Geotechnical structures:
1. Building foundations (isolated footing, strip footing,
Introduction to Geotechnical
Engineering
combined footing, raft/mat foundations, pile
foundations)
2. Embankment and cut
3. Dam
4. Earth retaining structure (gravity wall, cantilever
wall, gabion)
5. Sheet pile wall (cantilever and anchored)
6. Tunnel etc.
Simplest geotechnical structure is isolated or strip
footing and most complicated one is tunnel
 Soil: soil is formed by weathering of rocks by various natural
agencies namely, wind, air, ice, water and various chemicals
present in the nature. Formation of different sizes of soil by Deposits
Water eroded are
Flow
flowing stream is shown in the next slide.
Different size of soil particles exist in the nature inseparably.
Quality of soil depends on the type of soil particles present in Sand
the soil. And Silt Clay
Gravel
Hence classification of soil is essential.

Indian Standard soil classification system: Grain size analysis

(sieve and hydrometer) and plasticity chart are used for this
purpose,
Two letters system: 1st one to define soil type and 2nd one for
defining subgroup. Example: SP – Poorly graded sand, SM –
silty sand

Prefix and suffix of ISSCS

100

80
Soil Type Prefix Sub group Suffix
60
Gravel G Well graded W Series1
40
Sand S Poorly gradded P
20
Silt M Silty M
0
Clay C Clayey C 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001

Organic O wl > 35 per cent L

35<wl<50 I
Peat Pt Wl < 50 per cent H

60
LL: Liquid limit of soil, it is the boundary water content
Ip = 0.73(wl – 20) between the liquid and plastic state
wl = 35 wl = 50
PL: Plastic limit, it is boundary water content between
40
CH plastic and semisolid state
PI : Plasticity index = Liquid limit – Plastic limit
PI
CI

20
MH or OH
CL

MI or OI

0 ML

0 20 40 60 80 100

wl
 Problem in fine Grained soil: Consolidation –
settlement over long period of time.

Swelling and shrinking: When fine grained soil come

in contact with soil it swells and on drying shrinks

Various effects of consolidation and swelling and

shrinking: Cricks in building, damaged floor and sub
grade, unevenness on the road surface etc.

A sample of an expansive soil with moderate

swell potential

The same soil sample after a small

amount of water has been added. Notice the
sample has expanded considerably.

The same sample 48 hours later, after the

sample has had time to shrink to a smaller
volume.
 Table 2 Allowable bearing pressures

Material type Allowable Maximum

bearing allowable
pressure* bearing
pressure$
Massive crystalline bedrock 200 kPa 600 kPa

Sedimentary and foliated 100 kPa 300 kPa

rock
Gravel and sandy Gravel 100 kPa 300 kPa
(GW, GP)
Nonplastic soil: sands, silty 75 kPa 220 kPa
gravel, and nonplastic silt
(GM, SW, SP, SM)
Plastic soil: Silts and clays 50 kPa 150 kPa#
(ML, MH, SC, CL, CH)

*
Minimum footing width and embedment depth equal 0.3m
$
An increase of 20% of the allowable bearing pressure is allowed for each additional 0.3 m of width or depth up to the maximum allowable
bearing pressures listed in the rightmost column. An exception is plastic soil
#
No increase in the allowable bearing pressure is allowed for an increase in width of the footing.
Problem in coarse grained soil (sand): During
earthquake saturated loose sand loses strength
partially or fully because of development of high pore
water pressure. When looses strength fully
liquefaction occurs i.e, soil is unable to support the
structure