meters are also available as portable flow meters. The transducers
are clamped to the pipe. The sound pulses travel through the pipe walls and are
bounced off the inside walls.
Figure 3-15
Ultrasonic flow meters are expensive. Their advantages are high accuracy and high
reliability. The meter shown in figure 3-14 has two sets of transducers: if one set
fails, the meter will still function while the faulty set is replaced on-line.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
3.8 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT FLOW METERS
Positive displacement [PD] flow meters use the same principles as PD pumps. In a
pump, a motor turns the gears to move liquid. In a meter, the force of liquid under
pressure moves the gears to turn a counter. Every type of PD pump has an
equivalent type of meter. A geared meter is shown for illustration.
Figure 3-16
PD meters transfer a fixed volume of liquid with each rotation. By counting the
number of rotations, the accumulated volume can be recorded. PD meters can
calculate flow rates by measuring the speed of the meter rotation.
PD meters are suitable for most types of liquid. They have small clearances
between the meshing surfaces so they are not used where the fluids contain solids
or are abrasive. PD meters have a large pressure drop because they take a lot of
energy to drive.
Water meters to a house use PD flow meters with volume counters. The water
supply people read the volume on the meter and charge for the total amount used.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
3.9 VARIABLE AREA FLOW METERS
Variable area flow meters can be used in many applications, but they are most
commonly used as visual flow indicators. Variable area flow indicators are called
rotameters: this is a brand name but the name has passed into common use.
Rotameters are used for gas and light liquids. They are not suitable for viscous
materials such as lubricating oil. They can be accurate to +/- 1%.
The clear tubes of rotameters can be made of plastic or hardened glass. They are
shaped like a cone. Inside the tube is a float that has a stabilizing ring near its top.
Float is the common name, but it is actually designed to sink in the fluid being
measured. Rotameters are installed vertically with the flow from bottom to top.
Figure 3-18
The float sinks to the bottom of the tube when the flow is zero. When the flow
starts, the fluid must push through the annular space between the tube and the
float. The float wants to sink and the fluid flow wants to push past. The float is
pushed up until the annular space is big enough to balance the two forces.
The flow is read by lining up the stabilizer ring with the scale marked on the tube.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
3.10 FLOW SWITCHES
A low flow or a reverse flow must be detected with total reliability. It is policy in
most oil and gas companies that critical flows must have hard wired switches. Hard
wired means the switch is a separate device, not a computer program.
The most commonly used flow meter is the orifice plate flow meter with one DP cell.
One separate DP switch will be good enough for non-critical flows, but most
companies require more reliable flow switches for critical flows
LP impulse line
DP DP cell and
switch transmitter
HP impulse line
Figure 3-19
One choice for a critical low flow switch is an electronic logic switch taking a signal
from three DP cells. The chance that three DP cells will fail at the same time is very,
very small. The signal from the DP cells is compared by the logic switch. The switch
will change state if two of three DP cells signal a low flow. This is known as a voting
system - the majority rules.
LP impulse line
3 DP cells
transmitting to
a logic switch
HP impulse line
Figure 3-20
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
One device that is commonly used as a critical flow switch is a temperature dispersal
flow meter. These meters use the idea that a moving fluid will carry heat away from
a heated object in the fluid stream. You use this idea all the time when you blow on
hot food to cool it quickly.
Temperature dispersal flow switches have two temperature sensors that contain
RTDs. Both sensors are inserted into a pipe. One sensor is in contact with a small
heater: the heater will increase the temperature of this sensor. When the flow
decreases, the temperature difference between the two sensors will increase quickly.
An electronic switch will change state at a set temperature difference.
Sensor 2
Sensor 1
Heater
Flameproof
housing for
electronics
Connection
to pipeline
Figure 3-21
Temperature dispersal flow switches are very reliable: there are no moving parts
and RTDs are themselves very reliable.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
UNIT 4
LEVEL
CONTENTS
4.1 DIP TAPES AND DIP STICKS PAGE 54
4.2 FLOATS PAGE 56
4.3 GAUGE GLASSES AND MAGNETIC INDICATORS PAGE 57
4.4 USING DP CELLS TO MEASURE LEVELS PAGE 59
4.5 DISPLACERS PAGE 62
4.6 BUBBLERS PAGE 65
4.7 LEVEL SWITCHES PAGE 66
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_
4.0 INTRODUCTION:
that are measured and controlled. This unit will look at the measurement of level.
Levels can be measured directly or indirectly. Direct methods are:

