FEATURE

Environmental and public health

risks associated with chemical
waste from research and
educational laboratories in
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
This study presents a preliminary assessment of waste management practices in eleven laboratories of six
educational and research institutions in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Categorical questionnaires were admin-
istered to 52 laboratory personnel to assess their awareness of health and environmental risks of chemical
waste and the waste management practices. A chemical analysis was carried out to determine the nature,
amount and composition of waste so as to assess the associated risk of environmental contamination and
human exposure. The study found that liquid waste generated by the surveyed laboratories was mostly acidic
in nature (pH = 1.2–3.4) and contaminated by elements such as Cu (0.02–3.44 mg/L), Cr (0.01–0.19 mg/L)
and Pb (0.12–2.33 mg/L), in some cases above the safety limits. Generally, improper waste handling
procedures were observed in terms of unlabeled waste containers (72.3%), lack of proper collection plan
(75.0%), unsuitable means of disposal that included direct discharge into the drainage system (53.8%) and
open dumping (42.4%) as well as lack of proper records of the waste quantities (55.8%). Regarding personnel
awareness, >90% of the contacted personnel indicated that they were knowledgeable about pollution
prevention concepts and impacts associated with chemical waste, while 25% had formal training on
chemical waste management. The findings of this study raise awareness of the risks associated with chemical
waste from this potential source and call for proper management of chemical waste, particularly to
laboratory scientists and policy makers. It may also motivate a new generation of environmentally conscious
scholars.

By Charles Kihampa,
Harieth Hellar-Kihampa
INTRODUCTION
The potential risks of environmental
contamination and human exposure
Charles Kihampa is affiliated with the
School of Environmental Science and
Technology, Ardhi University, P.O.
Box 35176, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
(Tel.: 713 269069; fax: 22 2775391;
e-mail: kihampa@yahoo.com).
Harieth Hellar-Kihampa is affiliated
with the Institute of Continuing Edu-
cation, the Open University of Tanza-
nia, P.O. Box 23409, Dar es Salaam,
Tanzania.
associated with chemical waste from
research and educational activities in
Tanzania are not well addressed. For
example, waste emission from this
potential source is currently not
addressed in the National Environ-
mental Policy.1 Furthermore, studies
on hazardous waste management in
the country have focused only on such
sources as industrial activities, agricul-
ture, mining and medical facilities.2–5
This indicates that there is a lack of
knowledge on the existence of a poten-
tial threat from educational and re-
search institutions’ laboratories as a
source of chemical waste.
Educational and research laborato-
ries conduct experiments for the
training and research purposes in
which chemicals of different nature
and properties are used. In most cases,
these laboratories are composed of
different categories of people such as
academic staff, technicians, research-
ers, administrative staff, students
(bachelor, master and PhD) and some-
times visitors, making waste manage-
ment of particular importance for the
protection of human health.6,7 As a
general case, the environmental and
public health concerns of poor man-
agement of chemical waste are widely
discussed. These include possible
leaching to the environment and sub-
sequent contamination of surface and
ground water, especially in the case of
liquid waste,8 effects to biodiversity9
and possible occupational exposure
leading to health effects.10 A wide
range of wastes may arise from a chem-
ical laboratory in the course of con-
ducting experiments.11 Examples
include liquids, such as aqueous solu-
tions, oils and solvents; sludges, which

1871-5532 ß Division of Chemical Health and Safety of the American Chemical Society 19
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jchas.2015.01.015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
can be both aqueous and non-aqueous;
solid materials such as expired chemi-
cal reagents, used packaging materials
and remains of samples. Gaseous emis-
sions, such as those from laboratory
fume chambers may be described as
waste on their own wide definition.12
Currently there is a wide awareness
of the need for proper control of waste
from educational and research institu-
tions. Various researchers have em-
phasized the importance of proper
waste management practices in labo-
ratories.6,13 Institutions in various
countries have developed their own
guidelines for proper management
practices for all aspects of the han-
dling, storage, and disposal of chemical
wastes.14,15 Tanzania as one of the
developing countries strives to achieve
good waste management system. How-
ever, it is yet to establish standard pol-
icies and guidelines for chemical waste
management for its educational and
research institutions.1 Some institu-
tions in the country have formulated
their own operation procedures for
handling chemical waste while others
are yet to do so.