 Using dip sticks or tapes
 Seeing levels in gauge glasses.
 Using a float and cable to transfer a change in level to a visible location
The most common indirect methods use the pressure of a head of liquid. Three
methods that use this principle are:
 Measuring the base pressure of a head of liquid - usually with a DP cell
 Measuring the displacement of a weight as it is submerged in liquid
 Measuring the back pressure of gas as it is forced down a tube through a
head of liquid
Other indirect methods are radar [and ultrasonic], electrical capacitance and
conductivity. Radar and ultrasonic level indicators are often used on atmospheric
hydrocarbon storage tanks. The indicators provide very accurate level indications for
inventory control. Electrical capacitance and conductivity are sometimes used for
level control in boilers. The above methods will not be discussed in any detail in this
course.
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_
4.1 DIP TAPES AND DIP STICKS
Using dip tapes and dip sticks to measure levels is direct level measurement. The
operator can only use dip tapes and sticks on vessels at atmospheric pressure. The
operator will necessarily have some contact with the liquid and vapour in the vessel.
The vessel contents should be clearly identified and the correct PPE must be worn.
Top lip of
Dip tape/stick
dip hatch
Top
datum line
Ullage
level
Liquid Total
level level
Bottom
datum line
Figure 4-1
Vessels and tanks are surveyed when they are built. The height of the tank is
accurately known. There will be a datum line at the top of the tank. The top datum
line is usually at the top lip of the dip hatch on the tank. The bottom datum line
may be at the tank base, or at the lowest useful level in the tank.
Ullage is the vapour space between the liquid level and the top datum line. Most
liquid levels are obtained by measuring the ullage level and then subtracting this
from the total level: this is known as doing an ullage dip.
It is difficult to just touch the surface of the liquid, so the tape or stick is lowered
into the liquid for a small way. It is then necessary to do two subtractions. [Why?].
The advantage of doing ullage dips is that the operator does not have to wipe
metres of tape clean. If the tank contains heavy fuel oil - this is a real advantage.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
Dip sticks are something that most students are familiar with. When you measure
the oil level in engines, you use a dip stick.
Dip tapes are flexible steel tapes wound around a wheel. A solid brass weight is
attached to the end of the tape. The weight will keep the tape taught as it is
lowered by the winding handle. The weight is marked with zero at the lowest point.
The markings continue up the weight and then continue seamlessly up the tape.
Winding handle
Flexible steel tape
Weight
Figure 4-2
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_
4.2 FLOATS
Floats are a simple way to provide a level indication on a tank at atmospheric
pressure. The float can be connected to a simple pointer on the outside of the tank
or it can be connected to a spring loaded drum at ground level. The drum is more
reliable, and electronic transmitters can be added to the system easily.
Pipe to
Pulley protect
cable
Weighted
Flexible
float
cable
Spring
loaded Still pipe
drum
Figure 4-3
A weighted float will float on the surface of the liquid in the tank. The float is
connected to a spring loaded drum by a flexible cable. The cable will run inside a
pipe to protect the cable from corrosion and damage. The cable will normally run on
pulleys so that it moves easily. The spring loaded drum will keep tension on the
cable as the float moves up and down with the change in liquid level. The amount
of cable that is wound off the drum will be indicated on the drum housing. This
indication is calibrated to read the liquid level in the tank.
When tanks are being filled and emptied, the liquid is usually turbulent. The float
will operate inside a perforated “still” pipe to prevent the float being swept around
the tank. A correct level indication depends on the float moving straight up and
down. Also, if there is no still pipe, the float and cable could tangle with other
fittings inside the tank.
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_