In Tanzania, the number of research
and educational institutions has kept
increasing over the years. For example,
whilst up to the mid 1980s there were
only two universities and a handful of
other specialist higher education col-
leges, by 2005 there were a total 30
universities, the majority of these being
private. In addition, there were 15 ad-
ditional public Institutions of Higher
Education including six professional
institutes and two institutes of technol-
ogy.16 A good percentage of these insti-
tutions are located in Dar es Salaam
city, the economic and administrative
center of Tanzania. With the advance-
ments of science, technology and inno-
vations as well as expansions of
enrolments in different fields of spe-
cialization, the usage of chemicals in
scientific laboratories of these institu-
tions are likely to increase. Laborato-
ries in these institutions range from
those of chemistry, biology, chemical
processing engineering, biochemistry,
botany, zoology and aquatic science.
All of them use different types of che-
micals and reagents on a daily basis.
This indicates potential discharge of
significant amounts of chemical waste,
20
including some possible hazardous 139.3 km2. It is the largest city in the
materials to the environment. country and the most important for
Review of literature has shown that both business and government. The
wastes from educational and research city has a population of about 4.4 mil-
laboratories in Tanzania have not yet lion (2012 Census) representing 10%
received sufficient attention. There is of the total Tanzania Mainland popu-
no documented study that investigated lation. It consists of three local govern-
the production rate, the handling prac- ment areas or administrative districts
tices and the disposal procedures of namely Kinondoni, Ilala, and Temeke.
waste from research laboratories in Dar es Salaam City was selected for
the country. The existing techniques this research because it contains a
and practices of chemical waste man- significant number of academic and
agement, awareness levels and compe- research institutions compared to the
tency of laboratory practitioners in other parts of the country.
handling waste from this potential This study was designed to prelimi-
source are other important issues that nary assess selected laboratories in Dar
are yet to be investigated. This study es Salaam City which include three
was therefore designed to preliminary academic institutions, namely Univer-
assess the current chemical waste gen- sity of Dar es Salaam (UDSM), Ardhi
eration and the waste handling prac- University (ARU) and Muhimbili Uni-
tices in the six institutions in Dar es versity of Health and Allied Sciences
Salaam City by determining levels of (MUHAS); and three research institu-
awareness of the practitioners, the tions, namely Tanzania Bureau of
quantities of wastes generated as well Standards (TBS), Tanzania Govern-
as their physical and chemical charac- ment Chemist Laboratory Agency
teristics. The results are expected to (GCLA) and Tanzania Food and
serve as a baseline for more detailed Drugs Authority (TFDA).
investigation in the future and also Table 1 gives a summary of labora-
used as a basis for making appropriate tories of the six institutions that were
recommendations. involved in this survey. Some of the
institutions like UDSM and TBS had
more than one laboratory specialized
METHODS in research and academic activities
that use a variety of chemicals for
Study Area and Design experiments, sample storage and re-
Dar es Salaam city is located at 68480 search. Some of the laboratories like
South, 398170 East along the Indian the GCLA, TBS and TFDA function as
Ocean coast and covers an area of service laboratories providing services
Table 1. Summary of the Laboratories Involved in this Study.
Institution Investigated laboratory Code
UDSM Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry UDSM1
Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry UDSM2
Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry UDSM3
Chemistry Laboratory, College of Engineering UDSM4
and Technology
TBS Chemistry Laboratory 1 TBS1
Chemistry Laboratory 2 TBS2
Chemistry Laboratory 3 TBS3
ARU Environmental Engineering Laboratory ARU1
MUHAS Chemistry Laboratory, Institute of Traditional MUHAS1
Medicine
GCLA Chemical Management Division GCLA1
TFDA Chemistry TFDA1
Journal of Chemical Health & Safety, November/December 2015
to various clients. Data collection for
this study therefore involved eleven
laboratories.