4.3 GAUGE GLASSES AND MAGNETIC INDICATORS
Gauge glasses are another direct method of level measurement. The gauge glass is
connected to the vessel at two points - one above, and one below the expected
level. The gauge glass has a hardened glass panel so the level can be seen. The
liquid level in the vessel and gauge glass should be the same. [Why?]. Gauge
glasses are available for pressures from atmospheric to 1000 psi +.
Process vessel
Gauge
glass
Figure 4-4
Gauge glasses have potential problems. The glass can break and the small pipes
connecting the gauge glass to the vessel can block. [Why are these things
problems?]. Magnetic float indicators [see figure 4-5] do not have these problems.
Figure 4-5
Sealed float chamber
Indicating strips
Float with a magnet
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_
A sealed float chamber is connected to the vessel in the same manner as a gauge
glass, but the pipe connections are a larger size. The float chamber has a float that
contains a strong magnet. The float will rise and fall as the liquid level changes. On
the outside of the float chamber is an indicating panel with many small horizontal
strips. As the float passes each small indicating strip, the magnet will pull the strip
over. The strips have a different colour on each side so the result is a changing bar
of colour as the level changes.
Figure 4-6
Figure 4-6 shows cut away drawings of magnetic level indicators. The indicating
strips are completely outside the process pipe work - they can be repaired with no
need to isolate any part of the system. The floats are made of materials that will
not corrode. The system is more reliable than gauge glasses and is being used
more.
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_
4.4 USING DP CELLS TO MEASURE LEVELS
Using pressure to measure level is nothing new. Air pressure decreases as the
distance from the surface increases. Aircraft have altimeters that use this changing
pressure to measure altitude [distance above sea level]. Submarines have depth
gauges that measure the increasing pressure of water as the depth increases.
In unit two you have read that normal atmospheric pressure will hold up a column of
water 10.32 metres [406 inches] high. If you measure the pressure at the base of
an open tank containing 10.32 metres of water, you will see the pressure gauge
reads 1 013 bar. As the level changes, the pressure gauge reading will change. The
gauge can be simply calibrated to read the level.
When measuring the level in an open tank, it is common practice to use a DP cell
with the low pressure side open to atmosphere. The vapour pressure on both sides
of the DP cell will be the same. Only the change of liquid level will affect the DP.
Transmitter
H L
DP Cell
Figure 4-7
Measuring the level in a sealed vessel is practically the same. The only difference is
that the low pressure side of the DP cell is connected to the vapour space of the
vessel. The pressure on both sides of the DP cell is the same. The pressure in the
vessel has absolutely no effect on the DP. Only the change of liquid level will affect
the DP.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
Dry leg DP cell
Transmitter
H L
DP Cell
Figure 4-8
The connection to the vapour space is called the top tapping, or the top leg, of the
DP cell. When the top leg of the DP cell contains no liquid, the system is called a
dry leg DP cell.
It is very difficult to stop liquid splashing into the top leg or vapor condensing in the
top leg. The liquid in the top leg will affect the DP and cause a false level indication.
The solution is to fill the top leg completely with a suitable liquid. This type of
system is called a wet leg DP cell.
Wet leg DP cell
Transmitter
L H
DP Cell
Figure 4-9
The vapour pressure on each side of the DP cell will still be the same. The liquid
pressure in the top leg is constant. Only the change of liquid level in the vessel will
change the DP. It is necessary to reverse the DP cell and calibrate the reading.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
Operators must be careful NOT to drain the liquid from wet legs of DP cell level
indicators. Draining liquid from the wet leg will cause a false high level indication in
the vessel. [Why?]
DP cells are available to measure ranges as small as 0 - 5 inches of water, so they