Data Collection
Both qualitative and quantitative data
were gathered through questionnaires,
informal discussions, observation and
chemical analysis. Similar sets of ques-
tionnaires were administered to labo-
ratory technicians, chemical engineers
and heads of departments, regardless
of their job titles and levels of educa-
tion. The questionnaires included
some open and close questions that
aimed to assess the respondents’ level
of formal training on chemical waste
management, their knowledge of waste
management system in terms of collec-
tion, storage, transportation, treatment
and disposal based on the recommen-
dations from the WHO (1999) guide-
line. The questionnaires included the
following components:
1. Waste collection practices
2. Waste segregation
3. Storage and handling of liquid
wastes
4. Storage and handling of solid
waste
5. Covering and labeling of waste
containers
6. Use of personal protective gears
7. Availability of temporary waste
storage facility
8. Availability of transportation of
waste to disposal site
9. Maximum time period for tempo-
rary storage
10. Types of disposal method used
11. Pre-treatment of waste prior to
disposal
12. Hazard communication system
waste was not segregated thus includ-
ing both liquid and solid, a third cate-
gory of waste termed ‘mixed’ was
indicated. Unit generation rates in
liters/month for liquid waste and
kg/month for solid waste and mixed
waste was computed by summing up
the daily weights to obtain the monthly
rates and then computing their respec-
tive mean values.
The data from the survey were ana-
lyzed by simple descriptive statistics
(sums, ranges, means and percentages)
using the Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) version 17.0 comput-
er software package.
Characterization of Waste
Samples of liquid waste generated
from the investigated laboratories were
collected in metal cans and taken to
the Environmental Science Laborato-
ry at the Ardhi University for analysis.
The pH values of the liquid waste were
measured by using a calibrated pH
meter and their heavy metal contents
targeting a number of elements were
measured by AAS using standardized
protocols.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Awareness of Laboratory Workers on
Chemical Waste Management
The results of awareness of laboratory
workers of the investigated institutions
on management of chemical waste are
summarized in Table 2.
Generally, the contacted individuals
showed positive response in terms of
their awareness of health and environ-
mental impacts of chemical waste as
Table 2. Survey of Laboratory Workers Knowledge on Waste Handling Practices.
well as pollution prevention concepts,
accounting to percentage response of
more than 90% (Table 2). Notable
however is a significantly low level of
awareness on specific policies, guide-
lines and regulations on efficient labo-
ratory waste management practices
(3.8%). This is to be expected since
no such policies, guidelines or regula-
tions are enforced among educational
and research institutions in Tanzania.
Majority of the workers (88.5%)
acknowledged no objection from the
surrounding community on possible
negative impacts of the existing waste
management practices employed by
their respective laboratories, particu-
larly on the disposal methods. This is
probably due to the low level of aware-
ness on the part of the public as well.
Another important observation was
a low percentage of the contacted
workers who had undergone formal
training on chemical waste manage-
ment (25%). This is of concern since
laboratory workers have an important
role to play in laboratory waste man-
agement process especially in minimi-
zation of contamination. It is therefore
important to equip them with adequate
knowledge, skills and technology.