can measure very small changes in level.
DP cells will measure level changes in all liquids. DP cells must be calibrated using
the same liquid that will be measured. The density of the liquid makes a big
difference to the indicated level. As an example:
Water has a density of 1 kg/litre. A level of 10.32 metres will indicate a DP of

1.013 bar. Gasoline has a density of only 0.75 kg/litre. A greater level of
gasoline will be needed to give the same DP. In fact, you will need 10.32/0.75 =
13.76 metres.
If the DP cell on a tank is calibrated with water to read 100% at a true level of
10.32 metres, and then used to store gasoline … The DP cell will only read 100%
when the level is 13.76 metres. This could be a serious problem - especially if
the tank is only 11 metres high!
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_
4.5 DISPLACERS
Displacers use the principle of displacement. The mass of displaced water [or any
fluid] pushes back on the object that displaces it. A 5,000 ton steel ship floats
because the ship displaces 5,000 tons of water with only part of its volume. Add
1.000 tons of cargo and the ship settles lower in the water until it displaces another
1,000 tons of water. If the deck stays above water, it will stay afloat.
Displacers don’t float. They do use the effect of displaced fluid pushing back on the
displacer and supporting part of the weight. An example of a displacer which weighs
8 kg and has a volume of 4 litres is shown below. The fluid in the example is pure
water which has a density of 1 kg/litre.
4 kg 4 kg
6 kg
8 kg
Figure 4-10
When the displacer is hanging in the vapour space, the full weight of 8 kg is pulling
on the sensor. When half of the displacer is submerged, the displaced water
supports 2kg of the weight so only 6 kg is pulling on the sensor. When the sensor is
completely submerged, the displaced water supports 4 kg so only 4kg is pulling on
the sensor. Any further increase in water level will not change the reading on the
sensor. This is sensible - submerged is submerged!
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
All displacers use exactly this principle to indicate level. Displacers are sealed,
hollow metal tubes that are hung from a sensor. The sensor can be electronic or
pneumatic. The displacer is contained in a sealed chamber that has top and bottom
tappings to a vessel. Usually, the top tapping is level with the top of the displacer
and the bottom tapping is level with the bottom of the displacer. The tappings can
be above and below the displacer - but the range of measurement is only equal to
the height of the displacer [why?].
Sensor
Transmitter
Maximum
reading at
this level
Displacer
Zero
reading at
this level
Displacer
chamber
Figure 4-11
The density of the liquid in the displacer chamber makes a big difference to the
indication of the displacer sensor. The displacer must be calibrated using the same
fluid it will measure. As an example:
A displacer chamber is filled with water and the sensor is calibrated to read
100% when the displacer is submerged. Gasoline has a density of 0.75kg/litre.
When the displacer is used to measure the level of gasoline, the sensor will never
indicate more than 75% - even when the vessel is totally full. This type of
mistake has caused major accidents.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
Sensors transfer the displacer force to the transmitter using a mechanical link of
torque arm and torque tube. Torque tube transfers rotating movement without the
need for a gland to seal in process pressure.
The weight of the displacer hangs on the torque arm. The torque arm is fixed to the
torque tube at the pivot. The displacer moves up and down a small amount as the
liquid in the chamber supports its weight. This up and down movement is changed
to rotation of the torque tube at the pivot. The other end of the torque tube is fixed
to the transmitter flange and does not move. The torque rod is fixed to the moving
end of the torque tube and so this does move. The transmitter will translate the
movement of the end of the torque arm into an electrical or pneumatic signal.
Torque rod
Fixed flange
Torque tube
Knife edge pivot
Torque arm
Displacer
Torque rod
Figure 4-12
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_
4.6 BUBBLERS
Bubblers blow compressed air [or another gas] through a tube to the lowest level of
a tank. As the level rises in the tank, it will need more pressure to keep the flow of
gas through the bubbler pipe. The back pressure of the gas can be measured and
this will give an indication of the level. A simple bubbler level indicator is shown
below. As the level in the tank increase, the pressure indication will increase.
Figure 4-13
Pressure indicator
Rotameter
Air in
In practice, the air flow to the bubbler must be constant. An excess of gas flow will
cause a higher pressure because of the resistance of the bubbler pipe. A rotameter
will need to be adjusted frequently. A special pressure regulator is used in most
systems.
Bubbler systems can only be used on vented tanks at atmospheric pressure. The
gas used must not create a hazard when it is mixed with the liquid in the tank.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
4.7 LEVEL SWITCHES
Level switches are used to warn of a high or low level in a vessel. Level switches
are often hard wired to shut down a plant. An example is a low level switch on a
boiler steam drum: a low level will shut down the furnace of the boiler to prevent
the drum overheating and rupturing. The most reliable switches use a simple float.
Floats can be top mounted or side mounted. Top and side mounted floats can
operate in separate chambers connected to large tappings on the vessel.
Figure 4-14
The floats ride up and down on the surface of the liquid in the vessel. The floats
contain a permanent magnet. The magnet operates a switch that is contained in a
tube or housing that is isolated from the process fluid. Mercury switches are used
but reed switches are becoming the standard.
Figure 4-15
Flanged connection to
process vessel or chamber
Sealed guide tube