Nature, Amount and Composition of
Chemical Waste Generated
The survey results indicated three cat-
egories of chemical waste generated in
the laboratories; liquid, solid and
mixed waste. Gaseous waste which
can be regarded as another category
of chemical waste was not within the
scope of this study. Generally, two cat-
egories of chemical waste were found
to be the most common (1) obsolete

Informal discussions and observa- Variable % of

tion that also included photo shots respondents
aimed at documenting and illustrating (n = 52)
the actual waste handling practices in Yes No
the respective laboratories to supple-
ment the questionnaire responses. Health impacts of poor chemical waste management 98.1 1.9
Quantitative analysis of the liquid Environmental impacts of poor chemical waste management 94.2 5.8
and solid wastes generated in the in- Policy, guidelines and regulations on efficient laboratory 3.8 96.2
vestigated laboratories was done by waste management
measuring and recording their respec- Pollution prevention concepts 92.0 8.0
tive weights at the beginning of a work- Public concerns on negative impacts of existing waste 11.5 88.5
ing day on a daily basis for a period of management methods
three months. In some instances where Undergone formal training on chemical waste management 25.0 75.0

Journal of Chemical Health & Safety, November/December 2015 21

expired chemicals and reagents (2)
used chemicals such as solvents from
different extraction experiments.
Survey of reasons for the chemicals
to be obsolete indicated that most of
them got expired due to long shelf lives
(42.3%), some were over-procured
(1.9%) and others were missing impor-
tant information and thus became un-
usable (55.8%). The of chemical waste
generated in eleven laboratories of the
six investigated institutions in Dar es
Salaam city were mostly of liquid
nature.
Data on discharge rates of liquid
waste indicated that 19.2% of the lab-
oratories collected 1–20 L/month;
11.5% collected 21–40 L/month and
13.5% collected 41–80 L/month. This
variation is due to the different char-
acteristics of the laboratories including
the kind of activities as well as the
number and nature of experiments car-
ried out and the level of instrumenta-
tion. However in more than half of the
laboratories (55.8%) the discharge
rates for liquid waste could not be
established due to the absence a proper
of waste collection plan. In such cases
where there were no temporary waste
storage facilities and instead waste was
discharged directly into the drainage
system upon generation, no estimates
could be made of the amounts.
Studies have indicated that liquid
waste generated in experiments con-
ducted for educational and research
purposes, generally referred to as lab-
oratory waste liquids (LWL) is highly
complex because in most cases it con-
tains hazardous chemicals such as
heavy metals.17 Furthermore, although
all eleven investigated laboratories in-
dicated production of solid waste, the
exact average generation rate could
not be established due to several rea-
sons such as inconsistent collection
method, unavailability of temporary
collection facility and in some cases
unwillingness of the laboratory per-
sonnel to give information, probably
hesitating to reveal what they well un-
derstand to be improper practices. In
some cases solid waste from the labo-
ratories was mixed with waste from
other institutional sources such as
offices. Mixed wastes that contained
both liquid and solid were also ob-
served in a few cases, but again the
22
exact amount could not be correctly by the Tanzania Bureau of Standards
estimated. Good laboratory waste (TBS) of pH in liquid waste for dispos-
management practices prohibit mixing al, which is 6.5–8.5. This indicates
of unknown chemicals with other che- potential risks to human health and
micals,18 and stipulates correct dispos- the environment due to the release of
al procedures for different types of acidic waste from these laboratories.
wastes, for example the Aldrich Hand- Analysis of samples of liquid waste
book19 provides a useful summary of from the investigated laboratories
the correct disposal procedure for revealed the presence of Cr (<0.01–
most chemicals. 0.19 mg/L), Cu (0.02–3. 44 mg/L)
Table 3 summarizes some of the and Pb (0.12–3.22 mg/L) in liquid
physicochemical characteristics of waste from the investigated laborato-
samples of the liquid waste collected. ries. Concentrations of Cu and Pb in
It shows that the pH values of the some of the laboratories exceeded the
liquid waste measured in the investi- standard set by TBS. The Tanzania
gated laboratories ranged between 1.2 Bureau of Standards has set a limit
and 3.4. This indicates that mostly the of 1.0, 2.0 and 0.1 mg/L for Cr, Cu and
liquid waste discharged was acidic in Pb in chemical waste.20 This indicates
nature. This is to be expected because potential risks to human health and
this survey also established that the the environmental contamination.
chemicals and reagents stocks in the Liquid waste from the other investi-
laboratories consisted mostly of organ- gated laboratories did not contain
ic and inorganic acids. These values detectable levels of the measured
significantly violet the standard set elements.
Table 3a. Physicochemical Characteristics of Liquid Waste from the Investigated
Laboratories.
Parameter Range Mean  SD Tanzanian Standard20
pH 1.2–3.4 2.4  0.82 6.5–8.5
Cr (mg/L) <0.01–0.19 0.06  0.07 1.0
Cu (mg/L) 0.02–3.44 1.03  1.38 2.0
Pb (mg/L) 0.12–3.22 2.05–1.02 0.1
Table 3b. Survey of Waste Handling Practices.
Variable % of
respondents
(n = 52)
Yes No
Obsolete chemicals are removed from laboratories 42.8 57.2
and chemical storage areas
Chemicals are segregated according to their 30.2 68.8
classification
Waste containers are properly covered 45.5 54.5
Waste containers are properly labeled indicating 27.3 72.3
contents and date
Laboratory has a defined waste collection plan in place 25.0 75.0
Availability of temporary waste storage facility 75.0 25.0
Pre-treatment of chemical waste before disposal 7.7 92.3
Availability of valid transportation contract for 6 94
chemical waste
Recycling of waste done at the laboratory 15.4 84.6
Waste disposal done by contracted company 3.8 96.2
Disposal of liquid waste in drainage system 53.8 46.2
Disposal of waste by open dumping 42.4 57.6
Journal of Chemical Health & Safety, November/December 2015
 [(Plate_1)TD$FIG]
Assessment of Waste Handling
Practices
Table 3 summarizes results from the
survey of waste handling practices
among the investigated laboratories.
Results of the present study show
obsolete chemicals were not removed
from the laboratories or from the stor-
age areas of more than half of the inves-
tigated laboratories (57.2%). This was
probably due to the lack of monitoring
of the available stock and improper
chemical management practices. Large
stocks of obsolete chemicals were ob-
served in shelves and stores in some of
the investigated laboratories, as demon-
strated in Plate 1. Some of the labora-
tories lacked clear records of waste
collection frequency. Furthermore, in Plate 1. Stocks of obsolete chemicals as was observed in one of the investigated
laboratories’ storage room.
most cases waste were not segregated [(Plate_2)TD$FIG]
according to their nature or classifica-
tion such as whether they are toxic or
non-toxic.
Chemicals used in educational and
research activities are procured by the
institutions from local and internation-
al sources. Data on amounts and spe-
cific sources as well as cases of
donations and gifts from other nations
need to be further collected for a more
comprehensive picture.
The results of our study (Table 3)
indicate that in almost all of the inves-
tigated institutions (>96%) waste col-
lection was not done by a contracted
company. There were no indications of
any systematic method for neither con- Plate 2. Containers of laboratory waste liquids in one of the investigated
taining nor transporting the waste. Of [(Plate_3)TD$FIG]laboratories.
the investigated institutions, none
reported having a contracted company
for waste handling. As such there is no
written proof of how and when waste
is disposed.
Another observation was that in
more than half of the laboratories
(54.5%) liquid waste was collected in
containers with washed-off labels or
no labels at all (72.3%) to indicate
details of the waste such as content,
date of collection and properties, as
shown in Plate 2. Generally, most lab-
oratories (75%) lacked standard oper-
ation procedures of waste collection
and temporary storage as demonstrat-
ed in Plate 3. In these cases laboratory
personnel had to deal with the waste in
whatever way they considered fit for a
specific situation, including disposing Plate 3. Used solvents and other laboratory waste liquids and solids awaiting
them off as ordinary domestic waste. collection on the roof of one of the investigated laboratories.

Journal of Chemical Health & Safety, November/December 2015 23

Pre-treatment procedures that includ-
ed neutralization of acidic liquid waste
before disposal was applied in only
7.7% of the surveyed laboratories.
More than half (53.8%) of the sur-
veyed laboratories discharged their liq-
uid wastes in the sewerage system.