containing a reed switch
Float containing permanent magnet
In top mounted floats, the float slides up and down on a guide tube. The guide tube
is hollow and contains a reed switch. As the float moves away from the location of
the reed switch, the reed switch contacts will open.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
Reed switch location
Permanent magnet
Pivot
Connection to process
Weighted float vessel or chamber
Figure 4-16
In side mounted floats, the float moves around a pivot. On a falling liquid level, the
float drops and the magnet moves away from the reed switch. The contacts of the
reed switch will open.
Figure 4-17
Reed switches are made from two thin flexible iron strips. The strips are sealed in
a glass tube containing an inert gas. The contact faces of the iron strips are plated
with hard metal that will not corrode. As a magnet moves close to the switch, the
iron strips are magnetized and they move together. When the magnet moves away,
the iron strips are de-magnetized and they spring apart. Reed switches are ultra
reliable: manufacturers claim 10,000,000 on/off cycles before failure.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
GLOSSARY
Altimeters Instruments that measure altitude by changes in air
pressure
Alumina Aluminium oxide; a white powder - very abrasive
Annular A ring; a hollow circle
Brine Water that is completely saturated with salt
Bus A set of wires that makes a transmission path. USB

devices use a universal serial bus connection
Calibrated Precisely adjusted, made accurate
Capacitance Electrical property that measures the ability to store an

electric charge
Capillary A very narrow tube
Chamfered Removing a sharp edge; the edges of desks are

chamfered
Contraction Shrinking; becoming smaller
Corrugated A corrugated surface is a row of hills and valleys
Critical Absolutely, most important
Datum A starting point from which other things are measured
Dial The face of a watch or clock is a dial. Usually round
Diaphragm A flexible surface that is not porous
Dielectric Material that will not conduct a direct current
Dispersal Spreading out; being less concentrated
Distortion Changing shape by twisting and stretching
Emitted Emit = to give out; broadcast
Eroded Worn away by scraping or rubbing
Expansion Growing in size - usually because of heating
Filament Thin thread; metal wire in an electric lamp
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_
Flameproof Will not cause a spark or a flame
Flexible Can be twisted and stretched, will return to the original

shape. A rubber band is flexible
Fragile Easy to break. A light bulb is fragile
Frequently Often
Hatch An opening with a lid into the top of a tank or vessel
Head The height of liquid that is above a measuring point
Helix A spiral
Imperial Usually refers to British measurement standards
Impulse A momentary change in pressure or force
Infer Work something out logically
Linear In a straight line
Logic A system of making decisions using known facts
Mercury An element. A metal that is liquid at room temperature
Minimize To make as small as possible
Modulate To adjust; keep in control
Orifice A hole; usually a hole of a regular shape
Perforated Many holes cut into a sheet of material
Piezo Pressure; to squeeze
Pitot French physicist who invented the pitot tube
Pivots Points around which an object rotates
Platinum Precious metal; it will not corrode or react with acids
Practically The same as. One thing can be used as a replacement

for another
Pulleys Wheels that cables and wires are pulled over so there is
no friction
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_
Pulse A regular change in pressure or force
Reference A known site or source for information
Resistance Electrical property that resists the flow of electricity
Robust Strong; not easily damaged
Seamlessly Moving from one thing to another with no obvious join
Sensitive Can sense or detect very small changes
Sheath A protective cover
Shed To throw off. You shed your clothes before going to

bed ... perhaps!
Signature A unique identifying thing
Solenoid Electrical device that uses a small current to operate a

switch carrying a much bigger current
Stabilizing To make something steady. Airplanes have stabilizers
Strained Past tense of strain. Put under pressure by twisting,

stretching or squeezing
Submerged Put completely under the surface of a liquid
Tags Labels. Your clothes have a tag that gives the size
Thyristor An electronic voltage regulator or switch
Transducer A device that change one form of energy to another
Transit To move from one place to another
Turbulent Fluid flow that is rough
Ullage The space of a vessel that is not filled with liquid
Vacuum A complete absence of matter. Outer space is a vacuum
Variables Properties that can change
Venturi A narrow waist in a pipe
Vertically Straight up
Vibrate Move back and forward very quickly. A bell vibrates
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_
when it is hit with a hammer
Viscosity Property of a fluid that describes how easily it flows
Viscous Very high viscosity; will not flow easily
Volatile Can change to a vapour easily
Volumetric Measurement of volume
Vortex A rotating or spinning mass of fluid. Whirlpools and

tornados are vortexes
Voting A collection of opinions. In control systems it means the

collection of outputs from supposedly identical devices
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_

Pressure, Temperature, Flow, Level

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1.0 INTRODUCTION PAGE 4

1.1 PRESSURE UNITS PAGE 5

1.2 BOURDON TUBE PRESSURE GAUGES PAGE 8

1.3 DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE GAUGES PAGE 10

1.4 PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS PAGE 11

1.5 PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS PAGE 12

1.6 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE PAGE 13

1.7 PRESSURE SWITCHES PAGE 14

The idea of mechanical distortion is easy to demonstrate. If a sealed can of petrol is

Pressure sensing devices discussed in this section are:

Conversions from psi and kPa to in.H20 are:

Pointer Levers, gears

The electronics of the transmitter is contained in a flameproof and explosion proof

There are pressure transmitters that use mechanical diaphragms to transmit a 3 - 15

Diaphragm Silicone oil

There are DP transmitters that use mechanical diaphragms to transmit a 3 - 15 psi

2.0 INTRODUCTION PAGE 18

2.1 TEMPERATURE UNITS PAGE 19

2.2 GLASS CAPILLARY THERMOMETERS PAGE 20

2.3 BIMETALLIC THERMOMETERS PAGE 21

2.4 GAS AND LIQUID FILLED THERMOMETERS PAGE 24

2.5 VAPOUR TENSION THERMOMETERS PAGE 25

2.6 THERMOCOUPLES PAGE 27

2.7 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE PAGE 29

2.8 RADIATION TEMPERATURE DETECTORS PAGE 30

2.9 TEMPERATURE SWITCHES PAGE 32

The temperature of a system is defined as the average energy of molecules in the

Temperature is easy to describe but practically impossible to measure directly.

When we measure temperature, we really measure the effect of temperature.

The thermometers described in this unit are:

Conversion between Fahrenheit and Celsius is done using the formulas:

2.2 GLASS CAPILLARY THERMOMETERS

Support Iron Movement

Rotating pin connected Bush to support Bi-metallic strip

Gas filled thermometers are usually filled with nitrogen. Nitrogen [N 2] is an

2.5 VAPOUR TENSION THERMOMETERS

Filament Filament Filament and object

In infrared pyrometers, the radiation from an object is focused on a sensor array by

Electronic temperature switches are usually RTDs. The temperature/resistance

Mechanical temperature switches are based on vapour tension thermometers.

3.0 INTRODUCTION PAGE 34

3.1 ORIFICE PLATES FLOW METERS PAGE 36

3.2 VENTURI TUBE FLOW METERS PAGE 40

3.3 PITOT TUBE FLOW METERS PAGE 41

3.4 VORTEX SHEDDING FLOW METERS PAGE 42

3.5 TURBINE FLOW METERS PAGE 44

3.6 PADDLE WHEEL FLOW METERS PAGE 45

3.7 ULTRASONIC FLOW METERS PAGE 46

3.8 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT FLOW METERS PAGE 48

3.9 VARIABLE AREA FLOW METERS PAGE 49

Flow can be described as an amount of fluid passing in a measured time period.

Volumetric simply means “the measurement of volume”.

Other effects used to infer flow are:

Orifice plate ID tag

To calculate the volumetric flow accurately, it is necessary to measure the

The main advantage of orifice plates is they are not expensive.

A static reference pressure from the back of the tube

Pitot tubes are cheap, but they have some disadvantages:

Support web Bearings

3.6 PADDLE WHEEL FLOW METERS

Ultrasonic flow meters can measure flow