Since it was established that the liquid
waste was mostly acidic in nature
(Table 3) this practice is not only a
potential risk to the sewerage system
which might be corroded by the mate-
rials, but also to the useful microorgan-
isms that reside in the final discharge
points of the waste. Although it was
observed that some harmless soluble
inorganic salts were permitted to be
discharged in the sewer system, gener-
ally, the surveyed laboratories lacked
clear guidelines as to what can or can-
not be discharged down the drain,
causing some unsuitable materials to
be discharged as well. A significant per-
centage of the laboratories (42.4%) ad-
mitted to dispose their waste by open
dumping. In some cases volatile liquids
were disposed by opening the bottlers to
allow them evaporate into the atmo-
sphere, a practice that can cause
impacts to public health through inha-
lation of harmful chemicals.
In Tanzania, all environmental issues
are addressed under the National En-
vironment Policy (NEP). The NEP is
overseen by the National Environment
Management Council (NEMC), which
is an organ responsible for the legal and
institutional framework for sustainable
management of the environment,
including prevention and control of
pollution, waste management, environ-
mental quality standards and public
participation. NEMC has mandate to
undertake enforcement and compli-
ance including conducting routine
inspections of facilities to ascertain
issues that could be of environmental
concern. The existing framework has
set requirements for specific sectors
such as industry, health, and mining.
However, the problem addressed under
the current study might be of emerging
concern and was not specifically
addressed by the policy. It can also be
deduced that there is also a lack of
proper enforcement of the law. Due
to these reasons, the concerned institu-
tions are self regulated and improvise
that what works for them.
24
CONCLUSIONS
This study is a preliminary assessment
of environmental contamination and
human exposure risks associated with
laboratory waste from educational and
research institutions in Tanzania.
Results indicate that although most
of the laboratory technicians con-
tacted were not formally trained on
laboratory waste management, almost
all of them were well aware of the risks.
The assessment of waste handling
practices revealed that more than half
of the investigated laboratories did not
keep proper records of the collected
waste and had no waste collection
plan. Furthermore, it was revealed that
there exist some improper waste dis-
posal practices among the investigated
laboratories that include discharge of
untreated waste into sewer systems
and open dumping. This is especially
alarming because chemical characteri-
zation of the liquid waste indicated
that it was mostly acidic and contami-
nated with toxic metals such as Cu, Cr
and Pb in levels that were above the
limits of safe exposure. These findings
therefore indicate that there is indeed a
potential risk of environmental con-
tamination and human exposure from
this source of chemical waste.
Based on these findings we recom-
mend that the National Environmental
Policy should take account of and
make provisions for some laws and
regulations on safe and correct dispos-
al of all wastes produced in the course
of educational and research activities.
These should also serve as guidelines
for training the laboratory personnel
so that they may perform their duties
appropriately. Laboratory personnel
should, at individual level, be aware
of international protocols and princi-
ples that guide chemical waste man-
agement that require any person
producing, handling or managing haz-
ardous substances or related equip-
ment to be ethically responsible for
using the utmost care in that task.
Educational and research institu-
tions should also be tasked with the
responsibility of implementing the
laws and regulations by putting in
place and overseeing sustainable waste
management systems in their respec-
tive laboratories. A follow-up study
Journal of Chemical Health & Safety, November/December 2015
should be conducted to include more
detailed collection of data and investi-
gation of other institutions that were
not preliminary investigated in the
present study.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Ms. Lilian
Dastan Mwasubila for collecting the
data. Management teams of the in-
volved institutions are acknowledged
for allowing the study to be conducted
in their institutions. Technicians and
other staff of the eleven laboratories
are appreciated for agreeing to partic-
ipate in the study and for providing
information. The School of Environ-
mental Science and Technology,
Ardhi University is appreciated for
providing the laboratory facilities for
the analytical work conducted in this
study.
REFERENCES
1. NEP. National Environmental Policy
of the United Republic of Tanzania;
Vice President’s Office: Dar es Salaam,
Tanzania, 1997.
2. Chibunda, R. T.; Pereka, A. E.; Tungar-
aza, C. Effects of sediment contamina-
tion by artisanal gold mining on
Chironomus riparius in Mabubi River,
Tanzania. Phys Chem Earth, 2008, 33,
738–743.
3. Kaseva, M. E.; Mbuligwe, S. E. Case
study 1: hazardous waste management
in Tanzania – retrospection and future
outlook, In (Series Ed.); Grasso, D.;
Vogel, T. M.; Smets, B., Encyclopedia
of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), De-
veloped under the Auspices of the
UNESCO: vol. 1. Hazardous Waste
Management. Encyclopedia of Life
Support Systems (EOLSS), Developed
under the Auspices of the UNESCO,
vol. 1, Eolss Publishers: Paris, France,
2002.
4. Yhdego, M. Urban solid waste manage-
ment in Tanzania: issues, concepts and
challenges. Resour Conserv Recycl,
1999, 14(1), 1.
5. Mato, R.R.A.M.; ; Kassenga, G. R. A
study on problems of management of
medical solid wastes in Dar es Salaam
and their remedial measures. Resour
Conserv Recycl, 1998, 21(1), 1–16.
6. Reniers, G. L. L.; Ponnet, K.; Kempe-
neers, A. Higher education chemical
lab safety interventions: Efficacious or
ineffective? J Chem Health Saf, 2014,
21(1), 4–8.
 7. Meyer, T. How about safety and risk
management in research and educa-
tion? Proced Eng, 2012, 42, 854–
864.
8. NRC. National Research Council. Pru-
dent Measures for Handling and Dis-
posal of Chemicals; National Academy
Press: Washington, DC, 1995.
9. Alaimo, R. J. Handbook of Chemical
Health and Safety; Oxford University
Press: London, UK, 2001.
10. ACS. American Chemical Society. La-
boratory Waste Management: A Guide
Book, 2nd ed. ACS Task Force on
Laboratory and Chemical Waste Man-
agement: Washington, DC, 2012.
11. EHSC. Environment, Health and
Safety Committee Note on: The Safe
Disposal of Waste from Chemical
Laboratories; Royal Chemical Society:
London, UK, 2012.
Journal of Chemical Health & Safety, November/December 2015
12. Hill, R. H. The emergence of laboratory
safety. J Chem Health Saf, 2007, 14(3),
14–19.
13. Eguna, M. T.; M.L., S.; Suico, M. L. S.;
Lim, P. J. Y. Learning to be safe:
chemical laboratory management in a
developing country. J Chem Health
Saf, 2011, 18(6), 5–7.
14. Uy, M. M. The status of chemical safety
and security in Universities in Mind-
ano, Philippines. J Chem Health Saf,
2011, 18(6), 8–14.
15. EHRS. Environmental Health and Ra-
diation Safety; Laboratory Chemical
Waste Guidelines for University of
Pennsylvania: Chestnut, Philadephia,
2011.
16. United Republic of Tanzania (URT).
National Higher Education Policy;
Ministry of Education: Dar es Salaam,
Tanzania, 1995.
17. Lou, J. C.; Chang, C. K. Completely
treating heavy metal laboratory waste
liquid by an improved ferrite process.
Sep Purif Technol, 2007, 57, 513–
518.
18. ACS. American Chemical Society.
Safety in Academic Chemistry Labora-
tories, 7th ed. US Government Printing
Office: Washington, DC, 2003.
19. Sigma-Aldrich Corporation. Aldrich
Chemistry 2012–2014: Handbook of
Fine Chemicals. 2011.
20. Tanzania Bureau of Standards (TBS)..
Municipal and Industrial Waste-
waters-General Tolerance Limits for
Municipal and Industrial Waste-
waters (TZS860:2005); National En-
vironmental Standards Compendium,
Tanzania Bureau of Standards, 2005,
pp. 6–8.
25